Water purification

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This article is about large scale, municipal water purification. For portable/emergency water
purification, see portable water purification. For industrial water purification, see deionized
water. For distilled water, see distilled water.

Water purification is a process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials, and biological

contaminants from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose.
Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking water) but water purification may also
be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements of medical,
pharmacology, chemical and industrial applications. In general the methods used include
physical processes such as filtration and sedimentation, biological processes such as slow sand
filters or activated sludge, chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use
of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

The purification process of water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including
suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi; and a range of dissolved and
particulate material derived from the surfaces that water may have made contact with after
falling as rain.

The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or by international
standards. These standards will typically set minimum and maximum concentrations of
contaminants for the use that is to be made of the water.

It is not possible to tell whether water is of an appropriate quality by visual examination. Simple
procedures such as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are not sufficient for
treating all the possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source.
Even natural spring water – considered safe for all practical purposes in the 1800s – must now be
tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed. Chemical analysis, while
expensive, is the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the appropriate
method of purification.

According to a 2007 World Health Organization report, 1.1 billion people lack access to an
improved drinking water supply, 88% of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are
attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, and 1.8 million people die from
diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO estimates that 94% of these diarrheal cases are
preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water.[1] Simple
techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and
storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year.[2] Reducing deaths from
waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries.
Control room and schematics of the water purification plant to Lac de Bret, Switzerland.
Contents
[hide]

 1 Sources of water
 2 Treatment
o 2.1 Pre-treatment
 2.1.1 pH adjustment
o 2.2 Flocculation
o 2.3 Sedimentation
o 2.4 Filtration
 2.4.1 Rapid sand filters
 2.4.2 Slow sand filters
 2.4.3 Lava filters
 2.4.4 Removal of ions and other dissolved substances
 2.4.5 Other mechanical and biological techniques
o 2.5 Disinfection
 2.5.1 Chlorine disinfection
o 2.6 Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection
o 2.7 Chloramine disinfection
 2.7.1 Ozone disinfection
 2.7.2 Ultraviolet disinfection
 2.7.3 Hydrogen peroxide disinfection
 2.7.4 Various portable methods of disinfection
 2.7.5 Solar water disinfection
o 2.8 Additional treatment options
 3 Other water purification techniques
 4 Hydrogen production
 5 Safety and controversies
o 5.1 Demineralized water
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 External links
[edit] Sources of water
Further information: Water supply

1. Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep ground water may have fallen as rain
many tens, hundreds, thousands or in some cases millions of years ago. Soil and rock
layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity before the treatment
plant. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian springs, or may be extracted from
boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is generally of very high bacteriological quality
(i.e., pathogenic bacteria or the pathogenic protozoa are typically absent), but the water
typically is rich in dissolved solids, especially carbonates and sulfates of calcium and
magnesium. Depending on the strata through which the water has flowed, other ions may
also be present including chloride, and bicarbonate. There may be a requirement to
reduce the iron or manganese content of this water to make it pleasant for drinking,
cooking, and laundry use. Disinfection may also be required. Where groundwater
recharge is practised; a process in which river water is injected into an aquifer to store the
water in times of plenty so that it is available in times of drought; it is equivalent to
lowland surface waters for treatment purposes.
2. Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river systems, upland
reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and may be surrounded by a
protective zone to restrict the opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and pathogen
levels are usually low, but some bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Where
uplands are forested or peaty, humic acids can colour the water. Many upland sources
have low pH which require adjustment.
3. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters will have a significant
bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved
constituents.
4. Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that can provide high quality drinking
water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air and thus condensing water
vapor.
5. Rainwater harvesting or fog collection which collects water from the atmosphere can be
used especially in areas with significant dry seasons and in areas which experience fog
even when there is little rain.
6. Desalination of seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis.

[edit] Treatment
The processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants. Some or most
may not be used depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the water.

[edit] Pre-treatment

1. Pumping and containment - The majority of water must be pumped from its source or
directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this
 physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate materials and constructed so that
accidental contamination does not occur.
2. Screening (see also screen filter) - The first step in purifying surface water is to remove
large debris such as sticks, leaves, trash and other large particles which may interfere
with subsequent purification steps. Most deep groundwater does not need screening
before other purification steps.
3. Storage - Water from rivers may also be stored in bankside reservoirs for periods between
a few days and many months to allow natural biological purification to take place. This is
especially important if treatment is by slow sand filters. Storage reservoirs also provide a
buffer against short periods of drought or to allow water supply to be maintained during
transitory pollution incidents in the source river.
4. Pre-conditioning - Water rich in hardness salts is treated with soda-ash (sodium
carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate out utilising the common-ion effect.
5. Pre-chlorination - In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimise the
growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse
quality effects (see chlorine below), this has largely been discontinued.[citation needed]

Widely varied techniques are available to remove the fine solids, micro-organisms and some
dissolved inorganic and organic materials. The choice of method will depend on the quality of
the water being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the quality standards expected of
the processed water.

