Thin-layer Chromatography

A Modern Practical Approach

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Thin-layer Chromatography
A Modern Practical Approach

Peter E. Wall
VWR International Ltd., Poole, Dorset
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Preface

Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is without doubt one of the most versatile and
widely used separation methods in chromatography. Commercially, many sorbents
on a variety of backings are now available. Most stages of the technique are now
automated (can now be operated instrumentally) and modern HPTLC (High
performance thin-layer chromatography) allows the handling of a large number of
samples in one chromatographic run. Speed of separation (development time), high
sensitivity and good reproducibility all result from the higher quality of
chromatographic layers and the continual improvement in instrumentation. In
addition TLC has remained relatively inexpensive and one can easily see why it is
still popular today. It has found a use in a wide range of application areas as the
concept of TLC is so simple and samples usually require only minimal pre-
treatment. It is often thought of only in terms of its use in pharmaceutical analysis
and production and in clinical analysis, but many standard methods in industrial
chemistry, environmental toxicology, food chemistry, water, inorganic and
pesticide analysis, dye purity, cosmetics, plant materials, and herbal analysis rely
upon TLC as the preferred approach. In its simplest form, TLC costs little, but even
including the more sophisticated instrumentation, it still remains less expensive per
sample analysis than, for example HPLC. Thin-layer chromatography continues to
be an active technique in research with about 500–700 publications appearing each
year during the 1980s and 1990s.
It is the purpose of this book to describe the advances made, particularly in the
last two to three decades, which have revolutionised TLC and transformed it into
a modern instrumental technique. All aspects of TLC have been affected, from
the sorbent layer technology, through the ‘‘spotting’’ devices and developing
equipment, to the final detection and quantification. Computers too, now play an
important role in the control of equipment and in the computation of the vast
amount of data obtained from scans of the developed TLC layer. This has resulted
in the ability to store and retrieve images of chromatograms and physical data on
actual separation results and conditions for future use. Instrumental planar
chromatography is now capable of handling samples with minimal pre-treatment,
detecting components at low nanogram sensitivities and with relative standard
deviations of about 1%. It is the opinion of the author that these developments

v
vi Preface
demonstrate that the previous image of low sensitivity, poor resolution and
reproducibility can be discarded and that TLC is now truly a modern contemporary
of HPLC and GC. Modern TLC has become a powerful, reliable and cost efficient
method for qualitative and quantitative analysis.
The chapters in this book have been designed in such a way that the reader
follows each step of the planar chromatographic process in logical order. Hence the
choice of sorbent is followed by preparation of sample for application and the
methods of application. The subject of chromatogram development logically comes
next with detection, quantification and/or video imaging usually being the final
steps. However, sometimes further instrumental analysis is necessary, hence the
final chapter on hyphenated techniques. Any theory or necessary mathematical
equations or expressions are introduced when required within the text of each
subject. As the objective of this book is to provide a publication or manual that can
be used by the practising chromatographer, the depth of theory reflects only what
is required to explain why certain practical steps are taken. It is the intention of
the author that this book will be of practical value and use to those who are
contemplating using TLC for the first time, and also to those who have been planar
chromatographers for some time. With these points in mind, the practical examples
of chromatographic separations reflect the field-tested procedures available. The
book concentrates on the basic steps involved in TLC, providing practical guidance
to achieve superior separations on a TLC/HPTLC sorbent layer. For this reason
there are some techniques that are not covered, such as sorbent coated quartz rods
and thin-layer radiochromatography. However, the basic principles for optimised
separations described in the various chapters will still apply in these related
techniques. Recommendations made throughout the text to obtain acceptable
and often high quality results are made on the basis of many years of practical
experience in planar chromatography by the author.
Numerous commercial products are referred to in this book as would be
necessary with any publication that discusses instrumental TLC/HPTLC. The
references made are based on the experiences of the author with these products,
and are definitely not meant to imply that they are superior to comparable products
from other manufacturers.
Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction and History 1

1 Introduction to Thin-layer Chromatography 1
2 History of TLC 2
3 References 4

Chapter 2 Sorbents and TLC Layers 6

1 Sorbent Selection 6
1.1 Introduction 6
1.2 Silica Based Sorbents 7
1.2.1 Silica Gel 7
1.2.2 Silica Gel Bonded Phases 12
1.3 Non-silica Sorbents 35
1.3.1 Cellulose 35
1.3.2 Cellulose Bonded Phases 37
1.3.3 Aluminium Oxide 37
1.3.4 Kieselguhr 38
1.3.5 Polyamide 39
1.3.6 Miscellaneous Stationary Phases 39
1.3.7 Mixed Stationary Phases 40
1.3.8 Dual Phases 40
2 Preparation of TLC Sheets and Plates 40
2.1 ‘‘Home made’’ TLC Plates 40
2.2 Pre-coated TLC/HPTLC Sheets and Plates 41
3 Cutting TLC/HPTLC Sheets and Plates 41
4 Humidity Effects with TLC Plates 42
5 Pre-washing TLC Plates 43
6 Use of Phosphorescent/Fluorescent Indicators 44
7 Channelled TLC Layers 44
8 Concentration Zone TLC/HPTLC Plates 45

vii
viii Contents
9 HPTLC Pre-coated Plates 45
9.1 HPTLC Spherical Silica Gel 60 48
10 Improving Resolution with Buffers and Complexing
Reagents 49
10.1 Impregnation of Sorbent before Layer Coating 49
10.2 Impregnation of the Ready Coated Layer 50
11 Silver Nitrate Impregnation 50
12 Charge Transfer TLC 51
13 Preparative Layer Chromatography (PLC) 54
14 References 55

Chapter 3 Sample Pre-treatment 59

1 Introduction 59
2 Extractions from Solid Samples 60
3 Solid Phase Extraction Systems (SPE) 61
3.1 Diatomaceous Earth 61
3.2 Bonded Silica Gels and Polymers 61
3.3 Sorbent Conditioning 63
3.4 Sample Injection 63
3.5 Cleaning 63
3.6 Recovery of Analytes 63
4 References 64

Chapter 4 Sample Application 65

1 Introduction 65
2 Selecting the Sample Solvent 65
3 Theoretical Determination of Spot Size 66
3.1 Spot Size and Loading Equations 66
3.2 Spot Capacity Equation 68
4 Sample Loading 72
4.1 Layer Damaging Effects 74
4.2 Humidity Considerations 75
5 Sample Application Methods 75
5.1 Manual Methods 76
5.2 Instrumental Methods 77
5.2.1 Manual Instrumental Techniques 77
5.2.2 Automated Techniques 78
5.3 Large Sample Application 80
5.3.1 Contact Spotting 80
5.3.2 Use of Concentration Zone
TLC/HPTLC 81
6 Choice of Band or Spot Application 82
7 References 85
Contents ix

Chapter 5 Development Techniques 86

1 Introduction 86
2 The Theory of Solvent Migration 86
3 Mechanisms of TLC Separation 90
3.1 Introduction 90
3.2 Adsorption Separations 90
3.3 Partition Separations 91
3.4 Ion-exchange Separations 91
4 Solvent Selection 92
4.1 Eluotropic Series and Solvent Optimisation 93
4.1.1 Selectivity Triangles 96
4.1.2 PRISMA Model 99
5 Development Chambers 100
5.1 N-Chambers and Chamber Saturation Effects 100
5.2 Twin-trough Chamber 105
5.3 Sandwich, Horizontal and U-chambers 105
5.4 Automatic Developing Chamber (ADC) 108
5.5 Forced-flow Development (OPLC) 109
5.6 Vario Chambers 110
6 Multiple Development Techniques 112
6.1 Single Mobile Phase Multiple and Continuous
Development 112
6.2 Two-dimensional Development 115
6.3 Manual Gradient Development 118
6.4 Automated Multiple Development (AMD) 118
7 Mobile Phase Additives 121
7.1 Use of Buffers and pH 121
7.2 Acid or Base Additives 124
7.3 Ion-pairing Reagents 124
7.4 Chiral Additives 126
7.4.1 Cyclodextrins 127
7.4.2 Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) 129
7.4.3 Other Chiral Selectors 129
7.5 Argentation (Silver Nitrate) TLC 132
8 References 132

Chapter 6 Detection and Visualisation 134

1 Introduction 134
2 Non-destructive Techniques 135
2.1 Visible Detection 135
2.2 Ultra-violet Detection 135
2.3 Reversible Reactions 137
2.3.1 Iodine Vapour 137
2.3.2 Ammonia Vapour 138
x Contents
2.4 Non-reversible Reactions 138
2.4.1 Fluorescent Dyes 138
2.4.2 pH Indicators 139
3 Destructive Techniques 139
3.1 Charring Reactions 140
3.2 Thermochemical Activation 140
4 Derivatisation Reactions 141
4.1 Post-chromatographic Visualisation 141
4.1.1 Universal Chemical Reagents 143
4.1.2 Group Specific Reagents 146
4.1.3 Sequencing Reactions 149
4.2 Pre-chromatographic Visualisation 151
5 References 153

Chapter 7 Quantification and Video Imaging 154

1 Introduction 154
2 Densitometry 155
2.1 Mode of Operation of Spectrodensitometers 155
2.2 Theory of Spectrodensitometry 158
3 Video Imaging and Densitometry 160
4 Future Trends – Spectrodensitometry or Video Imaging? 163
5 References 164

Chapter 8 TLC Coupling Techniques 166

1 Introduction 166
2 TLC/HPTLC and HPLC 167
3 TLC and MS 167
4 TLC Coupled with FTIR 171
4.1 On-line TLC – FTIR 172
4.2 Off-line TLC – FTIR 172
5 TLC and Raman Spectroscopy 173
6 References 174

Subject Index 177

CHAPTER 1

Introduction and History

1 Introduction to Thin-layer Chromatography
The basic TLC procedure has largely remained unchanged over the last fifty years.
It involves the use of a thin, even sorbent layer, usually about 0.10 to 0.25 mm
thick, applied to a firm backing of glass, aluminium or plastic sheet to act as a
support. Of the three, glass has always proved the most popular, although
aluminium and plastic offer the advantage that they are flexible and can more easily
be cut to any size with minimal disruption to the sorbent layer. Numerous sorbents
have been used, some more successfully than others, including silica gel, cellulose,
aluminium oxide, polyamide and chemically bonded silica gels. The sample is
dissolved in an appropriate solvent and applied as spots or bands along one side of
the sorbent layer approximately l cm from the edge. An eluent (single solvent or
solvent mixture) is allowed to flow by capillary action through the sorbent starting
at a point just below the applied samples. Most commonly this is achieved by using
a glass rectangular tank in which the eluent is poured to give a depth of about
5 mm. The plate is placed in the tank or chromatography chamber and the whole
covered with a lid. As the eluent front migrates through the sorbent, the
components of the sample also migrate, but at different rates, resulting in
separation. When the solvent front has reached a point near the top of the sorbent
layer, the plate or sheet is removed and dried. The spots or bands on the developed
layer are visualised, if required, under UV light or by chemical treatment or
derivatisation. For quantitative determinations, zones can be removed or eluted
from the layer, or the plate can be scanned at pre-determined wavelengths without
disturbing the layer surface. The modern use of TLC has seen a strong move in the
direction of plate scanning and video imaging as a means of providing sensitive and
reliably accurate results and a more permanent record of the chromatogram. This is
in addition to its obvious labour saving aspect and chemically ‘‘clean’’ approach.
Although TLC is an analytical method in its own right, it is also complimentary
to other chromatographic techniques and spectroscopic procedures. Results
obtained with TLC can often be transferred to HPLC or vice versa with some
adjustment in eluting solvent conditions. For multi-component samples (e.g.
pesticides in water), fractions of interest from an HPLC separation can be collected
and subsequent re-chromatography of these on HPTLC can give a ‘‘fine tuned’’
separation of the components of the fractions.1–3 Thin-layer chromatography has

1
2 Chapter 1
been successfully hyphenated with high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), mass spectroscopy (MS), Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR), and Raman
spectroscopy, to give far more detailed analytical data on separated compounds.
Even the UV/visible diode array technique has been utilised in TLC to determine
peak purity or the presence of unresolved analytes.4
Undoubtedly TLC is a modern analytical separation method with extensive
versatility, much already utilised, but still with great potential for future develop-
ment into areas where research apparently is only just beginning.

2 History of TLC
Although column chromatography can be traced to its discoverer, the Russian
botanist, Tswett in l903,5 it was not until l938 that separations on thin-layers were
achieved when Izmailov and Shraiber,6 looking for a simpler technique, which
required less sample and sorbent, separated plant extracts using aluminium oxide
spread on a glass plate. The sorbent was applied to a microscope slide as a slurry,
giving a layer about 2 mm thick. The sample (plant extracts) was applied as
droplets to the layer. The solvent (methanol) was then added dropwise from above
on to the applied spots and a series of circular rings were obtained of differing
colours on the layer. Circular TLC was born, and Izmailov and Shraiber named this
new technique ‘‘drop chromatography’’.
In l949 Meinhard and Hall used a starch binder to give some firmness to the
layer, in order to separate inorganic ions, which they described as ‘‘surface
chromatography’’.7 Further advances were made in l95l by Kirchner et al.,8 who
used the now conventional ascending method, with a sorbent composed of silicic
acid, for the separation of terpene derivatives, describing the plates used as
‘‘chromatostrips’’. In l954, Reitsema9 used much broader plates and was able to
separate several mixtures in one run. Surprisingly it was some time before the
advantages of this development were recognised.
However, from l956 a series of papers from Stahl10–13 appeared in the literature
introducing ‘‘thin-layer chromatography’’ as an analytical procedure, describing
the equipment and characterisation of sorbents for plate preparation. Silica gel
‘‘nach Stahl’’ or ‘‘according to Stahl’’ became well known, with plaster of Paris
(calcium sulphate) being used as a binder and TLC began to be widely used. In
l962, Kurt Randerath’s book on TLC was published,14 followed by those of Stahl
and co-workers, entitled ‘Thin-Layer Chromatography – A Laboratory Handbook’
(1965),15 and Kirchner’s, ‘Thin-Layer Chromatography’ (1967).16 Then, in l969
a 2nd edition of Stahl’s book appeared which was greatly expanded.17 These authors
showed the wide versatility of TLC and its applicability to a large spectrum of
separation problems and also illustrated how quickly the technique had gained
acceptance throughout the world. (By 1965 Stahl could quote over 4500
publications.)18 With Stahl’s publication the importance of factors such as controlling
the layer thickness, layer uniformity, the binder level and the standardisation of the
sorbents as regards pore size and volume, the specific surface area and particle size,
were recognised as crucial to obtaining highly reproducible, quality separations.
Introduction and History 3
Commercialisation of the technique began in 1965 with the first pre-coated TLC
plates and sheets being offered for sale. TLC quickly became very popular with
about 400–500 publications per year appearing in the late 1960s as it became
recognised as a quick, relatively inexpensive procedure for the separation of a wide
range of sample mixtures. As the range and reliability of commercial plates/sheets
improved, standard methods for analysis appeared throughout industry. It soon
became evident that the most useful of the sorbents was silica gel, particularly with
an average pore size of 60 Å, and it was on this material that the commercial
companies centred their attention. Modifications to the silica gel began with
silanisation to produce reversed-phase layers. This opened up a far larger range of
separation possibilities based on a partition mechanism, compared with adsorption
as used in most previous methods.
Up to this time quantitative TLC was fraught with experimental error. However,
the introduction of commercial spectrodensitometric scanners enabled the
quantification of analytes directly on the TLC layer. Initially peak areas were
measured manually, but later integrators achieved this automatically.
The next major advance was the advent of HPTLC (High performance thin-layer
chromatography). In l973 Halpaap was one of the first to recognise the advantage of
using a smaller average particle size of silica gel (about 5–6 mm) in the preparation
of TLC plates. He compared the effect of particle size on development time, Rf
values and plate height.19 By the mid 1970s it was recognised that HPTLC added a
new dimension to TLC as it was demonstrated that precision could be improved
ten-fold, analysis time could be reduced by a similar factor, less mobile phase was
required, and the development distances on the layers could be reduced.20 The
technique could now be made fully instrumental to give accuracy comparable with
HPLC. Commercially the plates were first called ‘‘nano-TLC’’ plates by the
manufacturer, (Mercka), but this was soon changed to the designation ‘‘HPTLC’’.
In 1977 the first major HPTLC publication appeared, simply called ‘‘HPTLC high
performance thin-layer chromatography’’ edited by Zlatkis and Kaiser.21 In this
volume Halpaap and Ripphahn described their comparative results with the new
5 · 5 cm HPTLC plates versus conventional TLC for a series of lipophilic dyes.22
Bonded phases then followed in quick succession.
Reversed-phase HPTLC was reported in 1980 by Halpaap et al.23 and this soon
became commercially available as pre-coated plates. In 1982 Jost and Hauck24
reported an amino (NH2–) modified HPTLC plate, which was soon followed by
cyano-bonded (1985)25 and diol-bonded (1987)26 phases. The 1980s also saw
improvements in spectrodensitometric scanners with full computer control becoming
possible, including options for peak purity and the measurement of full UV/visible
spectra for all separated components. Automated multiple development (AMD) made
its appearance in 1984 due to the pioneering work of Burger.27 This improvement
enabled a marked increase in number and resolution of the separated components.
In recent years TLC/HPTLC research has entered the chiral separation field
using a number of chiral selectors and chiral stationary phases. Only one type of
chiral pre-coated plate is presently commercially available, which is based on a
a
Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany.
4 Chapter 1
ligand exchange principle and is produced commercially either as a TLC or HPTLC
plate. Günther has reported results with amino-acids and derivatives on the
TLC plate28 and Mack and Hauck similarly with their HPTLC equivalent.29
At the present time all steps of the TLC process can be computer controlled. The
use of highly sensitive charge coupled device (CCD) cameras has enabled
the chromatographer to electronically store images of chromatograms for future use
(identity or stability testing) and for direct entry into reports at a later date.
Commercially available HPTLC plates coated with specially pure 4–5 mm
spherical silica gel have added further capabilities to the technique. Background
interference has been reduced, and resolution further improved, which has enabled
TLC to be hyphenated effectively with Raman spectroscopy.

3 References
1. K. Burger, ‘Instrumental Thin-Layer Chromatography/Planar Chromatography’,
Proceedings of the International Symposium, Brighton, UK, 1989, 33–44.
2. R.E. Kaiser, ‘Instrumental Thin-Layer Chromatography/Planar Chromato-
graphy’, Proceedings of the International Symposium, Brighton, UK, 1989,
251–262.
3. D. Jänchen and H.J. Issaq, J. Liq. Chromatogr., 1988, 11, 1941–1965.
4. D. Jänchen in Handbook of Thin Layer Chromatography, 2nd edn, J. Sherma
and B. Fried (eds), Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, USA, 1996, 144.
5. M. Tswett, Proc. Warsaw Soc. Nat. Sci., Biol. Section, 1903, l4, minute no. 6.
6. N.A. Izmailov and M.S. Shraiber, Farmatisiya, 1938, no. 3, 1.
7. J.E. Meinhard and N.F. Hall, Anal. Chem., 1949, 2l, 185.
8. J.G. Kirchner, J.M. Miller and G.E. Keller, Anal. Chem., 1951, 23, 420.
9. R.H. Reitsema, Anal. Chem., 1954, 26, 960.
10. E. Stahl, Pharmazie, 1956, 11, 633.
11. E. Stahl, Chemiker-Ztg, 1958, 82, 323.
12. E. Stahl, Pharmaz. Rdsch., 1959, 2, 1.
13. E. Stahl, Angew. Chem., 1961, 73, 646.
14. K. Randerath in Thin-Layer Chromatography, Academic Press, London,
UK, 1963.
15. Thin-Layer Chromatography – A Laboratory Handbook, E. Stahl (ed),
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1965.
16. J.G. Kirchner, Thin-Layer Chromatography, 2nd edn, Techniques in
Chemistry, vol. XIV, Wiley-Interscience, Chichester, UK, 1978.
17. Thin-Layer Chromatography – A Laboratory Handbook, 2nd edn, E. Stahl
(ed), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1969.
18. E. Stahl, in Thin-Layer Chromatography, 2nd edn, E. Stahl (ed), Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1969, 5.
19. H. Halpaap, J. Chromatogr., 1973, 78, 77–78.
20. A. Zlatkis, R.E. Kaiser, in HPTLC high performance thin-layer chromato-
graphy, A. Zlatkis, and R.E. Kaiser (eds), Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands,
1977, 12.
Introduction and History 5
21. HPTLC high performance thin-layer chromatography, A. Zlatkis and R. E.
Kaiser (eds), Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1977.
22. H. Halpaap and J. Ripphahn, in HPTLC high performance thin-layer
chromatography, A. Zlatkis and R.E. Kaiser (eds), Elsevier, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, 1977, 95–125.
23. H. Halpaap, K.F. Krebs and H.E. Hauck, J. HRC and CC, 1980, 3, 215–240.
24. H.E. Hauck and W. Jost, ‘Instrumental High Performance, Thin-Layer
Chromatography’, Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium, R.E. Kaiser
(ed), Interlaken, Switzerland, 1982, 25–37.
25. H.E. Hauck and W. Jost, ‘Instrumental High Performance Thin-Layer
Chromatography’, Proceedings of 3rd International Symposium, R.E. Kaiser
(ed), Würzburg, Germany, 1985, 83–91.
26. H.E. Hauck and W. Jost, ‘Instrumental High Performance Thin-Layer
Chromatography’, Proceedings of 4th International Symposium, R.E. Kaiser,
H. Traitler and A. Studer (eds), Selvino/Bergamo, Italy, 1987, 241–253.
27. K. Burger, Z. Anal. Chem., 1984, 318, 228.
28. K.J. Günther, J. Chromatogr., 1988, 448, 11–30.
29. M. Mack, H.E. Hauck and H. Herbert, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1988, 1,
304–308.
CHAPTER 2

Sorbents and TLC Layers

1 Sorbent Selection
1.1 Introduction
There are at least 25 inert materials that are available as sorbents in TLC, some of
which have been more widely used than others. A number of the more important
ones will be reviewed in this chapter. Clearly for optimum separations, it is
important that the correct material is chosen. Some sorbents have a specific range
of application (e.g. silica gel impregnated with caffeine for polyaromatic
hydrocarbons, or silica gel impregnated with a chiral selector for the separation
of enantiomers of amino-acids and derivatives). By contrast silica gel or aluminium
oxide are used for a wide range of applications. Silica gels and aluminas can also be
split into a number of distinct, separate sorbents depending on pore size, particle
size, and pH. Before choosing the sorbent, consideration must be given to the
compounds to be separated. Characteristics, such as the polarity, solubility,
ionisability, molecular weight, shape and size of the analytes are all important
in deciding on a separation mechanism, and hence largely define both the type of
sorbent and the solvents used both for the preparation of the sample and
in development.
In 1973 Scott1 examined over 1100 papers to determine which sorbents were the
most regularly used in TLC. Silica gel was by far the most popular (,64%),
followed by cellulose (,9%), and alumina (,3%). Since then silica gel has
remained the most widely used, but noticeable changes have occurred with the
appearance of chemically bonded phases which have opened up a new range of
separation possibilities. The newer stationary phases have tended for the most part
to address specific areas of separation where either the resolution of sample
components was poor or non-existent. As the lists of applications for some sorbents
is extensive, it is better to refer to the excellent bibliographies or abstract services
that are available for TLC (e.g. Camag Bibliography Servicea) when a specific
method from the literature is required. If this is not available to the user or a new or
improved procedure is needed, then the basic information in Table 1 will be of help
to ensure that the optimum sorbent for the type of separation is chosen.

a
CAMAG, Muttenz, Switzerland.

6
Sorbents and TLC Layers 7
Table 1 Choice of optimum TLC/HPTLC sorbents for compounds and compound
classes

Sorbent Compounds separated

Silica gel All classes of compounds.

Aluminium oxide Basic compounds (alkaloids, amines, etc.),
steroids, terpenes, aromatic and aliphatic
hydrocarbons.
Cellulose Amino-acids and derivatives, food dyes (acidic
and basic), carbohydrates.
Kieselguhr Carbohydrates, aflatoxins, herbicides, tetracyclines.
Polyamide Phenols, flavonoids, nitro-compounds.
Amino-bonded silica gel Particularly good for carbohydrates, sulfonic acids,
phenols, carboxylic acids, nucleotides, nucleosides.
Cyano-bonded silica gel Many classes of compounds, particularly good for
pesticides, steroids, preservatives.
Diol-bonded silica gel Many classes of compounds, particularly good for
steroids, hormones.
Reversed-phase Improves separation for many classes of compounds
(RP 2, RP 8, RP 18) (cf. silica gel) – steroids, tetracyclines, phthalates,
silica gel antioxidants, lipids, barbiturates, capsaicins,
aminophenols, fatty acids.
Chiral (CHIR) modified Enantiomers of amino-acids, halogenated, N-alkyl,
silica gel and a-methyl amino-acids, simple peptides,
a-hydroxycarboxylic acids (catecholamines).
Silica gel impregnated Lipids, including variations in unsaturation and
with silver nitrate geometric isomers.
Silica gel impregnated Particularly selective for polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
with caffeine
Silica gel impregnated with Particularly selective for carbohydrates.
boric acid/phosphate

1.2 Silica Based Sorbents

1.2.1 Silica Gel
Silica gel, also called silicic acid and kieselgel, is a white amorphous porous
material, usually made by precipitation from silicate solutions by addition of acid.
The process is by no means simple as polysilicic acids are formed by
polycondensation. So-called ‘‘primary particles’’ appear. As the particles grow,
water is eliminated and gel formation takes place. The control of the temperature
and pH during this stage will have a marked bearing on the quality of the gel
formed. Colloidal particles thus develop, which further condense and shrink to form
a three dimensional network described as a hydrogel2 (see Figure 1). After washing
8 Chapter 2

Figure 1 Section of typical silica gel structure

and heating (,120 – C) an amorphous hard but porous gel is formed, called a
xerogel or silica gel. It is this xerogel that is used for TLC.
The structure is held together by bonded silicon and oxygen, termed siloxane
groups. Residual hydroxyl groups on the surface account for much of the adsorptive
properties of silica gel giving it unique separation characteristics. These ‘‘active
sites’’ can vary according to their local environment. Three types of hydroxyl group
are possible as shown in Figure 2. The most prolific is the single hydroxyl group
bonded to a silicon atom, which is linked to the silica gel matrix via three siloxane
bonds. The second type is where two hydroxyl groups are bonded to a single silicon
atom, often called a geminal hydroxyl group. The third type, which is much more
rare, is a bonding of three hydroxyl groups to one silicon atom. Only a single
siloxane bond binds this group to the silica gel matrix.3
However, the available ‘‘active’’ surface is somewhat more complicated by the
presence of water that hydrogen bonds to the surface hydroxyl groups. Figure 3
shows that there are quite a number of different ways hydrogen-bonding can occur
with water. Even multi-layers of water, physically adsorbed, are possible.
The hydration of the gel for TLC is considered to be 11–12% water when the
relative humidity is 50% at 20 – C.4 Such a gel is normally ready for use requiring
no pre-activation. Activation is only necessary if the TLC plate has been exposed to
high humidity, and then only requires heating up to 105 – C for 30 minutes followed
by cooling in a clean atmosphere at 40–50% relative humidity. The water is held
in the structure either as physically adsorbed or hydrogen-bonded water, the latter
being more firmly held.5 As proof of this, desorption of hydrogen-bonded water
requires 10 kcal mol 1 whereas physically bound water requires, 6.6–8.2 kcal mol 1
activation energy.6
Sorbents and TLC Layers 9

(a)
O O O
O
O O O
Si Si Si

OH OH OH

(b) OH OH
HO OH

Si Si Si
O O
O O

(c) OH OH OH
OH
Si Si Si
O O
OH
O O

Figure 2 Silica gel surface hydroxyl group types (a) monohydroxyl (single), (b) dihydroxyl
(geminal), (c) trihydroxyl

The synthetic nature of silica gel for chromatography enables the careful control
of pore size, pore volume and particle size. Pore size varies from 40 to 150 Å for
commercial pre-coated TLC plates with one notable exception of 50 000 Å
for special applications. The range of particle size of silica gel for TLC is typically
5 to 40 mm with the average being 10 to 15 mm depending on the manufacturer. This
has a large effect on the resolution of sample components. Thus in TLC, as in
HPLC, reducing the particle size lowers the height equivalent to a theoretical plate
of a peak and hence increases the efficiency. As illustrated in Figure 4, when
smaller silica gel particles of 5 to 6 mm are used to prepare HPTLC plates, improved
resolution results.
Pore size affects selectivity and hence can be used to good effect in altering the
migration rates and resolution of sample components. The most common pore
sizes used in TLC are 40, 60, 80, 100 Å, with silica gel 60 Å being by far the
most popular and versatile of the group. Silica gel 60 Å (commonly called silica
gel 60) has been recommended for a wide range of separations throughout
industry and research institutions. As water content plays such an important role
in the retention of analytes on the chromatographic layer, it is vital that the
moisture adsorbed by the silica gel is maintained at a constant level. In Figure 5
water adsorption curves are shown for the range of silica gel pore sizes; 40, 60
and 100 Å. At normal levels of humidity in most laboratories (40–60% relative
humidity), the variation in uptake of moisture by silica gel 60 Å has little effect
10 Chapter 2

Figure 3 (a) Ways in which water hydrogen bonds to the surface hydroxyl groups of silica
gel; (b) Formation of multi-layers of hydrogen bonded water

on the migration rates of most sample components. The change in water

adsorption over small changes in relative humidity (RH) for silica gel 40 Å is
quite marked (from 20–40% over an RH range of 40–60%). This will affect
migration rates of the sample components, and although with careful control

Peak height Peak height

Units Units

Wide particle size distribution Narrow particle size distribution

Scanning track Scanning track

Figure 4 Effect of particle size distribution on resolution. Separation of carotene

concentrate on silica gel 60
Sorbents and TLC Layers 11

Figure 5 Water adsorption isotherms for silica gel 40, 60 and 100 Å
(By permission of Merck)

humidity differences can be utilised to improve separations, they can also be a

source of problems with respect to reproducibility. Although humidity control is
not of so much concern for silica gel 100 Å, the sorbent is consequently less polar
chromatographically due to comparatively less moisture adsorption resulting in
low migration rates of sample components.
Because variations in water content with relative humidity obviously exist,
Brockmann and Schodder introduced a scale to characterise various silica gels (see
Table 2). This scale graded silica gels from I to V. It was designed to characterise
silica gels according to their chromatographic activity or selectivity as the adsorbed
water changes. As the water content increases, the chromatographic layer becomes

Table 2 Brockmann and Schodder activity grading of silica gels according to

water content62

Relative humidity 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Silica gel 40 Å I II III IV–V 4V

Silica gel 60 Å I–II II III III–IV V
Silica gel 100 Å II II–III III III–IV IV
12 Chapter 2
Table 3 Variation of physical characteristics of silica gels according to pore
diameter

Pore volume Specific surface pH of 10% w/v

Sorbent (ml g 1) area (BET) (m2 g 1) aqueous suspension

Silica gel 40 0.65 650 5.5

Silica gel 60 0.75 500 7.0
Silica gel 100 1.00 400 7.0

more polar and the solutes applied to the layer show increased migration toward
the solvent front even though no change has been made to the solvent in the TLC
tank.
Changes in pore diameter will also cause a change in selectivity. At constant
relative humidity the uptake of moisture will vary dependent on the pore size as can
be seen in Figure 5. For example at 50% relative humidity, the following values
can be read from the graph for silica gel with 40, 60 and 100 Å pores; 27%, 13%
and 8%, respectively. As a general rule solutes migrate faster with silica gel 40
plates and slower with silica gel 100 compared with silica gel 60. This is an effect
of the variation of the polarity of the different types of silica gel. Further physical
characteristics of silica gel 40, 60 and 100 are shown in Table 3.
Silica gel TLC plates are extremely versatile over a wide range of applications.
Solvent mixtures composed of non-polar (e.g. hexane or cyclohexane) and polar
(e.g. methanol, acetonitrile or water) constituents can be used without the
chromatographic layer or binder being affected. (Typical example in Figure 6.)
Often acid modifiers (e.g. acetic, propionic or formic acids) or base modifiers
(e.g. ammonia solution, pyridine or amines) are incorporated into the developing
solvent to improve resolution. These are also well tolerated by the layers resulting
in separations of which Figures 7, and 8 are typical examples.

1.2.2 Silica Gel Bonded Phases

Reversed-Phase. Traditionally silicone or paraffin oils have been used to produce
reversed-phase layers. These plates have the advantage of being usable with
eluents up to 100% water and are relatively easy to prepare.7–10 However, they
can suffer from stationary phase leakage or ‘‘stripping’’ during chromato-
graphy. Often for qualitative work this disadvantage can be accommodated.
Where quantitative analysis really matters it is important that the reversed-phase
layer is completely reproducible, gives similar and low background interference
during scanning and does not alter the mobile phase polarity. This has resulted in
the development of bonded-silica gel TLC and HPTLC phases for reversed-phase
work.
Silica gel can be chemically bonded by reaction with organosilanes of various
chain lengths. Dimethyl, ethyl, octyl, undecyl, octadecyl and phenyl have all been
used commercially to produce carbon chain lengths of 2, 8, 12, 18 and aromatic
Sorbents and TLC Layers 13

Figure 6 Separation of corticosteroids on silica gel 60

Sorbent layer: HPTLC silica gel 60 F254 glass plates (Merck)
Mobile phase: chloroform/methanol (93 þ 7 v/v)
Detection: 0.5% w/v blue tetrazolium in methanol
Zones: 1, prednisolone; 2, hydrocortisone; 3, prednisone; 4, cortisone; 5, cortico-
sterone; 6, cortexolone; 7, 11-dehydrocorticosterone; 8, 11-desoxycorticosterone
(from lowest Rf)
Concentration: 20 ng per substance

rings bonded to the siloxane matrix. (For an example of the structure, see Figure 9.)
All such chemical modifications in TLC and HPTLC format plates are widely
available from the major manufacturers of chromatographic layers. The bonding of
the organosilanes to the silica gel can be carried out under anhydrous conditions,
where a monolayer type bonding, or under hydrous conditions, where a polymer
layer occurs. In monolayer formation, mono, bi- or tri-functional organosilanes can
be used and the possible reactions with surface silanols are shown in Figure 10. The
reaction stoichiometry obviously depends on the concentration of silanol groups
(Si-OH) at the surface, and as can be seen from the reaction equations, results in the
organo-group being bonded via a siloxane group (Si–O–Si). This is true whether
the modification results in a mono or polymeric layer. In the formation of
polymeric layers the presence of water initiates the conversion of organosilanes to
organosilanetriols by hydrolysis. These immediately undergo condensation with
the surface silanols of the silica gel resulting in multiple bonding to the surface.11
With bonded phases, only the accessible silanol groups on the silica gel matrix
can be modified. The types and degrees of modification result in a marked
difference in hydrophobicity between the sorbents. In partition chromatography of
this sort where the mobile phase and the stationary phase have been reversed in
14 Chapter 2

Figure 7 Separation of flavonoids

Sorbent layer: HPTLC silica gel 60 glass plates (Merck)
Mobile phase: ethyl acetate/water/formic acid (85 þ 15 þ 10 v/v)
Detection: 1% w/v diphenylboric acid-2-aminoethyl ester in methanol
Peaks: 1, rutin; 2, hyperoside; 3, quercitrin; 4, quercitin
Concentration: 30 ng per substance
Scanning: fluorescence spectrodensitometry, excitation at 436 nm and emission
at 546 nm. (For details on spectrodensitometry, see Chapter 7.)
Reprinted from Thin-Layer Chromatography, Reagents and Detection Methods,
volume 1a, 1990, p 279, by courtesy of the authors and the publisher, Wiley-VCH

polarity, it is imperative that the eluents used are polar, e.g. acetonitrile/water or
methanol/water, but not so polar that the surface of the bonded phase remains un-
wetted. As the degree of surface modification and alkyl chain length increases, the
layer becomes more hydrophobic, and it is only possible to use comparatively low
concentrations of water as pressure is not normally applied. Thus some
commercially available RP18 HPTLC plates where the silica gel has been silanised
as fully as possible can only be used with up to 25% water in the developing solvent
mixture. The result of a further increase in water concentration is an uneven solvent
front and incomplete wetting of the layer. However, by reducing the degree of
surface coverage of C18 it is possible to produce completely water tolerant phases,
(e.g. the RP18W HPTLC plate from Merck). Logically TLC plates of lower
silanisation can also be produced which are totally wettable. Table 4 shows the
surface coverage attained by one manufacturer. Apart from the fully silanised
HPTLC RP2, 8 and 18, all of the others may be used with high concentrations of
aqueous solvents if required.
Much has been published on the comparison of different manufacturers’ pre-
coated chemically bonded HPTLC/TLC plates and not surprisingly, based on the
Sorbents and TLC Layers 15

Figure 8 Separation of alkaloids

Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 WF254 glass plates (Merck)
Mobile phase: acetone/toluene/ethanol/ammonia soln. (25% w/w) (40 þ 40 þ
6 þ 2 v/v)
Visualisation: 0.15% w/v hexachloroplatinic (IV) acid in 3% w/v potassium
iodide solution
Peaks:1, narceine; 2, morphine; 3, codeine; 4, thebaine; 5, papaverine; 6,
narcotine
Concentration: 1 mg per substance
Detection: Reflectance spectrodensitometry at 540 nm
Reprinted from Thin-Layer Chromatography, Reagents and Detection Methods,
volume 1b, 1994, p363, by courtesy of Wiley-VCH

Figure 9 Chemically bonded C8 alkyl groups bonded to the silica gel surface
16 Chapter 2

(a) R
O CI R O
Si H + Si Si Si R + HCI
R R R

CI
(b) H R O
CI
Si O + Si Si Si R + HCI
CI R R

O
Si H Si O R
CI R
O + Si O Si + 2HCI
H R
Si O CI R Si O

CI CI
(C) O CI O
Si H + R Si Si Si R + HCI
CI CI

H
Si O R Si O R + Si Si O
CI HO R
O + Si O Si O Si
Si O CI CI Si O CI Si O O
H Si
+ 2HCI

+ HCI

Figure 10 Reaction between silica gel and (a) monofunctional, (b) bifunctional, and
(c) trifunctional organosilanes

Table 4 Coverage ratio of chemically modified chromatographic layers

(By permission of Merck)

HPTLC TLC
Stationary phase (mmol carbon m 2) (mmol carbon m 2)

RP 2 3.9 2.5
RP 8 3.0 2.0
RP 18 2.6 1.7
RP 18W (water tolerant layer) 0.6
NH2 2.9
CN 3.5
Sorbents and TLC Layers 17
12–16
similarity to HPLC packings, there are noticeable variations. For example,
some manufacturers recommend the use of up to 3% sodium chloride in the mobile
phase to attain better wettability, whereas others do not. In some cases it is not just
a matter of the completeness of silanisation of the layer, but also the choice of
binder. Many binders are either partially or completely soluble in water. This can
result in removal of the sorbent layer with solvents containing a high proportion of
water. As these variations can have a large impact on the choice of reversed-phase
layer and on the eventual separation quality, it is important to follow the
manufacturer’s recommendations to obtain the optimum results with their
particular plates.
Reversed-phase TLC is now widely used in a variety of applications. To name
but a few, Proctor and Horobin have published extensively on its applicability to
dye identification and purity in biological stains,17 Kaiser and Rieder for optimisa-
tion of environmental trace analysis,18 Armstrong et al. on polymer molecular
weight determinations and distributions,19,20 Sherma et al. on amino-acid separa-
tions,21 Vanhaelen and Vanhaelen-Fastré with the resolution of natural flavonoids
and phenols,22 Amidzhin et al. and McSavage and Wall for the densitometric
identification of triglycerides,23,24 and Giron and Groell who have described the
separation of diastereoisomers of zeranol.25 Figures 11 and 12 show two examples
which demonstrate the versatility of reversed-phase planar chromatography.
Before leaving the subject of reversed-phase plates, special mention should be
made of diphenyl-bonded layers. Although the bonded moiety is aromatic and
would be expected to give quite different selectivity to aliphatic bonded phases, it
appears to have very similar separation properties to RP2. This plate has been used
for the separation of steroids, sulphonamides and peptides, but in most instances the
resolutions achieved are little better than those obtained with an ethyl (C2) bonded
silica gel layer.26

Amino-Bonded Phase. In the same way that various alkyl-bonded sorbents have
been prepared, silica gel 60 has also been chemically bonded with aminopropyl
groups via siloxane linkages (see Figure 13). The resulting layer is quite stable, and
unlike many alkyl-bonded phases is hydrophilic. With careful choice of binder,
these plates can be used with mobile phases composed totally of water or buffers.
The propyl group has some hydrophobic properties and can therefore be used for
separations of a reversed-phase type using aqueous based eluents. Since the amino
(-NH2) group is polar, normal-phase chromatography is also possible using much
less polar organic eluents than for silica and this is indeed the area where the bulk
of the applications have been reported. The phase behaves in many ways like a
deactivated silica. The major application for such normal-phase separations has
been in the resolution and determination of steroids.
However, it is important to remember that the amino function is a primary amine
and hence is chemically quite reactive. Depending on the sample and mobile phase
conditions, it is possible to have unwanted reactions occurring on the plate during
development, e.g. ketones or aldehydes may react with primary amines under
alkaline conditions to form Schiff bases. On the other hand, the reactivity of the
amino group can be used to advantage. Thus optical isomers can be readily bonded
18 Chapter 2

3
1
4
Start

Scanning track
0 distance 7 cm

Figure 11 Separation of nucleobases on a silica gel RP2 HPTLC plate

Mobile phase: acetonitrile/water (60 þ 40 v/v)
Sample applied: 200 nl (0.1% w/v solution)
Detection: UV 254 nm (TLC/HPTLC scanner)
Peaks: 1, cytosine; 2, adenine; 3, guanine; 4, uracil
(By permission of Merck)

under mild conditions by direct in situ reaction on the HPTLC layer to produce
‘‘Pirkle’’ type chiral stationary phases (described more fully under chiral-bonded
phases in this chapter).
However, it is the basic nature of the amino group that has led to a unique
application area. With a pKa of ,9.5–11 for the amino group, the HPTLC layer
can be used as a weak base anion-exchanger. In this mode satisfactory separations
of nucleotides, mono and polysulfonic acids, purines, pyrimidines and phenols
have all been achieved.27–29 The eluents used are simple neutral mixtures of
ethanol/aqueous salt solutions, which provide ideal conditions for ion-exchange to
occur. The presence of sodium or lithium chloride helps to prevent secondary
interactions and hence results in sharper, less diffuse spots or bands in the
chromatogram. Examples of separations of this type are shown in Figures 14–16.
Previously such separations were only achievable with PEI-cellulose (described
later in this chapter). The amino-bonded high performance silica gel gives
improved resolution.
Sorbents and TLC Layers 19

3
2
1

Start

Scanning track
0 5 cm
Distance

Separation of steroids on HPTLC pre-coated plates RP-18 F254s

Sample substances: 1 methyltestosterone
2 Reichstein S
3 hydrocortisone
Applied quantity: 200 nl (10 mg/10 ml per substance)
Eluent: acetone-water 60/40 (v/v)
Migration distance: 5 cm
Chamber: normal chamber without chamber saturation
Evaluation: UV 254 nm, TLC/HPTLC scanner (Camag)

Figure 12 Separation of steroids on a silica gel RP18 HPTLC plate

(By permission of Merck)

Using the ion-exchange mechanism that predominates here, it is possible to

influence the rate of migration of the analytes by using a salt solution as the eluent
and varying the concentration. This can be done in a controlled manner to obtain
the optimum separation conditions. As the ionic strength increases, anions are less
retained and move to the solvent front. This is demonstrated in Figure 17 with
adenosine and some oligoadenylic acids. As expected, the uncharged adenosine is
largely unaffected by the ion-exchange mechanism, and shows little change in
migration rate value as the lithium chloride concentration increases. Of course,
20 Chapter 2

Figure 13 Chemically bonded aminopropyl groups bonded to the silica gel surface

changes in pH will also influence the mobility of analytes that are separated by ion-
exchange.
Another unique feature of amino-bonded layers is their ability to provide
reagent-free detection of certain chemical substances. The process is basically
thermochemical and consists of heating the chromatographic layer after develop-
ment to temperatures of at least 105 – C and sometimes as high as 220 – C.
On exposure to short or long wavelength UV light after heating, the derivatives

Figure 14 Separation of nucleotides on NH2 bonded layers (Separation occurs because of

the variation in affinity for the PO43 groups)
Sorbent layer: HPTLC silica gel 60 NH2 F254 10 · 10 cm glass plate
Mobile phase: 0.2 M sodium chloride in ethanol/water (30 þ 70 v/v)
Detection: UV 254 nm, TLC/HPTLC scanner III (CAMAG)
(By permission of Merck)
Sorbents and TLC Layers 21

Figure 15 Separation of purine derivatives on HPTLC silica gel 60 NH2 plate

Mobile phase: ethanol/water (80 þ 20 v/v) saturated with sodium chloride
Sample applied: 300 nl of 0.1% w/v solutions
Detection: UV 254 nm (TLC/HPTLC scanner)
Peaks: 1, uric acid; 2, xanthine; 3, hypoxanthine; 4, guanine; 5, adenine
(By permission of Merck)

exhibit a strong fluorescence. This type of visualisation is particularly useful for

quantitative analysis as the background on the chromatographic layer remains
unaffected. The whole process is known as thermochemical fluorescence activation
and is described in more detail in Chapter 6 (section 3.2). The technique has proved
to be particularly suitable for the fluorimetric detection of carbohydrates,
catecholamines, steroidal hormones, and fruit acids (see example in Figure 18
that illustrates the effect with a separation of carbohydrates).