[edit] pH adjustment

Distilled water has a pH of 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic) and sea water has an average pH of 8.3
(slightly alkaline). If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide is
added to raise the pH. For somewhat acidic, alkaline waters (lower than 6.5)[citation needed], forced
draft degasifiers are the cheapest way to raise the pH, as the process raises the pH by stripping
dissolved carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) from the water. Lime is commonly used for pH
adjustment for municipal water, or at the start of a treatment plant for process water, as it is
cheap, but it also increases the ionic load by raising the water hardness. Making the water
slightly alkaline ensures that coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also
helps to minimize the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and lead solder in pipe fittings.
Acid (HCl or H2SO4) may be added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the pH.
Having alkaline water does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system
will not be dissolved into the water but as a generality, water with a pH above 7 is much less
likely to dissolve heavy metals than a water with a pH below 7.
floc floating at the surface of a basin

Mechanical system to push floc out of the water basin

[edit] Flocculation

Flocculation is a process which clarifies the water. Clarifying means removing any turbidity or
colour so that the water is clear and colourless. Clarification is done by causing a precipitate to
form in the water which can be removed using simple physical methods. Initially the precipitate
forms as very small particles but as the water is gently stirred, these particles stick together to
form bigger particles - this process is sometimes called flocculation. Many of the small particles
that were originally present in the raw water adsorb onto the surface of these small precipitate
particles and so get incorporated into the larger particles that coagulation produces. In this way
the coagulated precipitate takes most of the suspended matter out of the water and is then filtered
off, generally by passing the mixture through a coarse sand filter or sometimes through a mixture
of sand and granulated anthracite (high carbon and low volatiles coal). Coagulants / flocculating
agents that may be used include:

1. Iron (III) hydroxide. This is formed by adding a solution of an iron (III) compound such
as iron(III) chloride to pre-treated water with a pH of 7 or greater. Iron (III) hydroxide is
extremely insoluble and forms even at a pH as low as 7. Commercial formulations of iron
salts were traditionally marketed in the UK under the name Cuprus.
2. Aluminium hydroxide is also widely used as the flocculating precipitate although there
have been concerns about possible health impacts and mis-handling led to a severe
poisoning incident in 1988 at Camelford in south-west UK when the coagulant was
introduced directly into the holding reservoir of final treated water.
3. PolyDADMAC is an artificially produced polymer and is one of a class of synthetic
polymers that are now widely used. These polymers have a high molecular weight and
form very stable and readily removed flocs, but tend to be more expensive in use
compared to inorganic materials. The materials can also be biodegradable.

[edit] Sedimentation

Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or
settling basin. It is a large tank with slow flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The
sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between does not
permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular, where water flows
from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow
is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer—that furthest from the sediment—exits. The
amount of floc that settles out of the water is dependent on basin retention time and on basin
depth. The retention time of the water must therefore be balanced against the cost of a larger
basin. The minimum clarifier retention time is normally 4 hours. A deep basin will allow more
floc to settle out than a shallow basin. This is because large particles settle faster than smaller
ones, so large particles collide with and integrate smaller particles as they settle. In effect, large
particles sweep vertically through the basin and clean out smaller particles on their way to the
bottom.

As particles settle to the bottom of the basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank.
This layer of sludge must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge that is generated is
significant, often 3 to 5 percent of the total volume of water that is treated. The cost of treating
and disposing of the sludge can be a significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment
plant. The tank may be equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the
bottom of the tank or the tank can be taken out of service when the bottom needs to be cleaned.

[edit] Filtration

After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended
particles and unsettled floc.

[edit] Rapid sand filters

Cutaway view of a typical rapid sand filter

The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically through sand which
often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal above the sand. The top layer removes
organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odour. The space between sand particles is
larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most particles
pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective
filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation: if
the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog.