Cyano-Bonded Phase. Cyano-bonded phases, prepared by the chemical bonding

of a cyanopropyl group via a siloxane to silica gel, provide a further type of
bonded phase for TLC. The first report of the use of cyano-bonded plates was for
the separation of six polynuclear aromatics.30 This was followed by a brief
examination of the suitability of a cyano-layer for the separation of lipophilic
dyes and PTH-amino acids.31 More recently this phase has become commercially
available as an HPTLC plate using silica gel 60 from Merck.32 The surface
coverage of this layer of cyano groups is 3.5 mmol m 2. The bonding to the silica
matrix is the same as that for the amino-bonded layers as shown in Figure 19.
The cyano phase fills a gap in the range of silica gel stationary phases with
properties intermediate between reversed- and normal-phase materials. Hence with
a choice of mobile phases either a reversed- or normal-phase separation can be
carried out on a cyano-bonded TLC layer. This is demonstrated in Figure 20, for a
22 Chapter 2

Figure 16 Separation of naphthalene sulfonic acids on HPTLC NH2 plates

Mobile phase: ethanol/ammonia, pH 12 (60 þ 40 v/v) þ 0.18 mM sodium
chloride
Sample applied: 200 nl of 0.5% w/v solutions
Detection: UV 254 nm (TLC/HPTLC scanner)
Peaks: 1, naphthalene-1,3,7-trisulfonic acid; 2, naphthalene-1,3,6-trisulfonic
acid; 3, naphthalene-1,5-disulfonic acid; 4, naphthalene-1-sulfonic acid
(By permission of Merck)

series of steroids separated under both normal-phase conditions, with a high

solvent strength eluent, and under reversed-phase conditions, with a low solvent
strength mobile phase. For normal-phase, the analytes are less retained on the
cyano phase than on silica gel 60, but more retained than for alkyl-bonded phases.
The opposite effect is the case for reversed-phase conditions. Of course, the elution
order is usually reversed when changing between normal- and reversed-phase
modes.
Cyano plates have already been used for a wide variety of applications:
benzodiazepine derivatives, pesticides, plasticisers, tetracycline antibiotics, phe-
nols, some estrogens, gallic acid esters, alkaloids and sorbic acid.32,33 Two further
examples of the separations possible with cyano plates are given in Figures 21
and 22. In Figure 21 three steroids are base-line resolved under normal-phase
conditions over a solvent front migration distance of 7 cm. By comparison Figure 22
shows a reversed-phase separation of eight alkaloids over the same migration
distance. The addition of 0.1 M ammonium bromide to the solvent when reversed-
phase conditions are used, improves the peak shape.
Sorbents and TLC Layers 23

Figure 17 Dependence of the Rf values of adenosine and oligomers on the lithium chloride
concentration in the mobile phase on HPTLC NH2 layers
Mobile phase: methanol/water (90 þ 10 v/v) þ lithium chloride
Sample applied: 200 nl of 0.1% w/v solutions
Detection: UV 254 nm
Compounds: * adenosine; ^ ApA; m ApApA; j ApApApA
(Reprinted from W. Jost, and H. E. Hauck, Advances in Chromatography, 1987,
p 157 by courtesy of Marcel Dekker Inc.)

The dual personality of normal- and reversed-phase for the cyano-bonded phase
allows unique two-dimensional separations to be achieved. The sample is applied as
a spot near one corner of the plate. The layer is developed linearly in one dimension
with a typical normal-phase solvent. Migration is allowed to continue until the
solvent front reaches almost to the top of the plate. After appropriate drying, the
layer is then developed in the second dimension (at 90– to the first direction) using a
reversed-phase eluent. Migration of the solvent front is allowed to continue as
before. The separation results show a ‘‘fingerprint’’ pattern of the components of the
sample, unique to the solvent systems used. Figure 23 shows a separation of bile acid
metabolites and cholesterol, a difficult resolution to achieve in one-dimensional
TLC. Two-dimensional separations are easily performed in TLC and are particularly
useful for samples containing many components that are not easily resolved by other
techniques.

Diol-Bonded Phase. The polarity of the diol-bonded phase is very similar to that of
the cyano phase. Figure 24 illustrates this similar retention of neutral steroids under
24 Chapter 2

Figure 18 Separation of carbohydrates on HPTLC silica gel NH2 plate

Mobile phase: AMD gradient based on acetonitrile–acetone–water. (15 step)
(AMD technique is described in Chapter 5)
Detection: UV 366 nm (Plate heated at 150 – C for 3–4 minutes)
Peaks: 1, maltohexose; 2, maltopentose; 3, maltotetrose; 4, maltotriose; 5,
maltose; 6, saccharose; 7, glucose; 8, fructose; 9, xylose; 10, rhamnose; 11,
deoxy-ribose
(Reprinted from CAMAG application note A-58.1 by courtesy of CAMAG,
Muttenz, Switzerland)

both normal- and reversed-phase conditions although the diol-bonded phase is used
preferentially for normal-phase partition separations.
The plates are modified to the maximum degree possible with a vicinal diol alkyl
ether group bonded via a siloxane to the silica gel surface by the usual silanisation
procedure. The resulting structure of the diol group bonded to the silica gel matrix
is shown in Figure 25.

Figure 19 Chemically bonded cyanopropyl groups bonded to the silica gel surface
Sorbents and TLC Layers 25

Figure 20 Separations comparison of silica gel CN HPTLC plate with other bonded layers
under, (a) normal-phase adsorption, (b) reversed-phase partition
Mobile phase: (a) petroleum ether (40–60 – C)/acetone (80:20 v/v)
(b) acetone/water (60: 40 v/v)
Compounds: * hydrocortisone; j Reichstein’s substance; m methyltestosterone
(Reprinted from Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Instru-
mental HPTLC – Würzburg 1985, 1985, p86, by courtesy of Prof. Dr R. E. Kaiser,
Institut für Chromatographie)

Figure 21 Separation of steroid hormones on silica gel 60 HPTLC CN plates. Normal-

phase separation
Mobile phase: petroleum ether (40–60 – C)/ethanol (80 þ 20 v/v)
Sample applied: 200 nl (20 mg/10 ml)
Detection: 5% perchloric acid in methanol followed by heating at 110 – C for
5 minutes. UV 366 nm, CAMAG TLC/HPTLC scanner
Peaks: 1, 1,4-androstene-3,17-dione; 2, 2-progesterone 3, 3-pregnenolone
(By permission of Merck)
26 Chapter 2

Figure 22 Separation of alkaloids on silica gel 60 HPTLC CN plates. Reversed-phase

separation
Mobile phase: methanol/propan-1-ol/25% ammonia soln./water (30 þ 20 þ 1 þ
50 v/v) þ 0.1 mol l 1 ammonium bromide
Sample applied: 300 nl
Detection: UV 254 nm, CAMAG TLC/HPTLC scanner
Peaks: 1, emetine chloride (40 mg/10 ml); 2, quinine (10 mg); 3, atropine
(300 mg); 4, brucine (10 mg); 5, scopolamine (300 mg); 6, caffeine (30 mg);
7, nicotinamide (20 mg); 8, tropic acid (300 mg)
(By permission of Merck)

Figure 23 2-D separation of cholesterol and bile acid metabolites on silica gel 60 HPTLC
CN plate
Mobile phase: 1st dimension: acetone/water (50 þ 50 v/v) 2nd dimension:
petroleum ether (40–60 – C)/acetone (70 þ 30 v/v)
Detection: MnCl2–sulfuric acid. Heat to 110 – C (5 min.). UV 366 nm
Compounds: 1, cholic acid; 2, dehydrocholic acid; 3, cholic acid methyl ester;
4, chenodesoxycholic acid; 5, desoxycholic acid; 6, 7-hydroxy-cholesterol;
7, lithocholic acid; 8, cholesterol
(By permission of Merck)
Sorbents and TLC Layers 27

Figure 24 Separations comparison of silica gel DIOL HPTLC plate with other bonded
layers under, (a) normal-phase adsorption, (b) reversed-phase partition
Mobile phase: (a) petroleum ether (40–60 – C)/acetone (80 þ 20 v/v)
(b) acetone/water (60 þ 40 v/v)
Compounds: j hydrocortisone; m Reichstein’s substance; * methyltestosterone
(By permission of Merck)

Figure 25 Chemically bonded propyl–glycol groups bonded to the silica gel surface
28 Chapter 2
The layer is hydrophilic in nature and often behaves in a similar way to un-
modified silica gel 60 in its chromatographic behaviour. However, as the main
mechanism is normal-phase partition, the retention of sample components can be
changed predictably. There are also two other main differences:

1. The hydroxyl groups of the diol phase take the form of a glycol. Silica gel 60
has as its ‘‘active’’ group a primary hydroxyl (silanol). As the hydroxyl
function determines the retention, the nature of these may affect the
chromatography.
2. The diol function is bonded via an alkyl ether spacer group. This also can
influence the chromatographic behaviour. Thus as a general rule sample
components migrate further on the diol phase as compared with silica gel 60
for the same developing solvent and solvent front migration distance.

Diol HPTLC plates have proved useful for a number of separations including
digitalis glycosides, anabolic steroids, aromatic amines and particularly dihydroxy-
benzoic acids.34–36 Figures 26 and 27 demonstrate two of these. A near base-line
separation of therapeutically useful digitalis glycosides can readily be obtained
over a solvent migration distance of 8 cm. By comparison a more difficult
separation of steroids is shown in Figure 27 with the estradiol only just resolved
from the ethinylestradiol.

Figure 26 Separation of digitalis glycosides on silica gel 60 HPTLC DIOL plates

Mobile phase: ethyl acetate/ammonia soln. 25% (100 þ 1 v/v)
Sample applied: 100 nl of 0.1% w/v soln
Detection: MnCl2 – sulfuric acid. Heat at 110 – C for 10 min
UV 366 nm, CAMAG TLC/HPTLC scanner
Peaks: 1, lantoside C; 2, digoxin; 3, digitoxin; 4, digoxigenin; 5, a-acetyl-
digoxin; 6, digitoxigenin
(By permission of Merck)
Sorbents and TLC Layers 29

Figure 27 Separation of anabolic steroids on silica gel 60 HPTLC DIOL plates

Mobile phase: di-iso-propyl ether/acetic acid (100 þ 1 v/v)
Sample applied: 300 nl of a 0.1% w/v soln
Detection: MnCl2 – sulfuric acid. Heat at 110 – C for 5 min. UV 366 nm CAMAG
TLC/HPTLC scanner
Peaks: 1, 19-nortestosterone; 2, methoxyprogesterone; 3, progesterone; 4, 17b-
estradiol; 5, 17a-ethinylestradiol; 6, meso-hexestrol
(By permission of Merck)

Chiral-Bonded Phases. Because one enantiomer of a drug may be therapeutically

active, whereas the other may be non-active, of a different activity or even toxic,
the separation of optical isomers has become an increasingly important requirement
in the pharmaceutical industry. There is also increasing interest in the agrochemical
area where pesticides may vary in potency depending on the optical isomers
present. At the present time there are many stationary phases that have been
developed for HPLC and GC, which will resolve a large number of enantiomers.
However, in planar chromatography by comparison few bonded phases are
presently available commercially, although a number have been described in the
literature.
In 1983, Wainer et al.37 reported the successful preparation of an ionically-
bonded chiral TLC plate using N-(3,5-dinitrobenzoyl)-R-(-)-phenylglycine, a phase
originally devised by Pirkle et al.38,39 This reagent was dissolved in tetrahydrofuran
and allowed to migrate linearly through an amino-bonded TLC plate. The process
was slow and complete derivatisation over the whole plate difficult due to the
solvent migrating well ahead of the reaction zone. The bonded amino group is a
primary amine and as such is reactive enough for an immediate reaction to occur.
It is possible to prepare such plates both with an ionic bond or a more stable
covalent bond by a dipping technique. The covalent bonding process is achieved
30 Chapter 2

Figure 28 Structure of Pirkle reagent bonded to aminopropyl silica gel. (R1 is –H, and R2
is –alkyl or –aryl)

under a nitrogen atmosphere and in the presence of a catalyst. Both the R-a-
phenylglycine and the L-leucine derivatives have been prepared. These plates are
relatively stable if stored stacked under dry conditions in a desiccator. For most
applications, ionic bonding is quite adequate for the range of chiral separations
possible with this phase. The plates are prepared simply by dipping the amino-
bonded HPTLC plates in a 0.3% solution of the chiral selector in dry
tetrahydrofuran (THF). Excess reagent is removed with dry solvent. The resulting
chiral phase has the structure shown in Figure 28.
Chiral recognition of enantiomers on these ‘‘Pirkle’’ phases depends on a three-
point interaction involving hydrogen-bonding, p-p interaction between aromatic or

Figure 29 Interactions of 2,2,2-trifluoro-1-(9-anthryl) ethanol with a Pirkle reagent-

bonded layer (R1 is –H, and R2 is –alkyl or –aryl)
Sorbents and TLC Layers 31

Figure 30 Separation of ( þ ) and ( ) enantiomers of 2,2,2-trifluoro-1-(9-anthryl) ethanol

using CSP1 amino-bonded HPTLC plate. Mobile phase: n-hexane/propan-2-ol
(80 þ 20 v/v). Scanned at 380 nm with a CAMAG TLC/HPTLC scanner

unsaturated groups, in which one is a p-donor and the other a p-acceptor, and
dipole stacking. N-(3,5-dinitrobenzoyl)-R-(-)-a-phenylglycine can provide sites
for hydrogen-bonding at the 4NH and 4C¼O functions and the dinitrophenyl
group acts as a p-acceptor. If in the sample, groups that can hydrogen bond
are present close to the chiral centre and an aromatic group is present which is
a p-donor, then one enantiomer will be retained more strongly than the other
due to the interactions being more favourable. Such three-point interactions
usually result in well resolved enantiomers (see Figure 29). However, adequate
separations can often be obtained with fewer interactions. Using this type of
chiral-bonded TLC plate, separation of test compounds such as (^)2,2,2-
trifluoro-1-(9-anthryl) ethanol (containing a single asymmetric carbon centre)
and (^)2,2 0 -bi-2-naphthol (dissymmetry due to hindered rotation) into their
respective enantiomers has been demonstrated.40 (Enantiomer separation of the
former is shown in Figure 30.)
Hexobarbital, some benzodiazepines and b-blocking drugs have also been
separated on both the L-leucine and R-a-phenylglycine chiral phases.40,41 However,
the b-blockers required derivatisation with 1-isocyanatonaphthalene before
separation. The major problem with this type of chiral stationary phase is its
comparatively low sensitivity and limited application. In particular many detection
reagents cannot be used due to reaction with the background amino-acid present on
the silica gel surface producing a background colour. In addition the ‘‘Pirkle’’ chiral
selector masks the inorganic fluorescent indicator (F254s) incorporated into the
amino-bonded HPTLC plates. A possible way of overcoming the problem involves
bonding a section of the HPTLC plate with the Pirkle reagent, spotting the racemate
at the lower edge of this area, and proceeding with normal linear migration with
an appropriate solvent until the enantiomers separate, and pass through into the
32 Chapter 2
unreacted zone. The separated isomers are then detected in the normal way under
UV light or with derivatisation reagents. In this way sensitivity is improved.
The solvents for separations on these ‘‘Pirkle’’ phases consist almost entirely of
n-hexane – propan-2-ol mixtures.
Brunner and Wainer have also prepared a naphthylethyl urea-bonded TLC plate
following the method described by Oi et al.42,43 R-(-)-1-(1-naphthyl) ethyl
isocyanate was reacted with an HPLC type aminopropyl silica gel. The TLC
bonded phase was simply prepared by dipping an aminopropyl TLC/HPTLC
plate into a 1% solution of the naphthyl isocyanate in dichloromethane for five
minutes. This phase does not suffer from the background interference problems in
the UV associated with the previous Pirkle phases. The naphthyl moiety is p-basic
(a p-donor) and hence it is particularly useful for the separation of enantiomers
containing p-acidic groups, e.g. dinitrobenzoyl derivatives of amino-acids. A series
of a-methylarylacetic acids, (ibuprofen, fenoprofen and naproxen) have also been
separated after conversion to their respective 3,5-dinitroanilides.
The preparation of a b-cyclodextrin phase, bonded to silica, has also been
described.44,45 The chromatographic results that were obtained were dependent on
the source of silica gel, coverage of the layer, and the type of binder used. Mobile
phases used with this phase consisted of methanol or acetonitrile in water or
buffers. The use of buffers improved resolution and efficiency. Some separations of
enantiomers of dansyl amino-acids, alanine-b-naphthylamides and metallocenes
have been reported on this phase. However, most chiral TLC work with
cyclodextrins has been accomplished using them as mobile phase additives.
Currently the most successful chiral TLC layer (and the only one commercially
available) is not a bonded phase, but a coated phase consisting of an amino-acid
derivative of hydroxyproline in the presence of a copper salt. This forms a ligand-
exchange phase when coated on to a RP18 bonded reversed-phase plate. The
method of preparation is based on the work of Davankov et al. 46,47 who developed
this technique with HPLC columns. It involves dipping an RP18 bonded TLC plate
into a copper(II) acetate solution (0.25% w/v) followed by a solution of the chiral
selector (0.8%), usually N-(2 0 -hydroxydodecyl)-4-hydroxyproline (Figure 31).
After air drying the plate is ready for use.

Figure 31 Structure of chiral selector, (2S, 4R, 2 0 RS)-N-(2 0 hydroxydodecyl)-4-hydroxy-

proline used in the preparation of ligand-exchange plates
Sorbents and TLC Layers 33

Figure 32 Separation of dipeptides on CHIR HPTLC plate

Mobile phase: methanol–propan-1-ol–water (50 þ 10 þ 40 v/v)
Detection: ninhydrin spray (0.5% w/v in butan-1-ol). Heat at 120 – C for
10 minutes. Visible scan at 420 nm (CAMAG TLC/HPTLC Scanner)
Peaks: 1, D-Leu - L-Leu; 2, L-Leu - D-Leu
(By permission of Merck)

The mechanism of enantiomer separation involves the formation of diaster-

eoisomeric complexes with the metal ion. The stability of these transient complexes
differs depending upon the individual optical isomer and hence retention on the
stationary phase will vary and the enantiomers can be resolved. This ligand-
exchange plate is available from Macherey-Nagelb as ‘‘Chiralplates’’ and Merck as
‘‘CHIR’’. The Chiralplate is a TLC glass plate, whilst the CHIR is either an HPTLC
or a TLC glass plate. Both types of ligand-exchange plate have proved suitable for
the resolution of most amino-acids, halogenated, N-alkyl and hydroxy amino-acids,
thiaxolidine derivatives, dipeptides and catecholamines.48–51 As an example of the
excellent resolution often obtained, Figure 32 shows the separation of two optical
isomers of a peptide with a simple solvent mixture. Quantification has also proved
successful, with both the TLC and HPTLC layers and, for example it has been
possible to measure nanogram amounts of L-tryptophan in the presence of
microgram quantities of D-tryptophan. Figure 33 shows the chromatogram, whilst
the calibration curve for determining an unknown concentration of one enantiomer
is shown in Figure 34.

b
Macherey-Nagel, Duren, Germany.
34 Chapter 2

Figure 33 Determination of the enantiomeric composition of DL-tryptophan at extreme

ratios of the antipodes, a: 1:100, b: 1:200, c: 1:1000
Mobile phase: methanol–water–acetonitrile (50 þ 50 þ 30 v/v)
Peaks: 1, D-tryptophan, (a) 10 mg, (b) 10 mg, (c) 10 mg; 2, L-Tryptophan,
(a) 100 ng, (b) 50 ng, (c) 10 ng
(M. Mack, H. E. Hauck, and H. Herbert, J. Planar Chromatography, 1988, 1,
307, by permission of the publisher)

Figure 34 Calibration curve of D-Tryptophan

Sample applied: 75 ng
Concentration: 100, 250, 500, 750, 1000, and 1500 ng
Detection: ninhydrin spray (0.5% w/v in butan-1-ol). Heat at 120 – C for
10 minutes. Scanned at 520 nm (CAMAG TLC/HPTLC Scanner)
(M. Mack, H. E. Hauck, and H. Herbert, J. Planar Chromatography, 1988, 1,
308, by permission of the publisher)
Sorbents and TLC Layers 35

1.3 Non-silica Sorbents

1.3.1 Cellulose
Cellulose, a product of natural origin, has a polymeric structure consisting of
glucopyranose units joined together by oxygen bridges. As shown in Figure 35,
a profusion of hydroxyl groups are present which are readily available for
hydrogen-bonding. Adsorbed water or alcohols can be retained by this interaction,
making cellulose an ideal phase for the separation of hydrophilic substances such as
amino-acids, carbohydrates, inorganic ions and nucleic acid derivatives.52–59
Two types of cellulose are used in planar chromatography. One is native fibres
with a typical polymerisation of between 400–500 glucopyranose units, (used for
paper chromatography and in some TLC layers). The other is a microcrystalline
form commonly called ‘Avicel’, a fine powder used widely in both TLC and
HPTLC, and prepared by a hydrolysis technique. It has a degree of polymerisation
of 40–200 glucopyranose units. The cellulose is obtained from a number of raw
materials, including wood and cotton. However, the former does require more
refining and has a lower cellulose content.
For the preparation of TLC/HPTLC plates, a similar slurry technique to that needed
for silica gel is employed. However, unlike silica gel, binders are unnecessary.
The chromatographic results obtained with either the fibrous or microcrystalline
types can be different. However, whatever the type, the resolution of samples is
generally not as sharply defined as that obtained with silica gel. Spots and bands are
more diffuse and separation times are usually longer. Pre-coated plates are available

Figure 35 Structure of cellulose illustrating the hydrogen-bonding effect with water

36 Chapter 2
from most of the TLC plate suppliers, but few supply a high-performance layer. The
diffusion of chromatographic zones is greatly reduced with HPTLC cellulose, but one
must remember to adhere strictly to the application of small quantities (,100 ng) of
sample with final spot diameters of approximately 1 mm. Commercial pre-coated
cellulose plates are usually made as thinner layers than for silica gel, nominally
0.1 mm thick.
In recent years cellulose has declined in popularity as methods have switched to
those based on silica gel or to other techniques. However, many separations have been
based on cellulose and it is still widely in use for amino-acid separations, particularly
in hospital clinical laboratories where abnormal increases in certain amino-acids in
blood or urine samples can indicate the presence of a number of diseases (an increase
in phenylalanine is indicative of phenylketourea). Two-dimensional methods are
used with two developments in each dimension with intermediate drying. A typical
amino-acid ‘‘fingerprint’’ pattern obtained is shown in Figure 36. The amino-acids
are detected with ninhydrin spray after development or the ninhydrin can be
incorporated into the final development step as part of the solvent mixture. This latter
procedure avoids the problem of using potentially hazardous spray reagents and
shortens the analysis time. However, it is important in this instance to ensure that the
final developing solvent does not contain ammonia, amines, or amides as these will
usually form coloured chromophores with the ninhydrin. The resulting chromato-
gram will be poor due to the high background colour.

Figure 36 2-dimensional separation of amino-acids on cellulose coated TLC aluminium

sheets
Mobile phase: solvent A: butan-1-ol–propionic acid–water (40 þ 10 þ 10)
[1st dimension]
solvent B: pentan-1-ol–butanone–pyridine–water (20 þ 20 þ 20 þ 15) [2nd
dimension]
Detection: ninhydrin spray (0.5% w/v in butan-1-ol). Heat at 120 – C for
10 minutes
Sorbents and TLC Layers 37

1.3.2 Cellulose Bonded Phases

PEI Cellulose. PEI cellulose is a polyethyleneimine modified cellulose which acts
as a strongly basic anion-exchanger. It has had fairly specific uses including the
analysis of nucleotides, nucleosides and nucleo-bases, vanadylmandelic acid
(VMA), and sugar phosphates.60 For these applications PEI cellulose was the
sorbent of choice for many years. Most of these separations are now achievable on
amino-bonded silica gel layers with improved resolution. The PEI cellulose TLC
layers require storage at 0–4 – C to reduce deterioration. As the plates become old,
the layers take on a pale brown coloration, and should be discarded.

Acetylated Cellulose. Acetylated cellulose, particularly triacetyl-cellulose, is

prepared by chemical reaction of the hydroxyl groups on cellulose to produce a
layer with reversed-phase characteristics. Its major use for many years has been
for the separation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons, an important area of interest.
However, in many cases it has been superseded by bonded reversed-phase silica gels.
In more recent times the use of acetylated cellulose as a chiral layer for
the separation of optical isomers has been investigated.61 The resolution of
enantiomers is very dependent on the cellulose structure and the acetyl content of
the cellulose triacetate. The best results are obtained with a layer of microcrystal-
line cellulose triacetate (particle size of 10 mm) with a silica gel 60 binder.
Although the sodium salt of carboxymethylcellulose has also been used as binder,
silica gel enables the use of aqueous based eluents. As with column separations of
enantiomers, mixtures of ethanol or propan-2-ol (70–80%) with water (20–30%)
serve well as mobile phases. Resolution varies according to organic solvent
concentration in the eluent. It has also been observed that temperature has a
noticeable effect on the quality of separation. Generally as temperature increases
from 25 to 40 – C, resolution of enantiomers decreases.61
Racemates of a number of organic species have been separated on TLC layers of
microcrystalline cellulose triacetate. These include specific compounds such as
benzoin, benzoin methyl ether, flurbiprofen, 1-(2-naphthyl) ethanol, aminoglu-
tethimide, 1,1 0 -binaphthyl-2,2 0 -diamine, N-[1-(naphthyl) ethyl] phthalamic acid,
and a few derivatised amino-acids.61 However, to date the use of this chromato-
graphic layer has not developed commercially probably due to the long develop-
ment times that are required (about 2.5 hours) for sufficient migration of analytes.

Carboxymethyl (CM) and Diethylaminoethyl (DEAE) Cellulose. Carboxymethyl

and diethylaminoethyl celluloses are prepared as ion-exchange media, the former is
weakly acidic and the latter is strongly basic. The exchange capacities are often
close to those for ion-exchange resins, but their behaviour is often quite different.
This is due to the hydrophilic nature of the base cellulose compared with the
hydrophobic nature of the base polymer in the resin material.

1.3.3 Aluminium Oxide

Aluminium oxide or alumina, like silica gel, is a synthetic sorbent. It is manu-
factured in three pH ranges; acidic, basic, and neutral for different types of samples.
38 Chapter 2
Thus under aqueous conditions acidic compounds like phenols, sulphonic, carbox-
ylic, and amino acids are separated on the acidic alumina, whilst basic compounds;
amines, imines, and basic dyes, are separated on basic alumina. Neutral compounds,
such as aldehydes, ketones and lactones are chromatographed on neutral alumina.
Of the three types, basic alumina is the most widely used. In non-aqueous eluents,
aromatic hydrocarbons, carotenoids, porphorins, alkaloids, and steroids can be
adsorbed. As with silica gel, alumina will also vary in activity according to water
content. The activity levels have been graded according to Brockmann and
Schodder.62 Table 5 shows the Brockmann grading according to water content of
alumina.
Some manufacturers offer a type T and E in their alumina TLC plate range.
Usually there is a difference in pore size, but it should be noted that type T is
ignited at a higher temperature. The Brockmann grade for type E resembles activity
I whereas type T resembles activity II. Alumina is more chemically reactive than
silica gel and this can lead to problems with some samples. Reactions can occur in
the sorbent layer causing loss of analytes during chromatography. Like cellulose,
alumina is now also declining in popularity, and one would need to consult the
older bibliographies for applications.

1.3.4 Kieselguhr
Kieselguhr is a natural diatomaceous earth, composed of the skeletal remains of
microscopic marine organisms deposited in times past. Although principally silicon
dioxide, it also contains varying amounts of other oxides of aluminium, iron,
titanium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and calcium as oxides, hydroxides, and
carbonates (approximately 10% in all).63 It is widely used as a filter aid due to
its high porosity (average pore diameter is quite variable, typically 65 000 Å).
Kieselguhr is used in conjunction with 15% of a calcium sulphate binder to produce
TLC plates. The variability of pore size and surface area limits the use of kieselguhr
for high quality, precision TLC. It has been used in the past for the separation of
polar compounds by a partition mechanism. Commercial pre-coated plates with
abrasion resistant organic binders have been available for many years, although
their usage has diminished in recent times.

Table 5 Brockmann and Schodder activity grading for aluminium oxide for
chromatography62

Relative Aluminium Aluminium Aluminium

humidity oxide 60 oxide 90 oxide 150

0% I I–II II
20% II–III III III–IV
40% III–IV III–IV IV
60% IV–V IV IV
80% V V IV–V
Sorbents and TLC Layers 39

Figure 37 Hydrogen-bonding of water with polyamide (nylon 66). Compounds that will
form stronger hydrogen-bonds will require a stronger elutive solvent to cause
migration

1.3.5 Polyamide
The polyamide phases are produced from polycaprolactam (nylon 6), polyhex-
amethyldiaminoadipate (nylon 66), or polyaminoundecanoic acid (nylon 11).
The chromatographic separation on polyamide depends on the hydrogen-bonding
capabilities of its amide and carbonyl groups (Figure 37). The bond strength
generated depends upon the number and position of any phenolic, hydroxyl or
carboxyl groups present in the sample components. The relative retention of the
analytes depends on the eluting solvent being capable of dissociating these bonds.
As the solvent migrates through the sorbent, the analytes separate according to their
ease of displacement.
Mixtures of phenols, indoles, steroids, nucleic acid bases, nucleosides, dinitro-
sulfonyl (DNS), dinitrophenyl (DNP), and dimethylaminoazobenzene isothio-
cyanate (DABITC) derivatised amino-acids, and aromatic nitro compounds have all
been resolved on polyamide.64–67 A range of pre-coated sheets with aluminium or
plastic backing are commercially available, including one quite unique 15 cm
square plastic sheet which is coated on both sides with polyamide 6. With this plate,
samples containing, for example, amino-acid derivatives are applied to one side
whilst the standards are put on the other. After chromatography the known amino-
acids can be picked out immediately. This novel approach has been successfully
applied to PTH, dansyl, and DNP amino-acids.

1.3.6 Miscellaneous Stationary Phases

Other less commonly used phases include magnesium silicate, chitin and
SephadexTM. Magnesium silicate is a white, hard powder often known under the
name of FlorisilTM. The manufacturer, Floridin, (Pittsburgh, USA) gives the surface
area of the TLC grade as 298 m2 g 1 and the pH as 8.5. It has been reported as
suitable for the separation of carbohydrates and derivatives.68
40 Chapter 2
Chitin is a polysaccharide composed mainly of 2-acetamide-2-deoxy-D-glucan
molecules linked via oxygen bridges in a similar type of structure to cellulose but
with a basic nature. Typical specific surface area is low, only 6 m2 g 1. Chitin has
been used principally for amino-acid separations, but it has also been applied to
inorganic ions, nucleic acids, phenols and dyes.69
Sephadex is a trade name of Pharmacia Fine Chemicals for a range of gel
filtration materials. They are modified dextrin gels, hydrophilic and neutral in
nature. They are rarely used in TLC as layers are difficult to prepare, and require
pre-swelling for many hours before use. Sephadex has been used for the separation
of peptides and nucleic acids.70

1.3.7 Mixed Stationary Phases

Mixed phases, for example silica gel/kieselguhr, silica gel/alumina and cellulose/
silica gel are sometimes used for specific applications. However, they almost
always require the preparation of a special layer with a specific ratio of
components. Few commercial pre-coated plates are available. Silica gel/kieselguhr
has been used for inorganic ions, herbicides and some steroids.71–73 Cellulose/silica
gel has found application in the separation of food preservatives, and antibiotics.74,75
Silica gel/alumina has been little used in the last twenty years.

1.3.8 Dual Phases

Dual phase plates are a fairly recent innovation involving two distinct stationary
phases on one TLC plate. Usually the two phases are normal and reversed-phase as
in the case of the Whatmanc Multi KCS5 and SC5 dual phase plates, but obviously
other combinations are possible. It is important that there is a sharp, straight, level
interface between the phases. Plates are used in two dimensions, in one direction as
a normal-phase separation on silica gel, then after drying, in the second direction as
a reversed-phase separation on silica gel RP18. This results in a two-dimensional
‘‘map’’ or ‘‘fingerprint’’ of the sample components. Two-dimensional TLC allows
for the resolution of a larger number of components than normal linear develop-
ment. Examples of the use of this dual phase plate include the separation of
sulfonamides and bile acids.76

2 Preparation of TLC Sheets and Plates

2.1 ‘‘Home Made’’ TLC Plates
Before the advent of commercial pre-coated TLC plates, layers of silica gel and of
other sorbents (e.g. cellulose or aluminium oxide) had to be prepared in advance of
separation procedures. A typical method was to thoroughly mix 30 g of sorbent
with 60 ml of water by shaking in a glass flask. The slurry produced was transferred
to a spreader and applied evenly over the plate surface in one spreading operation.
c
Whatman, Maidstone, Kent, UK.
Sorbents and TLC Layers 41
The applied slurry was allowed to set and dry for about 30 minutes. Final activation
was completed in an oven for 30 minutes at a maximum temperature of 105 – C.
To improve the binding of the silica gel to the inert backing a gypsum binder was
added; Stahl recommended 13% of calcium sulphate. Although the layer was soft
and easily damaged, it remained stuck to the glass backing when the mobile phase
migrated across the plate. This silica gel plate was given the designation ‘‘silica gel G’’.
Organic binders have also been used including carboxymethylcellulose, starch
(1–2%), and polyvinyl alcohol (1–5%). Although these give a stronger binding for
the most part at a lower concentration of binder, they often suffer from
solubilisation in aqueous based solvents and charring after treatment with strong
sulphuric acid solutions and heating.

2.2 Pre-coated TLC/HPTLC Sheets and Plates

Commercially manufactured pre-coated TLC and HPTLC plates use organic
polymeric binders at a concentration of about 1–2%. These binders are much
more resistant to chemical elution or attack, ensure a smooth abrasive resistant
surface, and effectively bind smaller particle size silica gels to an appropriate
backing such as glass, aluminium or plastic. Quite strong polar solvents and
detection reagents can be used without appreciable affect. The added advantage
is that the plates provide a layer of highly active silica gel that is not
deactivated by appreciable concentrations of inorganic binders. There is always a
noticeable improvement in the quality of separation between such plates and
those consisting of silica gel G. Most TLC and HPTLC silica gel plates are manu-
factured with a uniform surface and a layer thickness of 0.20–0.25 mm (the
major exception is cellulose with a layer thickness of 0.1 mm). These
commercially manufactured plates give far more reproducible results compared
with those that are ‘‘home-made’’. This is a major benefit in analytical work
where repeatable quantitative results are essential. Particle size, pore diameter,
smoothness and thickness of surface, and abrasive resistant qualities of a layer
need to be controlled within fine tolerances by the manufacturer to ensure such
high quality and reproducible results.

3 Cutting TLC/HPTLC Sheets and Plates

Although TLC plates can easily be cut with a glass cutter, and plastic and
aluminium sheets can be cut with a pair of scissors, care does need to taken to avoid
damage to the chromatographic layer. A clean pair of rubber or plastic gloves is
essential when cutting glass plates to prevent contamination of the layer and any
damage to the hands. Cutting aluminium and plastic sheets needs to be done in such
a way that the minimum amount of damage to the surrounding layer occurs. A large
pair of scissors is preferable with as few scissor cuts as possible. Always angle the
scissors at approximately 30– from the vertical to one side as shown in Figure 38.
Poor cutting will result in a capillary crack between the chromatographic layer
and the foil. This will cause the mobile phase to migrate more rapidly at the edge
42 Chapter 2

Figure 38 Cutting aluminium-backed TLC sheets. The angle of cut is important to limit
damage to the layer. A correct cut to the left tilted 30– from the vertical is
shown in example (a), whereas a cut to the right in example (b) causes a
cracking of the layer in the vicinity of the cut

compared with the centre of the layer, and the mobile phase to migrate from the
edge of the layer to the centre. This will cause spots or bands near the edge of the
chromatogram to become deformed and chromatographic tracks to become
distorted.

4 Humidity Effects with TLC Plates

Relative humidity is defined as the amount of water vapour saturation in air at a
given temperature. It is usually expressed as a percentage and in most instances will
vary from 40–60% for comfortable conditions. In the laboratory, TLC sorbents will
adjust to an equilibrium water vapour concentration depending on the relative
humidity. The adsorption is reversible so enforced drying can be used to lower the
relative humidity of the sorbent layer. Often TLC plates and sheets are heated at
120 – C for at least half an hour to try to achieve a more constant activity. Really
there is little point to this procedure as once the TLC plate is exposed to ambient
conditions it takes only a few minutes at the most to readjust its water content to the
surrounding environment. For the same reason it is usually a meaningless exercise
to try to rejuvenate old TLC layers by heating.
Many manufacturers pack TLC plates at a standard relative humidity (e.g. 40%
RH) and once exposed to the atmosphere the percentage water uptake will normally
rise to ambient. Under normal conditions this will cause only minor variation in the
activity but high relative humidity in excess of 60% causes a rapid change. In these
instances heating the plates will drive off this excess moisture. To maintain good
reproducibility it is therefore important to keep packs of plates well closed when
Sorbents and TLC Layers 43

Figure 39 Effect of relative humidity (RH) on the separation of oligophenylenes on silica

gel 60 HPTLC plates
Mobile phase: cyclohexane
Humidity: (a) 20% RH; (b) 50% RH; (c) 80% RH
Peaks: 1, m-quinquephenyl; 2, m-quaterphenyl; 3, m-terphenyl; 4, biphenyl
(E. Hahn-Deinstrop, J. Planar Chromatography, 1993, 6, 317, with permission
of the publisher)

not in use, and to maintain the laboratory environment within reasonable limits of
relative humidity. Closing up packs of plates when not in use is also a good practice
to avoid adsorption of any other vapours that may be present in the immediate
atmosphere. Acidic and alkaline vapours will cause a change in the activity of the
sorbent.
Special chambers have been developed which alleviate the problem of humidity
to a large extent (twin-trough, horizontal, and automated development chambers).
These chambers incorporate either sulfuric acid solutions or saturated salt solutions
to control the relative humidity.
Changes in relative humidity can affect a number of important factors in TLC,
e.g. the Rf value (retention factor), selectivity, solvent front migration rate and the
position of multiple fronts. Where normal-phase or adsorption mechanisms prevail,
increase in humidity causes less retention of analytes during development and
faster elution. Selectivity is affected and a change in the sample component
migration rates results. Figure 39 illustrates this well with a separation of aromatic
hydrocarbons. Sometimes even a change in order of separated analytes can occur.

5 Pre-washing TLC Plates

Sometimes pre-washing of the TLC/HPTLC layer is necessary to remove
impurities usually originating from the binder. Normally this is only a problem if
the detection reagent is sensitive to the impurities or fluorescence quenching is
being employed as the detection technique. The use of polar mobile phases causes
a concentration of these impurities at the solvent front. As the resolution of
44 Chapter 2
components of the sample would be expected to be poor near the solvent front, the
concentration of these impurities is not usually a problem. Non-polar mobile phases
do not cause any migration of the impurities and hence there is little background
interference when scanning. The best way to pre-wash a plate is by blank
development in a TLC tank. Either the mobile phase for the separation can be used,
or methanol, or mixtures of methanol and chloroform. Acids and bases are best
avoided. The plate should be marked to show the direction of blank development.
When the plate is then later used for chromatography of the sample, the same
direction of development can and should be employed.

6 Use of Phosphorescent/Fluorescent Indicators

To aid absorbance many commercial pre-coated TLC layers contain an inorganic
phosphorescent indicator, shown on the label by the designation F254 or UV254.
Most indicators exhibit a bright green, yellow or blue phosphorescence when
excited by UV light at 254 nm. Indicators that have been used are uranyl acetate
(yellow-green), manganese zinc silicate, zinc cadmium sulphide, zinc silicate
(green), alkaline earth metal tungstates, and tin strontium phosphate (blue). Detection
by absorbance in these cases relies on the phosphorescence being quenched by the
sample components. In most cases pink or violet spots/bands are observed for
quenching on the green phosphorescent background, whereas grey-black spots/
bands are usually seen on the blue background. In most applications the inorganic
indicators are quite stable with little or no elution from developing solvents, and
they remain unaffected by most dyeing reagents and the temperatures used to effect
reactions. Organic fluorescent indicators can also be used. These are coded F366
or UV366 by the manufacturer. Substances used include optical brighteners,
hydroxypyrene sulfonates, fluorescein and rhodamine dyes. As indicated by the
coding used, these organic indicators fluoresce in long wave UV light (at 366 nm).
Some pre-coated plates are manufactured with both types of indicator present to
give possible quenching by sample components at both wavelengths. Sometimes
the designation F254s is used in the description of some TLC and HPTLC plates.
The ‘‘s’’ simply indicates that the fluorescent indicator is acid resistant, particularly
useful where acid vapours may be used to adjust pH or cause further reaction
of the analytes to render them able to quench fluorescence. Many analytes,
however, either absorb insufficiently or not at all by these techniques. In these
instances suitable detection reagents are used to give coloured spots/bands in situ.,
(see Chapter 6).

7 Channelled TLC Layers

Some suppliers have made available channelled silica gel plates for special
applications. Channelled TLC plates consist of silica gel tracks, usually 1 cm wide
from the top to the bottom of the plate, with spaces of 1–2 mm between tracks. Of
course, it is possible to make such channels oneself with a sharp metal point (e.g. a
bradawl is quite adequate for the purpose) and a ruler. The width of such channels
Sorbents and TLC Layers 45
is therefore decided by the user. Commercially manufactured plate scrapers are also
available that enable six channels to be cut on a 10 · 10 cm glass-backed layer.
These units are to be recommended as they give far better precision than the purely
manual method. The major advantage of such channels is to prevent the cross
contamination of samples that may occur where sample spots are applied close
together or where excessive diffusion occurs during development, causing some
merging of components. A further advantage is when analyte recovery from the
TLC layer is employed. Sections of a channel are much more easily removed
without contamination from other separated components on the layer and without
damaging other tracks.

8 Concentration Zone TLC/HPTLC Plates

The concentration zone concept offers a number of benefits for certain types of
analysis. The benefits were first described by Abbott and Thomson in 196577 and
elaborated on further in 1969 by Musgrave.78 The TLC/HPTLC concentration zone
plate consists of two different layer sections with a sharply defined borderline.
There is no gap in between. The lower zone is used for sample application and
covers the full width of the plate up to 25 mm. This lower zone is composed either
of kieselguhr or synthetic porous silicon dioxide of medium pore volume, but very
high pore diameter (50 000 Å) and extremely small internal surface area (less than
1 m2 g 1). Kieselguhr being a natural material, mainly composed of silica, and
approximately 10% of other metal oxides’ can cause variations in chromatographic
behaviour. The upper section of the plate is coated with normal silica gel 60
sorbent. Samples are applied as spots or bands to the concentration zone. Usually
these are more dilute (typically 5–10 times) than what would be applied to a normal
silica gel 60 TLC layer. On elution the analytes of interest migrate at or near the
solvent front. On reaching the interface they form a concentrated band. This
continues to migrate into the silica gel 60 layer and development continues
normally. Although there are obvious advantages to the use of such concentration
zone plates such as eliminating the need for precise positioning of sample
application and sample volumes, the more detailed advantages and disadvantages
of this layer will be discussed in later chapters.

9 HPTLC Pre-coated Plates

HPTLC uses the same type of silica gel 60 layers, as in traditional TLC, with a
thickness of 0.20–0.25 mm. However, the particle size is much smaller, typically
ranging from 4–8 mm, with an optimum of 5–6 mm. Recently a new spherical
HPTLC silica gel 60 of optimum particle size 4 mm has become available (see
comparison in Figure 40). The smaller particle gives a somewhat softer, smoother
layer. However, commercial pre-coated HPTLC plates with polymeric binders, are
sufficiently hard so as not to be easily damaged by the capillary tubes used for
sample application.
46 Chapter 2

Figure 40 Comparison of particle size distribution for silica gel used in TLC and HPTLC
pre-coated plates

The smaller particles, similar in size and quality to HPLC packing materials, give
a lower theoretical plate height (H) and hence higher efficiency. However, this is
only fully utilised if the plates are not overloaded with too much sample, the spot
size is kept small (about 1.0 mm), and the plate is developed only to the extent
necessary for complete resolution (often only 5 cm and rarely more than 8 cm).
A direct comparison of theoretical plates in HPTLC with HPLC serves little
purpose as the number found is only valid for the spot used for calculation. The
basic problem is that all analytes do not travel the same migration distance and are
not measured in retention time as in column chromatography. In planar
chromatography, separations are in distance, spots and bands will broaden to
differing extents, and hence efficiency can only be constant for a specific
chromatogram. Unfortunately the nature of TLC causes a chaotic situation in which
the conditions usually vary with time during development. It is therefore difficult to
attempt a theoretical model that will fit the separation exactly. However, it is
possible to make good approximations. Spots chosen for measurement should be
compact and symmetrical, such that a scanner would record a Gaussian peak. This
would only be possible for analytes with an Rf value between 0.1 and 0.9, (see
Chapter 4 for measurement of Rf). Outside of this range there would be too much
shape distortion of the spots either near the origin or solvent front.
Chromatographic spreading (diffusion and migration of components during
development) is characterised by the height of an equivalent theoretical plate
(HETP), H, which is give by the Knox equation:

B
H¼ þ Au1=3 þ Cu ð1Þ
u
Sorbents and TLC Layers 47
where u is the solvent velocity and A, B, and C are experimentally found
coefficients.
This equation was first proposed by Knox for column chromatography. A more
general approach involves the use of dimensionless reduced values:

b
h¼ þ an1=3 þ cn ð2Þ
n

This equation describes a curve with a minimum point.

The ‘‘a’’ term takes into account the local flow velocities due to the size and
shape of the sorbent particles.
The ‘‘b’’ term is the molecular diffusion of the solute in the solution, (remember
when the mobile phase migration is halted, diffusion will still continue). The ‘‘c’’
term takes account of delays caused by mass transfer processes during sorption and
desorption of solute molecules.
In practice, a better quality of sorbent and smaller particle size will result in
sharper curves with lower minimums for equation (2) as shown in the example in
Figure 41.
HPTLC plates give HETP values of about 12 micrometers and a maximum of
about 5000 usable theoretical plates. By contrast, conventional TLC plates have
HETP values of about 30 micrometers and approximately 600 theoretical plates.

Figure 41 Plate height (H) versus solvent migration distance (Zf) comparison between
silica gel HPTLC and TLC. Typically demonstrated with a chloroaniline
(Rf 0.35) as a standard and using toluene as the mobile phase. As the graph
shows, at low Zf (short development distances) improved resolution is
observed for the HPTLC layers, but the effect diminishes with increased
development distances
48 Chapter 2
Table 6 Comparison of silica gel HPTLC and TLC chromatographic layers

HPTLC layer TLC layer

Particle size 5–6 mm 10–12 mm

Pore diameter 60 Å 40 Å, 60 Å, 80 Å, 100 Å
Plate dimensions 10 · 10 cm, 10 · 20 cm, 5 · 10 cm, 5 · 20 cm, 10 · 20 cm,
20 · 20 cm 20 · 20 cm
Layer thickness 0.20–0.25 mm 0.20–0.25 mm
Number of samples that Up to 75 Up to 16
can be applied per plate
Spot size recommended ,1 mm 2–5 mm
Spot loading 50–200 nl 1–5 ml
Band size recommended 5–10 mm 10–15 mm
Band loading 1–4 ml 5–10 ml
Sensitivity limit Upper pg (fluorescence) ng
Normal development time 2–30 minutes 15–120 minutes

It follows therefore that HPTLC offers an increase in performance that is an order

of magnitude greater than TLC. Thus it is possible to carry out separations on
HPTLC that were not possible before on TLC plates, and for those where it was
possible, to shorten the time of separation dramatically. See Table 6 for comparison
of plates.
HPTLC is therefore a more rapid, efficient and sensitive technique than
conventional TLC. For in situ quantitative analysis using spectrodensitometers, it is
essential that HPTLC layers are used for the most reliable results. HPTLC
represents a considerable advance in the practice of TLC.

9.1 HPTLC Spherical Silica Gel 60

Most HPTLC silica gel 60 layers are manufactured using silica gel of irregular
particle shape. Although these represent a major advance over conventional
TLC layers, further improvements in solvent capillary flow characteristics, particle
size reduction and sorbent purity can be made with spherical silica gels, similar to
those presently available in HPLC columns. One of the major problems with
particle size reduction of silica gel is the decrease that results in the developing
solvent flow velocity. As the process of TLC development usually depends on
capillary flow without the application of external pressure, smaller particle sizes
than 5 mm result in long development times. This can be offset to some extent by
improved binder characteristics, the use of sorbents with spherical particles and
narrower particle size distribution, where a much more regular capillary flow of
solvent is possible.
Sorbents and TLC Layers 49

Figure 42 Comparison between HPTLC silica gel 60, (a) 5–6 mm irregular particles and
(b) 4 mm spherical particles for the separation of eight pesticides
Mobile phase: petroleum spirit (40–60 – C)/acetone (70 þ 30 v/v)
Peaks: 1, hexazinon; 2, metoxuron; 3, monuron; 4, aldicarb; 5, azinphosmethyl;
6, prometryn; 7, pyridate; 8, trifluralin
(By permission of Merck)

Figure 42 demonstrates the improvements that occur in the separation resolution

using a commercially available HPTLC spherical silica gel 60, 4 mm particle size.
The higher purity silica gel in these layers also has the added benefit of lower
background scanning ‘‘noise’’. It is therefore possible to obtain improved detection
limits for spectrodensitometric scanning for quantitative determinations of analytes.
This background ‘‘noise’’ is, in fact, sufficiently reduced such that the TLC
technique can be hyphenated to Raman spectroscopy as a means of further
identification of unknowns or of quantification, (see Chapter 8 where the value of
this hyphenated technique is illustrated).

10 Improving Resolution with Buffers and Complexing

Agents
10.1 Impregnation of Sorbent before Layer Coating
In this procedure the silica gel slurry that is normally used to prepare the layer
coating for application on to the glass backing is initially pretreated with the
impregnation reagent. Solutions of buffers, complexing reagents, acids, bases, salts,
or water-soluble organic compounds are effective for this type of impregnation
technique. Once the modified slurry has been prepared it can then be coated on to
the backing plate in the usual way. The technique is limited to water-soluble agents.
Because preparation of TLC plates in the laboratory is now rarely done, this is not a
popular technique.
50 Chapter 2

10.2 Impregnation of the Ready Coated Layer

This can be performed in three ways:

1. Immersion of the pre-coated plate in a solution (usually 5–10%) of the

impregnating agent dissolved in a suitable volatile solvent. The solvent is then
evaporated off either at ambient or elevated temperature.
2. Spraying a solution of the impregnation reagent on to the plate and then
removing the solvent as before.
3. Blank development of the TLC plate in a chromatography tank using the
solution of the impregnation reagent as the developing solvent. Migration
would be allowed to proceed until the solvent front had reached the top of the
layer, and for some time after this so that the ‘‘real’’ solvent front had
migrated sufficiently. The solvent is then removed as before.

At times acidic silica gel layers have been used to separate reactive acidic
compounds (phenols, acids)79 and basic layers for the separation of alkaloids, and
amines.80 The acid impregnation was achieved with 0.05–0.25 M oxalic acid and the
base used was potassium hydroxide. To ascertain how an unknown compound would
react, a pH gradient plate could be used where the silica gel layer is applied to the
glass backing surface, starting with low pH at one edge and spreading across the layer
to high pH at the opposite edge. The sample would be applied at appropriate intervals
along the lower edge. After development in an appropriate solvent the variation of the
migration distances could be compared.
Buffers are quite often used in the separation of carbohydrates whether on silica
gel 60 or on amino-bonded silica gel layers. Either potassium dihydrogen
orthophosphate or the corresponding sodium salt is used (0.2–0.5 M) to inhibit the
formation of glycamines from reducing sugars. Mono-, di-, and trisaccharides have
been well resolved on silica gel 60 TLC plates previously impregnated with 0.5 M
sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate.81–83 A specific separation can be obtained by
impregnation with compounds that will form coordination, chelation or inclusion
complexes with the sample components to differing degrees. Boric acid and
disodium tetraborate are often employed as impregnation agents for complex
formation. These are used for improved resolution in the separation of all types of
carbohydrates.81 EDTA impregnated layers have been used for the separation of
anti-microbials.84 Silver nitrate impregnation is widely used on silica gel 60 and as
such merits special consideration.

11 Silver Nitrate Impregnation

Although normal silica gel 60 is a very versatile sorbent for the separation of many
aromatic and aliphatic saturated and unsaturated organic compounds, there are
occasions when silica gel has insufficient resolving power to achieve adequate
separation of unsaturated organic species, particularly where cis/trans isomerisa-
tion may be involved. Argentation or silver nitrate TLC overcomes this problem
Sorbents and TLC Layers 51
in a unique way and enables excellent separations of many types of lipids, fatty
acids, olefins, steroids and triterpenes.85–93
The separation is based on the known interaction of the silver ion, Ag þ with
ethylenic p-bonds present in the solute molecules. The strength of the interaction
will depend on a number of factors:

1. The number of olefinic bonds present.

2. Steric hindrance surrounding the olefinic bonds.
3. The position of the olefinic bonds in the structure.

The stronger the interaction and hence complexation, the more the compound is
retained on the layer. The technique is very powerful as it will even allow cis and
trans isomers of some organic compounds to be resolved. The difference in
retention observed for such geometric isomers is normally due to the degree of
steric hindrance around the double bond. Good examples of this effect are found in
the separation of unsaturated fatty acids and lipids. In some cases the silver nitrate
can be added to the solvent mixture used for development (where aqueous-based
solvents are used). This will be described later in Chapter 5. However, in by far the
majority of cases the silver nitrate is impregnated on to the layer prior to
development. This is achieved in the following way:
Dip the silica gel pre-coated TLC/HPTLC plate in an aqueous solution of silver
nitrate (20% w/v) for 15–20 minutes. Then in the absence of light, dry the plate in
air, and finally activate in an oven at 80 – C for about 30–60 minutes. Using this
procedure, approximately 1.7 g silver nitrate will be taken up by a 0.25 mm thick
layer, giving a concentration of silver nitrate after impregnation of about 40%.
A similar procedure can be used with reversed-phase silica gel plates. The solu-
tions of silver nitrate required are normally of lower strength (1–10% w/v) and are
prepared in alcohol/water mixtures to improve ‘‘wetting’’ of the layer. The plate is
then dried in the same way as for normal-phase silica gel. Sample application
and chromatographic development is performed in exactly the same way as for
unimpregnated plates. An example of the application of this technique is shown in
Figure 43.

12 Charge Transfer TLC

Charge transfer TLC is a unique technique that relies on an impregnating agent in
the chromatographic layer that acts as a p-electron acceptor. These p-acceptors are
usually aromatic, unsaturated alicyclic or heterocyclic organic molecules with
functional groups of high electron affinity. The following different electron
acceptors have been used for impregnation: 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone, 2,4,6-
trinitrophenol (picric acid), 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, benzoquinone, tetramethyl uric
acid, pyromellitic dianhydride, sodium desoxycholate, urea, nucleic acid bases,
amino-acids and caffeine.94–98
The industrial application that has proved to be of major significance in this area
is the separation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons using a caffeine impregnated
HPTLC silica gel plate (particularly for the detection and quantification of low
52 Chapter 2

Figure 43 Separation of unsaturated triacylglycerides on reversed-phase C18 bonded silica

gel impregnated with silver nitrate. Triglycerides identified all have three C18
chains, but vary in the number of double bonds
Sample: soybean oil
Mobile phase: methanol/dichloromethane/ethyl acetate/acetic acid/water (36 þ
26 þ 20 þ 12 þ 6 v/v)
Major Peaks: 7, C18 (211); 9, C18 (221); 10, C18 (222); 11, possibly C18 (223)
Detection: visualisation with molybdophosphoric acid reagent. Scanned at
700 nm using CAMAG Scanner 3

levels of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in water supplies). The caffeine acts as a

p-electron acceptor and the polyaromatic hydrocarbons exhibit to varying degrees
the ability to be p-electron donors. A charge transfer complex is thus formed, (see
Figure 44).
The preparation of the impregnated HPTLC plates is a simple operation
involving the dipping of the pre-coated HPTLC plate in a solution of caffeine (4 g)
in chloroform (96 g) for a few seconds (4 s) and then drying in the oven (110 – C for
30 min.). For quantitative determinations the plates can be pre-washed if required
by running a blank chromatogram with dichloromethane as mobile phase. Of
course, reactivation as before will then be necessary. (Commercially, caffeine
impregnated plates are directly available from Merck and Macherey-Nagel.)
The separation is performed in a standard chromatography chamber. But in order
to achieve good resolution of the charge transfer complexes, the separation needs
to be carried out at the low temperature of 20 – C. The polyaromatic hydro-
carbons are detected by the strong fluorescence they exhibit when exposed to
UV radiation. To stabilise and enhance this fluorescence, the developed HPTLC
plates can be dipped in a liquid paraffin – n-hexane mixture. Quantification is carried
out by scanning the plate for fluorescence intensity at 366 nm, (see Figure 45).
Sorbents and TLC Layers 53

Figure 44 Formation of a charged transfer complex between benzo[a]pyrene and caffeine.

The p-electrons from the aromatic structure of the analyte are ‘‘accepted’’ by
the cyclic caffeine molecule

Figure 45 Separation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons on caffeine impregnated HPTLC

silica gel plates
Mobile phase: di-isopropyl ether/n-hexane (4 þ 1 v/v)
Temperature: 20 – C
Detection: Fluorescence at 366 nm
Peaks: 1, benzo[ghi]perylene; 2, indeno[123-cd]pyrene; 3, benzo[a]pyrene;
4, benzo[b]fluoranthene; 5, benzo[k]fluoranthene; 6, fluoranthene 2 ng/spot
(1–5) and 10 ng/spot (6)
(W.Funk, et al., J. Planar Chromatography, 1989, 2, 31, by permission of the
publisher)
54 Chapter 2
As there are many molecules which can act as p-donors or p-acceptors the
potential for separations on thin layers must be great particularly since the
impregnation procedure is so quickly and easily accomplished. Although most
impregnation of TLC layers has been with p-electron acceptors, there is obviously
also potential for p-electron donor molecules to be used in a similar way.

13 Preparative Layer Chromatography (PLC)

Preparative layers normally refer to TLC layers that are 0.5 mm or more thick. As a
general rule the maximum practical thickness is 2 mm although attempts have been
made to work with layers 10 mm thick. Manufacturers supply pre-coated PLC
plates that are reasonably abrasive resistant. PLC has been reviewed on a number
of occasions in the literature indicating that it is still a popular technique.99–101
There are three main differences between the technique of PLC and conventional
TLC:

1. The sample is always applied in a band, preferably across most of the width
of the plate to allow as high a loading as possible on the layer.
2. Detection of separated substances is almost exclusively by UV absorbance or
fluorescence/fluorescence quenching.
3. Usually multiple development is required to obtain sufficient resolution of
separated sample components.

As larger volumes are applied in PLC compared with TLC, the use of automated
band application equipment as described later in Chapter 4 is essential for accurate
and reliable results. Sample solutions can be applied as a band across the full width
of the PLC plate. This enables the maximum amount of sample possible to be
applied (volumes of ,500 ml maximum in one dose can be applied using automated
equipment). However, it is important to allow about a 2 cm gap between the end of
the band and the edge of the plate. This will avoid any ‘‘edge effects’’ that can
occur during development due to layer thickness variations of the sorbent at the
layer edges. The thickness of the layer and the ability to apply samples across the
width of the plate mean that milligram to very low gram loadings can be applied,
but unfortunately long development times are unavoidable by the use of normal
capillary forces. Often a separation that takes about 30–60 minutes on TLC will
take several hours on a 2 mm thick PLC layer. This is not necessarily a
disadvantage of the technique as separations can often be run overnight as no active
part needs to be taken by the chromatographer during development. Normally the
eluent chosen will have been determined from previous TLC experiments.
Development on the PLC plate can be carried out several times (usually 3 to
5 times) if required with intermediate drying. Resolution is often improved in this
way. Often it proves advantageous to use a solvent mixture as mobile phase that is
slightly less polar than that used in the TLC. On the first development the
compounds separated should only be allowed to migrate about 2 cm. On the second
Sorbents and TLC Layers 55
and subsequent developments the polarity of the mobile phase can be slightly
increased to improve resolution.
In PLC it will be necessary to remove the compounds of interest for further
analysis or use. A small, sharp bradawl can be used to mark out the position of
the zones on the layer. Always remember to mark slightly below the zones as the
migration rate of separated compounds will be slightly slower at the glass surface
compared with that at the outer surface of the silica gel. The zones can then be
carefully removed with a metal spatula and various suction devices. An appropriate
solvent is used to solubilise the analytes. The sorbent can then be separated by
filtration and the eluent concentrated by evaporation to yield the compounds of
interest.

14 References
1. R.M. Scott, J. Chromatogr., 1973, 11, 129.
2. K.K. Unger, ‘Porous Silica its Properties and Use as Support in Column
Liquid Chromatography’, in Journal of Chromatography Library, vol. 16,
K.K. Unger (ed), Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 1979, 1–2.
3. R.P.W. Scott in Silica Gel and Bonded Phases, R.P.W. Scott and
C.F. Simpson (eds), J. Wiley, Chichester, UK, 1993, 23–27.
4. H.R. Felton in Moisture and Silica Gel (Technical Report), Analtech,
Newark, USA, 1979, 7905.
5. K.R. Lange, J. Colloid Sci., 1965, 20, 231.
6. S. Gocan in Modern Thin-Layer Chromatography, N. Grinberg (ed), Marcel
Dekker Inc., New York, USA, 1990, 11.
7. K.Y. Lee, D. Nurok, and A. Zlatkis, J. Chromatogr., 1979, 174, 187.
8. J.C. Touchstone, R.E. Levitt, R.D. Soloway, and S.S. Levin, J. Chromatogr.,
1979, 178, 566.
9. H. Scherz, G. Stehlik, E. Baucher and K. Kaindl, Chromatogr. Rev., 1968,
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10. M. Ghebregzabher, S. Rufini, B. Monaldi and M. Lato, J. Chromatogr., 1976,
127, 133.
11. C. Radecka and W.L. Wilson, J. Chromatogr., 1971, 57, 297.
12. L. Lepri, P.G. Desideri and D. Heimler, J. Chromatogr., 1978, 155, 119–127.
13. H.K. Mangold and R. Kammereck, J. Amer. Oil Chemists Soc., 1962,
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14. E. Stahl, Arch. Pharm., 1959, 292, 411.
15. M.S.J. Dallas and F.B. Padley, Lebensm. Wiss. U-Technol., 1977, 10,
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16. H.K. Blat and G.A.S. Ansari, J. Chromatogr., 1989, 483, 369–378.
17. G.B. Proctor and R.W. Horobin, Stain Tech., 1985, 60, 1–6.
18. R.E. Kaiser and R. Rieder, J. Chromatogr., 1977, 142, 411–420.
19. D.W. Armstrong, K.H. Bui and R.E. Boehm, J. Liq. Chromatogr., 1983, 6(1),
1–22.
20. D.W. Armstrong and K.H. Bui, J. Liq. Chromatogr., 1984, 7(1), 45–58.
56 Chapter 2
21. J. Sherma, D.W. Armstrong and B.P. Sleckman, J. Liq. Chromatogr., 1983,
6(1), 95–108.
22. M. Vanhaelen and R. Vanhaelen-Fastré, J. Chromatogr., 1980, 187, 255–260.
23. B. Amidzhin and B. Nikolova-Dansyanova, J. Chromatogr., 1988, 446,
259–266.
24. J. McSavage and P.E. Wall, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1998, 11, 214–221.
25. D. Giron and P. Groell, J. HRC and CC, 1978, 67–68.
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M.L. Wolfrom (ed), Academic Press, New York, USA, 1955, 95.
27. W. Jost and H.E. Hauck in Instrumental High Performance Thin-Layer
Chromatography (Interlaken 1982), R.E. Kaiser (ed), Institute for Chromato-
graphy, Bad Dürkheim, Germany, 1982, 25–37.
28. W. Jost and H.E. Hauck, J. Chromatogr., 1983, 261, 235–244.
29. W. Jost and H.E. Hauck, Anal. Biochem., 1983, 135, 120–127.
30. R. Klaus, W. Fischer and H.E. Hauck, Chromatographia, 1990, 29, 467–472.
31. M. Ericsson and L.C. Blomberg, J. HRC and CC, 1980, 3, 345.
32. W. Jost and H.E. Hauck in Instrumental High Performance Thin-Layer
Chromatography (Wurzberg 1985), R.E. Kaiser (ed), Institute for Chromato-
graphy, Bad Dürkheim, Germany, 1985, 83–91.
33. J.S. Kang and S. Ebel, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1989, 2, 434–437.
34. H.E. Hauck, M. Mack, S. Reuke and H. Herbert, J. Planar Chromatogr.,
1989, 2, 268–275.
35. W. Jost and H.E. Hauck in Instrumental High Performance Thin-Layer
Chromatography (Selvino/Bergamo 1987), R.E. Kaiser, H. Traitler and
A. Studer (eds), Institute for Chromatography, Bad Dürkheim, Germany,
1987, 241–253.
36. L. Witherow, R.J. Thorp, I.D. Wilson and A. Warrander, J. Planar
Chromatogr., 1990, 3, 169–172.
37. I.W. Wainer, C.A. Brunner and T.D. Doyle, J. Chromatogr., 1983, 264, 154.
38. W.H. Pirkle, D.W. House and J.M. Finn, J. Chromatogr., 1980, 192, 143–158.
39. W.H. Pirkle, J.M. Finn, J.L. Schreiner and B.C. Hamper, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1981, 103, 3964–3966.
40. P.E. Wall, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1989, 2, 228–232.
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(Brighton, 1989), R.E. Kaiser (ed), Institute for Chromatography, Bad
Dürkheim, Germany, 1989, 237–243.
42. N. Oi, H. Kitahara, T. Doi and S. Yamamoto, Bunseki Kagaku, 1983, 32, 345;
1983, 99, 817906.
43. C.A. Brunner and I. Wainer, J. Chromatogr., 1989, 472, 277–283.
44. S.M. Hau and D.W. Armstrong in Planar Chromatography in the Life
Sciences, J.C. Touchstone (ed), J. Wiley, Chichester, UK, 1990, 87–89.
45. A. Alak and D.W. Armstrong, Anal. Chem., 1986, 58, 582.
46. V.A. Davankov, A.S. Bochkov and A.A. Kurganov, Chromatographia, 1980,
13, 677.
47. V.A. Davankov, A.S. Bochkov and Y.P. Belov, J. Chromatogr., 1981, 218,
547–557.
Sorbents and TLC Layers 57
48. K. Günther, J. Martens and M. Schickedanz, Angew. Chem., 1984, 96,
514.
49. M. Mack, H.E. Hauck and H. Herbert, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1988, 1,
304–308.
50. M. Mack and H.E. Hauck, Chromatographia, 1988, 26, 3–11.
51. U.A. Th. Brinkman and D. Kamminga, J. Chomatogr., 1985, 330,
375–378.
52. J.G. Heathcote and C. Haworth, J. Chromatogr., 1969, 43, 84–92.
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54. R.W. McBride, D.W. Jolly, B.M. Kadis and T.E. Nelson, J. Chromatogr.,
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55. K. Jones and J.G. Heathcote, J. Chromatogr., 1966, 24, 106.
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1971, 55, 377–384.
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58. K. Randerath and H. Struck, J. Chromatogr., 1961, 6, 365.
59. A. Mohammad, S. Tiwari and J.P. Chahar, J. Chromatogr. Sci., 1995, 33,
143–147.
60. K. Randerath in Thin-Layer Chromatography, Academic Press, London, UK,
1963, 195–197.
61. L. Lepri, V. Coas, P.G. Desideri and A. Zocchi, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1994,
7, 376–381.
62. H. Brockmann and H. Schodder, Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., 1941, 74, 73.
63. H. Rössler in Thin-Layer Chromatography A Laboratory Handbook, E. Stahl
(ed), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1969, 28.
64. R. Bushan, J. Chomatogr. Sci., 1991, 55, 353–387.
65. E. Soczewiński and H. Szumilo, J. Chromatogr., 1973, 81, 99–107.
66. I.S. Bhatia, J. Singh and K.L. Bajaj, J. Chromatogr., 1973, 79, 350–352.
67. R.S. Bayliss, J.R. Knowles and G.B. Wybrandt, J. Biochem., 1969, 113,
377–386.
68. H. Rössler in Thin-Layer Chromatography A Laboratory Handbook, E. Stahl
(ed), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1969, 29.
69. J.K. Rozylo, D.G. Chomicz and I. Malinowska in Instrumental High
Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (Würzburg 1985) R.E. Kaiser
(ed), Bad Dürkheim, Germany, 1985, 173–187.
70. H. Rössler in Thin-Layer Chromatography A Laboratory Handbook E. Stahl
(ed), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1969, 40–41.
71 H. Egan, E.W. Hammond and J. Thomson, Analyst, 1964, 89, 480.
72. O. Crépy, O. Judas and B. Lachese, J. Chromatogr., 1964, 16, 340–344.
73. Z. Gregorowicz, J. Kulicka and T. Suwinka, Chem. Anal., 1971, 16, 169.
74. J.A.W. Gosselé, J. Chromatogr., 1971, 63, 433–437.
75. H. König and M. Schüller, Z. Anal. Chem., 1979, 294, 36.
76. J. Sherma in Practice and Applications of Thin Layer Chromatography on
Whatman KC18 Reversed Phase Plates, TLC Technical Series, vol. 1,
Whatman Chemical Separations Inc., New Jersey, USA, 1981, 10.
77. D.C. Abbott and J. Thomson, Chem. Ind., 1965, 310.
58 Chapter 2
78. A. Musgrave, J. Chromatogr., 1969, 41, 470.
79. M.S.J. Dallas, Nature, 1965, 207, 1388.
80. E. Stahl, Arch. Pharm., 1959, 292, 411.
81. M. Ghebregzabher, S. Rufini, B. Monalgi and M. Lato, J. Chromatogr., 1976,
127, 133–162.
82. K.Y. Lee, D. Nurok and A. Zlatkis, J. Chromatogr., 1979, 174, 187–193.
83. R. Klaus and J. Ripphahn, J. Chromatogr., 1982, 244, 99–124.
84. C. Radecka and W.L. Wilson, J. Chromatogr., 1971, 57, 297.
85. E.W. Hammond in Chromatography for the Analysis of Lipids, CRC Press,
Florida, USA, 1993, 39–54.
86. F.D. Gunstone in Fatty Acid and Lipid Chemistry, Blackie Academic &
Professional, London, UK, 1996, 18–19.
87. J.C. Touchstone, J. Chromatogr. B, 1995, 671, 169–195.
88. G. Dobson, W.W. Christie and B. Nikolova-Damyanova, J Chromatogr. B,
1995, 671, 197–222.
89. R.O. Adlof, J. Chromatogr. A, 1996, 741, 135–138.
90. B. Nikolova-Damyanova, W.W. Christie and B. Herslof, J. Planar
Chromatogr., 1994, 7, 382–385.
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197–202.
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1989, 2, 28–32.
95. W. Funk, G. Donnevert, B. Schuch, V. Glück and J Becker, J. Chromatogr.,
1989, 2, 317–320.
96. J. Trı́ska, N. Vrchotová, I. Šafařik and M. Šsfsřı́ková, J. Chromatogr. A, 1998,
793, 403–408.
97. G.D. Short and R. Young, Analyst, 1969, 94, 259.
98. V. Libı́čková, M. Stuchlı́k and L. Krasnec, J. Chromatogr., 1969, 45, 278.
99. H. Halpaap in Chromatographic and Electrophoretic Techniques, vol. 1,
I. Smith (ed), Interscience, New York, USA, 1969, 834–886.
100. H.R. Felton in Advances in TLC – Clinical and Environmental Applications,
J. Touchstone (ed), Wiley-Interscience, New York, USA, 1982, 13–20.
101. Sz. Nyiredy in Handbook of Thin Layer Chromatography, 2nd edn, J. Sherma
and B. Fried (eds), Marcel Dekker, New York, USA, 1996, 307–340.
CHAPTER 3

Sample Pre-treatment
1 Introduction
Pre-treatment of samples before application to the TLC/HPTLC layer rarely
requires more than a few basic steps. The quality of commercially available TLC
and HPTLC layers is such that most analytes can be more easily distinguished from
impurities than was possible with ‘‘home made’’ plates. Usually the presence of
sample contaminants does not cause a problem in TLC. Whereas the repeated
injection of contaminants on to an HPLC column can quickly render it useless,
TLC or HPTLC plates are normally only used once and are generally less sensitive
to contamination. When the impure sample is applied to the sorbent layer as a spot
or band, both the components of interest and the interfering impurities are deposited
together. Once development begins, the contaminants are often left behind at or
near the origin whilst the components of interest migrate in the direction of flow of
the solvent front. If the sample solvent is mainly aqueous or viscous, then dilution
with an organic polar solvent, like methanol, ethanol or acetonitrile, will aid
application to the layer. The sample solution is then able to wet the surface and
penetrate into the sorbent effectively. The application will take on a regular
spherical shape in the case of spots and a fine, sharp, well-defined line in the case of
bands. Filtering of the sample solution is also an important step that can improve
the result of the eventual chromatogram. As the sample volumes will be small,
simple syringe filters of 0.45 or 0.2 mm pore size will suffice. A variety of such
filters are commercially available, based on cellulose, cellulose acetate and nitrate,
alumina PES, polypropylene or PTFE.
In cases where the contaminants do interfere with the TLC chromatogram of the
components of interest, then sample clean-up procedures of the type commonly
used in HPLC can be used. These involve the use of solid phase extraction (SPE)
cartridges and an appropriate vacuum manifold. Solid phase extraction sorbents
can be highly specific, exploiting the different physico-chemical properties of the
sorbents whilst others are of a fairly simple nature. These currently include
diatomaceous earth, silica gel, C2, C8, C18, CN, Diol, NH2 and phenyl-bonded
silica gel, and cation-and anion-exchangers based on silica and various polymers.
Often very selective extractions can be achieved by choosing a sorbent that either
absorbs the analyte but not the impurities, or absorbs the impurities and allows
elution of the analyte. Where the analyte is absorbed, the extraction column can be

59
60 Chapter 3
washed with a solvent that removes any remaining impurities, but has no effect
on the analyte. By careful choice of solvent the analyte is finally eluted, and
concentrated if required prior to application to the TLC plate. It is also possible to
use these SPE columns for sample concentration and trace enrichments. Biological
samples, for example plasma, can be treated prior to chromatography with
trichloroacetic acid, perchloric acid or acetonitrile in order to remove protein
material by precipitation. However, a separate sample pre-treatment step can often
be eliminated by pre-derivatisation of the analytes in a sample, and the use of
concentration zone TLC plates. This is described more fully in Chapters 2 and 6,
respectively.

2 Extractions from Solid Samples

Samples from plant material including herbal products sometimes require more
than simply shaking the product with an appropriate solvent to release the
analytes of interest. For example, leaves, flowers, and roots often contain a
number of classes of compound that differ in polarity. Extraction procedures are
therefore necessary to isolate all of the compounds present into their respective
groups. An example of a general procedure that can be used in most instances
is shown in Figure 1. For the analysis of herbal products for non-polar classes
of compounds, such as essential oils, dichloromethane, diethyl ether or n-hexane

Sample
(aqueous based)

Extraction
with ether

Sodium
hydrogen carbonate Ether soluble Acid extraction
organics

1 M sodium
hydroxide

Phenolics, Amines,
Organic acids
Weak acids Other bases

Neutralise, Neutralise, Neutralise,

Ether extract Ether extract Ether extract

Acids Phenols Bases

Figure 1 A general extraction procedure for isolating major groups of compounds from
an aqueous based sample
Sample Pre-treatment 61
have been used. Sometimes cold extraction is sufficient, but more usually boil-
ing or Soxhlet extraction in the solvent proves most effective. Most other
herbal products containing active polar constituents can be boiled in methanol,
or sometimes ethanol, or dilutions of either solvent in water, to completely
solubilise the analytes of interest. Further fractionation into different groups of
compounds based on polarity can be carried out if so desired.1 The use of pH
adjustments of ether extracts can prove most effective. At high pH using dilute
sodium hydroxide solution or sodium bicarbonate, organic acids and phenolics
can be converted into salts and hence can then be solubilised in aqueous
conditions. At low pH using dilute mineral acids, amines and amides will form
salts and can then also be extracted in similar fashion. The aqueous extracts are
neutralised and the organic species extracted with a suitable immiscible solvent
(e.g. diethyl ether), and concentrated by evaporation ready for application to the
TLC layer.
Samples of microbiological origin sometimes require special treatment. Organ-
isms can be separated from the nutrient medium by filtration or centrifugation.
Homogenisers or sonicators are often used to break down the cellular material for
further analysis. Animal or human body fluid samples are best pre-treated using
solid phase extraction systems described in the next section.

3 Solid Phase Extraction Systems (SPE)

3.1 Diatomaceous Earth
Diatomaceous earth is a natural siliceous deposit of diatom frustules. Kieselguhr,
celite, bentonite and fuller’s earth are all varieties of diatomaceous earth, but these
are normally used as filtering aids or clearing agents. However, certain highly
purified grades of kieselguhr are used as absorption materials for sample pre-
treatment in chromatography, and indeed as we have seen in the previous chapter
as TLC sorbents. Short columns containing a few grams of dry sorbent can easily
be prepared using a glass or plastic tube with a taper at one end. A plug of glass
wool can act as an effective filter if a commercially manufactured tube is not
available. Usually the sample is poured directly into the column, and left for a
period of 10–15 minutes. A non-water miscible solvent is then used to elute the
analytes. The eluate can be evaporated to low volume or to dryness and
reconstituted in a suitable solvent for application to the TLC layer. Table 1 shows
one example using a commercial trade-named product for a purified diatomaceous
earth. This type of SPE is often used for the pre-treatment of human or animal
body fluids.2,3

3.2 Bonded Silica Gels and Polymers

These highly specific bonded phases have been developed particularly for sample
pre-treatment in HPLC and GC. They are designed to cope with a wide variety of
samples from a wide range of origins.4–9 However, if needed their properties can
be utilised for sample preparation prior to planar chromatography. A number of
62 Chapter 3
Table 1 Extraction and subsequent TLC procedure for caffeine in tea using a
diatomaceous earth (Extreluta) as the solid phase extraction material
Extraction procedure
Sample: Tea leaves
Extraction sorbent: Extrelut1 3 pre-packed column (Merk, Darmstadt, Germany)
Extraction solvent: Dichloromethane
Extraction method: Tea (50 mg) is boiled in water (7 ml) for 2 minutes. After
cooling, the liquid is filtered and the volume made up to 10 ml.
Polyamide powder (200 mg) is mixed in and after a few
minutes, the whole is re-filtered. The extract (3 ml) is applied
to the Extrelut column and allowed to absorb for 10 minutes.
3 aliquots of dichloromethane (3 ml of each) are then used to
elute the compounds of interest. The eluates are combined.
TLC conditions
Sorbent: TLC pre-coated aluminium oxide F254 glass plate
Developing solvent: methanol/water (92:8% v/v)
Sample: 1 ml loadings of the dichloromethane eluate
Detection: UV at 254 nm
Rf values: caffeine (0.70), nicotinamide (0.60), trigonelline (0.34), and
nicotinic acid (0.08)
a
Trade name of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany

commercial products are available as pre-packed columns containing typically

100–500 mg of sorbent. Some of these are specifically designed for environ-
mental analysis where a high capacity for trace enrichment from water is
required.10
In normal use a series of steps are taken to attain the best results. Choosing a
suitable SPE cartridge for a particular clean-up requires some forethought. The type
of cartridge is selected on the basis of the retention it will have for the analytes in
the sample, the sample matrix, and the composition of the sample. Non-polar
compounds in aqueous solutions or buffers are extracted using reversed-phase
sorbent cartridges. The eluents selected are polar in character, such as methanol,
acetonitrile, or either solvent mixed with a suitable buffer solution. When the
opposite scenario is the case and the sample analytes are polar in character and the
sample solvent is non-polar (n-hexane, iso-octane or dichloromethane), a normal-
phase SPE cartridge is used. Diol-bonded silica gel is usually best, but cyano-,
amino- or silica gel 60 can also be used. Eluents selected are normally of a medium
polarity such as acetone, ethyl acetate or tetrahydrofuran, although sometimes
lower polarity solvents are sufficient. If the sample contains analytes with positively
charged functional groups and the sample solution is aqueous, cation-exchange
SPE is the cartridge of choice. Cation-exchange SPE cartridges are based on a
sulfonic or carboxylic acid as the functional group. Elution is effected using buffers
based on citrate, acetate or phosphate. Conversely, if the sample contains analytes
with negatively charged functional groups, such as organic acids in aqueous
solution, then an anion-exchange SPE cartridge is used based on an amino or
quaternary amine functional group. As before phosphate or acetate buffer solutions
Sample Pre-treatment 63
are used as eluents. It is important in both the latter cases that the ionic strength of
the sample solution is low to obtain maximum ion-exchange capacity in the
cartridge. Strong solutions will result in ion leakage.

3.3 Sorbent Conditioning

The support material is first conditioned with an organic solvent (usually
acetonitrile or methanol). A single column volume normally suffices. This solvates
the hydrocarbon chains bonded to the support. Following this a column volume of
the solvent used to dissolve the sample is passed through the SPE cartridge.

3.4 Sample Injection

The sample solution is then forced through the cartridge usually employing a low
vacuum. The analytes concentrate on the sorbent, whilst it is hoped that any
undesirable components of the solute matrix are not adsorbed and elute from the
cartridge. The volume of sample solution used varies, depending on the concen-
tration of the components of interest and on the sensitivity of detection. Although
small sample volumes of less than a millilitre are often applied to the SPE cartridge,
volumes of 100 ml or more can be used where it is necessary to concentrate the
analytes on the top of the sorbent.

3.5 Cleaning
For reversed-phase cartridges, water or sometimes buffer or even water/methanol
mixtures are used to wash out any further undesirable components including any
left behind in the previous step. Ion-exchange SPE cartridges can be treated in a
similar way. Again buffers and buffer/methanol mixtures can be used (up to 10% v/v
methanol), but it is important that the pH is maintained at the same value as the
original sample solution. Changes in pH may cause premature elution of analytes.

3.6 Recovery of Analytes

A suitable solvent is selected to elute the analytes from the sorbent. What decides
the choice of solvent is how well it will weaken the strength of the interaction
between the analytes and the sorbent, such that the analytes are eluted, but also
leave behind the more strongly bound matrix components. The eluate containing
the analytes can be concentrated prior to application onto the TLC layer.
Sometimes it is advantageous to evaporate this eluate to dryness and then to
reconstitute the sample in a solvent that gives good ‘‘wetting’’ of the TLC layer.
However, the choice of solvent here is a very important consideration in planar
chromatography and it is recommended that the reader refers to Chapter 4 on this
subject. Whatever approach is applied to SPE, it is important that the eluate volume
is small enough such that sufficient analyte is present to allow adequate
visualisation sensitivity after development of the chromatogram. Conversely it
can also be possible that the concentration is so high that application of the sample
64 Chapter 3
solution to the TLC plate results in overloading problems during development.
In this instance simple dilution of the sample solution is all that is required.

4 References
1. J.B. Harborne in Phytochemical Methods – A Guide to Modern Techniques of
Planar Analysis, 2nd edn, Chapman and Hall, London, UK, 1984.
2. J. Breiter, Kontakte (E Merck), 1981, 2, 21–32.
3. J. Breiter, R. Helger and H. Lang, Forensic Science, 1976, 7, 131–140.
4. J.P. Lautie and V. Stankovic, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1996, 9, 113–115.
5. K. Jacob, E. Egeler, B. Hennel and D. Neumeier, Fresenius-Z. Anal. Chem.,
1988, 330(4–5), 386–387.
6. Y. Ikai, H. Oka, N. Kawamura, M. Yamada, K. Harada and M. Suzuki,
J. Chromatogr., 1987, 411, 313–323.
7. S. Kessel and H.E. Hauck, Chromatographia, 1996, 43(7–8), 401–404.
8. T. Imrag and A. Junker-Buchheit, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1996, 9(2), 146–148.
9. W. Fischer, O. Bund and H.E. Hauck, Fresenius-J. Anal. Chem., 1996,
354(7–8), 889–891.
10. A. Junker-Buchheit and M. Witzenbacher, J. Chromatogr. A., 1996, 737,
67–74.
CHAPTER 4

Sample Application
1 Introduction
Adequate sample preparation and careful application of the sample to the TLC or
HPTLC layer is imperative for good chromatographic separations. Frequently poor
separations are blamed on the quality of the layer or the technique, rather than the
way the sample was processed or applied to the sorbent surface. Without proper
attention to detail incorrect sample solvents can easily be chosen resulting in large
and/or irregular spot or band shapes for the sample application. Spot or band
loadings on the chromatographic layer may also be too concentrated or of different
sizes and strengths. Application devices such as pipettes, capillaries, etc. may
damage the sorbent layer as spots or bands are applied. Band application may be
uneven and vary in concentration along the band. It is also important that attention
be given to the laboratory environment. A constant temperature and humidity
should be maintained and the atmosphere kept relatively free of chemical fumes
and solvent vapours. These may affect the sample or be adsorbed into the layer and
alter the stationary – mobile phase equilibrium later on during development. Any
dust or dirt particles that may find their way onto the sorbent layer should be
removed with a soft brush or dry air blower. Breathing on the layer should be
avoided as moisture from this source can be adsorbed resulting in a change in
the activity of the sorbent.

2 Selecting the Sample Solvent

The solvent used to apply the sample to the TLC plate can have a decisive influence
on the spot size. Usually, the general nature of the sample dictates to a large extent
the solvent to be used. As a general rule the least polar single solvent or mixture of
solvents in which the analytes are completely soluble or completely extracted from
the sample matrix should be used. This will assist in attaining small spot size even
with one complete loading of the sample from 1–5 ml or 50–250 nl on the TLC or
HPTLC layer, respectively. A general recommendation would be to avoid solvents
that are too polar, for example water, buffers and diols, as they may not completely
‘‘wet’’ the sorbent layer. A characteristic sign of incomplete ‘‘wetting’’ is a star-
shaped spot. Solvents with high boiling points, such as butan-1-ol, toluene and
dimethylformamide should also be avoided as they are difficult to evaporate from

65
66 Chapter 4

Figure 1 A mixture of lipophilic dyes dissolved in (a) acetone, (b) dichloromethane, and
(c) hexane, deposited at 1 ml loadings on a silica gel 60 TLC plate

the layer surface. Some investigation is required to decide on the most appropriate
solvent, one with high volatility and usually low polarity. Optimum spot size will
then be possible as demonstrated in Figure 1. However, this cannot be applied as a
hard and fast rule as there are cases where a quite polar but highly volatile solvent
has proved just as effective as a less polar one.
With the least polar solvent the sample on contact is immediately adsorbed onto
the porous surface leaving the solvent to diffuse out into the layer. Conversely, in
the case of the more polar solvent, the sample is carried with it and diffuses out into
a much larger spot.
Several theoretical attempts have been made to mathematically calculate the
expected spot diameter based on the volume of sample applied, the sorbent layer
thickness, and the porosity of the sorbent packing. Two of the most useful, the
Guiochon-Siouffi and Kaiser equations are now described with the purpose of
determining, in a practical way, the volumes of sample that will need to be applied
to the sorbent layer to obtain optimum spot size.

3 Theoretical Determination of Spot Size

3.1 Spot Size and Loading Equations
When the sample solution comes into contact with the layer surface, the liquid
penetrates into the pores and diffuses into the surrounding sorbent. Assuming
Sample Application 67
no evaporation during this process, the diameter of the sample spot is given
by1:
1
V 2
d¼2 ð1Þ
p · l · ei ð1 ee Þ

where d is the diameter of the spot

V is the sample volume
l is the layer thickness
ei is the particle porosity of the packing
ee is the external porosity of the packing

Practical Calculation
For a dense packing, ee is approximately 0.4 and ei is typically about 0.65 for most
normal- and reversed-phase silica gels. Typically for a 100 nl sample applied as a
spot to an HPTLC layer, 0.25 mm thick,

" #1
100 · 103 2
d¼2 ¼ 1:1 mm
p · 0:25 · 0:65ð1 0:4Þ

The value of d could be reduced further by applying a smaller loading, combining

this with a finer capillary, perhaps using a less polar solvent, or depositing the
sample solution under a steady stream of nitrogen or air to accelerate evaporation.
It has been shown that d reduces from 1.4 to 0.45 mm when changing the sample
solvent from acetone to n-heptane, without altering the sample volume or capillary
diameter.2
Kaiser3 derived a similar equation to Guiochon and Siouffi allowing the
calculation of maximum spot size and sample volume in what he describes as
‘‘real’’ situations. The relationship is dependent on a choice of sample solvent,
where the Rf (retention factor) ¼ 1. In other words the value is calculated based on
the situation where there is no retention of the sample:

1
4Vð1 þ As=AmÞ 2
dmax ¼ ð2Þ
pl

where dmax is the maximum diameter of the spot

V is the sample volume applied
As/Am is a ratio of stationary phase to mobile phase in a volume of sorbent
filled with mobile phase. For HPTLC this has been determined to be
0.395 (according to Kaiser).3
l is the layer thickness.
68 Chapter 4

Practical Calculation
To demonstrate how this can be used
if dmax ¼ 1 mm and l ¼ 0.25 mm, then,

l2 · p · 0:25 · 103 250 · p

V¼ ¼ ¼ 140 nl
4ðl þ 0:395Þ 5:580

or if V ¼ 100 nl and l ¼ 0.20 mm, then,

4 · 100ð1 þ 0:395Þ 558

dmax ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:9 mm
0:2 · 103 · p 200 · p

Once the sample spots have been applied to the sorbent layer and the layer dried,
the plate is placed in the developing chamber and solvent migration allowed to
proceed. Initially when the solvent comes into contact with the dry sample, a
number of interactions occur causing changes in spot shape and size. After a few
further millimetres of migration of the solvent, equilibration occurs and spots take
on a regular circular shape with a slow diffusion rate. If the initial spot size is well
below 1 mm, then during the first few millimetres of migration of the mobile phase
the spot size expands rapidly to just over 1 mm. The diffusion rate then slows down
to the same as that for initial spots of about 1 mm. Initial sample spots of 1.5 mm
diameter have a tendency to converge at the beginning of migration, but then
continue at the same diffusion rate as smaller spots. However, they assume an
elliptical spot shape on migration. The effect of starting with spot sizes ranging
from 0.5 to 1.5 mm is shown in Figure 2. After a short migration distance all
sample spots diffuse to a size of about 2.5 mm. To avoid the spot distortion
produced by initial spot sizes greater than about 1.1 mm, it is important to apply
sample volumes, such that the spot diameter is 1 mm or less. However, with current
HPTLC plates there seems little advantage in applying spots much smaller than
1 mm. In practice, spots sizes of about 1 mm normally give the optimum resolution
of sample components.

3.2 Spot Capacity Equation

The initial spot size is important as it can have a dramatic effect on the separation
number or spot capacity, i.e. the number of components resolved between the
sample origin and the true solvent front. The relationship between size and
separation number is given by the following equation:
pffiffiffiffiffiffi b b0
SN ¼ 0:425 Nreal · 1 1 ð3Þ
b1 þ b0
where SN is the separation number
Nreal is the number of theoretical plates for a substance of Rf ¼ 1
b1 is the extrapolated width of the spot at half height for Rf ¼ 1
b0 is the extrapolated width of the spot at half height for Rf ¼ 0
Sample Application 69

Figure 2 Typical convergence curves for spot diameters measured in the direction of
eluent flow. After the first few millimetres of migration the rate of diffusion settles
to a regular pattern

As b0, the extrapolated width of the starting spot at half height, approaches zero,
the expression bb11þbb00 approaches unity, giving the maximum value for the
separation number. Logically, this means that the smaller the spot size the higher the
spot capacity. However, as mentioned above there is little to be presently gained by
producing spots with a diameter much below 1 mm, (constraints of the physical
characteristics of the layer). Obviously, the potential for higher spot capacity is very
dependent on the separation length of the TLC layer. Long plates will apparently
allow for a higher separation number. However, the longer the development time
and migration distance, the more diffusion of the chromatographic zone that occurs.
Hence there is a limit both in time, resolution and sensitivity of detection that can be
achieved in increasing the separation number in a single ascending development.
For a silica gel 60 TLC layer, spot capacities of 10–20 can be achieved. This can be
improved by use of HPTLC layers giving typical values of about 20–25. Further
focusing of chromatographic zones is attainable using automated multiple
development (see Chapter 5), resulting in separation numbers of up to 30. However,
two-dimensional separations, which are unique to planar chromatography, give spot
capacities in excess of 250.
The separation number (SN) can be determined experimentally in the following
way:

1. A mixture of substances, usually dyes (as these are easily detected) is selected
such that with the appropriate choice of developing solvent (mobile phase) the
components will be separated over the widest range of retention factor (Rf)
possible
70 Chapter 4

Migration distance of substance

Rf ¼ ð4Þ
Migration distance of solvent front from origin
The distances measured are shown in Figure 3.
2. After running the chromatogram, the plate is scanned with a spectro-
densitometer on an expanded scale to record the peaks obtained.
3. Measurement is made of the peak widths at half height. These values
are plotted on an expanded scale against the migration distance (see
Figure 4).
4. The points obtained are joined by a straight line and extrapolated to spotwidth
b0 at Rf ¼ 0 and b1 at Rf ¼ 1.
5. SN can be calculated by simplifying equation (3) with the expression:
Zf 2
Nreal ¼ · 5:54 ð5Þ
b1 b0

giving:
Zf
SN ¼ 1 ð6Þ
b0 þ b1

where Zf is the migration distance of the mobile phase.

As can be noted using these equations, it is possible to calculate the number of

theoretical plates (N ) and therefore the plate height (H ).
From equation (5) we can propose:
Zx 2
N ¼ 5:54 ð7Þ
bx b0
where Zx is the migration distance of a substance spot, and bx is the peak width at
half height for this spot.
As:
Zx
H¼ ð8Þ
N
Zx
N¼
H
Hence:
ðb b0 Þ2
H¼ x ð9Þ
5:54Zx

All this shows the importance of a small initial spot size (b0) that will result in a
relatively small final spot (bx) after development.
This approach recognises the importance of the starting zone dimension on the
plate height value (H ) and the number of theoretical plates (N ). In practice the
extrapolated value for b0 will exceed the value determined spectrodensitometrically
for the initial spot before development. The reason for this is the effect explained
Sample Application 71

Figure 3 Measurement of Rf value. Distances are measured for separated components of

the sample after development

Figure 4 Typical extrapolation used to determine the b0 and b1 values for the calculation
of the separation number (SN)
72 Chapter 4
earlier when the mobile phase first comes into contact with the starting zone (or
origin) where the sample has been applied. An initial rapid expansion and reshaping
of the sample spot or band occurs. In this region the solvent velocity is high and
uneven, and a finite time is required for the sample spot to equilibrate with the
mobile phase. The extrapolated value is therefore a more realistic value of the spot
dimensions. As was shown earlier, the eventual spot width is independent of the
initial spot size where spots are about 1 mm in diameter. The quality of the sorbent
layer is the primary consideration for the value of b0.

4 Sample Loading
Not only is careful control of spot or band size important, but the amount of sample
that is loaded on to the TLC/HPTLC layer should be given careful consideration.
Layers can easily be overloaded without the result being initially realised. As the
overloaded spot or band migrates during development, diffusion into the surrounding
sorbent occurs at an abnormal rate particularly in the direction of migration. This
results in a ‘‘comet-like’’ streak with tails that vary in length depending on the
amount of overloading. Resolution is therefore dramatically reduced. Unfortu-
nately, rather than recognising the source of the problem, the sorbent layer or the
mobile phase is often blamed for the apparent poor chromatography. (Usually the
streak overlaps other spots in the chromatogram resulting in poor resolution.) How
much sample to apply in a spot or band is sometimes difficult to determine as it will
depend on a number of variables, e.g. the sample matrix itself, the sorbent layer
thickness, the nature of the sorbent, and the sample solvent. In most cases the
following ‘‘rule-of-thumb’’ can be applied:

For HPTLC: 50–200 ng per spot, 1–4 mg per10 mm band

For TLC: 0.1–2 mg per spot, 2–10 mg per 10 mm band

As mentioned earlier, sample overloading is a common reason for poor

chromatographic separations on thin layers. In order to understand clearly why
sample overloading causes problems, one needs to understand more about the
equilibrium ratio between the solute in the stationary and mobile phases. As
development of the sample spot or band occurs, an equilibrium ratio establishes
itself between the fraction of the solute in the stationary phase and that in the
mobile phase. The ratio of the equilibrium concentration of the solute in the
stationary and mobile phase is called the distribution coefficient (K), where K is:
cs
K¼ ð10Þ
cm
where cs is the solute concentration in the stationary phase
cm is the solute concentration in the mobile phase
Components of a mixture will separate if the value of K differs sufficiently under a
given set of conditions. The greater the value of K, the greater the time that the solute
resides in the stationary phase. Conversely, the lower the value of K, the greater the
Sample Application 73
time the solute resides in the mobile phase. Therefore, during development,
separation occurs as analytes with low K values are retained in the mobile phase and
hence are transported further through the sorbent layer than those with high K
values. Of course whilst in the stationary phase, solute molecules do not move at all.
For an ideal situation, the ratio of cs to cm will follow a linear correlation (see
Figure 5a), resulting in the scanned peak A in Figure 5b. However if the spot/band is
overloaded, the relationship of cs to cm becomes non-linear (see Figure 5c), and the
scan in Figure 5d is the result. Notice also the positions of peak A in chromatograms
5b and 5d. Overloading of sample usually results in a slight increase in Rf value. This
increases with loading concentration as shown in Figure 6. Obviously non-linear
curves are undesirable, not just because they cause the Rf value to vary, but they can
impair critical separations due to ‘‘tailing’’ effects and introduce unnecessary errors
in quantification.
If streaking persists after optimising the loading, a methodical approach will be
necessary to locate the problem. Usually it is due to unexpected interactions
between the sample components and the sorbent. Ionic species in the sample will
interact with acid or basic silanol groups in the sorbent layer causing unexpected

Figure 5 (a) Linear correlation giving constant K values for solute A after satisfactory
sample loading concentration; (b) Satisfactory loading of sample giving on
development an ideal Gaussian peak; (c) Non-linear correlation for solute A as
the sample loading concentration increases; (d) Overloaded sample giving on
development a misshapen peak with a tail reaching back to the origin
74 Chapter 4

Figure 6 Typical variation of Rf value with sample loading on the TLC plate

retarding of analytes as the mobile phase migrates through the sorbent. (How to
overcome these apparent separation problems is explained in Chapter 5.) On more
rare occasions the fault may be the stationary or mobile phase. With the present
precision and reproducibility of manufactured pre-coated TLC/HPTLC plates,
diffusion should be kept to a minimum and few bands or spots will be misshapen.
Hence, there should be few occasions when the sorbent layer can be blamed. Some
mobile phase mixtures involving very polar and non-polar solvents are susceptible
to solvent demixing in the vapour phase and give rise to a number of distortion
problems during development, (this is described further in Chapter 5).
The position of sample application is also important. All TLC/HPTLC plates will
suffer from edge effects due to the method of manufacture of the layers; usually
one edge will be slightly thicker than the rest. Slight distortions in chromatographic
zones and variations in migration rates will be observed if samples are applied
too near to the edge. For TLC and HPTLC plates it is advisable to apply samples
at least 15 and 10 mm respectively from the edge for linear development.

4.1 Layer Damaging Effects

The way the sample is applied to the sorbent layer is also important. Layer damage
can easily occur when pointed glass capillaries or syringes prick or scrape the
surface of the sorbent layer as the sample is being applied. The softness of the layer
contributes to the effect as do multiple applications to the same spot, particularly
where insufficient drying has taken place between each addition. As a general rule,
the more polar the solvent used, the more easily damage occurs. The result of such
damage, like sample overloading, is not immediately apparent until development of
the chromatogram is in progress. Usually peculiar shaped zones are observed with
thin following streaks. If the original damage results in a hole in the layer, the
sample concentrates in a ring around the hole. On development, the chromato-
graphic zones often appear triangular or sometimes crescent shaped, (see Figure 7).
Sample Application 75

Figure 7 Effects of incorrect loading of sample on the sorbent layer

4.2 Humidity Considerations

Knowledge of the effect of humidity on migration of analytes can be a useful
variable in the optimising of resolution. Moisture present in the layer affects the
stationary phase and hence the partitioning of the analytes between the stationary
and mobile phases. However, often where the effect of humidity is not taken into
account, there can sometimes be quite unexpected results. Problems can be caused
by the rate of evaporation of solvent from the applied sample, and incomplete
drying of the applied sample spots or bands. As volatile solvents evaporate from
the surface of the sorbent, the latent heat of evaporation required is taken from
the surrounding atmosphere, causing localised cooling. With the cooling of the
atmosphere close to the sample spot/band, moisture condenses on to the layer and is
adsorbed. Unless the area of application is dried thoroughly at an elevated
temperature, the migration of the components of the sample may proceed faster
than expected. However, care must be taken to ensure that the temperature is not
too high to cause degradation of the sample. It is therefore vitally important that the
applied spots or bands are dried using an oven or even a hair dryer. Usually about
2–5 minutes at 70–80 – C should suffice for most applications.

5 Sample Application Methods

Application of the sample to the sorbent layer can be performed manually with
very simple equipment or automated using sophisticated instrumental methods.
As a general rule, the more precise the positioning of the sample delivery and
delivery rate, the more reliable will be the final chromatographic results. Partially
and fully automated application instruments are commercially available that can
dramatically improve the quality of sample application. It should be remembered
76 Chapter 4
that the chromatographer is trying to achieve sharp regular spots or zones on the
sorbent layer without disturbing that layer unduly. This section will suggest ways in
which manual application can give satisfactory results for most qualitative
separations, and will further show the advantages of instrumental band applicators
to give improved resolution and reproducible quantification.

5.1 Manual Methods

Before the sample is applied to the plate, the origin point should be marked in some
way so that migration distances can be determined after development. Often pencil
lines are used, but these should be avoided if possible, as they can damage the
layer. A better method is to make pencil marks at the edges of the plate. After
development, the two marks can be joined by a pencil line to indicate the position
of the origin. Spotting guides are a much better alternative as sample loadings are
then made in a precise way at a predetermined distance from the edge of the TLC
plate without any marking or disturbance of the sorbent layer (see Figure 8).
The simplest method of application of the sample solution to the TLC layer is by
using a standard glass capillary of set volume. A capillary of 1–2 ml will give a spot
size of approximately 3–4 mm. Calibrated disposable glass capillaries are widely
available, and include ‘‘Microcaps’’ (produced by Drummond Scientific Co.) and
the capillary dispenser system (from Camag). The latter have set capillary volumes
of 0.5–5 ml with high reproducibility (40.25%) (see examples in Figure 9).
Microsyringes allow a variable volume to be applied, but it is important to ensure
that a flat-ended, preferably PTFE-coated needle is used to avoid disruption to the
sorbent layer. With all these types of applicators, the capillaries or syringe needles
must contact vertically and at right angles to the sorbent layer, and for quantitative
work the whole contents must be administered at a controlled flow rate in one

Figure 8 A multi-purpose spotting guide for a 20 · 20 cm TLC glass plate. One side of the
pipette rest has 11 notches, resulting in sample loadings 15 mm apart. Scored
lines can be drawn with the tapered pen through the long slit in the pipette rest
(Reproduced by permission of Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)
Sample Application 77

Figure 9 A Camag capillary dispenser unit. The glass capillaries are held in dust-proof
dispenser magazines. Capillaries of 0.5, 1, 2, and 5 ml volume are available. To
load the capillary holder with a capillary, the magazine is inserted into the
dispenser, the holder is pushed into the slotted hole, and then pulled out. The
capillary is now in position in the holder. After use, the capillary can be ejected
by pressing the end of the holder
(Reproduced by permission of Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

application. This will help to eliminate variations in spot shape and ensure spot
sizes are consistent.
Band application with manual techniques is almost impossible without some
damage to the TLC layer. It is also very difficult to attain a uniform concentration
over the band length and width, and to obtain a straight line application. As
described earlier, surface damage by capillaries is a major problem in spot
application. For the best results, it is therefore important that a procedure is used
whereby contact with the sorbent surface can be avoided if at all possible. Over the
years special manual applicators for band dosage have been described in the
literature, involving specially shaped capillaries with a reservoir of sample solution.
However, although these can result in a good straight line application of sample,
over most of the plate width, it is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain a uniform
concentration over the whole band length and width.

5.2 Instrumental Methods

5.2.1 Manual Instrumental Techniques
For the aforementioned reasons, the best methods for sample application to the
chromatographic layer are automatic or at least semi-automatic. In the case of spot
78 Chapter 4

Figure 10 The Camag Nanomat 4 with capillary holder in position. Sample spots can be
applied precisely positioned without damage to the sorbent layer. The volume
loaded is governed by the size of the disposable glass capillaries in the capillary
holder. The unit can be used with all sizes of TLC and HPTLC plates
(Reproduced by permission of Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

applications, the sample can be introduced to the layer surface at precisely the
location desired, in one smooth dosage of the required volume, and with minimal or
no damage to the layer. An example of such an instrument for fixed volume sample
application to the TLC layer, is the Nanomat 4 with capillary holder, shown in
Figure 10.
With this instrument, capillary sizes from 0.5–5 ml can be used and spots can be
applied to all sizes of TLC plates. The capillary holder is held in position by a
permanent magnet. To dispense the contents of the capillary, the applicator head is
pressed down, the pipette touches the layer surface at a constant pressure, and the
pipette is discharged. Variable volume dosage units have also been used with this
device. The volumes dispensed are 0.5–2.3 ml and 50–230 nl for TLC and HPTLC
respectively. The variable volume unit functions on the principle of a micrometer-
controlled syringe with the height of the tip adjustable such that it does not touch
the TLC layer (nominally a 50 mm gap). A lever is pressed to dispense the contents
of the syringe on to the layer.
Also for spot application to HPTLC plates, fixed volume nano-pipettes (100
or 200 nl) have been employed. These have been made of a reagent-resistant
platinum-iridium alloy fixed in a sealed glass holder.4 This pipette allows accurate,
reproducible loadings to the HPTLC layer by capillary attraction. However, the
sorbent is susceptible to damage from the capillary particularly the softer HPTLC
layers. Unless only light contact is made with the layer, the orifice of the nano-
pipette can quickly become clogged with sorbent.

5.2.2 Automated Techniques

Automated equipment can be used to apply the sample solution as spots or bands.
The equipment can vary from semi-automated to a complete robotic system
Sample Application 79
controlled by a pre-set program on a computer. For accurate quantitative deter-
mination of separated analytes, such equipment is to be recommended. Although a
degree of accuracy is possible with manual applications (approximately 1–2%
relative standard deviation), automated spot and band loadings result in excellent
reproducibility and reliable quantifiable separations. Automated band application
equipment provides a very even, narrow application of sample as the sample syringe
passes over a pre-determined length on the TLC plate at a constant speed, delivering
a pre-set quantity of sample by a spray-on technique (see Figure 11). A constant flow
of gas ensures that both a very thin application zone is possible and the band is dried
quickly when volatile solvents are used. In this way the surface of the TLC layer
never comes into contact with the syringe. Such an automated application of 1–20 ml
results in an extremely thin line with little diffusion of the sample on either side. The
equipment can best be described as semi-automated, as the syringe is cleaned and
refilled with each sample solution manually.
For fully automated systems, programs of sample application can be stored on a
personal computer. Both spot and band application can be programmed, with
details on number, size and position of applications. An example of such a robotic
system is shown in Figure 12. Bands are applied using a spray-on technique in a

Figure 11 The Camag Linomat 5 for band application of sample solution. This spray-on
technique allows larger sample volumes at low concentration to be applied than
is possible by contact transfer. Samples are concentrated into narrow bands of
selectable length. For preparative purposes, sample solutions can be applied as
long narrow bands over most of the plate length
(Reproduced by permission of Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)
80 Chapter 4

Figure 12 The Camag Automatic TLC Sampler (ATS) 4 for spot and band application
of sample solutions from a rack of vials. The operation is programmed
and controlled by a personal computer. A standard rack of 66 2 ml vials
may be addressed in one application program. Optional special racks hold
96-well plates. The recommended volume range per sample is 100–5000 nl for
spots and 2–20 ml for bands
(Reproduced by permission of Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

similar way to the semi-automated units. Spots can be applied either by this
technique or by direct contact transfer. The samples are prepared in vials with
septum seals. According to the pre-set program, the robotic arm will move from
vial to vial removing sample solution into a syringe and delivering it on to the
chromatographic layer at the pre-determined point. Between sample applications
the robotic arm will move the syringe to a bottle containing an appropriate wash
solvent. After several flushes the syringe is returned to the next sample vial. The
software allows the user to validate the instrument at appropriate intervals. Volume
dosage can be validated using a standardised method.

5.3 Large Sample Application

5.3.1 Contact Spotting5
In order to avoid damaging layers with capillaries and at the same time to apply large
volumes (,50 ml) as sample spots to the TLC layer, contact spotting has been used.
This technique also allows the application of highly viscous biological samples, not
easily applied by other devices. Spot sizes of 1 mm and less can be obtained.
The sample is placed in a depression or dimple in a fluorocarbon polymer film
that has been pre-treated with a coating of perfluorokerosene (or similar
perfluorinated fluid). A symmetrical droplet forms in the depression (the depression
is large enough to accommodate at least 50 ml of sample solution). With the
Sample Application 81
apparatus covered, a gentle stream of nitrogen is passed over the surface to
evaporate the solvent. After complete evaporation, a TLC plate is placed sorbent
side down over the sample positions and clamped. Nitrogen pressure is applied at
approximately 1.5 atm. to transfer the samples to the sorbent layer.

5.3.2 Use of Concentration Zone TLC/HPTLC 6,7

Commercially available concentration zone TLC/HPTLC plates described earlier in
Chapter 2 are ideal for large sample volume applications. The sample is applied to
the concentration zone area, usually as dilute large spots, in any location desired
within the zone or by immersion over the complete width of the plate (Figure 13).
Loadings of sample on the layer will vary depending on the resolution possible
between separated components. For example with the separation of lipophilic dyes
shown in Figure 1, loadings up to 20 mg were applied and good resolution still
obtained, (20 ml loading of a 0.1% w/v solution using a 2 ml pipette).
If sample solutions are very dilute and concentration techniques are not an
option, then repeated applications can be made directly to the concentration zone,
with drying between loadings as required. When the plate is introduced to the
mobile phase in the chromatography chamber, the solvent front migrates rapidly

Figure 13 (a) Concentration zone plate after application of sample spots (b) Plate after
migration to the boundary between concentrating zone and silica gel separation
layer (c) Plate after chromatographic development
(By permission of Merck)
82 Chapter 4

Figure 14 (a) Plate with concentration zone impregnated to a height of 10 mm (b) Plate
after migration up to the boundary (c) Plate after chromatographic development
(By permission of Merck)

through the concentration zone carrying the samples with it. Ideally as the
concentration zone material has only a low retentive capacity the sample spots
begin to concentrate into bands. By the time they reach the interface they have
become sharply focused. Some impurities are retained by adsorption in the lower
zone and separation of the sample components then begins in the upper zone of
silica gel 60. Resolution is better than for normal spot development, as sharp
discrete bands are formed particularly for the most retained components that remain
near the origin. However, the quality of focusing depends also on the choice of
mobile phase. Generally for silica gel 60 low polarity, low viscosity solvents give
the best results. Polar, viscous solvents as mobile phases can cause only minor
improvement in separation. More detail on these advantages and the benefits of
concentration zone TLC/HPTLC has been demonstrated by Halpaap and Krebs
using a series of lipophilic dyes.8 As shown in Figure 14, the highest possible
loadings for a thin layer can be obtained by using the whole width of the plate and
dipping this into the sample solution. After drying this can be repeated until the
required loading is obtained, but care is needed to avoid overloading. Any leakage
into the mobile phase reservoir is usually negligible.
To increase the potential of concentration zone layers, reversed-phase plates
have now come into use and have proved valuable for a wide range of applications.
Instead of silica gel 60, silica gel RP18 has become the separation medium with an
appropriate wide pore sorbent for the concentration zone.

6 Choice of Band or Spot Application

Even for basic qualitative TLC, there are advantages in band over spot application.
Although spots can easily be applied manually using a glass or metal capillary, the
application of sample as a band usually requires more dexterity and is more
accurately accomplished with semi- or fully automated equipment, unless
concentrated zone TLC plates are incorporated. One of the major advantages of
band application is illustrated in Figure 15 with a sample dye chromatogram with
spot development compared against concentration zone band development.
Although for most components good resolution is obtained for both using the
Sample Application 83

Figure 15 Comparison of separation between spot and band application. Development

after application as: (a) spots, (b) bands
(By permission of Merck)

same developing solvent and conditions, it is in the region of low Rf, that major
differences are noted and band development gives better results.
Because bands are formed as a thin line, whereas spots cover a wider area above
and below the origin, the separation resolution in the low migration area is very
sharp for bands in comparison with spots. Using the equation mentioned earlier and
proposed by Kaiser3, the spot capacity or separation number can be calculated from
the following:

Zf
SN ¼ 1 ð6Þ
b0 þ b1

Table 1 shows a comparison of results for spot and band separation based on this
calculation from experimental results. For low loadings of sample, the separation
numbers are almost equivalent, but as the concentration is increased the separation
number dramatically drops for separation of spots compared with bands.
This illustrates one of the major advantages of band over spot application. There
are a number of others as outlined in Table 2. Obviously when a spot is applied to
the sorbent layer, even though a low polarity solvent may have been chosen, there
will still be a concentration of the solute in the centre of the spot with a much lower
concentration at the perimeter. After development, further diffusion into the layer
will have occurred. For spectrodensitometric determination it will therefore be
necessary to choose a slit length sufficient to cover the whole of the largest
developed spot. For band application, a slit length of two-thirds of the band length
is recommended. However, there is much more flexibility here than for spot
scanning. As spots do not always migrate in a precisely vertical direction (for
normal ascending development), automated track adjustment is required on the
scanning equipment; this is not necessary for band scanning.
These advantages can result in greater accuracy. As a practical example,
comparing spot application using a variable volume nano-pipette with a semi-
automated band applicator, the relative standard deviation can drop from 1–2% to
84 Chapter 4
Table 1 Comparison of separation numbers (SN) for silica gel 60 pre-coated TLC
plates with and without concentration zone. Chromatograms run with a
mixture of 7 lipophilic dyes, 0.1% in toluene. N-chamber used without
chamber saturation, mobile phase: toluene, Zf ¼ 100 mm

SN for concentration
Separation number for Separation number for zone plate/SN for
Sample applied TLC plate without concentration zone plate without
(mg) concentration zone TLC plate concentration zone

0.01 11.22 12.83 1.14

0.10 11.20 12.82 1.14
1.00 11.02 12.75 1.14
2.00 10.82 12.68 1.17
3.00 10.63 12.61 1.19
4.00 10.44 12.54 1.20
5.00 10.25 12.46 1.22
10.00 9.37 12.11 1.29
20.00 7.82 11.43 1.46
30.00 6.53 10.79 1.65
40.00 5.45 10.19 1.87
50.00 4.55 9.62 2.11
100.00 1.85 7.22 3.90

(By permission of Merck)

0.5–1%. The advantages of spot application are mostly related to the simplicity of
equipment, and above all the cost of the technique. As we know it is very easy and
quick to apply a sample with a glass capillary. However, damage to the layer can
result and capillaries can become clogged with sorbent. It really depends on the

Table 2 Comparison of band and spot application of sample to the chromato-

graphic layer

Advantage of band over spot Advantage of spot over band

application application

Better resolution of analytes – particularly near Can require less automation

origin, hence higher separation number
More even distribution of sample Can be very inexpensive
Less error on choice of scanner Application usually less time
slit length (automation) consuming
Greater accuracy – lower %
standard deviation
More flexibility in sample loadings
Sample Application 85
quality of separation one desires. For quick identification purposes, the spotting
technique with basic equipment is quite adequate. But where precision is required
with a high degree of accuracy, automated band application is recommended. This
is particularly important where the separated zones are very close together. Using
concentration zone plates is not the answer to simple band application, except at a
purely qualitative level as during sample band focusing most of the solute
concentrates in the centre of the band. Hence sample distribution is uneven along
the length of the band.

7 References
1. G. Guiochon and A.M. Siouffi, J. Chromatogr., 1982, 245, 1–20.
2. D.C. Fenimore in Instrumental HPTLC, W. Bertsch and R.E. Kaiser (eds),
A. Hüthig Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, 1980, 81–95.
3. R.E. Kaiser in HPTLC High Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography,
A. Zlatkis and R.E. Kaiser (eds), Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 1977, 21–32.
4. R.E. Kaiser in HPTLC High Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography,
A. Zlatkis and R.E. Kaiser (eds), Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 1977, 88–90.
5. D.C. Fenimore and C.J. Meyer, J. Chromatogr., 1979, 186, 555–561.
6. D.C. Abbott and J. Thompson, Chem. Ind., 1965, 310.
7. A. Musgrave, J. Chromatogr., 1969, 41, 470.
8. H. Halpaap and K.F. Krebs, J. Chromatogr., 1977, 142, 823–853.
CHAPTER 5

Development Techniques
1 Introduction
Thin-layer chromatography can be defined as a differential migration process where
sample components are retained to differing degrees in a thin layer of sorbent as
a solvent or solvent mixture moves by capillary action through the layer. The
retention of analytes will depend on the interactions that occur with the liquid phase
on the surface and contained within the porous physical structure of the sorbent, or
there may be a direct interaction with the molecular structure of the sorbent. Also
retention will be affected by the nature of the moving solvent and any additives
contained in it. The types of interactions involved may be electrostatic, hydrogen-
bonding, ion-exchange, size exclusion, and other van der Waals’ forces. Sorbents
are chosen to be inert to any reaction with the solvent or solvent mixture used for
development of the chromatogram (often described as the mobile phase, but strictly
the term only applies under development conditions), the solute, or the ‘‘liquid’’
retained in the sorbent (called the stationary phase).

2 The Theory of Solvent Migration

As the environment in the development chamber can constantly change during
chromatography due to charging conditions in the sorbent, the migration rate of the
solvent front does not occur in a linear fashion. As a general rule the movement of
the liquid front as it migrates through the inert sorbent by capillary action is
denoted by the following equation:

ðZf Þ2 ¼ kt ð1Þ

Where Zf is the distance from the immersion line to the solvent front
k is the flow constant (or velocity coefficient)
t is the time elapsed from the start of development

As can be seen from the above equation, there is a direct relationship between
the migration distance of the mobile phase and the time taken for development.
However, practical observation in the early stages of development indicates that the
solvent front velocity is not constant. The further the solvent migrates, the lower

86
Development Techniques 87
the speed of migration becomes. This can be expressed mathematically by the
following equation:
k
Vf ¼ ð2Þ
2Zf

Where Vf is the solvent front velocity

Flow rates will also vary according to the physical characteristics of the solvents
used in the mobile phase. Both the viscosity and the surface tension will obviously
affect the migration rate and have been mathematically related to the velocity
constant (k) by the following formula:
g
k¼2 K d Cosy ð3Þ
Z 0 p

Where K0 is the specific permeability

dp is the particle size of the sorbent
y is the contact angle of the sorbent with the mobile phase
g is the surface tension
Z is the viscosity

The specific permeability (K0) is a dimensionless function of the external

porosity of the sorbent layer. The average K0 value for both silica gel 60 TLC and
HPTLC plates is 8 · 10 3. Using equation (3), the velocity constant (k) can be
calculated, but the result obtained will depend very much on the value of the
contact angle (y ). On normal silica gel the value of y is less than 10– for organic
solvents. Hence the value of Cos y is greater than 0.985. For practical purposes
where total wetting of the layer occurs the value of Cos y approximates to unity.
The equation can therefore be simplified to:
g
k¼2 K d ð4Þ
Z 0 p

From this it becomes very evident that the velocity constant (k) is dependent to a
large extent on the surface tension and the viscosity of the solvent. (Table 1 lists the
values of k for a range of solvents used in planar chromatography.) Consequently
solvents with high viscosities and surface tensions will migrate at much slower
rates than those with low viscosities and surface tensions.1 It is therefore advan-
tageous to mix solvents with low k values with those with higher values to improve
migration rate, but care will need to be exercised to ensure that the solvents are
miscible and that the appropriate polarity is maintained. The migration rates given
in Table 1 are an experimental approximation to indicate the variation in flow rate
with the viscosity/surface tension ratio.
It is also evident from equation (4) that the velocity constant (k) will increase as
the particle size of the sorbent increases. The solvent front migration rate is
therefore noticeably faster for TLC (10–20 mm) as against HPTLC (5–6 mm).
Figure 1 shows the direct relationship between particle size and velocity constant
for a particular solvent.2
88 Chapter 5
Table 1 Velocity constant (k) of TLC solvents on silica gel 60 HPTLC plates
compared with viscosity and surface tension data

Velocity constant Viscosity Surface tension

Solvent ðkÞ cm2 s 1 (cP) Nm 1
3
n-Hexane 0.118 0.31 18.42 · 10
3
Acetonitrile 0.114 0.35 19.10 · 10
3
Acetone 0.112 0.36 23.32 · 10
3
Tetrahydrofuran 0.103 0.55 27.31 · 10
3
n-Pentane 0.092 0.24 15.48 · 10 (25 – C)
3
Water 0.082 1.00 80.10 · 10
3
Ethyl acetate 0.080 0.45 23.75 · 10
3
Chloroform 0.079 0.57 27.16 · 10
3
Toluene 0.071 0.59 28.52 · 10
3
Methanol 0.050 0.59 22.55 · 10
3
1,4-Dioxan 0.050 1.37 33.75 · 10
3
Cyclohexane 0.047 0.94 24.98 · 10
3
Ethanol 0.031 1.22 22.32 · 10
3
Propan-2-ol 0.019 2.40 21.79 · 10 (15 – C)

Figure 1 Variation of the velocity constant (k) with particle size of silica gel 60 (solvent:
dichloromethane)
Development Techniques 89
Table 2 The variation of the cosine of the contact
angle ðyÞ with solvent or solvent mixtures
for RP18 reversed-phase plates

Solvent Cos y

Toluene 0.96
n-Heptane 0.94
n-Pentane 0.87
Chlorobenzene 0.83
Acetonitrile 0.75
Methanol 0.84
Methanol/water (90:10) 0.59
Methanol/water (80:20) 0.35
Methanol/water (70:30) 0.24
Ethanol 0.87
Ethanol/water (90:10) 0.76
Ethanol/water (80:20) 0.61
Ethanol/water (70:30) 0.48
Ethanol/water (60:40) 0.34
Ethanol/water (50:50) 0.14

For reversed-phase TLC/HPTLC the value of the contact angle plays a much
more significant role. Solvents and solvent mixtures used in reversed-phase TLC
are quite polar, usually mixtures of water and methanol, ethanol, acetone, THF,
and acetonitrile with various additives. Hence when these come into contact with
a very non-polar silica gel layer bonded with a saturated carbon chain, wetting is
slow. As the percentage of water is increased in the mobile phase, the wetting
angle (y ) becomes larger, leading to a corresponding decrease in the velocity
constant (k) until a point is reached where the mobile phase no longer migrates
through the sorbent. At this point, the velocity constant (k) is infinitely small.
Table 2 lists the comparison of solvent with Cos y and demonstrates how the
value of Cos y drops with an increase in water content. In order to overcome
this solvent ‘‘wetting’’ problem, many commercially available bonded reversed-
phase TLC and HPTLC layers are only partially silanised. The total carbon
loading is consequently lower, but the separation mechanism that predominates
is still reversed-phase partition chromatography. Such bonded layers will
withstand high aqueous content solvent mixtures as mobile phases. In fact, in
many instances even total aqueous phases can be used although it would be
debatable whether much genuine partitioning of the sample analytes occurs
during development.
90 Chapter 5

3 Mechanisms of TLC Separation

3.1 Introduction
There are three main types of separation mechanism in TLC:

Adsorption
Partition
Ion-exchange

Quite often the separation that occurs cannot be attributed to just one mechanism,
but may be the result of two or more different types of interaction including
those above. Other interactions are also known and may at times play an
important part in the separation mechanism. Included in these are ion-pairing,
charge-transfer, and p–p interactions. Usually a deliberate attempt is made to
use these interactions to change the selectivity to improve resolution, as for
example in the separation of enantiomers, complex mixtures of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, or cis/trans isomers of lipids or fatty acids. These
complex types of interaction will be described later in this chapter under the
appropriate headings.

3.2 Adsorption Separations

Adsorption is a surface phenomenon. In the case of the sorbent silica gel, the
sample interacts with the silanol groups on the surface (as shown in Figure 2).
Dipole-induced interactions occur depending on the nature of the solute. As the
mobile phase migrates through the sorbent by capillary flow, weakly adsorbed
analytes move with the solvent front, whereas those more strongly bound are
retained nearer the point of application of the sample. Hence separation occurs
based on the strength of the dipole-induced interaction.

Figure 2 Retention of analytes by silanol interaction on the sorbent surface. Strength of

the retention is dependent on the strength of the induced dipole
Development Techniques 91

Figure 3 Unit (i) is the first portion of stationary phase under the effect of flowing mobile
phase where separation can begin. Unit (ii) is the second portion of stationary
phase. The height of these portions is that required for equilibrium

3.3 Partition Separations

In partition TLC,3,4 a liquid stationary phase is adsorbed or chemically bound to the
silica gel support. The stationary phase should ideally be insoluble in the mobile
phase. On application of the sample to the sorbent layer, the components of the
sample equilibrate between the mobile and stationary phases. The migration of
components is dependent upon their relative solubility or preference for the mobile
or stationary phases. On this basis, a component that has greater affinity for the
mobile phase will be eluted before one that has more affinity for the stationary
phase. To illustrate how this works consider a small portion of solid support
containing a unit of stationary phase, (see Figure 3, unit (i)). A mixture of two
substances, (A) and (B) is applied to the solid support. As the mobile phase flows
through this unit, equilibration occurs and 80% of (A) and 40% of (B) prefers the
mobile phase. As the mobile phase passes on to the next unit as shown in Figure 3,
unit (ii), the sample remaining in the stationary phase will re-equilibrate itself. This
process will continue with further equilibrium stages and substance (A) will
migrate faster than substance (B). On a TLC or HPTLC plate there are many such
equilibrium stages that are known as theoretical plates. Resolution obviously
improves with the number of theoretical plates. As a general rule for TLC, the
number of theoretical plates is 4600 and for HPTLC typically 45000.

3.4 Ion-exchange Separations

The ion-exchange process is dependent on the sorbent containing ions that are
capable of exchanging with ions of like charge in the sample or mobile phase. The
exchange of ions is dependent on the affinity of the support for the various ionic
92 Chapter 5
species. The mobile phase acts as an electrolyte solution. The migration rate of the
components of the sample is pH dependent as each component has a total charge,
which changes with increased or reduced acidity of the mobile phase. Hence at
constant pH, compounds with a low affinity exchange easily with mobile phase ions
and migrate with the solvent front, whilst compounds with a strong affinity migrate
slowly, and remain near the origin.

4 Solvent Selection
Selectivity of separation is greatly influenced by the choice of solvent or solvent
mixture. This is a critical area of the separation technique in TLC and particular
care and diligence here can make all the difference between a well resolved
chomatogram and a poor diffuse streak in the direction of migration of the mobile
phase. Often incomplete resolution, high or low retention, distorted analyte spots or
bands and tailing can be blamed on the solvent used. As a general rule, non-polar
solvents will effect migration of low polarity substances, whilst more polar samples
will require more polar solvents on a normal- phase sorbent layer. This should
come as no surprise as both mobile phase and sample analytes will compete for the
adsorbent sites on the stationary phase.
Every effort should be made to simplify the components of the mobile phase as
much as possible. If possible, a single solvent is to be preferred, as the more
complex the mixture, the more problems of solvent ‘‘demixing’’ and vapour phase
saturation can occur. All solvents should be of chromatographic grade purity with
particular attention paid to low impurities, moisture content and non-volatile
matter. Solvent mixtures should be thoroughly shaken together in order to attain
complete homogeneity. These should in most cases, be used immediately after
preparation as some mixtures can chemically react together resulting in an
unwanted species in the final eluent. Fortunately this is usually a slow process
where it does occur, and does not normally cause any appreciable difference in
resolution in the short term. Care is also needed with solvent mixtures where partial
immiscibility occurs. In these cases, either the upper or lower layer is used as the
mobile phase, but it is important that the two layers are well separated in an
appropriate separating vessel and the layer to be used is carefully specified.
In the past, most of what is known about solvent selection has come about by
trial and error experiments by experienced thin-layer chromatographers. Usually
when silica gel 60 is chosen as the sorbent, an eluent of low solvent strength, e.g.
hexane, benzene, toluene, cyclohexane or dichloromethane is used for develop-
ment. If little or no migration occurs, progressive additions are made of solvent or
mixtures of solvents of higher strength until good resolution is obtained with Rf
values ideally in the range 0.2–0.5. With reversed-phase separations the solvent
starting point is far more polar, usually acetonitrile or methanol mixed with water.
However, it is true to say that in recent years a more fundamental mathematical
approach has been adopted. Also much more is now understood about the way in
which solvents migrate through the stationary phase, the role of the vapour phase,
and the problems of multiple-front formation. These are some of the areas that will
be considered later.
Development Techniques 93

4.1 Eluotropic Series and Solvent Optimisation

In order to classify solvents and mixtures of solvents into a solvent strength order,
thin-layer chromatographers have devised tables to make the process of solvent
selection easy. Some have used water solubility, and dielectric constant as their
criteria.5,6 Solubility data although useful, is limited and by no means gives the
complete picture of solvent strength. Dielectric constants give a much better
alternative, but even here there are abnormalities, e.g. 1,4-dioxan and tetrahydro-
furan have values of 2.2 and 7.4, respectively, but are known to exhibit high
polarity with silica gel compared with dichloromethane, even though it has a
dielectric constant of 8.9. It has therefore been necessary to consider a much more
complete alternative where both the characteristics of the solvent and stationary
phase are taken into consideration. Several models have been proposed, the most
universally accepted being that according to Snyder.7,8 A solvent strength parameter
depending not only on the appropriate physical characteristic of the liquid but also
on the sorbent can be defined. This is called e0 and is defined as the adsorption
energy per unit of standard solvent for a given solvent/sorbent combination. Values
can be calculated for a wide range of solvents used in TLC and a table constructed
called the eluotropic series in order of e0 values. Alumina was originally the sorbent
of choice, but some values for silica gel can also be obtained by experiment as
shown in Table 3. However, theoretical values for silica gel can be estimated from
the following equation:

e0silica gel ¼ 0:77 · e0alumina ð5Þ

As seen from Table 3 there are only minor discrepancies between e0expt: and e0calc:
values for silica gel. e0 is independent of the activity of the sorbent, and by
definition, is equal to zero for n-pentane.
If the resolution is either poor or not possible with a single solvent, then
binary or ternary mixtures can be prepared. This greatly expands the number of
solvent systems and allows intermediate values of e0 to be calculated. For cases
where the migration rate of sample components is well optimised, adjustments
can be made with other solvents to improve resolution, but always ensuring that
the e0 value is maintained. To help in these cases an approximate relationship
has been derived by Snyder9–11 to calculate the intermediate e0 values for binary
mixtures, solvents A and B:

Log Nb
eab ¼ eb þ ð6Þ
a nb

eab is the intermediate e0 value

eb is the e0 value for solvent B
nb is the molecular area of adsorbed solvent B
a is the adsorbent surface activity function
(for TLC silica gel at 40% RH, a ¼ 0.69)
Nb is the mole fraction of B in the solution phase
94 Chapter 5
Table 3 Eluotropic series for common solvents used in TLC for aluminium oxide
and silica gel. Based on the solvent strength (e0) according to Snyder7,8

Alumina e0 value Silica gel e0 value Silica gel e0 value

Solvent (expt.) (expt.) (calc.)

n-Pentane 0.00 0.00 0.00

n-Hexane 0.01 0.01
iso-Octane 0.01 0.01
Cyclohexane 0.04 0.03
Cyclopentane 0.05 0.04
Carbon tetrachloride 0.18 0.11 0.14
iso-Propyl ether 0.28 0.22
Toluene 0.29 0.22
Chlorobenzene 0.30 0.23
Benzene 0.32 0.25 0.25
Chloroform 0.40 0.26 0.31
Dichloromethane 0.42 0.32 0.32
Methyl iso-butyl ketone 0.43 0.33
Tetrahydrofuran 0.45 0.35
Diethyl ether 0.46 0.38 0.38
1,2-Dichloroethane 0.49 0.38
Acetone 0.56 0.47 0.43
1,4-Dioxan 0.56 0.49 0.43
Ethyl acetate 0.58 0.38 0.45
Methyl acetate 0.60 0.46
Amyl alcohol 0.61 0.47
Aniline 0.62 0.48
Acetonitrile 0.65 0.50 0.50
Pyridine 0.71 0.55
2-Butoxyethanol 0.74 0.57
Propan-1-ol 0.82 0.63
Propan-2-ol 0.82 0.63
Ethanol 0.88 0.68
Methanol 0.95 0.73
Ethanediol 1.11 0.85
Acetic acid 51 51
Water q1 q1
Development Techniques 95
Table 4 Solvent strength table devised by Snyder
et al. for reversed-phase liquid chromato-
graphy. Solvent strengths for mixtures of
solvents can be calculated from this table
using Equation 7

Solvent Solvent strength ðSÞ

Water 0
Methanol 3.0
Acetonitrile 3.1
Acetone 3.4
1,4-Dioxan 3.5
Ethanol 3.6
Propan-2-ol 4.2
Tetrahydrofuran 4.4

In 1979 Snyder et al.12 suggested a solvent strength table in reversed-phase

liquid chromatography that could also be applied to TLC (Table 4). Although the
values given are only approximate, they do provide a means of calculating a
relative value for the solvent strengths of mixtures of solvents used in reversed-
phase TLC. As the solvent strength for mixtures can be calculated from an
arithmetic progression, it is a simple matter to determine the value for any volume
mixture as long as S (solvent strength) is known for the pure solvent:

Smix: ¼ VA SA þ VB SB þ . . . ð7Þ

As in column liquid chromatography, mixtures of water, acetonitrile and methanol

with sometimes polarity adjustments with THF, 1,4-dioxan or propan-2-ol are used
mainly in reversed-phase TLC.
In normal-phase TLC the separation process is somewhat less predictable and
hence it is more difficult to devise exact and reliable methods based on solvent
strength values. The approach in such cases is much more general. An eluent
polarity is selected on the basis of the sample nature and sorbent type. For silica gel,
Table 3 can be used in conjunction with Equation (6) to establish the mobile phase
required. Generally a solvent is chosen which gives an Rf value of between 0.2–0.5
(the region of maximum resolution efficiency on the layer). Sometimes the term hRf
is used, where:

hRf ¼ Rf · 100 ð8Þ

If the Rf value approaches unity or the hRf value 100, resolution will be poor and a
solvent of lower e0 must be chosen (high solvent strength) in order to increase the
retention of the analytes on the layer. The reverse would be true for analytes near
the origin where a solvent with higher e0 would be required. Sometimes the term
96 Chapter 5
Rm is used as it often shows a linear relationship between the chromatographic
properties and the sample. Rm, the logarithm of the capacity factor (k 0 ) is related to
the Rf value by the following equation:

ð1 Rf Þ
Rm ¼ log k0 ¼ log ð9Þ
Rf

Once the desired migration has been achieved, the selectivity can be improved by
mixing two or three solvents in such a ratio, as to maintain a similar e0 value. This
may well take several attempts as there will no doubt be a number of combinations
that are possible. However, the final result will be the selection of a mobile phase
that gives the most favourable interactions with the solute. Often the best results are
obtained by adjusting the main solvent of low polarity with a relatively small
amount of solvent with a much higher polarity to attain the required e0 value,
e.g. butan-1-ol with water, chloroform with methanol, dichloromethane with
acetonitrile, and cyclohexane with dichloromethane. Further small adjustments
with a third solvent can often fine tune the separation further.
Of course, the choice of mobile phase will be largely determined by the sample as
mentioned earlier. With non-polar samples of hydrocarbons for example, low
solvent strength (low polarity) mobile phases are required and progressively higher
strengths (higher polarity) where more functional groups are present in the sample.
The addition of small percentages of acids (e.g. formic, acetic, propionic and hydro-
chloric acids) or bases (e.g. ammonia solution, pyridine and amines) to the mobile
phase can often improve resolution by suppressing ionisation or totally ionising
the analytes. On the TLC layer, the spots or bands exhibit less diffusion and any
hint of streaking is often eliminated, (see later section on mobile phase additives).
A schematic for the optimisation of the mobile phase is shown in Figure 4.
This incorporates the above criteria and the classification of solvents by Snyder
and Glajch9–11 into eight groups according to their proton-donor, proton-acceptor
or dipole interaction characteristics. This classification is shown in Table 5. Often
solvent optimisation is overlooked as an unnecessary and tedious time-consuming
procedure. However, it can make all the difference between well-resolved bands or
spots and those that tend to merge together.
The above procedure is usually adequate for most optimisations of mobile phase
for TLC. However, there are more mathematically based procedures often used in
column liquid chromatography to optimise solvent mixtures. Two of the major ones
used in TLC are the selectivity triangle and the PRISMA method.

4.1.1 Selectivity Triangles

The basis of these procedures is the selectivity triangle proposed by Snyder13 and
mentioned earlier. Solvents were classified into groups according to their similar
proton-acceptor (xe), proton-donor (xd), and dipole interaction (xn) contributions. It
was possible to divide up the majority of solvents into eight groups as listed in
Table 5. From this, Snyder was able to construct a selectivity triangle similar to that
in Figure 5 with each corner of the triangle representing a single contribution.
Development Techniques 97

Figure 4 Selection and optimisation of mobile phase.

Stage (i): pure solvents; stage (ii): decreasing or increasing solvent strength by
mixing two solvents; stage (iii): more complex mixing of solvents and addition of
acid or base modifiers; stage (iv): selection of optimal solvent mixture
*BME is butylmethyl ether, THF is tetrahydrofuran, DMF is dimethylformamide,
DCM is dichloromethane, EtOAc is ethyl acetate, ACN is acetonitrile, MEK is
butanone, and CHCl3 is chloroform

A further selectivity triangle can now be constructed using three solvents

selected from separate groups that are near an apex of the original triangle. For
normal-phase separations an example would be diethyl ether, chloroform, and
dichloromethane. n-Hexane is added as a non-polar diluent to adjust the strength of

Table 5 Classification of solvent selectivity according to Snyder and Glajch9–11

Group Solvents

I Aliphatic ethers
II Aliphatic alcohols
III Pyridine, tetrahydrofuran, glycol ethers, amides (except formamide)
IV Formamide, acetic acid, glycols
V Dichloromethane, 1,2-dichloroethane
VI Aliphatic ketones and esters, 1,4-dioxan, acetonitrile
VII Aromatic hydrocarbons and ethers, aromatic halo- and nitro-compounds
VIII Chloroform, water, nitromethane, m-cresol
98 Chapter 5

Figure 5 Selectivity triangle according to Snyder. Lists of solvents for each solvent group
are given in Table 6

the developing solvent. For reversed-phase separations, acetonitrile, methanol, and

tetrahydrofuran mixed with water form the corners of the selectivity triangle.
As shown in the example in Figure 6 a further four mixtures are obtained at the
mid-points of the sides of the triangle and at the centre. In all, seven mixtures are
obtained. These can be run with a special developing chamber that allows applied
samples to be run on separate discrete tracks on the same TLC/HPTLC plate, (see
the Vario Chamber described later in this chapter).
The two best systems are usually then chosen. From a series of experiments
using mixtures between these selected eluents, the Rf results can be extrapolated

Figure 6 Solvent selectivity triangle for optimising the mobile phase for reversed-phase
separations
Development Techniques 99
to give the optimum mobile phase. However, it should be noted that the procedure
does not take into account other chromatographic interactions that may have an
additional influence on the separation.

4.1.2 PRISMA Model

A further development to this selectivity triangle is a prism. Nyiredy et al.14–16
proposed such a system, calling it the PRISMA model. This is a three-dimensional
model used to correlate the selectivity of the solvent with the solvent strength.
Silica gel is taken as the stationary phase and a preliminary solvent selection made
according to the previously described Synder classification using three solvents
from the eight solvent groups. This is the first step in the optimisation. Step two
involves the use of an unusual prism model, the upper part of which is an irregular
frustum, and the middle and lower parts are regular triangular prisms as shown in
Figure 7. The base of the prism represents the modifier (in the case of normal-phase
separations this will be n-hexane with an e0 value of 0.00). The heights of the prism
at each edge (S1, S2, and S3) represents the solvent strength for the neat solvents
selected from step one. An isoeluotropic plane (where e0 values are equivalent) is
formed by increasing the solvent strength at the corners of the prism. Points along
the edges are therefore combinations of two solvents, points on the sides, three
solvent mixtures, and points within the prism, combinations of four solvents. A
modifier can be added to each solvent at the start, increasing the overall solvent
mixture to five, if required.
In practice, for non-polar samples the starting point is the centre of the triangle
on the top face of the main prism (marked A in Figure 7). Having run the

Figure 7 The PRISMA model for mobile phase optimisation

100 Chapter 5
chromatogram under these conditions, the solvent composition is diluted with
hexane until the solutes are in the required Rf range. The apexes of a triangle drawn
through this plane (B) in the prism give three further solvent compositions that are
now tried. These represent the extremes of selectivity for the solvent system. With
the information gleaned from these initial chromatograms, selectivity points for
further chromatograms can be chosen until the optimum solvent composition has
been found. If the best chromatogram does not adequately resolve the analytes, then
one or more of the primary solvents will need to be replaced and the optimisation
procedure repeated. For polar solutes, the face C of the upper frustum is used for
normal-phase chromatography and the solvent optimised in a similar way.

5 Development Chambers
There are a variety of different types of TLC chamber, each designed with
particular features to control to a greater or lesser extent the parameters of
chromatogram development reproducibility. As solvent vapour saturation, sorbent
vapour adsorbed, solvent vapour ‘‘demixing’’, and solvent front and edge effects on
the chromatographic layer can have a bearing on the separation achieved, it is
important to eliminate unwanted effects and to utilise those features that will
improve resolution. The following is a list of TLC/HPTLC chambers that will be
described in detail:

Nu–chamber (normal flat-bottomed, vapour unsaturated glass tank)

Ns–chamber (normal flat-bottomed, vapour saturated glass tank)
Twin-trough chamber (two compartment tank, saturated or unsaturated)
Su–chamber (sandwich tank, unsaturated)
Ss–chamber (sandwich tank, saturated)
Horizontal chamber (twin development, saturated or unsaturated)
U–chamber (circular HPTLC, saturated or unsaturated)
Automatic development chamber (ADC) (fully environmentally controlled unit)
Forced flow development chamber (OPLC) (TLC development under pressure)
Vario chambers (saturated or unsaturated development using six different mobile
phases on one sorbent layer)

5.1 N–Chambers and Chamber Saturation Effects

Chamber saturation means the point where all components of the solvent are in
equilibrium with the vapour space before and whilst development of the chromato-
gram is proceeding.
Chromatographic development in TLC/HPTLC is really a process that occurs in
two phases, the liquid phase and the gas or vapour phase at the same time. Prior to
entering the development chamber, the sorbent layer will have adsorbed moisture
from the atmosphere. Once the chromatographic plate is placed in the development
tank, the layer immediately comes into contact with the vapour above the level of
the solvent. A pre-loading of the sorbent layer with gaseous solvent molecules
Development Techniques 101

Figure 8 Solvent and vapour phase effects in a standard N-chamber

occurs, depending on the degree of saturation within the chamber. At the same time
the solvent liquid begins to migrate through the capillaries in the sorbent and
simultaneously interacts with the vapour phase (see Figure 8). There are therefore a
number of interactions that can occur between the vapour phase, the solvent,
moisture retained in the sorbent, and the sorbent itself. With the solute involved
even more interactions are possible.
In the Nu-chamber or unsaturated N-chamber (Figure 8), 3–5 mm depth of
solvent/solvent mixture is placed in the flat bottom and the tank is covered with a
lid. A vapour phase gradient forms in the vapour phase space, and as time progresses
the lower third of the tank becomes fully saturated (about 15 minutes), the middle
section about 75% saturated, and the upper section less so. When the TLC plate is
placed in the chamber, the whole gradient is temporarily upset and it takes some
time for it to adjust to the new conditions. Chromatographic development now
begins with the rising flow of solvent molecules in the sorbent layer. In the middle
and perhaps in some of the upper part of the tank pre-adsorption of the vapour phase
molecules occurs on to the dry layer. As the solvent front rises, a point is reached in
the upper section of the tank where the vapour phase is no longer saturated.
Evaporation then starts to occur from the solvent front into the vapour phase space
and the velocity of the solvent front diminishes (see Figure 9). Although sample
components separating with low Rf will be largely unaffected by this, components
near the solvent front will begin to focus from spots into tight bands.
102 Chapter 5

Figure 9 Solvent vapour concentration effects in an unsaturated N-chamber. Saturation of

the tank with solvent vapour occurs from the solvent mixture in the base of the
chamber and from the solvents migrating through the sorbent layer

Where solvents have low boiling points and are very volatile and of similar
polarity, the above unusual effect is the only one observed. However, for low
volatility situations, not only will this variation in solvent vapour be evident from
top to bottom but also from the sides into the middle of the tank. This will be usually
observed as concave solvent fronts and edge effects. Problems of this type can be
easily overcome in a number of ways the most simple of which is by using a
saturated chamber (Ns-chamber). In the Ns-chamber, the internal sides and ends of
the tank are lined with adsorbent paper. Saturation in such a tank can be achieved in
5 minutes with very volatile solvents. In most cases it takes no longer than 15
minutes, particularly if the lining paper is pre-soaked in the developing solvent.
When the TLC/HPTLC plate is placed in the tank, pre-loading of the dry layer
occurs almost completely, within a few minutes, and the effects observed at the
solvent front in the upper section of an unsaturated chamber do not occur.
Both saturated and unsaturated TLC tanks are used for a wide range of TLC
separations. However, for a particular separation, it is important that the type of
development used is recorded since Rf values for the same components resolved
using the same mobile phase in both tanks will be different. Values will always be
lower for saturated tanks due to multiple front formation.
For a saturated TLC chamber, it appears that the solvent migration through the
sorbent layer is responsible for the observed solvent front. If that is truly the case,
then a solvent front representing this effect can be called the ‘‘true’’ or ‘‘real’’
solvent front, sometimes called the virtual solvent front. However, ahead of such a
‘‘real’’ solvent front, condensation of solvent vapour from within the chamber
occurs creating another solvent front. This is the observed or visible solvent front.
Obviously, the more saturated the chamber is with solvent vapour, the more the dry
Development Techniques 103

Figure 10 Detection of the observed and ‘‘real’’ solvent fronts. The dye, fat red 7B
migrates to the ‘‘real’’ solvent front. Developing solvent is dichloromethane.
The tank is a fully saturated N-chamber

layer ahead of the ‘‘real’’ front becomes pre-loaded with gas molecules. So, what is
actually seen as the solvent front is a combination of solvent migration and
condensation of solvent vapour.
It is possible to clearly demonstrate the position of the ‘‘real’’ front by a simple
experiment (see Figure 10). A solvent-soluble dye (e.g. fat red 7B or sudan III) is
added to the developing solvent before it comes into contact with the TLC plate in
the chromatography chamber. Once migration of the solvent through the TLC layer
occurs in a partially or fully vapour saturated chamber, two fronts are observed.
The dye migrates with the ‘‘real’’ front and stains the whole layer below this line,
but the section beyond and up to the observed front is wetted only by the solvent.
Of course, if it is possible to run the chromatogram under conditions where no pre-
loading of solvent vapour molecules occurs, then only one front is observed, the
virtual or true solvent front (such chambers are described later).
Where mixtures of solvents are used, solvent ‘‘demixing’’ can sometimes occur.
This usually is a result of the solvent mixture being composed of both very weak
and high strength solvents. The presence of moisture in solvents or solvent mixtures
can also in rare cases give rise to a similar effect. The result is the formation of what
are called a- and b-fronts (see diagram in Figure 11).
In normal-phase TLC, the sorbent layer has initially more preferential adsorption
for the more polar component rather than the less polar constituents. In order to
104 Chapter 5

Figure 11 The formation of a-and b-fronts during chromatographic development. The

component of highest polarity in the mobile phase is adsorbed first in the
sorbent, e.g. acetic acid (first b-front) followed by the others in order of
decreasing polarity. Such solvent demixing on the stationary phase can occur
either because of poor saturated vapour control, or due to too sharp a contrast
of polarities of solvents in the mobile phase

understand the demixing processes, consider a solvent mixture composed of

n-hexane, ethanol, and acetic acid. As the development proceeds, the most polar
component, the acetic acid is adsorbed forming an initially unobserved front, called
a ß-front. The lesser polar component, ethanol has more mobility and forms another
ß-front, again initially unobserved, but ahead of the first one. The least polar
component, n-hexane migrates through the layer to the observed solvent front,
called the a-front. Unfortunately it is only when the development is complete and
detection reagents have been applied that the presence of ß-fronts becomes
apparent. This solvent demixing effect on the sorbent layer often interferes with the
migration rates of sample components resulting in misshapen spots or bands being
restricted in migration to below or at ß-fronts. The same component may even
migrate at different rates across the plate. Fortunately this effect rarely occurs as
solvent ‘‘demixing’’ is not usually localised. Usually solvent ‘‘demixing’’ can be
averted by fully saturating the TLC chamber with solvent vapour before
chromatography, but with the dry layer present in the tank. In these instances the
use of a standard N- or S-chamber is not possible and better results can be achieved
with a twin-trough chamber. Attention may also be necessary in the choice of
solvents for the mobile phase. Very polar solvents mixed with almost non-polar
ones will sometimes result in ‘‘demixing’’. In such cases, using more of a slightly
less polar solvent usually solves the problem.
Development Techniques 105

Figure 12 Twin-trough chamber allowing solvent vapour pre-loading or humidity control.

(a) Standard N-chamber development with low solvent consumption (20 ml
sufficient)
(b) Reproducible pre-equilibration with solvent vapour
(c) Vapour phase conditioning with any solvent or conditioning liquid

5.2 Twin-trough Chamber

This is a useful, although simple modification to the N-chamber (see Figure 12).
It offers better control over the development conditions. It also has a number of
other advantages. As Figure 12 shows, no more than 20 ml of solvent should ever
be used per development (it can be as little as 4 ml!). If the solvent is carefully
poured into one compartment, the plate can be allowed to pre-load with solvent
vapour in the other (Figure 12b). With the 20 · 20 cm and 10 · 20 cm tanks there is
not even the need to disturb the vapour concentration by removing the lid. After
equilibrium, the tank can be tilted with the lid still in place to allow solvent to flow
over from one compartment to the other starting the elution. Of course, the use of a
second compartment also means that plates can be conditioned with other vapour
phases before or during development. Sorbent layers can also be conditioned at
required levels of relative humidity by introducing sulphuric acid or saturated
metallic salt solutions into the second compartment or trough. This is sometimes an
important parameter to control as some separations are susceptible to changes in
relative humidity.

5.3 Sandwich, Horizontal, and U-chambers

Like the N-chamber, the sandwich or S-chamber can be used unsaturated or
saturated (see Figure 13); however, most of the time it is used unsaturated. The
purpose of the S-chamber is to produce a very thin tank restricting space for vapour
phase saturation. At the beginning of development, the tank is therefore virtually
unsaturated. During development the tank structure makes it difficult for vapour to
enter and rise, so that little or no pre-loading of the dry sorbent layer ahead of the
rising front occurs.
Horizontal chambers although in appearance quite different, are in fact very
similar in principle to the sandwich chamber. How they function is shown in
106 Chapter 5

Figure 13 Sandwich chambers. The Su and Ss tanks are the unsaturated and vapour
saturated chambers respectively
(Reprinted from F. Geiss in Fundamentals of Thin Layer Chromatography,
1987, p 301, Hüthig, Heidelberg, Germany with permission of the publisher,
Wiley-VCH and the author)

Figure 14. Only a few millilitres of developing solvent are required in the two
troughs positioned on opposite sides of the chamber. Samples can be developed
from one edge of the TLC/HPTLC plate or from both sides simultaneously.
The U-chamber, although a unit designed to run circular chromatograms, uses
the same principles of separation as the sandwich and horizontal chambers. It was
developed to exploit the improvements in resolution that can be achieved by the
fully controlled development of circular HPTLC chromatograms. Figure 15 shows
the principal parts of the chamber. A pre-spotted HPTLC plate (1) is placed with
sorbent layer downwards on the U-chamber body (2). Developing solvent is pumped
at a pre-determined rate onto the centre of the plate via a fine bore platinum–
iridium capillary (3). The atmosphere of the chamber can be altered at will by
passing the vapour phase desired through channel (4) and out through channel (5).
The Rf values measured differ from those measured in linear TLC. The two are
related by the following formula:

RR2f ¼ Rf ð10Þ

It follows from this, that circular chromatography is particularly useful for sample
components that show little migration from the origin. For example an analyte
which could have an Rf value of 0.01 (almost not measurable) would have an
RRf value of 0.1 even though the mobile phase was the same. Also, although
the samples are applied as spots, on development arcs, or bands form for each
Figure 14 The Camag horizontal developing chamber.
The principle of operation of the Camag Horizontal Development Chamber in
the sandwich configuration with development from both sides is described as
follows: the HPTLC plate (1) is placed layer-down at a distance of 0.5 mm
from the counterplate (2). If the tank configuration is to be used, the
counterplate (2) is removed and the recess below is either filled with
conditioning liquid or left empty. Narrow troughs (3) hold the mobile phase.
Development is started by pushing the levers, which tilt the glass strips (4)
inward. Solvent travels to the layer through the resulting capillary slit.
Development stops automatically when the solvent front meets in the centre
(development distance, 4.5 cm). The chamber, which is constructed from
poly(tetrafluoroethylene), is kept covered with a glass plate (5) at all times
(Permission for use granted by Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

Figure 15 Cross-section of the U-chamber. Designed for circular chromatograms

108 Chapter 5
component. This allows for a much more critical measurement of the position of
the analytes.

5.4 Automatic Developing Chamber (ADC)

As the name suggests this equipment fully automates the TLC development
procedure for the linear ascending technique. Such instruments, like the one shown
in Figure 16, provide complete control of the chromatogram development so that
all chromatograms are totally reproducible. Layer pre-conditioning, tank or
sandwich configuration, solvent migration distance, and drying conditions are all
selectable. Parameters can be entered via a keypad and a memory feature allows
complete developing programs to be stored for future use. The progress of
development is monitored using a CCD (charge coupled device) sensor, and the
migration time and distance are displayed continuously. Once the program run is
complete the chromatogram is dried in a choice of warm or cool air.

Figure 16 Camag automatic developing chamber (ADC). All parameters are selectable
using the keypad
(Permission for use granted by Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)
Development Techniques 109

Figure 17 Cross-section of an over-pressurised (forced flow) TLC system (OPLC)

(Reprinted from F. Geiss in Fundamentals of Thin Layer Chromatography,
1987, p 158, Hüthig, Heidelberg, Germany, with permission of the publisher,
Wiley-VCH and the author)

5.5 Forced-flow Development (OPLC)

This technique began its history in Hungary in the late 1970s with the research of
E. Tyihak et al.17 It is a forced-flow technique, often also called over-pressurised
liquid chromatography (OPLC). The solvent is applied to the sorbent layer by a
constant volume pump permitting the plate length and solvent migration rate for a
separation to be optimised independently of each other. The construction of the
chamber is such that the sorbent layer is sandwiched between a glass backing plate
and a flexible polymer membrane (sealing cushion) forced into close contact with
the layer by application of hydraulic pressure (see Figure 17).
The two basic parts of a forced-flow TLC instrument are the upper and lower
support blocks, which form a sandwich with the thin-layer plate. The bottom
support block may contain a thermostatting jacket. The upper support block holds a
membrane, the mobile phase inlet, pressure inlet, and pressure gauge, as well as an
arrangement for insulating these. The sorbent layer on a glass plate is positioned
facing the membrane. Clamps hold the upper and bottom support blocks together.
The advantages of this forced-flow TLC equipment for separations are listed in
Table 6. Unlike the previous development chambers, the OPLC system requires
mobile phase to be pumped under pressure through the sorbent layer. Hence

Table 6 Advantages of forced-flow thin-layer chromatography

1. The solvent velocity can be optimised independently of other experimental variables
2. Higher efficiencies can be achieved using fine particle sorbents and longer plates than is
possible with capillary controlled flow systems
3. A linear increase in efficiency with increasing migration distance is obtained. The upper
limit is set by the length of the sorbent layer and the pressure required to maintain the
optimum linear mobile phase velocity for that length
4. Analysis time can be reduced by a factor of 5 to 20
5. Mobile phases with poor sorbent wetting characteristics may be used
6. Solvent gradients, either step gradients or continuous gradients, can be employed to
optimise the separation conditions
110 Chapter 5

Figure 18 Spectrodensitometric trace of a standard mixture of doping agents separated by

OPLC at external membrane pressure of 1.0 MPa
Sorbent layer: HPTLC silica gel 60 F254
Mobile phase: butan-1-ol–chloroform–butanone–water–acetic acid (25:17:8:
4:6 v/v)
Flow rate: 0.85 cm min 1
Detection: UV, 210 nm
Peaks: 1, strychnine; 2, ephedrine; 3, methamphetamine; 4, phenmetrazine; 5,
methylphenidate; 6, amphetamine; 7, desopimon; 8, coramin; 9, caffeine
(Reprinted from H Gulyás et al., J. Chromatogr., 1984, 291, 471–475 with
permission of the publisher, Elsevier)

although not shown as a part of the equipment in Figure 17, a suitable solvent pump
delivering a non-pulsed flow of the type used in HPLC results in very short
development times.
The main advantages of the OPLC technique are reduced development time,
although this must be weighed against plate preparation time required, and the
increased spot capacity possible. For normal capillary flow HPTLC, spot capacities
of 20 to 25 are about the limit. However, present commercial OPLC equipment can
achieve spot capacities up to 80 (comparable to column chromatography). Further
improvements in the separation number as mentioned previously are only possible
by using longer plates, two-dimensional techniques or by automated multiple
development (AMD) the latter two being described later. Figure 18 illustrates a
typical separation with the OPLC technique.

5.6 Vario Chambers

The Vario chamber has remained an important piece of equipment since the late
1960s for the optimisation of development conditions on TLC and HPTLC plates.
There is no doubt that a Vario chamber is a most useful tool for scouting the optimum
solvent/solvent mixture, and solvent vapour conditions for a desired separation. Both
S-chamber and N-chamber configurations can be simulated using solvent vapour
Development Techniques 111
conditioning or non-conditioning formats. As well as allowing the development of
several solvents side by side, up to six different conditions of pre-loading, including
relative humidity can be tested simultaneously. A single unit to achieve this is
therefore very desirable One type of Vario chamber is shown in Figure 19.
As six chromatograms can be run on one plate, the results of attempts to optimise
the mobile phase can immediately be compared. Volumes of solvents used are very
small as each well in the chamber is designed to accommodate about one millilitre.
There is therefore little solvent wastage. The six chromatographic developments
usually take about the same time to complete. Hence the time of optimisation of the
solvent conditions is dramatically reduced. An example of how the chamber has
been used is demonstrated in Figure 20 by optimising a solvent mixture for the
separation of corticosteroids.
The Vario chamber from Camag is used in the following way:

1. A TLC/HPTLC glass plate is pre-scored to give six channels. The sample solu-
tions are then applied as spots or bands in the usual way on each sorbent track.
2. If pre-conditioning of the sorbent layer is required, then at this point the
conditioning liquid is poured into the troughs of the conditioning block.
3. The chromatographic layer is placed face down on the block with the
channels over the troughs and with the sample origins facing the solvent
wells. Retaining clips are used to clamp the plate in position.
4. A pipette is used to fill the solvent wells with about one millilitre of developing
solvent. Transfer glasses are placed in the wells and tilted outwards.
5. After the desired pre-equilibration time has elapsed, the clips are released, the
plate pushed towards the solvent wells, and the plate re-clipped in position.
The transfer glasses are tilted against the layer edge and the solvent is
transferred on to the TLC layer by capillary attraction. The development then
proceeds in the normal way.

Figure 19 The Camag HPTLC Vario chamber. The unit is designed for the optimisation of
developing parameters in HPTLC. Six developing solvents or pre-equilibrium
conditions can be investigated side by side. Developing conditions of both tank
and sandwich configurations can be simulated. Combinations of the above can
also be tested. The six channels on the HPTLC layer are achieved using the
scoring device shown
(Permission for use granted by Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)
112 Chapter 5

Figure 20 Optimisation of a developing solvent for the separation of corticosteroids after

uniform pre-conditioning at 72% relative humidity. The increase in methanol
content increases the polarity of the mobile phase resulting in increased
migration rate. Subsequent improvement in resolution of closely related
compounds occurs and it can be observed that the resolution power goes through
a maximum as the methanol content increases. The optimum separation is
achieved with chloroform-methanol (95:5% v/v).
Sorbent layer: HPTLC silica gel 60
Mobile phase: chloroform-methanol
Ratio: 93:7, 95:5, 90:10, 85:15, and 80:20% v/v
Detection: UV quenching at 254 nm

6 Multiple Development Techniques

Multiple development techniques are in some cases quite unique to TLC. They are
also very powerful techniques, focusing separated zones, often improving reso-
lution and spot/band capacity many-fold. Multiple development can be split into
several types that will now be described in more detail.

6.1 Single Mobile Phase Multiple and Continuous Development

Single mobile phase multiple development proceeds in the following way.
The first development is allowed to proceed until the mobile phase has migrated
to a predetermined point on the sorbent layer. The plate is then removed, dried
and re-introduced into the same solvent mixture. Development is again allowed
to proceed until the mobile phase has migrated the same distance. The process
can be repeated until the sample components have migrated sufficiently to be
resolved.
This technique is often used in amino-acid analysis where the sample contains
many components and a single development is insufficient to cause migration above
the lower part of the sorbent layer, and also to separate fully the amino-acids of
Development Techniques 113

Figure 21 Improved resolution of analytes by multiple development using the same mobile
phase
Sorbent layer: HPTLC silica gel CN F254s
Mobile phase: ethanol–water (20:80 v/v)
Detection: UV fluorescence quenching at 254 nm
Spots: propyl paraben, ethyl paraben, and methyl paraben (in ascending order)

interest. However, it is by no means limited to just this one application. There are
many instances where several developments with the same solvent give improved
resolution. One example is shown in Figure 21 where several developments of anti-
oxidants commonly used in beverages shows a dramatic improvement in resolution.
Sometimes a TLC plate does not seem long enough to give the required separation
of components of the sample. In these cases the continuous development method can
be useful. It also offers a number of other advantages over multiple development.
Only one developing solvent system is used. This is allowed to ascend the sorbent
layer in the usual way, but provision is made at the top of the layer for evaporation
with a ‘‘cut off’’ in the lid of the chromatography chamber. As the solvent evaporates
from the top of the sorbent layer, a continuous flow of mobile phase is maintained.
Unlike multiple development, reconditioning of the layer, equilibration of the TLC
tank, and drying steps before every development are eliminated. Also repetitive
multiple development with the same solvent is theoretically and sometimes
practically less effective as regards resolution. For the second and all subsequent
114 Chapter 5
runs in multiple development, the rising front reaches the lowest spot/band first. As a
consequence, this starts to migrate before the solvent front reaches the next spot/
band, thus reducing the DRf and detracting from the resolution achieved on the
previous run. However, once the front passes the second spot/band the effect
readjusts somewhat as this now migrates at a faster rate. For sample components of
low Rf value, the solvent front is travelling at its fastest rate and this adverse effect is
not important. However, for sample components that have migrated further up the
TLC plate, this resolution lessening effect becomes more significant. The number of
runs therefore goes through an optimum with respect to separation (as shown in
Figure 22). The following equation enables a calculation to be made of the number
of developments that can be performed without losing the resolution gained:
1
no ¼ 1R
ð11Þ
logð1 fÞ

At low Rf this can be simplified to:

1
no ¼ 1 ð12Þ
Rf

where 1Rf is the Rf value after the first development

no is the optimum number of developments

Figure 22 Multiple development and separation

Distance of chromatographic zone centres, DRf versus the number of
development runs for single development Rf values. As the Rf value for a
single development decreases, the number of runs required to give the
maximum DRf increases. In all cases the DRf goes through a maximum value
with increase of the development runs
(Reprinted from F. Geiss in Fundamentals of Thin Layer Chromatography,
1987, p 145, Hüthig, Heidelberg, Germany with permission of the publisher,
Wiley-VCH and the author)
Development Techniques 115
Figure 22 shows clearly the effect that occurs on multiple development. In
practice it is found that the number of runs must be 10–20% higher than the
calculated no to achieve maximum resolution. There is a relationship between 1Rf
and nRf after n runs:
n 1
Rf ¼ 1 ð1 Rf Þ n ð13Þ
However, what is more important is being able to calculate the number of runs (n)
necessary to raise 1Rf to nRf:
n
logð1 Rf Þ
n¼ 1R
ð14Þ
logð1 fÞ

Although continuous development has some advantages over single mobile phase
multiple development, the major disadvantage is reproducibility of the chromatogram.
As one cannot control the solvent front migration distance or the speed of migration, it
is possible to attain a degree of reproducibility based on the time of development.

6.2 Two-dimensional Development

Planar chromatography is the only technique of chromatography where two-
dimensional (2-D) development is possible. It is a very powerful separation tool
and yet is quite often overlooked as the procedure of choice. Unfortunately most
two-dimensional separations in the past have involved the separation of at least 20
amino-acids on cellulose or silica gel, where the procedure takes all day to run and
only one sample per plate can be analysed at a time. As the resulting chromatogram
is a ‘‘fingerprint’’, identifying the spots by comparison with standards is time
consuming as these will need to be run separately under the same mobile phase
conditions. However, once a method has been devised, the technique is a very
reliable and rugged one. Traditionally, amino-acids have been separated this way
for decades, (for a typical separation, see Figure 23).
In order to obtain good resolution, it is necessary to choose two solvent mixtures
that are quite different, although of similar solvent strength. This is quite difficult,
but important as otherwise the resolution of components will be no better than a
linear ascending chromatogram. For the sorbents, cellulose and silica gel, it is best
to choose the solvent mixture for the first dimension so that at least half of the
suspected components in the sample are separated on a linear chromatogram. The
solvent mixture for the second dimension will often need to give similar resolution
to that of the first, but in this instance the linear chromatogram will need to be
closely compared with the first one before deciding whether it is suitable. The first
chromatogram will have shown better resolution of some components than others,
whereas the second chromatogram will need to show better resolution of those
components poorly separated by the first solvent mixture.
Normally amino-acid separations are achieved by a combination of single
solvent multiple development and two-dimensional development. The sample is
applied as a spot to the sorbent layer in the corner of the plate, usually 1 cm from
each edge. After appropriate drying, the chromatogram is developed in the first
dimension with a solvent mixture that is polar, usually basic in nature. The plate is
116 Chapter 5

Figure 23 Two-dimensional separation of amino-acids in urine

Sorbent layer: cellulose TLC plate, 10 · 10 cm
Mobile phase 1: pyridine/1,4-dioxan/ammonia soln. (25%)/water (35:35:15:
15 v/v)
Mobile phase 2: ethanol/acetone/acetic acid/water (35:35:7:23 v/v)
Detection: Ninhydrin solution and heated for 15 min. at 120 – C
(By permission of Merck)
Development Techniques 117

Figure 24 The procedure of two-dimensional thin-layer chromatography

then dried and the chromatogram is developed again in the same direction with the
same solvent mixture. The plate is then thoroughly dried to remove all solvent
vapours, turned through 90– and developed with a different solvent, again a polar
mixture, but usually acidic. Again two developments with intermediate drying are
necessary to separate large numbers of amino-acids. (Figure 24 shows diagramma-
tically the technique of two-dimensional separation.)
Typical solvent mixtures that are used for amino-acid separations are shown in
Table 7. Amino-acids are visualised with ninhydrin reagent (normally as a spray
solution in butan-1-ol).
As the choice of solvents often presents a problem, chromatographers have
sought to remove the difficulty by using other stationary phases where changes in

Table 7 Developing solvent mixtures that have been recommended for two-
dimensional TLC separation of underivatised amino-acids

Solvent Mixture for Solvent Mixture for

Sorbent 1st Dimension 2nd Dimension

Cellulose Pyridine/1,4-dioxan/ammonia soln. Butan-1-ol/acetone/acetic

25% w/w/water (35:35:15:15 v/v) acid/water (35:35:7:23 v/v)
Cellulose Pyridine/1,4-dioxan/ammonia soln. Ethanol/acetone/acetic
25% w/w/water (35:35:15:15 v/v) acid/water (35:35:7:23 v/v)
Cellulose tert-Butanol/butanone/ammonia soln. Butan-2-ol/acetone/acetic
25% w/w/water (45:27:9:18 v/v) acid/water (21:21:6:12 v/v)
Cellulose tert-Butanol/butanone/ammonia soln. Ethanol/acetone/acetic
25% w/w/water (45:27:9:18 v/v) acid/water (21:21:6:12 v/v)
Cellulose tert-Butanol/butanone/ammonia soln. Butan-1-ol/acetone/acetic
25% w/w/water (50:30:10:12 v/v) acid/water (35:35:20:10 v/v)
Silica gel 60 Butan-1-ol/propionic acid/water Pentan-1-ol/butanone/pyridine/water
(40:10:10 v/v) (20:20:20:15 v/v)
Silica gel 60 Butan-1-ol/acetic acid/water Pentan-1-ol/butanone/pyridine/water
(40:10:10 v/v) (20:20:20:10 v/v)
118 Chapter 5
mobile phase would make dramatic differences in separation. Two approaches have
been used, both based on the same idea:
Dual Phase Layer. A dual phase as described in Chapter 2 allows development in
the reversed-phase zone with very polar solvents (e.g. methanol/acetonitrile with
water), and further separation in the normal-phase part of the plate with much less
polar solvents. As one switches from one stationary phase to the other, the order of
migration of separated components is reversed.
Cyano-bonded Silica Gel. As described in Chapter 2 this bonded layer has the
ability to be used for dual phase partition chromatography. With non-polar solvents
it separates on the basis of a normal-phase partitioning mechanism, whereas with
polar solvents the mechanism reverts to reversed-phase partitioning. The plate can
therefore be used in exactly the same way as cellulose or silica gel 60 layers, but the
resolution is noticeably improved.

6.3 Manual Gradient Development

Gradient development is employed where the sample contains both non-polar and
polar analytes. In its simplest form a strong solvent is chosen and allowed to
migrate halfway up the plate. This solvent is polar enough to cause some migration
of the most polar sample components and for the non-polar components to travel
with the solvent front. After drying, development is repeated with a weaker solvent,
but this time the solvent front is allowed to migrate the entire separation length. The
substances separated on the first run remain almost immobile whilst those on the
solvent front (less polar ones) now separate on the upper part of the plate. In its
usual form, gradient development involves a stepwise development in which the
most polar solvent is used to cause migration of all the sample components, but the
solvent front is only allowed to travel a short distance. After drying, the process is
repeated with a slightly less polar solvent, allowing the solvent front to travel
slightly further. This process is repeated 10 or 20 times reducing the polarity of the
solvent each time until a satisfactory separation is attained. The system can be
further advanced into Automated Multiple Development (AMD) where the whole
process of gradient TLC/HPTLC is automated.

6.4 Automated Multiple Development (AMD)

As the name suggests, AMD is based on the same principle as manual multiple
development. An AMD chromatogram is the result of several (usually at least 10)
automated chromatographic runs. In most cases the number varies between 10 and
40. The migration distance of the solvent front in each run is progressively longer
by a constant increment. Typical increments are from 1 to 3 mm. The distance is
programmed via computer control of the instrument. As each solvent run is
completed, the developing tank is drained and the HPTLC plate dried by a vacuum
system. Before the next run begins, solvent vapour is pumped into the chamber to
pre-condition the plate. As the early solvent mixtures will be most polar (normal-
phase development), the sample components of interest will be focused or
sharpened into tight bands (see Figure 25).
Development Techniques 119

Figure 25 The effect of zone focusing during automated multiple development.

Here the use of methanol or acetonitrile as the first polar solvent for a short
development distance on silica gel 60 followed by slightly less polar solvents
results in sharpening or focusing the chromatographic zones. This improves the
detection limit and resolution

This occurs because the solvent reaches the lower edge of the chromatographic
zone first. This begins to migrate whilst the upper part of the zone remains in the
dry part of the sorbent. A concentration of the zone into a much thinner band
therefore occurs at or near the solvent front. Once achieved, the later solvent
mixture runs cause little noticeable diffusion into the sorbent layer. Hence
separation numbers of 25 to 30 are routinely observed. An AMD elution gradient
for normal-phase separation therefore starts with a strong, polar solvent and ends
with a weak, non-polar one. As expected for reversed-phase separations, the
opposite procedure for choice of solvent polarity is applied.
Solvent mixtures are prepared by a pump and gradient mixer for pure solvents
contained in storage jars. An example of a commercially available AMD unit is
shown in Figure 26. This system has six solvent jars and is fully programmable,
with the ability to store and recall gradient methods. A typical AMD chromato-
graphic separation of pesticides using this system is shown in Figure 27. It consists
of 10 runs of dichloromethane – acetonitrile (70: 30 v/v) to extract the ‘‘active’’
components to a migration distance of 10 mm on the plate. This was followed by
5 runs involving step changes to pure dichloromethane. Finally during a further
10 runs a constant change is made to pure n-hexane.
If required, the mobile phase can be adjusted at any time with acid or base
modifiers. Usually methanol or acetonitrile are chosen as the polar solvents,
dichloromethane and tert-butylmethyl ether as the intermediate solvents, and
n-hexane as the non-polar solvent. However, when necessary the polarity can be
120 Chapter 5

Figure 26 The Automated Developing System (AMD) manufactured by Camag. The

developing chamber is situated in the front portion of the unit. The five
reservoir bottles under the front housing hold the solvents for use in the
developing cycles. Located at the back of the hood is the gas wash bottle, a
molecular sieve vessel for making up the gas phase, and a solvent wash bottle.
The computer controls any required pre-conditioning, development steps,
migration times, solvent concentrations and drying times
(Permission for use granted by Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

adjusted at any stage to ‘‘fine tune’’ the resolution of the separation. Figure 28
shows another example of a typical AMD separation that demonstrates the
improved resolution achievable with this technique.
However, it should be borne in mind that this form of TLC development is not
recommended for analytes that are volatile or unstable when subjected to repeated
drying. Solvents with high boiling points, low volatility, and high viscosity should be
avoided as development and drying times will become very long. In order to
improve the migration rates for solvents in AMD, thin coated HPTLC plates have
been commercially developed that have a silica gel thickness of 100 or 50 mm.
Using these layers, most AMD separations can be completed in 30 to 60 minutes.
Since its beginning the AMD approach to complex separations has proved to be an
excellent tool for noticeable improvement in resolution. Examples abound in
the TLC literature with separations of carbohydrates (14 components),18 pesticides
(16 components),19–22 phenolic compounds (13 components),23,24 vanilla extract
(10 components),25,26 phospholipids (9 components),27 camomile extract (15
components),28 gangliosides (9 components)29 and amines (9 components).30
Development Techniques 121

Figure 27 Separation of 16 pesticides demonstrating the resolving power of AMD. The

result is a multi-wavelength scan of one chromatographic track.
Sorbent layer: HPTLC silica gel 60 F254s, 20 · 10 cm
Mobile phase: 20-step gradient based on n-hexane/acetonitrile/dichloro-
methane
Peaks: 2,4-D, atrazine, benzanilide, chlortoluron, cyanazine, desethylatrazine,
metazachlor, metobromuron, metoxuron, monuron, phenmedipham, phendi-
methalin, propazin, simazine, terbutylazine, vinclozolin (25 ng ml 1 of each)
(Permission for use granted by Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

7 Mobile Phase Additives

7.1 Use of Buffers and pH
Several equations have been derived to show the dependence of pH in TLC on
the Rf and Rm values, the phase ratio (As/Am), and the distribution coefficient (K).
The important relationship is:
As
Rm ¼ log K þ pH pKa ð15Þ
Am
ð1 Rf Þ
where Rm ¼ log k0 ¼ log Rf
Although Rf values are directly related to the separations obtained, the Rm value
often proves more convenient in the theory of optimisation of chromatographic
systems as it can be directly related to a number of parameters, such as temperature,
molecular structure of the analyte, solvent composition, and pH. Of course, the use
of pH and buffers can only affect the final chromatogram if the analytes are
capable of dissociation in water. One of the domains of pH-controlled separations
is in ion-exchange TLC. Unfortunately few strong anion and cation pre-coated
122 Chapter 5

Figure 28 AMD separation of a chamomile extract.

Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 HPTLC, 10 · 20 cm glass plate
Mobile phase: 15-step gradient based on methanol/dichloromethane/water/
formic acid (from 70.5:25:4.5:1 to 0:100:0:0 v/v)
Detection: fluorescence with excitation at 360 nm
Peaks: 1, apigenin 7-O-glucoside; 2, caffeic acid; 3, apigenin; 4, umbellifer-
one; 5, ferulic acid; 6, herniarin
(Reprinted from E. Menziani et al., J. Chromatogr., 1990, 511, 396–401 with
permission of the publisher, Elsevier)

plates are commercially available to utilise this technique. However, weak base
anion-exchangers do exist in the form of amino-bonded and PEI cellulose TLC
layers. These were described in Chapter 2 along with examples that clearly
demonstrate the types of separation that are achievable.

Figure 29a Complex formation of carbohydrates with boric acid. Where acid conditions
prevail in the mobile phase (low pH), complex I is formed. However, if the
conditions are alkaline (high pH), further reaction occurs to form complex II
Figure 29b Typical separation of carbohydrates in honey using 2-aminoethyldiphenyl
borate as complexing reagent to improve resolution.
Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 HPTLC, 10 · 10 cm glass plate
Mobile phase: acetonitrile/15 mM sodium dihydrogen phosphate buffer, pH
5.5 (85:15 v/v)
Complexing agent: 0.034 g/100 ml 2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate
Chamber: fully saturated N-chamber
Visualisation: 2% w/v diphenylamine and 2% w/v aniline in methanol –
orthophosphoric acid (80:20 v/v).
Tracks: 1, maltose; 2, sucrose; 3, glucose; 4, fructose; 5, honey; 6, golden
syrup (overloaded); 7, golden syrup
Concentrations: all standards, 1000 ppm, honey, 2000 ppm, golden syrup,
2000 ppm and 200 ppm respectively
Development Techniques 123
124 Chapter 5
One specific area of separation where buffers have proved invaluable in
obtaining improved resolution of analytes is in carbohydrate analysis. In Chapter 2
impregnation of silica gel layers with sodium or potassium dihydrogen phosphate
was described. Addition of these buffers to the developing solvent often results
in the same or similar effect. Typically 50 mM concentrations will be sufficient
to inhibit glycamine formation from reducing sugars (the principal separation
application for this technique). The use of phosphate and borate buffers either in
the developing solvent mixture or by impregnation into the sorbent layer results
in clearly resolved carbohydrates. The borate radical reacts readily with polyols
present in the carbohydrate structure to form unstable ionic complexes (see
Figure 29a). This effect appears to be most pronounced where silica gel is the
sorbent. An example of the results that can be obtained is shown in Figure 29b. This
particular separation incorporates the use of 2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate in the
developing solvent mixture as the complexing agent. Well resolved analytes and
good reproducible results are achieved for carbohydrate standards, honey, golden
syrups and similar products.

7.2 Acid or Base Additives

The use of acid and base additives is really an extension of the pH effects described
earlier. In many cases separations can be improved by the addition of an acid,
usually acetic, formic or propionic, or a base, such as ammonia solution,
triethylamine or pyridine. These may have the effect of reducing ‘‘tailing’’,
resulting in sharper, less diffuse, and more circular spots or even dramatically
altering the retention rate and sometimes changing the order of migration of the
components of the sample. Most of these results can be accounted for by the nature
of the analytes. If the molecules are charged or by altering the pH, they can be
ionised or the ionisation suppressed, then addition of acid or base most often causes
the above changes and noticeably improves the chromatographic separation. This
illustrates the need to obtain as much information about the nature of the sample
before chromatography. Examples of the use of acid or base additives are shown in
Figures 7,8 in Chapter 2.

7.3 Ion-pairing Reagents

The use of ion-pairing reagents has proved successful in both improving the quality
of separations and in obtaining resolution of compounds that hitherto had been
difficult. The method relies upon the formation of a complex between ions of
opposite charge, the solute and the counter-ion. For ion-pairing to occur, the sample
components must be ionised and a suitable ion-pairing reagent chosen of opposite
charge. pH therefore again plays an important part. For example, a sample may
contain components that are completely ionised at pH 7 where ion-pairing
formation will be at a maximum. However, when the pH is lowered to 4, sample
anions begin to form un-ionised acids, Rf values decrease, and due to the variation
in ionisation between components, ion-pairing formation will vary and separation
will occur. As a general rule in reversed-phase systems if the pKa of an analyte is 5,
Development Techniques 125
then it will migrate faster as the pH drops below about 5.5. For an analyte with a
pKa of 3, little change in the migration rate will occur until the pH drops below
about 3.5. Conversely for normal-phase systems, the results are inverted.

Analyteð Þ þ Counter-ionðþÞ ¼ Ion-pairð6Þ

AnalyteðþÞ þ Counter-ionð Þ
¼ Ion-pairð6Þ

e.g.
R0 SOð3 Þ þ ðC4 H9 Þ4 NðþÞ ¼ ½ðC4 H9 Þ4 N ðR0 SO3 Þ

R4 NðþÞ þ C5 H11 SOð3 Þ ¼ ðR4 NÞ ðC5 H11 SO3 Þ

In TLC/HPTLC the reagent can be incorporated into the separation sequence in two
ways:

1. The sorbent layer is impregnated with a solution of the ion-pairing reagent

(usually prepared in as volatile a solvent mixture as possible without pre-
cipitation, at a concentration of 0.001–0.1 M). After drying, the plate is ready
for the application of the sample and development in the desired solvent.

Figure 30 Separation of alkaloids using an anion-pair reagent in the mobile phase.

Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 RP18 F254s TLC, 10 · 20 cm glass plate
Mobile phase: methanol/50 mM potassium dihydrogen phosphate, pH 4
(40:60 v/v)
Ion pair: 100 mM octane sulphonic acid sodium salt
Chamber: N–chamber, without saturation
Peaks: 1, eupaverine chloride (0.2%); 2, papaverine (0.3%); 3, caffeine
(0.3%); 4, codeine (1.0%)
Detection: scanning in absorption mode at 254 nm
(By permission of Merck)
126 Chapter 5
2. The sample is applied to the sorbent layer in the usual way and the ion-pairing
reagent incorporated into the mobile phase, normally at an overall con-
centration of 1–2% w/v.

Research has shown that the former approach often gives the most predictable
results. For some long chain ion-pair reagents (e.g. cetrimide), prior impregnation
of the plates with reagent is essential for effective ion-pairing.31 Even with shorter
chain reagents, (e.g. tetramethylammonium bromide) there is a noticeable higher
degree of ion-pair formation with pre-chromatographic impregnation compared
with mobile phase addition. Anion-pairing reagents have been used successfully for
the separation of alkaloids,32 phenothiazine, phenothiazine sulphoxide,33 and basic
dyes.34 Cation-pairing reagents have similarly been used for alkaloids and for
aromatic acids.35 (For examples, see Figures 30–32.)

7.4 Chiral Additives

In recent years a number of additives to the mobile phase have proved successful
for the TLC separation of a substantial number of racemates. Of these the most
thoroughly investigated have been ligand-exchange (see also Chapter 2), ‘‘Pirkle’’
reagents, cyclodextrins, cellulose triacetate, BSA (bovine serum albumin), and other

Figure 31 Separation of nitrogen based compounds using a cation-pair reagent.

Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 RP18 F254s TLC, 10 · 20 cm glass plate
Mobile phase: acetone/water (50:50 v/v)
Ion pair: 0.1 M tetraethylammonium bromide
Chamber: N–chamber, without saturation
Peaks: 1, methaqualone (0.5%); 2, phenobarbital (0.1%); 3, diphenhydramine
(0.3%); 4, barbital (1.0%); 5, codeine (0.2%); 6, morphine (0.1%)
Detection: scanning in absorption mode at 254 nm
(By permission of Merck)
Development Techniques 127

Figure 32 Separation of organic acids using a cation-pairing reagent.

Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 RP8 F254s TLC, 10 · 20 cm glass plate
Mobile phase: acetone/water (40:60 v/v)
Ion pair: 0.005 M tetrapropylammonium bromide
Chamber: N–chamber, without saturation
Peaks: 1, 2-methylbenzoic acid (0.5%); 2, benzoic acid (1.0%); 3, acetyl-
salicylic acid (0.5%); 4, phthalic acid (1.0%)
Detection: scanning in absorption mode at 254 nm
(By permission of Merck)

specific chiral selectors. Our interest here in mobile phase choice will limit us to the
discussion of these chiral additives where they are introduced into the mobile phase.
At present this applies to cyclodextrins, BSA, and other specific chiral additives.

7.4.1 Cyclodextrins
Although the use of cyclodextrin phases in TLC was reported in 1986,36 it has
become more popular to use reversed-phase TLC plates and add the cyclodextrin
(usually b-) to the mobile phase.37 Satisfactory resolution of racemic analytes, such
as dansyl DL-glutamic acid can be obtained with concentrations greater than
0.04 M b-cyclodextrin, but for optimum resolution the concentration should be
between 0.08 and 0.12 M. High concentrations cause the spots or bands to merge
near the solvent front and hence the resolution deteriorates.
Unfortunately the use of cyclodextrins does have a few major drawbacks in TLC.
Development times are long, usually 6–8 hours, and cyclodextrins are only slightly
soluble in water (1.67 · 10 2 M at 25 – C). Solubility can be increased by
dissolving the cyclodextrin in saturated urea solution; concentrations up to 0.2 M
are then possible. Modified cylclodextrins, hydroxypropyl-, hydroxyethyl-, and
maltosyl-b-cyclodextrin are much more soluble in water (50.4 M). It has been
noted that for hydroxypropyl- and hydroxyethyl-b-cyclodextrins, the solubility
increases with the degree of substitution. However, higher concentrations are
necessary to achieve the same resolution. This unfortunately results in high
128 Chapter 5
Table 8 pH dependency of the developing solvent on the retention and resolution
of enantimeric tryptophans on Sil C18-50 UV254 plates
(Reproduced by permission of the publishers of the Journal of Planar
Chromatography)

Eluent pH 9.30 Eluent pH 9.55

DL-Tryptophans Rl1a) Rl2b) ac) Rsd) Rl1 Rl2 a Rs

Tryptophan 0.58 0.58 1.00 – 0.58 0.58 1.00 –

Tryptophanamide 0.27 0.27 1.00 – 0.27 0.27 1.00 –
a-Methyltryptophan 0.52 0.52 1.00 – 0.52 0.52 1.00 –
1-Methyltryptophan 0.35 0.35 1.00 – 0.35 0.35 1.00 –
4-Methyltryptophan 0.47 0.58 1.54 2.3 0.45 0.58 1.68 2.5
5-Methyltryptophan 0.42 0.58 1.90 3.7 0.40 0.58 2.07 2.7
6-Methyltryptophan 0.58 0.63 1.23 1.0 0.58 0.63 1.23 1.0
7-Methyltryptophan 0.41 0.50 1.43 2.3 0.40 0.49 1.44 2.3
5-Hydroxytryptophan 0.66 0.66 1.00 – 0.67 0.67 1.00 –
5-Methoxytryptophan 0.42 0.49 1.32 1.7 0.40 0.46 1.28 1.6
Glycyltryptophan 0.62 0.67 1.24 1.1 0.61 0.68 1.35 1.2

Eluent pH 9.80 Eluent pH 9.92

DL-Tryptophans Rl1 Rl2 a Rs Rl1 Rl2 a Rs

Tryptophan 0.59 0.72 1.77 2.4 0.64 0.76 1.80 2.5

Tryptophanamide 0.31 0.40 1.48 1.4 0.35 0.42 1.34 1.3
a-Methyltryptophan 0.52 0.52 1.00 – 0.55 0.55 1.00 –
1-Methyltryptophan 0.36 0.36 1.00 – 0.42 0.42 1.00 –
4-Methyltryptophan 0.42 0.65 2.56 4.5 0.48 0.70 2.52 4.1
5-Methyltryptophan 0.37 0.61 2.53 2.7 0.43 0.66 2.56 3.2
6-Methyltryptophan 0.66 0.78 1.82 2.2 0.69 0.84 2.32 2.3
7-Methyltryptophan 0.38 0.42 1.18 1.2 0.45 0.45 1.00 –
5-Hydroxytryptophan 0.66 0.66 1.00 – 0.74 0.74 1.00 –
5-Methoxytryptophan 0.41 0.43 1.08 0.8 0.47 0.47 1.00 –
Glycyltryptophan 0.62 0.77 2.05 1.7 0.68 0.77 1.57 1.5
a)
more retained Isomer
b)
less retained
. Isomer
c)
a ¼ 1 Rl1Rl1 1 Rl2Rl2
d)
Rs ¼ 2 · (distance between spots)/(sum of widths of spots)
Mobile phase: 50 mM di-sodium tetraborate containing propan-2-ol (6% v/v) and BSA (6% w/v)
Development Techniques 129

Figure 33 Separation of the enantiomers of metoprolol (A), propranolol (B), and

alprenolol (C) using ZGP as additive on moisture equilibrated silica gel 60
DIOL HPTLC, 10 · 10 cm glass plates.
Mobile phase: dichloromethane stabilised with ethanol
Chiral selector: 5 mM ZGP in the mobile phase
Samples applied: (A) 1 mg, (B) 0.5 mg, (C) 1 mg
Detection: scanning in absorption mode at 254 nm
(Reprinted from A-M Tivert, A Bachman, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1993, 6, 217,
with permission of the editor of Journal of Planar Chromatography)

viscosity mobile phases and long development times (often in excess of 40 hours).
The results with the maltosyl- derivative are similar.38,39

7.4.2 Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)

Racemic tryptophan, substituted tryptophans, and dinitro-pyridyl, phenyl, and
benzoyl amino-acids can be resolved into their respective enantiomers on reversed-
phase TLC plates using high concentrations of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) in
the mobile phase. The resolution is very dependent on pH, with the best results
obtained at pH 9–10. The amount of propan-2-ol in the mobile phase also plays an
important part in the separation as does the type of reversed-phase layer. (Some
layers cannot be used at high pH [59.55].) Optimum eluents contain 6% w/v BSA
and propan-2-ol. The pH dependency is shown in Table 8.40

7.4.3 Other Chiral Selectors

N-Carbobenzyloxyglycyl-L-proline (ZGP). The chiral separation of the b-blocking
drugs, alprenolol and propanolol was reported in 1989 using ZGP in the mobile
phase.41 Since then the procedure has further been used for the resolution of
enantiomers of phenylpropanolamine, pindolol, norphenylephrine, isoproterenol,
and timolol.42 Both silica gel and diol-modified silica have served as satisfactory
stationary phases with developing solvents consisting of dichloromethane, and
dichloromethane mixed with methanol or propan-2-ol. The concentration of ZGP
varied from 5–7 mM. However, a basic modifier was always added to achieve
130 Chapter 5

Figure 34 (A) – Spectrodensitometric scan of the separation of a mixture of cis and trans
isomers of capsaicin.
Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 RP18W HPTLC, 10 · 10 cm glass plate
Sample: 100 nl containing 0.02% w/v capsaicin in dichloromethane
Mobile phase: methanol/water (50:50 v/v) þ 1.5% w/v silver nitrate
Chamber: N-chamber, fully saturated
Visualisation: 2,6-dichloroquinone-4-chlorimide in ethanol (0.1% w/v)
(B) – Spectrodensitometric scan of the separation of a typical processed chilli
extract. Chromatographic conditions are as above
Peaks: 1, homodihydrocapsaicin; 2, dihydrocapsaicin; 3, trans-capsaicin
(Reprinted from P. E. Wall, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1997, 10, 8, with permission
of the editor of Journal of Planar Chromatography)

acceptable resolution; either ethanolamine (0.4 M) or triethylamine (5 mM) has

proved successful. Further research has shown that the resolution can be improved
by increasing the water content of the stationary phase (the diol modified layer) up
to 80% relative humidity (see Figure 33).43

(1R)-(-)-Ammonium-10-camphorsulphonate (CAS). This additive has been used in

a similar way to ZGP, with concentrations varying from 6–10 mM in the mobile
phase. The following racemates have been resolved, octopamine, norphenylephrine,
propranolol, isoproterenol, metoprolol, and timolol.44 However, unlike ZGP
the solubility is poor, limiting the range of solvents which can be selected for
Development Techniques 131

Figure 35 The structures of cis and trans isomers of capsaicin

Figure 36 Separation of cis and trans isomers (triolein and trielaidin) of a C18:1
triacylglyceride using argentation HPTLC.
Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 RP18 HPTLC, 10 · 10 cm glass plate impregnated
with silver nitrate
Mobile phase: dichloromethane/methanol/ethyl acetate/acetic acid/saturated
silver nitrate soln. (25:35:20:12:6 v/v)
Chamber: N-chamber, fully saturated
Visualisation: phosphomolybdic acid reagent
Tracks: 1, trans isomer; 2, cis isomer; 3, mixture of cis and trans isomers
132 Chapter 5
the mobile phase. CAS is only slightly soluble in dichloromethane, but this can be
improved by the addition of at least 10% methanol or propan-2-ol.

7.5 Argentation (Silver Nitrate) TLC

Normally argentation TLC is achieved by incorporating silver nitrate into the
sorbent layer by impregnation (Chapter 2). However, the silver nitrate can also be
added to the mobile phase in reversed-phase separations where the solvent is
aqueous based. This technique has been applied to the separation of cis and trans
isomers of capsaicin and also the homologues of capsaicin on reversed-phase silica
gel plates (see Figure 34).45,46
Capsaicin and its analogues are the pungent principals of many types of red and
green peppers. The resolution is such that quantitative determinations can be
carried out on each geometric isomer by in situ densitometric scanning of the
HPTLC layer. The structures shown in Figure 35 indicate the position of the p-bond
in each case. The trans isomer exhibits greater retention on the layer than the cis
isomer due to the position of the -CH(CH3)2 group. In nature only the trans isomer
has so far been found to exist.
Similar separations have also been achieved for cis and trans isomers of
unsaturated triacylglycerides as shown in Figure 36. Here a combination of silver
nitrate impregnation of the chromatographic layer and modification of the
developing solvent have been used to resolve two triacylglycerides that differ
only in their cis/trans configuration about the p-bonds in the ester chains.

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CHAPTER 6

Detection and Visualisation

1 Introduction
Once development of the chromatogram is complete, usually some kind of
visualisation of the chromatographic zones is required as most compounds are not
visibly coloured. Many compounds will absorb UV light or exhibit fluorescence
when excited by UV or visible light, but most require visualisation using an
appropriate spraying or dipping reagent. Due to the inert nature of the sorbents
commonly used in TLC layers, chemical reactions can be carried out on the plate
without the sorbent layer being affected. A wide variety of chemical reagents have
been used to good effect for chromatographic zone detection. Even quite aggressive
reagents, like hydrochloric or sulfuric acid solutions, can usually be tolerated. The
list of visualisation reagents for TLC is large, reflecting the versatility of detection
techniques. A number of excellent publications exist in which the formulations for
both spraying and dipping reagents have been collated from the chromatography
literature.1–3 Some reagents are termed universal reagents as they are used to
visualise a wide range of compounds of differing molecular structures. Included in
this group of reagents are acid solutions and vapours, ammonia vapour, fluorescein,
dichlorofluorescein, and iodine. Some reagents can be used in destructive
techniques. They cause a breakdown of the compounds of interest leaving behind
a visible deposit on the chromatographic layer. Conversely there are non-
destructive techniques that allow detection of compounds in the chromatographic
zones without the layer or zones being chemically altered. Included in non-
destructive techniques are visible and UV light, and sometimes the use of iodine
or ammonia vapour. The latter two reagents are included as in many cases the
‘‘reaction’’ is reversible. Other reagents are functional group specific and can be
used to detect classes of compounds, such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, or
acids. These are termed group specific reagents. This is about the limit of specificity
as no genuine substance specific reagents exist.
Often, separated compounds can be detected and visualised by a combination of
the above techniques. A non-destructive technique, such as UV irradiation, may be
used first, followed by a universal reagent, and then finally a group specific method
to enhance selectivity and sensitivity. Often for a particular analyte there may be
several visualisation reagents available. However, there is often a difference is
specificity and usually a difference in the limit of sensitivity. Stability also plays an

134
Detection and Visualisation 135
important part in the selection of a suitable detection reagent. Some reagents have
good stability over a number of weeks whilst others need to be made up just prior to
use. The visualised chromatographic zones may also differ in stability. Some fade
quite quickly, whilst others although remaining stable, become more difficult to
visualise as the background darkens or is affected in some other way by the reagent.
Fortunately the majority of reagents give acceptably stable results. Sometimes dark
or coloured backgrounds can be lightened by exposure of the chromatographic
layer to acidic or alkaline vapours.
The choice of solvent used to prepare the visualisation reagent also requires
consideration. Sometimes a poor selection of solvent results in the visualised
chromatographic zones becoming diffuse and developing tails. The effect takes on
the appearance of ‘‘leaking’’ zones on the layer. It is usually caused by the analytes
in the chromatographic zones being soluble in the reagent solvent. The problem can
be solved by using a solvent with a lower elution strength in the preparation of the
reagent. However, all these effects will need to be taken into consideration so that
the most effective visualisation procedure is used.

2 Non-destructive Techniques
2.1 Visible Detection
Some compounds are sufficiently coloured, for example, natural and synthetic dyes,
and nitrophenols, to give an absorption in the visible part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. These are clearly seen in visible light and do not require any further
treatment for visualisation. The majority, however, as mentioned earlier do require
some means of rendering them visible. Hence the need for the following techniques.

2.2 Ultra-violet Detection

Separated chromatographic zones on a TLC/HPTLC layer may appear colourless in
normal light, but can absorb electromagnetic radiation at shorter wavelengths.
These are often detected in the UV range, normally at 200–400 nm. Often exposure
to UV light at short wave radiation (254 nm) or long wave radiation (366 nm) is all
that is necessary for absorbing or fluorescing substances to be observed. Most
commercial UV lamps and cabinets function at either or both of these wavelengths.
Chromatographic zones normally appear dark on a lighter background or if fluores-
cence occurs, a variety of visible spectrum colours are seen. To aid visualisation
many commercial pre-coated TLC layers contain an inorganic phosphorescent
indicator, or an organic fluorescent indicator (see Chapter 2). Detection by absorb-
ance in these cases relies on the phosphorescence or fluorescence being quenched
by the sample components. This process is commonly called ‘‘fluorescence
quenching’’ in both cases, although more accurately for most indicators designated
F254 it should be described as phosphorescence quenching. In these instances the
fluorescence remains for a short period after the source of excitation is removed.
(It is very short lived, but longer than 10 8 seconds.)4 Hence, the effect is best
observed by continual exposure to UV light.
136 Chapter 6

Figure 1 Electronic transitions during luminescence phenomena

The process of fluorescence is caused by the electromagnetic radiation providing

the energy to bring about an electronic transition from the ground state to an excited
singlet state (see Figure 1). As the excited electrons return to the ground state, they
emit the energy at a longer wavelength, usually in the visible range. As the diagram
shows in Figure 1, phosphorescence is slightly different. Rather than a direct return
to the ground state, the electrons return via an excited triplet state to the ground
state. As before, the energy is emitted at a longer wavelength. However, as the decay
is longer after the source of UV light energy is removed, the process is better
described as phosphorescence rather than fluorescence. However, whether the
excitation of the indicator in the chromatographic layer exhibits fluorescence or
phosphorescence, it is the analyte on the layer that disturbs this process by absorbing
the excitation energy. This then results in the typical dark chromatographic zones of
the analytes being observed on the fluorescent or phosphorescent background.
Where analytes naturally fluoresce when exposed to UV light, a chromatographic
layer containing a fluorescent or phosphorescent indicator may or may not be an
advantage. Most of these analytes fluoresce at 366 nm and not at 254 nm. Hence a
TLC/HPTLC plate containing an indicator that fluoresces at 254 nm can be an
advantage, as both fluorescence and fluorescence quenching can be observed
depending on the wavelength. However, if there are analytes present that fluoresce
only at 254 nm, or at both wavelengths, then a chromatographic layer without an
indicator should be used to avoid background interference. It is also possible to
stabilise and sometimes enhance the phosphorescence by the use of certain reagent
treatments. A list of the common reagents used is given in Table 1 along with the
estimated level of enhancement possible. The effect is simply achieved by dipping
the sorbent layer in the reagent solution for a few seconds following treatment with
the detection reagent. Normal air drying at room temperature is sufficient to
complete the process.
Many analytes, however, do not absorb visible or UV light, quench fluorescence,
or fluoresce when excited by visible or UV light. In these instances suitable
detection reagents are used to give coloured chromatographic zones in visible light
Detection and Visualisation 137
Table 1 Some fluorescence intensifiers and their application areas

Intensifier Compounds detected Enhancement Stabilisation

Triton X-100* Polycyclic aromatic 10-fold Partially

(1% v/v solution in hydrocarbons
hexane or heptane)
Triton X-100 Fatty acids as At least 10-fold Yes
(1% v/v solution dansyl amides
in hexane or heptane)
Polyethylene glycol Compounds with 20 to 25-fold Unknown
400 or 4000 (10% w/v alcoholic (–OH)
in methanol) functional groups
Dodecane Polycyclic aromatic 2-fold Unknown
(50% w/v in hexane) hydrocarbons
Paraffin liquid Aflatoxins 3 to 4-fold Unknown
(33% v/v in hexane)
Paraffin liquid Ketosteroids, 10-fold Unknown
(33% v/v in hexane) cholesterol, cortisol
Paraffin liquid Dansyl amides 10-fold Yes
(33% v/v in hexane)
Paraffin liquid Gentamycins Yes, but level Yes
(33% v/v in hexane) unknown

*Triton is a registered trade name of Rohem and Haas

or at shorter wavelengths in the UV. If these are reversible reactions, then they can
also be termed non-destructive techniques. A number of these reagents will now be
considered.

2.3 Reversible Reactions

2.3.1 Iodine Vapour
This is a very useful universal reagent detecting the presence of many organic
species on thin layers, but it should never be overlooked that some reactions with
iodine are irreversible. These reactions will be discussed later under a separate
heading. The use of iodine as a vapour enables the detection of separated sub-
stances rapidly and economically before final characterisation with a group specific
reagent. Where lipophilic zones are present on a chromatographic layer, the iodine
molecules will concentrate in the substance zones giving yellow–brown chro-
matographic zones on a lighter yellow background.
Preparation of the reagent simply involves putting a few iodine crystals in a dry
chromatography tank, replacing the lid and allowing the iodine vapour to fill the air
space for a few hours. The developed chromatogram is then introduced into the
chamber and as soon as the chromatographic zones are recognised, the layer is
removed and the results recorded. The adsorbed iodine can then be allowed to
138 Chapter 6
slowly evaporate from the layer surface under a dry stream of air at room
temperature; a fume cupboard provides an ideal location for this. The chromato-
gram can then be subjected to further treatment with other universal or with more
specific functional group reagents. If more permanent results of the iodine
impregnation are required, then the chromatographic zones can be sprayed or
dipped in a starch solution (0.5 to 1% w/v) to give blue starch–iodine inclusion
complexes. However, it is important to carry out this procedure after partial
evaporation of iodine from the layer. Starch treatment will give the best results
when iodine is still retained in the separated chromatographic zones, but has gone
from the background layer. Otherwise it will be difficult to distinguish the zones
from a background that will also be stained blue.
Iodine detection works well on silica gel 60 and aluminium oxide layers.
However, results are usually poor on reversed-phase layers as the lipophilicity of
the layer does not differ appreciably from the chromatographic zones. Iodine
vapour reversible reactions occur with a wide range of organic lipophilic mole-
cules, for example, hydrocarbons, fats, waxes, some fatty acids and esters, steroids,
antioxidants, detergents, emulsifiers, antibiotics, and many miscellaneous pharma-
ceuticals.

2.3.2 Ammonia Vapour

Ammonia vapour is often used in conjunction with other reagents to improve the
contrast between the separated chromatographic zones and the layer background.
Without doubt the most common usage is in the visualisation of organic acids with
pH indicators. Although indicators, such as bromocresol green and bromophenol
blue will detect the presence of a variety of organic acids, further treatment with
ammonia vapour will sharpen the contrast between analytes and background layer
resulting in greater sensitivity. Of course, once the source of ammonia is removed,
the ammonia gradually evaporates away and the sensitivity of detection reverts to
that prior to treatment.
Exposure to ammonia vapour can be achieved by simply holding the chro-
matographic plate face down over a beaker of strong ammonia solution. However,
more elegantly it can be performed by pouring ammonia solution into one
compartment of a twin-trough developing tank and placing the TLC plate in the dry
compartment. With the lid in place the TLC plate is exposed to an almost even
concentration of vapour. The process is reversible with time as the ammonia soon
evaporates from the sorbent surface.

2.4 Non-reversible Reactions

2.4.1 Fluorescent Dyes
A number of fluorescent dyes are commonly used for the non-destructive detection
of lipophilic substances. They include fluorescein, dichlorofluorescein, eosin,
rhodamine B and 6G, berberine, and pinacryptol yellow. To a large extent these
are universal reagents responding to a substantial range of organic compounds
Detection and Visualisation 139
Table 2 Compound groups detected with universal fluorescent reagents. Exposure
to UV light at 366 nm is required for visualisation

Fluorescent universal
reagent Compound groups detected

Fluorescein Lipids, purines, pyrimidines, barbiturates, unsaturated

compounds, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and heterocyclics
2,7-Dichlorofluorescein Saturated and unsaturated lipids
Rhodamine B Triglycerides, fatty acids and methyl esters, gangliosides,
phenols, polyphenols, flavonoids, detergents
Rhodamine 6G Glycerides, fatty acids and esters, ubiquinones, gangliosides,
steroids, sterols, triterpene alcohols, phospholipids
Berberine Sterols, saturated compounds, lipids, fatty acids
Pinacryptol yellow Anionic and non-ionic surfactants, sweeteners, organic anions

(see Table 2). Reagents for dipping chromatograms are prepared as dye (10–100 mg)
in methanol or ethanol (100 ml). After air drying, the detected chromatographic
zones appear brightly fluorescent on a lighter fluorescent background under UV light
(254 nm). Although very effective on silica gel, cellulose, and kieselguhr layers
(sensitivity from low microgram to low nanogram range), these dyes do not respond
on reversed-phase silica gels. Sometimes exposure to ammonia vapour after dye
treatment will improve sensitivity.

2.4.2 pH Indicators
pH indicators are commonly used to detect both acidic and basic substances. The
primary indicators used are sulfonthalein based, such as bromocresol green,
bromothymol blue, bromophenol blue, and to a lesser extent bromocresol purple.
They can be applied to the chromatographic layer either by dipping or spraying
with 0.01 to 0.1% w/v ethanol/water solutions, which have been adjusted to the pH
of the indicator colour change with buffer salts or sodium hydroxide. Most organic
acids respond immediately to these indicators giving the expected colour change in
contrast to the background. Treatment with ammonia vapour as mentioned
previously can sometimes enhance the sensitivity.

3 Destructive Techniques
Chemical reactions occurring on the chromatographic layer between a reagent and
separated analytes that result in a derivatisation or in a total change in organic
species could be described as ‘‘destructive’’. Certainly, the visualised compounds
are no longer those that were applied in the sample, however, there is a clear
distinction between reactions that are truly destructive and those that result in
merely derivatisation or other chemical reactions. It is these purely destructive
140 Chapter 6
reactions that will be described in this section. The major techniques that are
‘‘destructive’’ are charring and thermal activation.

3.1 Charring Reactions

Charring techniques involve treatment of the developed chromatogram with a
suitable reagent, followed by heating the layer at relatively high temperatures to
degrade any organic species to carbon. As can be appreciated, the reaction is
somewhat non-specific and hence charring has been included in what is termed
universal reagents. The most popular charring reagent is sulfuric acid, applied to
the chromatographic layer as a dilute solution (10–20% v/v in methanol/water).
However, orthophosphoric and chromosulfuric acids have also proved successful
in more specific circumstances. The temperature and heating time will depend on
the nature of the compounds to be charred. This can vary from 5–20 minutes at
100–180 – C. Dilute solutions of sulfuric acid in water/methanol ensure adequate
wetting of the TLC/HPTLC layers. On heating, the solvents evaporate steadily, the
acid concentrates and finally chars the organic material present.
Although a very simple detection technique, sulfuric acid charring does have
limitations especially where commercially manufactured chromatography plates
are concerned. Most binders whether present in ‘‘home made’’ or commercial
plates will be affected to a greater or lesser extent depending on the temperature
and time of heating. Overheating of the layers containing organic binders will
result in a grey or even black background that will render the chromatogram
useless.

3.2 Thermochemical Activation

It has been observed that some developed zones on a TLC/HPTLC layer when
heated at high temperatures fluoresce on exposure to UV light. This process has
been given the title thermochemical activation (brief mention of the technique was
made in Chapter 2). Separations on moderately polar aminopropyl-bonded silica
gel layers have been observed to give the most consistent and sensitive results for
this process of detection. The reaction mechanism by which this takes place is not
fully elucidated, but the following has been suggested as a probable sequence. The
surface of the silica gel bonded layer acts as a catalyst. Under the influence of the
catalytic adsorbent surface, substances rich in p-electrons are formed that conjugate
to form products that are fluorescent when appropriately excited. It has been
observed that compounds with possible heteroatoms, such as nitrogen, oxygen,
sulfur or phosphorus, will more readily respond to thermal activation than pure
hydrocarbons.5 Changes in pH often alter the excitation and emission wavelengths.
The fluorescent compounds formed are quite stable. The fluorescence can
frequently be intensified and stabilised by coating the chromatogram with liquid
paraffin, or a polyethylene glycol as described earlier. The fluorescent enhancer is
dissolved in hexane or heptane (5% w/v). If the aminopropyl-bonded layer contains
a fluorescent indicator (F254), then appreciable fluorescence quenching can occur
under UV light at 254 nm. Sometimes compounds that only weakly fluoresce, like
Detection and Visualisation 141
vanillic acid and homovanillic acid can exhibit strong fluorescent absorption after
thermal activation and fluorescence enhancement.6 Thermal activation is also
effective for the detection of catecholamines, fruit acids, and some carbohydrates.7

4 Derivatisation Reactions
As chemical reactions can be used in situ on the chromatographic layer either
before or after development, the relative merits of both of these procedures will be
considered. However, the popularity of detection of the chromatographic zones
after development with chemical reagents, compared with chemical derivatisation
before development is reflected in the number of methods available in the scientific
literature. Many hundreds of reagents and reagent procedures are available for the
former post-chromatographic visualization, whereas relatively few describe pre-
chromatographic detection. Where visualisation before chromatographic develop-
ment has been recommended the results are usually quite unique and specific.

4.1 Post-chromatographic Visualisation

Without doubt post-chromatographic visualisation is the type of TLC detection
with which most users are familiar. It can be achieved by spraying or dipping
the developed TLC/HPTLC layer with a universal or a group specific reagent.
Some reactions occur immediately and coloured chromatographic zones appear
on contact with the reagent or more usually after drying or heating at a defined
temperature. The choice of whether the reagent is applied as a spray or by dipping
depends on a number of factors. Spraying uses less solvent, can be accomplished
with simple atomiser devices, and is completed in a minimal amount of time.
However, spraying requires the use of adequate fume extraction as fine droplets of
reagent that could be harmful or toxic are introduced into the surrounding
atmosphere. Also unless the plate is thoroughly soaked with spray over the whole
surface, uneven coverage occurs and sufficient reagent may not be applied.
A number of different types of spray device are commercially available. Some
are very simple glass or polythene atomiser units that use a rubber bulb to hand
pump air into the main bulb to disturb the detection reagent sufficiently to provide
fine spray at the exit nozzle. Others are more sophisticated and use a replaceable
screw-in propellant canister to provide the means of atomisation. This type of spray
gun is very popular. No doubt one of the reasons is the ease of use, but it is also
economical with the use of reagent and is relatively inexpensive. A more recent
improvement on this system is the rechargeable electro-pneumatically operated
spray gun (see Figure 2). This electrically driven unit can be fitted with spray heads
of differing capillary diameter depending on the viscosity of the spray reagent to be
dispensed. Small capillaries can be used for low viscosity solutions, whereas larger
capillaries are useful for more viscous solutions or for spraying the low viscosity
ones at a higher rate.
In recent years, the immersion or dipping technique for visualisation has in many
cases replaced the more traditional spraying approach. Often more dilute solutions
142 Chapter 6

Figure 2 A commercially available electro-pneumatically operated spray system for TLC/

HPTLC
(Permission for use granted by Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

can be used as reagents and the up-take of reagent into the chromatographic layer
can be controlled more effectively by automated means. Commercially available
devices such as the one in Figure 3 control the time of immersion and the rate of
dipping both of which are essential for quantifiable reproducible results. The tank
containing the reagent needs to be sufficiently narrow so that a minimum amount
of reagent is required, but not so narrow that the chromatographic layer is damaged
by contact with the vessel. If manual dipping is employed, it is important that the
chromatogram is fully dipped and the dipping motion is constant. This will help to
avoid ‘‘tide’’ marks that will appear on the layer and interfere with any further
spectrodensitometric evaluation.
Whether dipping or spraying is used, there are a number of things to consider
about the detection reagent:

1. Sensitivity of detection. How sensitive?

2. Selectivity of the reagent for the analytes of interest.
3. Background effects, particularly where plates are to be scanned spectro-
photometrically.
4. Stability of detection reagent.
5. Stability of the chromatogram after chemical or thermal treatment.
6. Ease of preparation of the spraying or dipping reagent.
7. Hazards associated with the preparation and use of a particular detection
reagent.

In the following pages some of the most used and dependable reagents will be
described in detail. However, it should be noted that this only represents a small
fraction of the detection reagents available. More detailed lists of detection reagents
Detection and Visualisation 143

Figure 3 A commercial immersion device for automatic dipping of TLC/HPTLC

chromatograms in visualisation reagents
(Permission for use granted by Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

should be consulted when the more well-known reagents prove unsatisfactory. On

occasion, combinations of visualisation reagents can be used particularly where
complex mixtures of analytes of differing functionality are involved. Under these
circumstances, sequencing reactions can be used to locate groups of compounds
progressively. Examples of this will be considered later.

4.1.1 Universal Chemical Reagents

Iodine Vapour/Solution. The so-called ‘‘iodine reaction’’ possibly results in an
oxidative product. The reaction pathway is normally irreversible where this reaction
occurs. In most instances it is observed where organic unsaturated compounds
are present in the separated chromatographic zones. However, electrophilic
substitutions, addition reactions, and the formation of charge-transfer complexes
do sometimes occur.
An added feature is that iodine also possesses fluorescence quenching properties.
Hence chromatographic zones, which contain iodine, appear as dark zones on a
TLC layer containing fluorescent indicators that fluoresce at 254 nm. Table 3 lists
144 Chapter 6
Table 3 Examples of iodine reactions on the TLC layer with a common range of
organic substances

Substance Reaction

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, Formation of oxidation products

indole, and quinoline derivatives
Quinine alkaloids, barbiturates, Addition of iodine to the double bonds
unsaturated lipids, capsaicins,
and calciferol
Opiates, brucine, ketazone, Iodine addition to the tertiary nitrogen for the
and trimethazone opiates. Addition reaction with the –OCH3 group
of the brucine. Ring opening reaction for the
ketazone and trimethazone
Thiols and thioethers Oxidation of sulfur and addition across the double
bond in the thiazole ring
Alkaloids, phenthiazines, Complex formation
and sulfonamides

some of the common reactions that take place on the chromatographic layer with
iodine.
It is also possible to use the starch treatment as in reversible iodine reactions.
However, as the reaction product is much more stable it rarely proves necessary.
The procedure for the iodine vapour reaction is normally the same as previously
described in this chapter under Reversible Reactions in section 2.3.1. However,
iodine can also be applied as a solution. It is prepared in an organic solvent, such as
petroleum spirit, acetone, methanol, chloroform, or ether. A suitable dipping
solution would consist of iodine (250 mg) dissolved in petroleum spirit (100 ml).
Such solutions have an advantage in some cases in that iodine is enriched to a
greater extent in the chromatographic zones in a lipophilic environment than a
hydrophobic one. Hence the sensitivity can be improved. The detection limits are
usually a few mg of substance per chromatographic zone, but there are some cases
where the detection is lower still (200 ng glucose).

Nitric Acid Vapour. Most aromatic compounds can be nitrated with the fumes from
concentrated fuming nitric acid. The developed chromatogram is heated to about
160 – C for ten minutes and introduced whilst still hot into a chamber containing
the nitric acid vapour. Nitration proceeds at a reasonable rate and generally the
chromatographic zones are rendered yellow or brown. Further identification is
possible in UV light at 270 nm. Also some organic compounds, such as sugars,
xanthine derivatives, testosterone, and ephedrine, fluoresce yellow or blue after
nitration when excited by long wavelength UV light.

Oxidation/Reduction Reactions. Oxidation and reduction reactions are some of the

most frequently used visualisation techniques. The reactions are often group specific
depending on the particular reagent used. Amongst the many examples of oxidation
Detection and Visualisation 145
reactions used in TLC are Emerson’s reagent (4-aminoantipyrine – potassium
hexacyanoferrate[III]) for detection of arylamines and phenols, chlorine –
o-toluidine reagent for vitamins B1, B2, B6, and triazines, chloramine T for
steroids, and purine derivatives, and chlorine – potassium iodide – starch reagent for
amino, imino, and amido groups, and triazine herbicides. By contrast, reduction
reactions include phosphomolybdic acid for lipids, phospholipids, and some
steroids, tin(II) chloride – 4-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde reagent for the detection
of aromatic nitrophenols, blue tetrazolium reagent for corticosteroids, Tillman’s
reagent (2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol) for organic acids, including vitamin C, and
silver nitrate – sodium hydroxide reagent for reducing sugars and sugar alcohols.

Dragendorff Reagent. Dragendorff reagent can be used to visualise most if not all
nitrogen-containing organic compounds. Alkaloids are the main area of application
and there are various formulations in the literature recommended for this purpose.
One of the most universal and sensitive is the recipe according to Munier and
Macheboeuf. The reagent is prepared in the following way:

Solution A: bismuth(III) nitrate (0.85 g) is dissolved in acetic acid

(10 ml) and water (40 ml)
Solution B: potassium iodide (8 g) dissolved in water (20 ml)
Stock solution: Equal parts of solutions A and B are mixed (stable in the
dark for several months)
Dipping solution: The stock solution (10 ml) is mixed with acetic acid
(20 ml) and water (100 ml)

After dipping for a few seconds the layer is gently dried at 70 – C for 5 minutes.
Chromatographic zones appear brown on a pale yellow background. Precipitation
can sometimes occur during the preparation of the reagent, but this can be ignored
until the final dipping solution. At this point the solution should be filtered if
necessary.
The limit of sensitivity of the visualisation is about 5 mg per zone. The sensitivity
can sometimes be enhanced by spraying with sulfuric acid solution (0.5 M).

Iodoplatinate Reagent. This is an effective reagent for a wide range of nitrogen-

containing compounds, including alkaloids, ketosteroids, quaternary ammonium
compounds, thiols, thioethers, opiates, sulfoxides, tricyclic antidepressants, and
vitamins D3, K1, and B1. A range of colours are produced on the chromatogram
depending on the analyte.
The limit of sensitivity for detection is often in the low nanogram range. A typical
dipping reagent consists of:

10% w/v hexachloroplatinic acid aqueous solution 3 ml

6% w/v potassium iodide aqueous solution 100 ml
10% v/v methanol aqueous solution 97 ml
After dipping, the TLC plates are dried at 80 – C for 5 minutes. Further heating at
115 – C for 5 minutes can improve sensitivity for some analytes.
146 Chapter 6
‘‘Aldehyde Acid’’ Reaction. This reaction depends on the protonation of the
aromatic aldehyde, vanillin or anisaldehyde, that occurs due to the presence of
electron withdrawing or acceptor groups. Condensation can then readily occur with
certain organic molecules to form triphenylmethane type dyes. Hence chromato-
graphic zones often appear in a variety of colours with vanillin – sulfuric acid and
vanillin – hydrochloric acid reagents. These reagents can be used for the visuali-
sation of catechins, alkaloids, flavonoids, essential oil components, steroids, and
phenols. A typical dipping solution can be prepared according to the following
recipe:-
Vanillin (250 mg) is dissolved in ethanol (100 ml), and sulfuric acid (2.5 ml) is
added cautiously with stirring and cooling. After dipping, sorbent layers are dried at
80 – C for 5–10 minutes. Zones are highly coloured on a white background. The
reagent is best prepared fresh and used immediately. The reaction works well on
most sorbent layers including silica gel and reversed-phase silica gel. The
sensitivity limit can be as low as 6 ng/chromatographic zone. A similar reagent to
vanillin – sulfuric acid is anisaldehyde – sulfuric acid that is also used to visualise
many natural products, including essential oil components, steroids, glycosides,
sapogenins, and phenols. The reagent is prepared in a similar way, but it is
important to control the drying procedure carefully after dipping the chromatogram.
Overheating will cause the background to discolour (blue – mauve) resulting in
poor contrast.

4.1.2 Group Specific Reagents

Many reagents are functional group specific meaning that they give specific
reactions with certain organic and sometimes inorganic chemical groups. In most
cases the reaction mechanism has been fully elucidated. As a general rule these
reagents are very sensitive with detection limits usually in the middle to low
nanogram range. The following section considers the relative merits of a few of the
major group specific reagents. For a more complete list of detection reagents it is
recommended that publications that specifically deal with this subject should be
consulted.2,3

Hydrazone Formation. The reagent mainly employed for hydrazone formation is

2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine in acidic solution [100 mg in 100 ml ethanol/phosphoric
acid (50:50)]. After dipping or spraying the chromatogram with the reagent, the
reaction is completed by heating at 110 – C for ten minutes. This is a specific
reagent for aldehydes, ketones, and carbohydrates. Yellow or orange–yellow
hydrazones, or osazones in the case of carbohydrates, are formed on the
chromatogram. Ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid are also detected by this
reagent giving yellow zones on a white background. The sensitivity limit is in the
order of 10 ng per chromatographic zone.

Dansylation. Dansyl [5-(dimethylamino)-1-naphthalenesulfonyl] chloride, and

other derivatives are used to produce fluorescent dansyl derivatives of amino-
acids, primary and secondary amines, fatty acids and phenols. The dansylation of
Detection and Visualisation 147
carboxylic acids is indirect as the acid amides must first be formed. This conversion
is readily achieved with the reagent, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. In the second step,
dansyl cadaverine or dansyl piperidine is used to form fluorescent derivatives of the
amides. The detection limit is 1–2 ng for fatty acids. This technique is also used in
pre-chromatographic visualisation that will be considered later. However, one of
the problems with post-chromatographic dansylation is the background fluo-
rescence it produces. Unfortunately the fluorescent contrast between the chromato-
graphic zones and background results in reduced sensitivity.

Diazotisation. Azo dyes are strongly coloured and can be produced readily
from aromatic nitro and primary amines and phenols present in the separated
chromatographic zones. This can be achieved in two basic ways. Nitro compounds
are reduced to primary aryl amines. These are diazotised with sodium nitrite
and then coupled with phenols to form the azo dyes. Conversely phenols can be
detected by reaction with sulfanilic acid in the presence of sodium nitrite. The
resulting azo dyes are often stable for a period of months.
A few named reagents exist that rely upon a diazotisation reaction to detect
specific groups of compounds. Two well-known ones are Bratton-Marshall’s
reagent and Pauly’s reagent. Bratton-Marshall’s reagent consists of two spray
solutions, the first, sodium nitrite in acid to effect the diazotisation, and the second,
a mainly ethanolic solution of N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine dihydrochloride. It
has been used specifically to visualise primary aromatic amines, sulfonamides and
urea and carbamate herbicides. On the other hand Pauly’s reagent is based on
sodium nitrite and sulfanilic acid as mentioned above. It is used to visualise
phenols, amines, some carboxylic acids, and imidazole derivatives.
A novel approach to the detection of phenols is to impregnate the TLC layer with
sulfanilic acid hydrochloride (2.5% w/v in water) before chromatography and
application of the sample. After drying the TLC plate at 120 – C for 30 minutes, the
phenolic samples are applied in the usual way. Following development and drying,
the layer is sprayed with fresh sodium nitrite solution (5% w/v). The azo dyes
formed have a high stability, immediately appearing as coloured zones that
maintain their colour for weeks after first visualisation.8

Metal Complexes. As a number of transition metals can act as electron acceptors,

they are therefore able to form complexes with organic compounds that are electron
donors. Coloured metal complexes are formed caused by electron movement to
different energy states in the transition metal ion. Copper (Cu21) readily forms
such complexes or chelates with carboxylic acids including thioglycolic and
dithioglycolic acids. A suitable detection reagent is copper(II) sulfate 5-hydrate
(1.5% w/v in water/methanol). Most acids appear as blue zones on a pale blue
background. The limit of sensitivity is 5 mg/zone. Copper is also used in the biuret
reaction with proteins, resulting in the formation of a reddish–violet complex,
and with aromatic ethanolamines to form blue coloured chelates. Iron (Fe31) and
cobalt (Co21) can also be used in a similar way with the formation of reddish–
violet zones for phenolic compounds and blue ones in the presence of ammonia
vapour for barbiturates, respectively.
148 Chapter 6
Schiff’s Base Reaction. The Schiff’s base reaction is a group specific reaction for
aldehydes. The aldehydes react with aromatic amines usually under basic
conditions to form a Schiff’s base. Aniline is normally the favourite amine, but
other amino compounds can be used. For example, carbohydrates can be visualised
with 4-aminobenzoic acid with the formation of coloured and fluorescent Schiff’s
bases. A similar reaction mechanism occurs with 2-aminobiphenyl for aldehyde
detection. Two of the most sensitive reagents for visualising reducing sugars,
aniline phthalate reagent and aniline – diphenylamine – phosphoric acid reagent,
also involve Schiff’s base reactions. The limit of sensitivity can be as low as 10 mg
per chromatographic zone.

Ninhydrin. Ninhydrin is probably the most well-known detection reagent in TLC.

Specifically it is used for the visualisation of amino-acids, peptides, amines, and
amino-sugars. The limit of sensitivity ranges from 0.2–2 mg per chromatographic
zone depending on the amino-acid. The coloured zones can vary from yellow
and brown to pink and violet, depending on the sorbent layer and pH.
Unfortunately, the colours fade quickly unless stabilised by the addition of metal
salts of tin, copper or cobalt. Copper(II) nitrate or acetate are the usual salts
chosen as additives. A typical formulation for such a ninhydrin dipping
reagent is:

Ninhydrin (0.3% w/v) in propan-2-ol with the addition of 6 ml/100 ml of aqueous

copper(II) acetate (1% w/v).
After dipping the TLC layer is heated at 105– C for 5 minutes.

To give better resolution between glycine and serine, collidine is added to the
dipping reagent at a rate of 5 ml/100 ml reagent.

Natural Products Reagent (NPR). Diphenylboric acid-2-aminoethyl ester readily

forms complexes with 3-hydroxyflavones via a condensation reaction. As the
title suggests, this reagent is used extensively in TLC for the visualisation of
components in herbal preparations. A suitable dipping reagent consists of
diphenylboric acid-2-aminoethyl ester (1 g) dissolved in methanol (100 ml). This
solution should be made up fresh when needed, especially where quantitative
results are required. The chromatogram is thoroughly dried, dipped in the reagent
for a few seconds, dried again in a stream of warm air, and then dipped in a
polyethylene glycol (PEG) 4000 (5% w/v) solution in ethanol. A final warming
then completes the detection step. When the chromatogram is then irradiated
at 360 nm, many brightly coloured fluorescent zones are observed that can be
quantified easily as there is often excellent contrast on the layer. The reagent
is especially good for the detection of rutin, chlorogenic acids, hypericum,
and other flavonoids. It can also be used on most sorbent layers including
both normal- and reversed-phase silica gels. The limit of sensitivity is about
1–5 ng/chromatographic zone. The purpose of the PEG 4000 is to enhance the
fluorescence and to stabilise the emission of light.
Detection and Visualisation 149
Manganese(II) Chloride – Sulfuric Acid Reagent. Although the reaction mechanism
is not fully understood, this reagent is quite specific for lipids, bile acids, choles-
terol, cholesteryl esters, and ketosteroids. The dipping reagent is prepared as
manganese chloride (0.2 g) in water (30 ml) and methanol (30 ml) with the addition
of sulfuric acid (2 ml). After dipping, the developed chromatogram is heated at
120 – C for 10 minutes. Where reaction has occurred, coloured zones appear on a
white background. Detection is possible on both silica gel and silica gel bonded
phases. The limit of sensitivity is about 1 mg/chromatographic zone, but this can be
improved noticeably by fluorescence measurement in UV light (360 nm).

Other Reactions. There are many other reagents that do not fit into the above
categories, yet they do constitute a major part of visualisation reagent lists found in
the literature. As it is not the purpose of this book to give details of all reagents,
Table 4 lists a selection along with the classes of compounds visualised. Included in
this group are reagents that are named after their discoverers. In some cases the
reaction mechanisms are fully documented in the literature, but there are also a few
mechanisms that have not been elucidated.

4.1.3 Sequencing Reactions

A unique feature of detection in TLC is the ability to carry out sequencing
visualisation reactions. The process involves a combination of the previous
techniques operated in a stepwise way. A typical combination could include
absorption of visible or UV light, followed by a reversible reaction with a universal
reagent, a similar but non-reversible reagent, and finally a group specific reagent.
The sequence used is constructed so that no unwanted interactions occur between
the reagents used in the independent steps. A planned sequence can often be
employed where it is known that particular functional groups may be present in the
separated chromatographic zones, or where it is necessary to obtain more proof of
the presence or absence of particular analytes.
Sequencing reactions are very useful where a number of differing groups
of compounds that contain functional groups specific to these families of com-
pounds are present. Two areas where this stepwise visualisation procedure is
particularly useful are illicit drug analysis and the determination of natural
products present in herbal preparations. Identifying a particular drug can prove
difficult when there are many possible compounds. Sequencing reactions for
visualisation after chromatographic development enable the class of illicit drug
and also often the precise organic compound to be identified. A herbal prepa-
ration typically contains a whole host of complex organic compounds, including
many flavonoids and alkaloids that are easily visualised. Unfortunately in TLC
there is a limit to the separation number that can be achieved in one dimension.
Hence stepwise reactions help identify specific analytes in amongst many other
closely related compounds. A simple, but effective use of stepwise detection is
shown in Figure 4.
Where a series of reagents are used, it may be necessary to ‘‘wash’’ or ‘‘destain’’
the TLC plate after use of each reagent in order to avoid cross-contamination at
150 Chapter 6
Table 4 Some other popular visualisation reagents for TLC/HPTLC

Compound groups
Visualisation reagent Reagent conditions detected

Ehrlich’s reagent 4-Dimethylaminobenzaldehyde Amines, indoles

(2% w/v) in 25% w/w hydrochloric
acid/ethanol (50:50 v/v). After
treatment, heat at 110 – C for 2 min.
Folin and Detailed preparation in literature13 Phenols
Ciocalteu’s reagent
Gibb’s reagent 2,6-Dibromoquinone-4-chloroimide Phenols, indoles, thiols,
(0.5% w/v) in methanol. After barbiturates
treatment, heat at 110 – C for 5 min.
Blue tetrazolium Blue tetrazolium (0.25% w/v) in Corticosteroids,
reagent sodium hydroxide soln. carbohydrates
(6% w/v in water)/methanol
(25:75 v/v)
Tillman’s reagent 2,6-Dichlorophenolindophenol Organic acids including
sodium salt (0.1% w/v) in ethanol. vitamin C
After treatment, heat at 100 – C
for 5 min.
Iron(III) chloride Iron(III) chloride (1% w/v) in Phenols, ergot alkaloids,
reagent ethanol/water (95:5 v/v). After inorganic anions, enols,
treatment, heat at 100 – C hydroxamic acids,
for 5 min. cholesteryl esters
EP reagent 4-Dimethylaminobenzaldehyde Terpenes, sesquiterpene
(0.2% w/v) and orthophosphoric esters
acid (3% v/v) in acetic acid/water
(50:50 v/v). After treatment, heat
at 80 – C for 10 min.
Jenson’s reagent Chloramine T (10% w/v) and Digitalis glycosides
trichloroacetic acid (0.4% w/v)
in chloroform/methanol/water
(80:18:2 v/v). After treatment,
heat at 120 – C for 10 min.
N-Bromosuccinimide 0.5% w/v solution in acetone. Amino-acids, Z-protected
reagent After treatment, heat at amino-acids,
120 – C for 20 min. hydroxyflavones,
hydroxyquinones
o-Phthaldehyde – o-Phthaldehyde (1% w/v) in Ergot alkaloids,
sulfuric acid methanol/sulfuric acid (90:10 v/v). b-blockers, indole
reagent After treatment, heat at 80 – C derivatives, histidyl
for 3 min. peptides

the next stage. Rinsing troughs in the form of dipping chambers can be used. Wash
solutions will depend on the nature of the reagent used, particularly its solubility
in water or other solvents. ‘‘Destaining’’ is often necessary where a background
colour is produced on the layer as a result of the use of a particular detection
Detection and Visualisation 151

Figure 4 A typical visualisation sequence for a thin-layer chromatogram. The sequence

enables the identification of a number of different functional groups of nitrogen-
containing organic compounds

reagent. ‘‘Washing’’ can help with the ‘‘destaining’’ process, but also some
background colours will fade in the presence of acid or alkaline vapours (e.g.
ammonia vapour on layers previously treated with molybdophosphoric acid).

4.2 Pre-chromatographic Visualisation

Although traditionally TLC detection is accomplished after development of the
chromatogram, it is also possible to carry out chemical reactions with the sample
prior to separation on the layer. This pre-chromatographic visualisation enables
the derivatisation of the class of compounds where a group specific reagent is used.
The rest of the sample components remain underivatised. A solvent mixture is then
selected that causes sufficient migration of the derivatised compounds in order to
separate them on the chromatographic layer, whilst the underivatised components
either remain at the origin or migrate with the solvent front. As the derivatised
152 Chapter 6
compounds are usually highly coloured, the resolution of the analytes can be clearly
seen.
Extraction procedures on sample preparation columns can be used to clean up
samples, but are normally unnecessary. Most derivatisation procedures used in TLC
require reagents that react directly with the analytes of interest and the whole
sample can then be applied in the usual way to the chromatographic layer. An
example of such an analytical procedure that is now used as a standard method
is the determination of vitamin C in fruit juices using pre-chromatographic
visualisation with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. The phenylhydrazones formed are
bright yellow and are readily resolved on a silica gel 60 layer with a developing
solvent mixture of chloroform – ethyl acetate (1:1 v/v).9
Complexation reactions can also be used in this way for the detection of
transition and rare earth metals. As before the complexation reaction is carried out
with the sample before application to the chromatographic layer. Common reagents
used for this purpose are dithizone, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid10 and
diethyldithiocarbamate.11 The detection limits for these complexes can be in the
high picogram range.
More elegantly pre-chromatographic derivatisation can be carried out on the
layer. The sample is applied in the usual way to the chromatographic layer, and the
derivatisation reagents are applied to the same location. It can also be done in
the reverse order with the derivatisation reagent applied first, followed by the
sample. However, there is an advantage in applying the derivatisation reagent
first. A zone of reagent can be applied across the width of the sorbent layer

Figure 5 A typical spectrophotometric fluorescence scan of saturated fatty acids from C6

to C24 after on-plate derivatisation with dicyclohexylcarbodiimide and dansyl
cadaverine and normal TLC development.
Stationary phase: HPTLC RP18 silica gel 60
Mobile phase: methanol/acetonitrile/tetrahydrofuran (18: 2: 1 v/v)
Detection: 366 nm fluorescence mode (Camag TLC Scanner 3)
Peaks: 1, caproic acid (C6); 2, caprylic acid (C8); 3, capric acid (C10); 4, lauric
acid (C12); 5, myristic acid (C14); 6, palmitic acid (C16); 7, stearic acid (C18);
8, arachic acid (C20); 9, behenic acid (C22); 10, lignoceric acid (C24)
Concentration: 50 ng per acid
Detection and Visualisation 153
ensuring that when the sample is dosed in discrete bands on top of the derivatisation
reagent, complete reaction occurs. After appropriate reaction time, and drying,
development of the chromatogram can proceed using a solvent mixture that takes
into consideration the polarity of the newly formed compounds. An example
demonstrating the effectiveness of this in situ derivatisation is the separation of
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (see Figure 5 for a typical example for saturated
acids). The sample is applied in the usual way followed by a solution of dicyclo-
hexylcarbodiimide with intermediate drying of the sorbent layer. This converts the
fatty acids to their corresponding amides. The amides are then readily dansylated
with dansyl cadaverine to form highly fluorescent derivatives. The developing
solvent is then optimised so that excess reagent migrates with the solvent front whilst
the fatty acid derivatives separate on the layer. The fluoresence can be stabilised and
enhanced as discussed earlier. In this instance a brief dipping of the sorbent layer in a
Triton X-100 solution (5% w/v in chloroform/hexane [12: 88% v/v]) improves the
fluorescent yield by five-fold with the detection limit in the picogram range.12
Such ‘‘functional group chromatography’’ is not just limited to single develop-
ment chromatography. It can also be used within the framework of 2-dimensional
separations. The first development is carried out with underivatised sample. Only
one sample application is made near one edge of the sorbent layer (at least 15 mm
from the edge). Before the second development, the separation track is subjected to
treatment with a group specific reagent so that all analytes of interest are derivatised.
The second development then follows in the usual way at 90– to the first.

5 References
1. Dyeing Reagents for Thin Layer and Paper Chromatography, E. Merck,
Darmstadt, 1978.
2. H. Jork, W. Funk, W. Fischer and H. Wimmer in Thin-Layer Chromatography
Reagents and Detection, Vol. 1a, VCH Verlags, Cambridge, 1990.
3. H. Jork, W. Funk, W. Fischer and H. Wimmer in Thin-Layer Chromatography
Reagents and Detection Vol. 1b, VCH Verlags, Cambridge, 1994.
4. M. Zander in Fluorimetrie, Springer, Heidelberg, 1981.
5. R. Klaus, W. Fischer and H.E. Hauck, LC-GC Int., 1995, 8(3), 151–156.
6. R. Klaus, W. Fischer and H.E. Hauck, Chromatographia, 1994, 39, 97–102.
7. R. Klaus, W. Fischer, H.E. Hauck, Chromatographia, 1990, 29, 496–471.
8. B. R. Chhabra, R.S. Gulati, R.S. Dhillon, and P.S. Kalsi, J. Chromatogr., 1977,
135, 521–522.
9. Camag Application Note, A-10.5, Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland.
10. S.D. Sharma, S. Misra and R. Agrawal, J. Chromatographic Science, 1995, 33,
463–466.
11. P. Bruno, M. Caselli and A. Traini, J. High Res. Chrom, & Chrom. Com., 1985,
8, 366–367.
12. A. Junker-Buchheit and H. Jork, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1989, 2, 65–70.
13. F. Welcher in Chemical Solutions, D. Van Nostrand, New York, USA,
1966, 137.
CHAPTER 7

Quantification and Video

Imaging

1 Introduction
The separated analytes on a thin-layer chromatogram can be quantified in a number
of ways. An estimate of the concentration can be simply made by applying
standards of known concentration alongside the sample at the application stage of
the analysis. This is the basis of the pharmacopoeia related substances test where
the concentration of the sample impurities is hopefully less than or equal to the
standard concentration applied. The results are examined visually in visible and UV
light to determine the unknown. The test is limited, and depends on the observer’s
eye deciding that the concentration is less than that of the standard. The human eye
is capable of detecting 1 mg of a coloured zone on the sorbent layer with a
reproducibility of 20–30%.
A more accurate, but tedious procedure involves the elution of the relevant
chromatographic zone from the sorbent followed by determination of the con-
centration in solution by instrumental techniques, such as UV or visible spectro-
scopy or for radiolabelled compounds, liquid scintillation counting. The point of a
bradawl or a microspatula can be used to scratch out the perimeter around the zone
of interest. A microspatula is then used to scrape away the zone within the marked
area. The scrapings are transferred to a suitable container holding the extraction
solvent. The mixture is agitated to dissolve the analyte and the sorbent removed by
centrifugation or filtering. Finally the resulting solution forms the basis of the
determination usually by spectrophotometry at a specified wavelength. The absorp-
tion of standard solutions of the known analyte are used in order to accurately
calculate the concentration. As there is a direct relationship between the concentration
in solution and the absorption/transmission values, the calculation is quite simple and
only a few standards are required. Unfortunately errors can easily occur with this
procedure. It is often difficult to ensure that all of the chromatographic zone is
removed from the layer and to avoid cross-contamination from the other closely
resolved zones. Filter precipitates can retain some of the analyte unless they are
washed thoroughly. The procedure is hence very time consuming. For many reasons
therefore, densitometry has become the most popular, accurate, and reliable way to
quantify the results of a TLC/HPTLC chromatogram. Video scanning of a stored

154
Quantification and Video Imaging 155
video image of the chromatogram is really a special form of densitometry that will be
described later in this chapter.

2 Densitometry
Densitometry is a means of measuring the concentration of the chromatographic
zones on the developed TLC/HPTLC layer without disturbing the separated
substances. The instrument, although in times past a standalone unit, is now an
integral computer controlled device that leads to highly reproducible and accurate
results (,1% standard deviation). The basis of the technique is a beam of
electromagnetic radiation of pre-set wavelength (usually UV/visible from
190–800 nm) that either moves at a pre-determined rate across the chromato-
graphic zones or, whilst the beam remains stationary, the TLC/HPTLC layer is
moved under the control of a motorised base plate. For this reason, the technique of
scanning the plate under these conditions is termed spectrodensitometry. Scanning
is a relatively fast process (up to 100 mm s 1) with a spatial resolution in steps
of 25–200 mm. The instrument can be pre-programmed to scan at a variety of
wavelengths and scan automatically all of the chromatographic tracks on the
developed layer. Scanning the developed tracks results in chromatograms that are
very similar to those obtained in HPLC, normally displaying a series of peaks with
baseline resolution where the zones are well separated. Full UV/visible spectra can
also be recorded at high speed, stored and compared with a spectral library for the
identification of unknowns. Chromatographic zone purity can also be checked by
taking full spectra at the beginning, apex, and end of the peak. If the spectra are
identical, then the peak is considered to be of high purity.
Spectrodensitometers are capable of measuring reflectance, quenched fluores-
cence, or fluorescence that has been induced by electromagnetic radiation of a
shorter wavelength. Of these three measuring techniques, reflectance is by far the
most frequently used. However, where compounds do fluoresce, or where
fluorescence can be induced by chemical treatment, the sensitivity of detection is
far greater (sometimes by 10 or 100 times). To achieve this versatility of measuring
mode, three light sources are used, a deuterium lamp (190–400 nm), a tungsten
lamp (350–800 nm), and a high pressure mercury lamp for intense line spectra
(254–578 nm). The latter lamp is the one incorporated for fluorescence
determinations.

2.1 Mode of Operation of Spectrodensitometers

There are three possible scanning modes, single beam, single wavelength, double
beam using a beam splitter, and dual wavelength, double beam combined into a
single beam.1 The single beam format is undoubtedly the most popular, the
schematics of which are shown in Figure 1. As the beam of electromagnetic
radiation hits the chromatographic layer, some passes into and through the layer
(transmitted radiation) whilst the remainder is reflected back from the surface.
Reflectance occurs due to the opaqueness of the layer. This reflected radiation is
156 Chapter 7

Figure 1 Schematics of single beam operation for a scanning spectrodensitometer. The

source, deuterium, mercury, or halogen tungsten lamps is positioned in the light
path by a motor drive. For reflectance scanning the photomultiplier is positioned
at an angle of 30– to the normal
(Reproduced with the permission of Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

measured by the photomultiplier unit or photoelectric cell in the instrument. When

the beam passes over a chromatographic zone, a difference in optical response
occurs due to some radiation being absorbed and hence less being reflected from
the surface. This difference is the means of detecting and quantifying the substance
present in the chromatographic zone.
An example of a commercially available spectrodensitometric scanner is shown
in Figure 2. As the process of scanning of separate tracks and wavelengths produces
vast amounts of data, computer control and manipulation of results is considered to
be essential. This data includes peak heights and areas, and positions of zones (start,
Quantification and Video Imaging 157

Figure 2 A typical TLC/HPTLC scanning spectrodensitometer. It operates on the basis of a

fixed beam of light of selected wavelength and a motor-driven stage holding the
TLC/HPTLC layer under the light source. The computer software both controls
the scanner parameters and manipulates the vast amount of data produced
during a plate scan
(Reproduced with the permission of Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)

middle and end) for every resolved component on every chromatographic track on
the TLC plate. As the background on the TLC/HPTLC layer will produce some
reflectance ‘‘noise’’, a measurement of this can be made using the software control
and the value subtracted from the final chromatogram. A baseline adjustment is
applied so that all peaks can be accurately integrated ready for possible
quantification. As most chromatograms are run using the normal linear ascending
development technique, the scanning direction from origin to solvent front on the
TLC track is usually used. However, with most spectrodensitometers it is possible
to scan radially (from the centre of the plate) or to perform a circular scan around
a ring. These scanning directions are suitable for circular chromatograms.
In order to obtain the best results for quantification by reflectance scanning,
a number of criteria need to be strictly adhered to. These were mentioned in earlier
chapters, but are worth restating here as attention to such detail can give noticeable
improvement in the final chromatogram. The scanned chromatogram can at best be
only as good as the separation obtained on development. Although the layer backing,
whether it is glass, plastic or aluminium, has no effect on the reflectance scanning, the
accuracy and precision of the band or spot application and choice of developing
solvent do have an effect. For example, manual application of sample, even using a
nano- or micro-applicator or syringe is noticeably less reproducible and less accurate
than automated band or spot application.2 The precision of band application is vital
as the concentration of sample must be maintained over the whole length of the zone.
Small spots and thin bands without concentration overloading are essential. Solvent
selection for development needs to be maintained to achieve separation in the
optimum resolving area of the TLC plate. As the plate height (H) reduces with
decrease in particle size of the sorbent and the resolution therefore increases, it is
158 Chapter 7
advisable to use the wide selection of HPTLC silica gel 60 and bonded phases
available for most quantitative work. Hence most types of separation for a vast array
of chemical compounds can be readily achieved with a resolution adequate for
spectrodensitometric analysis. Where spot application has been used it is to be
expected that a light beam of slit length longer than the width of the largest developed
spot should be selected on the spectrodensitometer. This is necessary as the
concentration of the analyte will vary across the spot. The slit length also has to allow
for any slight variation that may occur in the direction of chromatographic
development due to inadequate tank vapour saturation. Too large a slit length reduces
sensitivity, so an intermediate length needs to be used where the light beam just
covers all the spots as it moves along the separation track. For band application and
development, the choice of slit length is much easier. Short slit lengths can be chosen
that will result in higher sensitivity. Usually a slit length of about one third of the
length of the chromatographic zone is pre-selected. Under these conditions standard
deviations (SD) and coefficients of variance (CV) of below 1% are the norm.

2.2 Theory of Spectrodensitometry

In spectrophotometry there is a direct relationship between the absorbance and the
concentration of an analyte in solution (Beer’s Law). The absorbance is measured
as a result of a beam of electromagnetic radiation of set wavelength passing through
a set length of sample solution. The radiation absorbed by the solution is directly
proportional to the concentration of sample. However, this is not a linear
relationship over the whole concentration range and relies on the sample solution
being transparent. As the TLC layer is opaque, a somewhat different theory
treatment devised by Kubelka and Munk in the 1930s is required.3 The Kubelka–
Munk theory as it became known explained what happened when a beam of
electromagnetic radiation impinged on an opaque layer. This enabled a series of
equations to be derived in order that a relationship between reflected radiation and
the concentration of analyte could be established. When a ray of light impinges on
the surface of the sorbent layer, some light is transmitted, some reflected in all
directions, and some rays are propagated in all directions within the sorbent. The
theory assumes that both the transmitted and reflected parts of the incident light are
made up only of the rays propagated within the sorbent in a direction perpendicular
to the plane of the surface. As all other directions of light rays will lead to longer
pathways, they will be more strongly absorbed. Hence these rays will give a
negligible contribution to the transmitted and reflected light. When the light leaves
the sorbent layer, light scattering occurs in all directions at the layer–air division.
Assuming these criteria, simplified mathematical expressions can be derived to
express the coefficient of light scatter (S) in terms of the intensity of reflected and
transmitted light, a finite thickness of sorbent (l), and the coefficient of absorption
per unit thickness (KA). The following hyperbolic solutions can therefore be
proposed for the intensity of reflected light (IR) and the transmitted light (IT):

sinhðb:S:lÞ
IR ¼
a: sinhðb:S:lÞ þ b: coshðb:S:lÞ
Quantification and Video Imaging 159

b
IT ¼
a: sinhðb:S:lÞ þ b: coshðb:S:lÞ
where
S:l þ KA :l
a¼
S:l
and
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ¼ ða2 1Þ

From the above equations one can immediately deduce that the relationship
between the intensity of the reflected light and the concentration of the
chromatographic zone is non-linear. In practice, the graphically displayed data
will fit a polynomial curve of general formulation:
y ¼ a0 þ a1 :x þ a2 :x2

If there is a necessity for a calibration curve over a wide range of concentration,

then at least four, but no more than six standards will need to be developed
alongside the sample applications on the same TLC/HPTLC layer (see example in
Figure 3). However, over a small concentration range the relationship is almost
linear. Hence, if the concentration of the sample is approximately known, then two
standards can be chosen close to this value and only these need be developed
alongside the samples. Although one may expect that errors could occur in this
determination procedure, in practice that is not the case.4 The total sum of all errors
and assumptions amount to a percentage standard deviation below 2% and in many
instances less than 1%.
It is also possible to linearise the data graphically and often the software in
the commercially available scanners enables the user to do this. The simplest
procedures involve converting the reflectance and concentration data into
logarithms, reciprocals, or squared terms. However, even this approach is not
able to linearise the data over the whole concentration range although it is more
than adequate for the majority of analyses. A better solution to this problem is the
use of non-linear regression analysis based on second-order polynomials. The
following equation based on logarithm terms gives very reliable results:
ln RE ¼ a0 þ a1 : ln c þ a2 :ðln cÞ2
where RE is the reflectance signal and c is the sample concentration.
It has been shown that the data fit to this equation is not compromised when as
few as three standards are used over the whole concentration range.
The treatment of data obtained in the fluorescence mode can be handled
mathematically in a much more direct way. The fluorescence emission (F) can be
expressed in the following way:
am :l:c
F ¼ y:I0 ð1 e Þ
where y is the quantum yield and am is the molar absorptivity.
160 Chapter 7

Figure 3 A typical calibration curve for peak height reflectance units versus the
concentration of the analyte (in this case the dye congo red). The reflectance
values were obtained from the scanning results of the spectrodensitometer set at
470 nm wavelength. Six standards were used as spot applications and a
polynomial curve fit was applied to the data

For low sample concentrations the equation can be simplified to:

F ¼ y:I0 :am :l:c

The fluorescence emission is therefore linearly dependent on the sample
concentration. In practice this proves to be the case although the effects of
absorption and scatter are not taken into consideration.5,6

3 Video Imaging and Densitometry

Although scanning densitometry enables the representation of the chromatogram as
a series of peaks that can be quantified if required, video imaging can result in the
storage of all of the chromatograms on the TLC/HPTLC plate as one computer file;
the data can then be quantified. In practice, the developed chromatogram is
illuminated from above with visible, 254 nm (UV) or 366 nm (UV) light,
depending on the radiation required to visualise the analytes. Illumination from
below the plate can often improve the brightness of the image. With the plate
suitably lit, an image acquisition device, usually a CCD (charge coupled device)
camera with zoom attachment is positioned vertically above. Any necessary camera
filters are placed in position, the aperture adjusted and the camera focused.
Quantification and Video Imaging 161
The CCD camera transmits a digital signal to a personal computer (PC) and video
printer. A typical commercially available system is shown in Figure 4.
All parameters such as brightness, contrast, colour balance and intensity are
controlled by the PC software. These values can be saved as part of method files for
future use or stored as a record of the results. The video printer enables high
photographic quality chromatograms to be available as hard copy. The analytes can
be quantified on the basis of the concentration of the zones on the image. The
software contains the same mathematical computation discussed earlier whereby
the concentration of unknowns can be calculated from the standards applied on
the same TLC/HPTLC plate. Images can be stored in a number of file formats.
This versatility makes it possible to import the files into well-known office
programs such as Word or PowerPoint. Typical results of imaging are shown in
Figures 5–7. In these instances absorption in visible light, natural fluorescence, or
chemically-induced fluorescence are used to produce the hard copy images. As
mentioned previously it is possible to quantify results and for many analyses the
accuracy is sufficiently reliable.7–12 Typical CVs (coefficients of variance) for video
imaging are from 2–4%. Most USP (United States Pharmacopoeia) and PhEur
(European Pharmacopoeia) monographs accept CVs of ^6%. Hence the use of
video densitometry is acceptable in these instances. However, there is no doubt that
spectrodensitometry is more accurate and reproducible with typical CVs between
0.5 and 1.5%.

Figure 4 A lighting unit with capabilities of illumination from above and below the TLC/
HPTLC layer fitted with a CCD camera and video link to the computer. The
computer software controls the camera functions, image enhancement capabili-
ties, and video scanning if required
(Reproduced with the permission of Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland)
162 Chapter 7
One should also bear in mind one of the major limitations of present video
densitometry compared with spectrodensitometry which is that no imaging can
occur with absorption measurements much below 254 nm. Some substances do
require shorter wavelength UV light for detection and in these instances
spectrodensitometry is the only solution. Whereas spectrodensitometers can select
precise wavelengths down to 190 nm for scanning, the video densitometer relies on
a broad spectrum UV lamp at 254 nm for illumination.
More recently with the availability of digital cameras that have the ability to
produce sharp, well focused images, it has been possible to offer a cheaper
alternative to CCDs. The developed TLC/HPTLC plate is illuminated in the usual
way, and the camera fixed in a vertical position above the sorbent layer. After
focusing, the image of the plate is taken and stored in electronic format. The image
can be exported to other computer programs either immediately or at a later date.
Enhancements can be carried out, if required. However, unlike video imaging with
CCDs, it is not possible to improve colour balance, contrast or brightness of the
image dynamically or before capture. Enhancements have to be made after the
image has been captured with digital cameras. For these reasons the images

Figure 5 CCD images of the separation of valerian species (herbal) on an HPTLC silica
gel 60 plate. The use of various detection methods and reagents results in the
different images (a to d) for the same separation. The hydrochloric acid–acetic
acid reagent (80:20 v/v) is evenly sprayed onto the plate followed by heat
treatment at 105 –C for 5 minutes. [Results shown in image (b).] The
anisaldehyde reagent is described in Chapter 6. [Results shown in image (d).]
Mobile phase: n-hexane/ethyl acetate/acetic acid (65:35:0.5 v/v)
Samples: 1, valeriana (standard); 2, valeriana (Pacific); 3, valeriana (Dutch); 4,
valeriana radix; 5, valerenic acid; 6, valeriana stichensis; 7, valeriana (Indian)
Quantification and Video Imaging 163

Figure 6 A CCD image for a chromatogram of an extract of willow bark.

Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 HPTLC plate
Mobile phase: ethyl acetate/methanol/water (77:13:10 v/v)
Visualisation: sulfuric acid/ethanol (10:90 v/v). Sufficient charring is achieved
by heating at 105 –C for 5 minutes
Samples: 1, 5, salix pentandra (methanolic extract); 2, 6, salix pentandra
(alkaline hydrolysis); 3, salix daphnoides (methanolic extract); 4, salix
daphnoides (alkaline hydrolysis); 5, salicin, salicortin, 2-acetylsalicin, 2-O-
acetylsalicortin, tremulacin (standards); 8, salix fragilis (methanolic extract); 9,
salix fragilis (alkaline hydrolysis)

obtained with good quality CCDs are always a more genuine representation of the
observed separation on the chromatographic layer. However, as the quality of
images obtainable with a digital camera continues to improve, the results have
begun to compare favourably with CCD. Already some commercially available
equipment incorporating the use of digital cameras can give images that are not
noticeably inferior to those obtained by CCD.
There is, of course, a much more inexpensive approach to video imaging simply
using a computer scanner and appropriate software to both scan the plate and store
the results in a variety of file formats. Although this can be recommended when
CCDs or digital cameras are not available, the images are of a noticeably poorer
quality and at best can only be used for semi-quantitative determinations of analytes.

4 Future Trends – Spectrodensitometry or

Video Imaging?
It seems unlikely that one technique will eventually replace the other whilst unique
advantages exist for both. One can preselect precise wavelengths for scanning with
a spectrodensitometer. Full UV/visible spectra can be acquired for all separated
zones, background ‘‘noise’’ can be subtracted, peak purity can be determined and a
high degree of reproducibility is attainable. On the other hand, video imaging is
quick and easy to perform and gives a computer or hard copy photographic image
of the whole developed plate. This can serve as a permanent record of results for
164 Chapter 7

Figure 7 CCD image in visible light of a separation of uva-ursi in bearberry leaves

(herbal).
Sorbent layer: silica gel 60 HPTLC plate
Mobile phase: ethyl acetate/formic acid/water (88:6:6 v/v)
Visualisation: (a) dichloroquinonechlorimide (1% w/v) in methanol, and (b)
sodium carbonate (10% w/v) in water. The plate was sprayed with solution (a),
dried, and then sprayed with solution (b).
Samples: 1, arbutin, gallic acid, hydroquinone; 2, quercetin-3-o-arabinofurano-
side, quercetin-3-o-arabinopyranoside, hyperoside, rutin; 3, uva-ursi.

addition to a document or analysis report. Also the accuracy is sufficient for most
quantitative work. Data acquisition with a CCD camera is more suitable and simple
in the case of 2-dimensional TLC.13 However, quantification takes some time to
accomplish. As the use of smaller particles (4 mm) in sorbent layers becomes
accepted, still further improvements in quantitation and reproducibility will occur
for both spectrodensitometry and video imaging.

5 References
1. C.F. Poole and S. Khatib in Quantitative Analysis using Chromatographic
Techniques, E. Katz (ed), J Wiley, Chichester, UK, 1987, 220–223.
2. P.E. Wall in Encyclopedia of Separation Science, I.D. Wilson, et al. (eds),
Academic Press, 2000, 824–834.
3. V. Pollak in Densitometry in Thin Layer Chromatography. Practice and
Applications, J.C. Touchstone and J. Sherma (eds), J Wiley, Chichester, UK,
1979, 11–45.
4. S. Ebel and J. Hocke, J. High. Res. Chromatogr., Chromatogr. Commun., 1978,
156–160.
5. H.T. Butler and C.F. Poole, J. High Res. Chromatogr., Chromatogr. Commun.,
1983, 77–81.
Quantification and Video Imaging 165
6. E. W. Berkhan, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1988, 81–87.
7. M. Prosek and M. Pukl in Handbook of Thin Layer Chromatography. F.
Sherma and B. Fried (eds), Marcel Dekker, New York, USA, 1996, 279.
8. I. Vovk and M. Prosek, J. Chromatogr. A, 1997, 768, 329–333.
9. I. Vovk and M. Prosek, J. Chromatogr. A, 1997, 779, 329–336.
10. I. Vovk, A. Golc-Wondra and M. Prosek, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1997, 10,
416–419.
11. M. Petrovic, M. Kastelan-Macan and S. Babic, J. Planar Chromatogr., 1998,
11, 353–357.
12. I. Vovk, M. Franko, J. Gibkes, M. Prosek and D. Bicanic, J. Planar
Chromatogr., 1998, 11, 379–382.
13. J. Gibkes, I. Vovk, J. Bolte, D. Bicanic, B. Bein and M. Franko, J. Chromatogr.
A, 1997, 786, 163–170.
CHAPTER 8

TLC Coupling Techniques

1 Introduction
There is no doubt that combining planar chromatography, particularly HPTLC,
with spectrophotometric and other chromatographic techniques extends the capabi-
lities of analysis substantially. These techniques seek to maximise the information
that can be obtained from a separation on a plate. HPLC, MS (mass spectrometry),
FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), and Raman spectroscopy have all
been coupled effectively with HPTLC. However, in practice there is the cost factor
to consider, and one has to balance the extended analysis capability with the extra
expense involved.
There are a number of special features of TLC/HPTLC that give it an advantage
over other chromatographic methods when it comes to coupling with other
analytical techniques. In TLC, the separation, development and detection are not
a continuous process. This is a unique advantage as many TLC plates can be run
simultaneously and the separation evaluated qualitatively before detection.
However, it also enables the chromatographer to concentrate on the analytes of
interest without having to wait for further elution. The presence of unknowns is also
more likely to be detected and their structure identified as the whole chromatogram
is contained between the origin and the solvent front. Another special feature is
the ability of TLC to ‘‘store’’ a separation. After development of the chromatogram,
the separated components of the sample remain on the sorbent layer. If these
components are stable, the chromatogram can be stored for some time until a
decision has been reached as to which coupling technique is required. Normally
only very slow diffusion occurs in the dry layer. Further analysis can then be
performed. As these techniques are ‘‘off-line’’, the chromatogram can be evaluated
at different locations with the TLC plate being transferred to and from a number of
laboratories each of which has the specialist equipment available for such extra
analysis.
As coupling techniques with TLC is now an extensive subject, only a brief
overview will be given in this chapter. Many of the references will enable the
reader to consult more detailed texts on this topic if desired.1–3 Linking TLC with
other chromatographic techniques increases the resolution capabilities for complex
samples. On the other hand, coupling planar chromatography with spectrographic
methods, such as MS, FTIR, and Raman, helps in identifying pure compounds that

166
TLC Coupling Techniques 167
have been separated chromatographically. These are two main avenues of coupling
techniques that will now be discussed in a little more depth.

2 TLC/HPTLC and HPLC

Of all the chromatographic techniques coupled to planar chromatography, HPLC
has by far been the most popular. The linking of HPTLC with HPLC can be a very
powerful combination particularly if the sorbents used on the plate and the column
have different selectivities. Usually a reversed-phase HPLC column is used for the
initial separation. The retention times of the peaks of interest (times from start to
conclusion of peaks) decide the point at which effluent is transferred to the TLC
plate. This effluent is band sprayed with an automated band dosage device on to a
silica gel HPTLC plate.4 The syringe on the dosage unit is driven by a stepper
motor and the effluent sprayed on to the layer under nitrogen gas pressure (see also
Chapter 4). The process is on-line, but once the sample is on the sorbent layer, it is
essentially immobilised. At this point an AMD technique can be used to obtain an
enhanced resolution of the analytes present in the original HPLC peak.5 In situations
where too much sample volume is eluted from the column for transfer to the
HPTLC plate, a longer band application will be required to reduce over-wetting of
the sample application area, or effluent splitting or microbore LC will need to be
employed. The latter two possibilities are the most preferable as there will then be
no reduction in the sample that can be applied to the plate. Where effluent splitting
is used, the syringe can be operated to exactly aspirate the flow of liquid so that
transfer to the layer can be uninterrupted. This is important as over-wetting of the
sorbent on a restricted area of the layer can cause the sorbent to lift from its backing
as the binder is not able to cope with this situation. An example of the use of
HPTLC coupled to microbore LC is the separation of a sample containing 56
pesticide compounds. The sample was initially applied to a 2.1 mm diameter RP18
column and the separation performed with gradient elution using water/methanol
(95:5% v/v) to (5:95% v/v). At a flow rate of 30 ml per minute the fraction cuts
could be sprayed directly without splitting on to an HPTLC silica gel 60 plate. This
was then developed by an AMD procedure.4 However, one solution to the whole
problem is to introduce an on-line solid phase extraction (SPE) step between the
LC and the HPTLC coupling.6

3 TLC and MS
The hyphenation of planar chromatography with mass spectrometry has been used
for many years and has proved to be one of the most useful combination techniques.
Originally, after separation on the TLC plate, the analyte would be eluted from the
sorbent and introduced into the ion source of the spectrometer. Although effective,
the procedure was tedious and time consuming. The sample was also easily
contaminated and sample recovery was often unpredictable during the elution step.
A better solution to the problem can be achieved by eliminating the elution step
altogether by obtaining spectra directly from the sorbent layer. The stationary phase
168 Chapter 8
is removed from the separated zone of interest on the TLC plate, followed by
introduction into the ion source of the spectrometer. Electron impact ionisation can
be used for volatile, but stable analytes. Less volatile or unstable analytes can be
ionised by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) or by fast atom bombardment
(FAB). Also, the sample of stationary phase can be mixed with a suitable liquid
matrix and ionised by liquid secondary ion mass spectrometry (LSIMS). As no
modification to the spectrometer or to the TLC development is necessary, the
coupled technique is relatively cost effective. No specially adapted probe is
required.
Alternatively, probes or plate scanners have been designed specifically with
planar chromatography in mind. Some simple direct TLC–MS probes have been
produced commercially for use with standard mass spectrometers. These are based
on attaching a developed track from the sorbent layer onto the probe. This
development track after application of the appropriate FAB/SIMS is moved at a set
speed through the FAB beam by use of a stepping motor. By this means, both mass
spectra and a mass chromatogram are obtained.
Further research has also concentrated on laser desorption ionisation and
electrospray ionisation as means of improving the coupling between TLC and mass
spectrometry. Soon after the development of the former it was recognised that this
ion source could be used in conjunction with planar chromatography. A laser beam
is focused onto the separated zone on the TLC/HPTLC plate, and the analyte
molecules desorbed into the vacuum of the mass spectrometer. This technique
developed into matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation (MALDI) when methods
of sample co-crystallisation with an energy absorbing matrix are applied.7,8
Unfortunately the use of MALDI causes a high background ‘‘noise’’ in the mass
spectrum as a result of the matrix. However, this disadvantage is far outweighed by
the ability of MALDI to create a protonated molecular ion of the separated analyte
without excessive fragmentation. Electrospray ionisation (ESI) has also now been
applied as a coupling technique with TLC and as such offers significant advantages
over other coupling techniques.9 These include ionisation under normal atmo-
spheric conditions, the use of solvents common to TLC (particularly reversed-
phase), and high sensitivity (high quality mass spectra can be obtained from
picogram amounts of sample).
The use of TLC in combination with ionisation techniques has proved to be an
exceptionally versatile approach that has been applied across a whole range of
analytes. For instance the use of TLC–FAB–MS for the analysis of antibiotics such
as cephalosporins, bleomycins (glycopeptide antibiotics),10 septamycin,11 mycina-
mycin,12 and tetracyclines,13,14 b-blockers, cimetidine, furosemide, scopolamine,15
diuretics,16 surfactants, and amines,17 to name but a few has proved successful.
A strip of double-sided tape is applied to the probe tip of the mass spectrometer and
the tip pressed against the separated zone on the silica gel TLC plate. This enables
the transfer of a small amount of silica and analyte onto the probe tip. A few
microlitres of a suitable FAB matrix, such as glycerol or thioglycerol together with
dichloromethane or methanol is applied to the silica on the probe and the probe
placed in the spectrometer. Where concentration of analytes is low, sensitivity can
be improved by band focusing the separated zones on the TLC plate before transfer
TLC Coupling Techniques 169

Figure 1 A simple method of concentrating the analytes from the separated chromato-
graphic zone into a thin concentrated band ready for removal from the sorbent
layer. Step 1: a fine line of sorbent is removed on three sides as shown. Step 2:
a polar solvent is dripped onto the sorbent at the point indicated. Step 3:
a concentration zone of the analyte forms that can be readily transferred to the
probe

to the ion probe as shown in Figure 1. After normal development, silica gel is
removed on three sides of the spot or zone so that the shape becomes trapezoidal.
A few drops of methanol are added carefully to elute the analyte into a narrow
band at the tip of the remaining silica gel. Detection limits are in the low
nanogram range.
More sophisticated work has resulted in devices capable of two-dimensional
imaging of HPTLC plates using LSIMS.3 Unfortunately the liquid matrices used
(e.g. glycerol) eventually cause spot diffusion and the separation degrades. To
avoid this a matrix is chosen that is solid until the ion beam energy from the mass
170 Chapter 8
spectrometer causes it to melt. Sorbitol and threitol have been found to be effective
for this purpose. The images obtained are of a high quality and resolution. The
system has even been used in conjunction with a CCD camera in order to visualise
the chromatographic zones.
Attempts to use TLC coupled with electron impact mass spectrometry (EIMS)
have not proved successful for polar, non-volatile compounds. This has been due in
the most part to the use of silica gel sorbents. Such analytes are strongly adsorbed
on to the silica gel. Unfortunately as heat is applied to volatilise the analytes,
decomposition begins. Clearly this is less of a problem for volatile samples.
However, it is possible to improve the situation by using sorbents that exhibit far
weaker adsorption. One of the best candidates for weaker adsorption is polyamide
TLC layers and this method has been applied to pesticides. The region of the
sorbent containing the pesticide analytes was removed from the plate backing and
inserted into the sample tip of the inlet system for mass spectrometry. Detection of
nanogram quantities of various pesticides was possible.
TLC – LSIMS studies have proved effective for the investigation of
phenothiazine drugs,18,19 sulfate and glucoronide metabolites of 4-nitrophenol
and 4-hydroxyantipyrine,20 with detection limits of 50–250 ng/spot and 2 mg/spot
respectively. Glycerol or threitol were used as the matrix. The chromatographic
zones were removed from the TLC plate, attached to the direct insertion probe, and
the matrix added. The probe was then inserted into the mass spectrometer.
Scanning TLC – LSIMS has been used in several applications to identify
croconazole metabolites, glucoronide and sulfate conjugates of a protoberberine,
and cephalosporins21 (see Figure 2). A TLC – LSIMS approach has also proved
useful in the analysis of benzodiazepines,21 urinary porphyrins,22 peptides
(enkephalins),23 bile acids,24 food dyes,25,26 and oligosaccharides.27 In the latter
example, the chromatographic zones were cut from the HPTLC plate and placed on
a standard stainless steel probe for negative ion LSIMS. A complicated matrix
consisting of tetramethylurea–triethanolamine–3-nitrobenzoyl alcohol (2:2:1 v/v,
2 ml) and dichloromethane–methanol–water (25:25:8 v/v, 2 ml) was used on the
probe before insertion into the mass spectrometer.
TLC – tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) although an effective hyphenated
technique has as yet only a limited number of applications due no doubt to
the limited availability of MS/MS instruments. The major problem with all
chromatography – MS coupling is the significant background contribution and
the relatively limited fragment ion data available from the spectra. Tandem mass
spectrometry (MS/MS) where two spectrometers are linked to form a single
instrument provides a solution to both of these problems. In MS/MS the molecular
ion of the compound of interest is selected in the first mass spectrometer and
separated from the background ions. Fragmentation of the molecular ion is
induced and fragment ions focused and detected by scanning in the second
mass spectrometer. As the fragments correspond only to the ion selected in the
first mass spectrometer, the spectrum enables the compound to be characterised.
TLC/MS/MS has been used in the study of ecdysteroids,28 rhamnolipids,29
drug metabolites of antipyrine,30 polymer additives,31 nucleotides,32 and
analgesics.33
TLC Coupling Techniques 171

Figure 2 Scanning TLC – LSIMS of cephalosporin drugs from silica gel

(Reprinted from I.D. Wilson et al., J. Chromatogr., 1995, 703, 621, with
permission of the publisher, Elsevier)

4 TLC Coupled with FTIR

The combination of TLC with FTIR is a powerful method to reliably identify
analytes separated on the TLC plate. This, of course, is dependent on standard
reference spectra being available from FTIR reference libraries. If they are, then
positive identifications can be made even for structural isomers. Even when such
spectra are not available, useful data concerning the molecular structure of the
separated components can be obtained from the spectral interpretation. As most
chemical compounds have IR absorption, the method is applicable to almost all
substances, including those that are non-UV absorbing. A survey of the literature
indicates that the coupling of TLC with FTIR has been accomplished in basically
two ways. One can be considered on-line as the separated compounds are analysed
directly on the sorbent layer. Unfortunately this analytical approach suffers from
the high background absorbance in the IR as a result of the stationary phase. The
second approach can be considered to be more off-line as the analytes are
transferred from the TLC layer to an IR-transparent substrate ready for FTIR
measurement. This obviously is more time consuming than the on-line method as
samples will need to be recovered from the layer sorbent and separated from it.
Both procedures can be useful and one cannot highlight one procedure as being
more effective than the other.
172 Chapter 8

4.1 On-line TLC – FTIR

The on-line approach has now been well established for a number of years such that
a ten-year report was published in 1991.34 The first record of coupling of TLC with
FTIR was over 25 years ago,35 but it was in 1978 that Fuller and Griffiths36 used
diffuse reflectance infrared detection (DRIFT) for the IR measurements of the dye,
methylene blue on a silica gel plate. Since then DRIFT has become the procedure
of choice with a number of papers in the literature examining the potential of this
technique.37–39 DRIFT can be used in combination with silica gel, aluminium
oxide, cellulose, and reversed-phase silica gel layers with a sensitivity of detection
of analytes down to 1 mg. As with all on-line TLC – FTIR, the major difficulty is
the strong background absorbance. Fortunately it does not occur over the whole IR
spectral range, but for example silica gel absorbs strongly at 3700–3100 cm 1 and
1600–800 cm 1 leaving a window of transparency between 3100–1600 cm 1. To
acquire useful IR spectra of the separated compounds, the IR of the absorbent
background needs to be subtracted from that of the respective analytes. The same
TLC plate that was used for the sample separation should be used for obtaining
background spectra as slight variations of layer thickness, particle size, pore size,
etc. may affect the quality of the final DRIFT spectrum. It should also be borne in
mind that interactions do occur between separated compounds and the stationary
phase, that can result in significant wavelength shift of absorbing bands compared
with the same samples prepared in the conventional way for IR analysis.
However, even taking into consideration these difficulties the coupling technique
has proved useful for the identification of a number of compounds including
benzodiazepines, amphetamines,40 analgesics,41 phenylureas,38 phthalates,42 surfac-
tants,43 and xanthines.44 As silica gel absorbs strongly in the IR spectral range, further
research has concentrated on the optimisation of the sorbent to improve the sensitivity
of detection of analytes. An optimised layer consisting of a 1:1 ratio of silica gel 60
and magnesiun tungstate considerably improves the performance of TLC – IR
coupling. This layer enables signal-to-noise ratios and consequently detection limits
of a number of pharmaceutical compounds (paracetamol, caffeine, and phenazone) to
be improved by a factor of 2–3.45

4.2 Off-line TLC – FTIR

Without doubt this is the simplest way of hyphenating TLC to FTIR. Sample can be
scraped from the TLC spot or zone, dissolved in a suitable solvent and transferred
to the spectrometer. The approach, although time consuming, does make it possible
to measure full IR spectra by conventional FTIR or by DRIFT. In more recent
years, sample preparation methods have improved and even commercially available
equipment can now be used to elute the analytes from the developed TLC plate
without scraping off any of the sorbent. One such unit is the Eluchrom system
(Camag, Muttenz, Switzerland) that can quantitatively elute compounds from the
silica gel sorbent layer using 150 ml of solvent (methanol for example, although
other volatile solvents can be used if required).46 The methanolic sample is
transferred to the surface of a small quantity of potassium bromide powder where it
TLC Coupling Techniques 173
is allowed to evaporate. The powder is ground and a potassium bromide pellet
produced for transfer to the spectrometer.
Like on-line TLC–FTIR, the applications of the technique have been useful and
have covered a wide range of compounds. A few examples are the identification of
amino acids,47 corticosteroids,48 dyes,49 polyaromatic hydrocarbons,46 phthalates,42
phenols,50 and phospholipids.48

5 TLC and Raman Spectroscopy

Like infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy depends on the vibrational modes
of the molecule of interest. Hence unique spectra are produced that can be used
to identify compounds. It depends on a weak scattering of light by matter under
the effect of an intense excitation radiation. Initially it may seem strange that the
coupling of TLC to Raman spectroscopy is necessary when TLC–FTIR is already
well established. The major reason for interest in Raman is that TLC sorbents give
weak Raman spectra leading to low background interference. In order to maximise
the value of this coupling technique, at least one commercial company (Merck
KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany) has produced a specially purified HPTLC silica gel
60, 10 · 10 cm aluminium sheet. The silica gel is composed of spherical particles,
3–4 mm diameter. The layer thickness of the HPTLC plate is 100 mm. This silica
gel is designed to give only minimal background interference with an accessible
spectral range of 80–3500 cm 1. A ten-fold increase in signal/noise ratio compared
with conventional HPTLC plates is claimed (see Figure 3). As Raman sensitivity is

Figure 3 Comparison of signal intensities for RAMAN and non-RAMAN LiChrospher

silica gel 60 HPTLC plates (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany). The sample is
a 750 ng spot of the dye, rhodamine B. Signal/noise (S/N) for HPTLC silica gel
60 F254s aluminium sheet is 13. S/N for HPTLC silica gel 60 F254s aluminium
sheet, RAMAN is 130
(By permission of Merck)
174 Chapter 8
quite poor by comparison with IR, the improvement in signal intensity with these
new HPTLC layers is welcome. Previously Raman sensitivity was in the range limit
of 10–200 mg of analyte. Examples of the use of this HPTLC sheet for Raman work
are available from the manufacturer, including the identification of b-blocking
drugs, methyltestosterone, benzidine, and rhodamine B.
From the instrument point of view, Raman sensitivity has been achieved by
application of resonance Raman spectroscopy and surface enhanced Raman
spectroscopy. Resonance Raman spectroscopy makes use of a situation where the
frequency of the excitation radiation coincides with an electronic absorption band
of the analyte. These resonance Raman lines as they are called, can give 102–106
times more intensity than normal RAMAN spectroscopy. The technique has been
used to characterise metaloporphyrins.51 Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy
(SERS) uses lasers to excite vibrational transitions in molecules adsorbed on to
metal surfaces, such as silver electrodes and colloids.52 The Raman signal is
enhanced by factors of up to 106. The SERS technique is therefore able to detect
analytes at the nanogram level. The approach has been used for the identification of
dyes,53 purine derivatives, 2-aminofluorene, benzoic acid, 1-nitropyrene, dibenzo-
furan, and DNA bases.54–56

6 References
1. G.W. Somsen, W. Morden and I.D. Wilson, J. Chromatogr. A, 1995, 703,
613–665.
2. I.D. Wilson and W. Morden, LC.GC International, 1999, 12(2), 72–80.
3. K.L. Busch in Handbook of Thin-Layer Chromatography, J. Sherma and
B. Fried (eds), Marcel Dekker, New York, USA, 1991, 183–209.
4. D.E. Jaenchen in Instrumental Thin-Layer Chromatography, H. Traitler,
A. Studer and R.E. Kaiser (eds), Institute for Chromatography, Bad Dürkheim,
Germany, 1987, 185–192.
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Subject Index
p-Acceptor, 32 Dinitrophenyl (DNP), 39
Acids, organic, 37, 50, 139, 145, 147, Dinitrosufonyl (DNS), 39
150 Halogenated, 33
Amino – see amino-acids N-alkyl, 33
Aromatic, 22, 26 Phenylthiohydantoin (PTH), 39
Bile, 23, 40, 149, 170 2-Aminoethyldiphenyl borate, 122
Chlorogenic, 148 2-Aminofluorene, 174
Fatty, 52, 137, 139, 146, 152, 170 Amino sugars, 148
Fruit, 21, 141, 150 (1R)-(-)-Ammonium-10-
Gallic, 164 camphorsulphonate (CAS), 130
Sulfonic, 22, 38 Amphetamines, 172
Thioglycolic, 147 Anabolic steroids, 23
Valerenic, 162 Analgesics, 170, 172
Acid modifiers, 12, 14, 15, 124 Anti-microbiols, 50
ADC – see automatic development Antipyrine metabolites, 170
chamber Antibiotics, 40, 50, 170
Adenosine, 20, 23 Argentation TLC – see silver nitrate
Adsorption, 90 TLC
Aflatoxins, 137 Ascorbic acid – see vitamin C
Alanine-b-naphthylamides, 32 Automatic developing chamber
Aldehydes, 146, 148 (ADC), 108
Alkaloids, 7, 15, 22, 26, 50, 125, 126, Automated multiple development
144–146, 150, 151 (AMD), 24, 118–121, 167
Alkenes, 50, 51 Automated TLC sampler, 80
Aluminium oxide, 7, 37, 38 ATS – see automated TLC sampler
Type E, 38
Type T, 38 Band application, 82–85
AMD – see automated multiple Band verses spot application, 82–85
development Barbiturates, 139, 144, 147
Amides, 137, 145, 153 Base modifiers, 124
Amines, 38, 50, 120, 127, 145–148, Basic dyes – see dyes, basic
150, 151, 168 Bearberry leaf extract, 164
Aromatic, 28, 127, 145, 147, 148 Benzidine, 174
Primary, 146, 151 Benzodiazepines, 22, 31, 170, 172
Secondary, 146, 151 Benzoic acid, 174
Tertiary, 151 Bibliographies, 6
Amino-acids, 4, 7, 17, 33, 34, 39, 116, Bile acids, 26, 40, 149, 170
128, 146, 148, 150, 151, 173 2,2 0 -Bi-2-naphthol, 31
Dansyl, 32, 146, 147 Binders, 41
Dimethylaminoazobenzene Bleomycins, 168
isothiocyanate (DABITC), 39 b-Blocking drugs, 31, 129, 150, 168, 174

177
178 Subject Index
Bovine serum albumin (BSA), 129 Complexing agents, 50, 122
Brockmann and Schodder scale, 11, 38 Concentration zone TLC/HPTLC, 45,
Brucine, 144 81, 82
Buffers, 50, 121 Contact angle (y), 87, 89
Contact spotting, 80, 81
Caffeine, 51, 53, 62 Continuous development, 112
Calciferol, 144 Copper(II) acetate, 32
Capillaries, 76, 77 Corticosteroids, 13, 137, 145, 150, 173
Capillary dispensing unit, 77 Coupling techniques, 166–174
Capsaicins, 130, 131, 144 Croconazole metabolites, 170
Carbobenzyloxyglycyl-L-proline – see Cutting pre-coated plates and sheets, 41
ZGP Cyclodextrins, 32, 127–129
Carbohydrates, 21, 24, 50, 120, 122, Hydroxyethyl, 127
123, 141, 148, 150 Hydroxypropyl, 127
Carotenoids, 38 Maltosyl, 127
CAS, 130 Modified, 127
Catechins, 146
Catecholamines, 21, 33, 141 Dansyl amides, 137, 147
CCD – see charged coupled device Dehydroascorbic acid, 146
Cellulose, 7, 35, 36 Densitometry, 155–163
Acetylated, 37 ‘‘Destaining’’, 149, 150
Carboxymethyl, 37 Detection – see visualisation and
Diethylaminoethyl (DEAE), 37 quantification
PEI bonded, 37 Detergents, 139
Cellulose triacetate – see cellulose, Development chambers, 112–133
acetylated Diatomaceous earth, 61
Cephalosporins, 168, 170 Dibenzazepines, 151
Chamber saturation effects, 100–104 Dibenzofuran, 174
Chamomile extract, 120, 122 Dielectric constants, 93
Channelled layers, 44, 45 Diffuse reflectance infrared detection
Charge transfer TLC, 51–53 (DRIFT), 172
Charged coupled device (CCD), Digitalis glycosides, 28, 150
160–164 Dihydroxybenzoic acids, 23
Chilli extract, 130 Dipeptides, 33
CHIR plates, 33 Dipole interaction, 98
Chiral additives, 126, 127, 129 Dipole stacking, 31
Chiral selectors – see chiral additives Dipping techniques, 141–143
Chiral stationary phase, 29–34 Distribution coefficient, 72, 73, 121
Chiral plates, 33 Dithioglycolic acid, 147
Chitin, 39 Diuretics, 168
Chlorogenic acids, 148 DNA bases, 174
Cholesterol, 26, 137, 149 p-Donor, 32
Cholesteryl esters, 149, 150 DRIFT – see diffuse reflectance
Chromatostrips, 2 infrared detection
Cimetidine, 168 ‘‘Drop chromatography’’, 2
Coefficient of variance, 158, 161, 162 Dual phases, 40, 117, 118
Subject Index 179
Dyes, 17, 39, 139, 172–174 Glycosides, 146
Azo, 147 Gradient development, 118–121
Basic, 38, 126 Group specific reagents, 146–149
Fluorescent, 138, 139
Food, 170 Height of an equivalent theoretical
plate (HETP), 70
Ecdysteroids, 170 Herbal detection, 162–164
EDTA – see ethylenediamine tetra- Herbicides, 40, 145, 147
acetic acid High performance liquid
eo value, 93–95 chromatography, 167
Electron impact mass spectrometry High performance thin-layer
(EIMS), 170 chromatography (see also
Electrospray ionisation (ESI), 168 HPTLC plates), 3, 45–48
Eluotropic series, 93, 94 History, 2
Enols, 150 Homovanillic acid, 141
Essential oils, 146 Honey, 122, 123
Estrogens, 21 Horizontal chamber, 105, 107
Ethanolamines, 147 Hormones, 20
Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid, 50 HPLC – see high performance liquid
Extrelut, 62 chromatography
HPTLC plates, 45–48
F254, 44, 135–137 HPTLC spherical silica gel, 48, 173, 174
F366, 44, 135–137 hRf value, 95
Fast atom bombardment (FAB), 168 Humidity effects, 42, 43, 75
Fenoprofen, 32 Hydrogel, 7
Flavonoids, 17, 139, 146, 148 Hydroquinone, 164
Florisil, 39 Hydroxamic acids, 150
Flow constant, 86–88 Hydroxyantipyrine metabolites, 170
Fluorescence, 135–137 Hydroxyflavones, 148, 150
Fluorescence enhancement, 137 Hydroxyquinones, 150
Fluorescence stabilisation, 137 Hypericum, 148
Fluorescent indicators, 44, 135–137 Hyperoside, 164
Forced flow development (OPLC), 109, Hyphenation with TLC – see coupling
110 techniques
Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy, 171–173 Ibruprofen, 32
a-front, 103, 104 Imidazole derivatives, 147
b-front, 103, 104 Imines, 38
FTIR – see Fourier transform infrared Immersion devices, 142, 143
spectroscopy Impregnating layers, 49–51
Furosemide, 168 Borate, 50
Boric acid, 50
Gallic acid, 164 Buffers, 50
Gallic acid esters, 21 Caffeine, 52, 54
Gangliosides, 120, 139 EDTA, 50
Gentamycins, 137 Oxalic acid, 50
180 Subject Index
Phosphate, 50 Borate buffers, 124
Silver nitrate, 50–52 Buffers, 121
Indoles, 39, 144, 150 Ion-pairing reagents, 124–126
Inorganic ions, 40, 150 Phosphate buffers, 124
Ion exchange, 91, 92 Silver nitrate, 132
Ion-pairing, 124–126 MS – see mass spectrometry
Isomer separations Multiple development, 112–121
Geometric, 51, 130 Single mobile phase, 112–115
Optical, 29, 30 Mycinamycin, 168
Isoproterenol, 129
N-carbobenzyloxyglycyl-L-proline
Ketazone, 144 (ZGP), 129, 130
Ketosteroids, 137, 145 N-chamber, 100–104
Kieselgel, 7 NANOMAT, 78
Kieselguhr, 7, 38 Nano-pipettes, 78
‘‘Nano-TLC’’, 3
Large sample application, 80–82 Naphthalene sulfonic acids, 22
Layer damaging effects, 74, 75 Naproxen, 32
LINOMAT, 79 Nitrophenols, 145
Lipids, 139, 144, 149 1-Nitropyrene, 174
Lipophilic dyes, 82, 83 Non-destructive techniques, 135–139
Liquid secondary ion mass Non-reversible reactions, 138, 139
spectrometry (LSIMS), 169, 170 Normal-phase partition, 22
Lithium chloride, 18, 23 Nucleic acid bases, 39
Nucleic acid derivatives, 35
Magnesium silicate, 39 Nucleic acids, 39
MALDI – see matrix assisted laser Nucleobases, 17, 37
desorption ionisation Nucleosides, 37, 39
Manual application, 76, 77 Nucleotides, 18, 20, 37, 170
Manual gradient development, 118 Number of plates (theoretical), 68, 70
Mass spectrometry, 167–171
Matrix assisted laser desorption Observed solvent front, 102–104
ionisation, 168 Octopamine, 130
Mechanisms of separation, 90–92 Olefins, 51
Metallocenes, 32 Oligosaccharides, 170
Metalloporphyrins, 174 Opiates, 144, 145
a-Methylarylacetic acids, 32 Over-pressured layer chromatography
Methyltestosterone, 174 (OPLC), 109, 110
Micrometer controlled syringe, 78 OPLC – see over-pressured layer
Micro syringes, 78 chromatography
Mobile phase, 90–92 Optical brighteners, 44
Acid modifiers, 124 Overloading, 72–75
Additives, 121–124
2-Aminoethyldiphenyl borate, Partition, 91
123, 124 Peppers, 130
Base modifiers, 124 Peptides, 39, 147, 148, 170
Subject Index 181
Pesticides, 22, 120, 121, 170 Protoberberine, 170
pH, 121 Proton acceptor, 96
pH indicators, 139 Proton donor, 96
Phase ratio, 121 Purines, 18, 22, 139, 145, 174
Phenols, 17, 18, 22, 38, 39, 50, 120, Pyrimidines, 18, 139
139, 145–147, 150, 173
Phenothiazine, 126, 144, 151 Quantification, 154–164
Phenothiazine sulfoxide, 126 Quarternary ammonium compounds,
nor-Phenylephrine, 129 145
Phenylpropanolamine, 129 Quercetin derivatives, 164
Phenylthiohydantoin – see amino Quinoline derivatives, 144
acids, PTH
Phenylureas, 172 RAMAN spectroscopy, 173, 174
Phospholipids, 120, 139, 173 ‘‘Real’’ solvent front, 103
Phosphorescence, 135, 136 Resonance RAMAN spectroscopy, 174
Phosphorescent indicators, 44 Reversible reactions, 137, 138
Phthalates, 172, 173 Rf value, 71, 74, 121
Pindolol, 129 Rhamnolipids, 170
‘‘Pirkle’’ phase, 18, 30–32, 126 Rm value, 96, 121
Plasticisers, 21 RRf value, 106, 107
Plate height, 70 Rutin, 148, 164
Platinum-iridium capillaries, 78
Polyamide, 7, 39 Saccharides, 50
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons, 21, 54, Sample application, 65–85
137, 144, 173 Sample loading, 72–74
Polyethylene glycols, 148 Sample pre-treatment, 59–64
Polymer additives, 170 Sample overloading, 72–75
Polymer molecular weight Sample solvent, 65, 66
determinations, 17 Sandwich chamber, 105, 106
Polymer molecular weight Sapogenins, 146
distributions, 17 Scopolamine, 168
Polymeric RP layers, 13 Secondary ion mass spectrometry
Polyphenols, 139 (SIMS), 168
Polysilicic acids, 7 Selectivity triangles, 96–99
Polysulfonic acids, 19 Separation number, 68–72, 83
Porphyrins, 38, 170 Sephadex, 39
Pre-chromatographic visualization, Septamycin, 168
151–153 Sequencing reagents, 149–151
Preparation of TLC plates, 40, 41 Sesquiterpene esters, 150
‘‘Home made’’, 40 Silica gel G, 41
Pre-coated, 41 Silica gel, 7–12
Pre-washing plates, 43, 44 40, 60, 100Å, 9–12
Preparative layer chromatography Activation, 9
(PLC), 54, 55 Amino-bonded, 7, 18–22, 140, 141
PRISMA, 99, 100 Aminopropyl-bonded – see amino-
Prism model, 99 bonded
182 Subject Index
Binders, 40 Spectrodensitometers, 155–160
Caffeine impregnated, 51, 52 Reflectance ‘‘noise’’, 157
Chiral-bonded, 7, 23–33 Spectrodensitometry, 155–160
Cyano-bonded, 7, 20–22, 118 Fluorescence equation, 159, 160
Cyanopropyl-bonded – see cyano- Kubelka–Munk theory, 158, 159
bonded Linearization of data, 159, 160
Cyclodextrin-bonded, 32 Reflectance equations, 158, 159
Diol-bonded, 7, 23 Theory, 158–160
Diphenyl-bonded, 18 Spherical silica gel – see silica gel,
Hydrogen bonded water, 8, 9 spherical
Hydroxyl groups, 8 Spot application, 82–85
Impregnated, 7, 49–51 Spot capacity equation, 68–72
Ligand exchange, 32 Spot size, 66–68
N-(3,5-dinitrobenzoyl)-R-(-)- Spotting guide, 76
phenylglycine bonded, 29, 31 Spray devices, 141, 142
Naphthylethyl urea-bonded, 32 ‘‘Spraying’’ verses ‘‘dipping’’, 142, 143
Octadecyl-bonded, 12–14, 16, 17 Stains, biological, 17
Octyl-bonded, 12–17 Standard deviation, 158
Paraffin coated, 12 Stationary phase, 91
Particle size, 9, 10 Steroids, 25, 28, 31, 39, 139, 145, 146,
Phenyl-bonded, 12 150
Pore volume, 12 Sterols, 139
Pore size, 11 Sulfoxides, 145
Preparation, 7, 8 Sugars – see carbohydrates
Reversed-phase, 12–18 Sugar alcohols, 145
Reversed-phase preparation, 12–16 Sugar phosphates, 37
Silanised, 14 Sulfonamides, 40, 144, 147
Silicone coated, 12 Sulfonic acids, 7, 19
Siloxane bonds, 8 Surface chromatography, 2
Spherical, 48, 173, 174 Surface enhanced RAMAN
Stationary phase leakage, 12 spectroscopy (SERS), 174
Silicic acid, 7 Surfactants, 168, 172
Silver nitrate TLC, 7, 50, 51, 131, 132 Anionic, 139
Solid phase extraction (SPE), 61–64 Non-ionic, 139
Bonded silica gels, 61–64 Sweeteners 139
Celite, 61 Syrup, 122
Diatomaceous earth, 61
Kieselguhr, 61 Tandem mass spectrometry, 170
Solvent ‘‘demixing’’, 103, 104 Terpenes, 150
Solvent front velocity (Vf), 87 Tetracyclines, 22, 168
Solvent migration, 86–89 Theory of solvent migration, 86–89
Solvent migration theory, 86, 87 Thermochemical fluorescence
Solvent selection, 92–100 activation, 20, 140, 141
Solvent strength, 95 Thiaxolidine derivatives, 33
Sorbic acid, 21 Thioethers, 144, 145
Specific permeability (Ko), 87 Thioglycolic acid, 147
Subject Index 183
Thiols, 144, 145, 150 Aniline phthalate reagent, 148
Timolol, 129 Anisaldehyde–sulfuric acid reagent,
TLC–FAB–MS, 168 146, 162
TLC–FTIR, 172, 173 Berberine, 139
TLC–LSIMS, 169, 170 Blue tetrazolium reagent, 145, 150
TLC–MS, 168 Bratton-Marshall’s reagent, 147
TLC–MS–MS – see tandem mass Bromocresol green, 138, 139
spectrometry Bromophenol blue, 138, 139
Trace analysis, 17 N-Bromosuccinimide, 150
Transition metals, 147 Bromothymol blue, 139
Tricyclic antidepressants, 145 Charring, 140, 163
2,2,2-Trifuoro-1-(9-anthryl)ethanol, Chloramine, T 145
31 Chlorine–o-toluidine reagent, 145
Triacylglycerides, 17, 52, 131, 139 Cobalt (Co2þ), 147
Triazines, 145 Complexation, 152
Triglycerides, 17, 139 Copper (Cu2þ), 147
Trimethazone, 144 Dansylation, 146, 147, 152
Triterpene alcohols, 139 Dansyl cadaverine, 152
Triton X100, 137, 153 Destructive techniques, 139–153
Tryptophan, 34, 129 Diazotization, 147
Twin-trough chamber, 105 2,7-Dichlorofluorescein, 139
Two-dimensional separations, 36, 2,6-Dichlorophenolindophenol
115–118 reagent, 145
2,6-Dichloroquinone-4-chlorimide,
Ubiquinones, 139 130, 164
U-chamber, 105–107 Diethyldithiocarbamate, 152
Universal chemical reagents, 143–145 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine reagent,
Uva-ursi, 164 152
UV detection, 135–137 Diphenylboric acid-2-aminoethyl
ester – see natural products
Valerian species, 162 reagent
Vanadylmandelic acid, 37 Dithizone, 152
Vanilla extract, 120 Dragendorff reagent, 145
Vanillic acid, 141 Ehrlich’s reagent, 150
Vario chambers, 110–112 Emerson’s reagent, 145
Velocity coefficient – see flow constant EP reagent, 150
Video imaging, 160–164 Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid, 152
Visible detection, 135 Fluorescein, 139
Visualisation, 141–153 Fluorescent dyes, 138, 139
Aldehydes, 148 Fluorescence quenching, 136
‘‘Aldehyde acid’’ reaction, 146 Folin and Ciocalteu’s reagent, 150
4-Aminobenzoic acid, 148 Gibb’s reagent, 150
2-Aminobiphenyl, 148 Group specific reagents, 146–149
Ammonia vapour, 138 Hydrochloric acid–acetic acid
Aniline–diphenylamine–phosphoric reagent, 162
acid reagent, 148 Hydrazone formation, 146
184 Subject Index
Iodine solution, 143, 144 Thermochemical activation, 140, 141
Iodine vapour, 137, 138, 143, 144 Tillman’s reagent, 145, 150
Iodoplatinate reagent, 145 Tin(II) chloride-4-
Iron (Fe3þ), 147 dimethylaminobenzaldehyde
Iron(III) chloride, 150 reagent, 145
Jenson’s reagent, 150 Vanillin–sulfuric acid reagent,
Manganese(II) chloride – sulfuric 146
acid reagent, 26, 149 Visible light, 135
Metal complexes, 147 Universal reagents, 143–146
Natural products reagent (NPR), 148 UV light, 135–137
Ninhydrin, 148 Vitamin B1, 145
Nitric acid vapour, 144 Vitamin B2, 145
Oxidation/reduction, 144, 145 Vitamin B6, 145
pH indicators, 139 Vitamin C, 145, 146, 150
Phosphomolybdic acid, 130, 145 Vitamin D3, 145
o-Phthaldehyde–sulfuric acid Vitamin K1, 145
reagent, 150 VMA – see vanadylmandelic acid
Pinacryptol yellow, 139
Post-chromatographic, 141–151 Water tolerance of RP layers, 14, 16
Pauly’s reagent, 147 Willow bark extract, 163
Pre-chromatographic, 151–153
Rhodamine, B 139 Xanthines, 172
Rhodamine 6G 139 Xerogel, 8
Schiff’s base, 148
Sequencing reactions, 149–151 Zeranol diastereoisomers, 17
Silver nitrate–sodium hydroxide ZGP, 129, 130
reagent, 145 Zone application – see band application
Sulfuric acid – ethanol reagent, 163 Zone focusing, 119