To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal
direction (called backflushing or backwashing) to remove embedded particles. Prior to this,
compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter
media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as air scouring. This contaminated water
can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by
mixing with the raw water entering the plant.

Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters. These work on the same principle as rapid
gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is
forced through it under pressure.

Advantages:

 Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters can.
 Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specified pore sizes.
 They are quite thin and so liquids flow through them fairly rapidly.
 They are reasonably strong and so can withstand pressure differences across them of
typically 2-5 atmospheres.
 They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused.

Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking water and sewage (for reuse). For
drinking water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than 0.2 um—including
giardia and cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it
is desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or before discharging
the water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. They are widely used in industry,
particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water). However no filtration can remove
substances that are actually dissolved in the water such as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal
ions.

[edit] Slow sand filters

Slow "artificial" filtration (a variation of bank filtration) to the ground, Water purification plant
Káraný, Czech Republic

Slow sand filters may be used where there is sufficient land and space as the water must be
passed very slowly through the filters. These filters rely on biological treatment processes for
their action rather than physical filtration. The filters are carefully constructed using graded
layers of sand with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the bottom and finest sand at the
top. Drains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration depends on the
development of a thin biological layer, called the zoogleal layer or Schmutzdecke, on the surface
of the filter. An effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months
if the pre-treatment is well designed and produces water with a very low available nutrient level
which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Very low nutrient levels allow water to be
safely sent through distribution system with very low disinfectant levels thereby reducing
consumer irritation over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by-products. Slow sand filters
are not backwashed; they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow
is eventually obstructed by biological growth.[citation needed]

A specific 'large-scale' form of slow sand filter is the process of bank filtration, in which natural
sediments in a riverbank are used to provide a first stage of contaminant filtration. While
typically not sufficiently clean enough to be used directly for drinking water, the water gained
from the associated extraction wells is much less problematic than river water taken directly
from the major streams where bank filtration is often used.

[edit] Lava filters

Lava filters are similar to sand filters and may also only be used where there is sufficient land
and space. Like slow sand filters, the filters rely on biological treatment processes for their action
rather than physical filtration. Unlike slow sand filters however, they are constructed from 2
layers of lava pebbles and a top layer of nutrient-free soil (only at the plant roots). On top, water-
purifying plants (such as Iris pseudacorus and Sparganium erectum) are placed. Usually, around
1/4 of the dimension of lavastone is required to purify the water and just like slow sand filters, a
series of herringbone drains are placed (with lava filters these are placed at the bottom layer).[3]

[edit] Removal of ions and other dissolved substances

Ultrafiltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic pores
that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The type of
membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what
sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out.

Ion exchange:[4][5][6][7][8] Ion exchange systems use ion exchange resin- or zeolite-packed columns
to replace unwanted ions. The most common case is water softening consisting of removal of Ca2+
and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign (soap friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange resins are
also used to remove toxic ions such as nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others.

Electrodeionization:[8][4] Water is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode.

Ion exchange membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the
negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionized
water is produced with a little worse degree of purification in comparison with ion exchange
treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. The water is often
pre-treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic contaminants.

[edit] Other mechanical and biological techniques

See also: Greywater and Ecological sanitation

In addition to the many techniques used in large-scale water treatment, several small-scale, less
(or non)-polluting techniques are also being used to treat polluted water. These techniques
include those based on mechanical and biological processes. An overview:

 mechanical systems: sand filtration, lava filter systems and systems based on UV-
radiation)
 biological systems:
o plant systems as constructed wetlands and treatment ponds (sometimes incorrectly
called reedbeds and living walls) and
o compact systems as activated sludge systems, biorotors, aerobic biofilters and
anaerobic biofilters, submerged aerated filters, and biorolls [9]

In order to purify the water adequately, several of these systems are usually combined to work as
a whole. Combination of the systems is done in two to three stages, namely primary and
secondary purification. Sometimes tertiary purification is also added.

[edit] Disinfection

Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful microbes and also by adding
disinfectant chemicals in the last step in purifying drinking water. Water is disinfected to kill any
pathogens which pass through the filters. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including
Escherichia coli, Campylobacter and Shigella, and protozoa, including Giardia lamblia and
other cryptosporidia. In most developed countries, public water supplies are required to maintain
a residual disinfecting agent throughout the distribution system, in which water may remain for
days before reaching the consumer. Following the introduction of any chemical disinfecting
agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage - often called a contact tank or clear well to
allow the disinfecting action to complete.

[edit] Chlorine disinfection

Main article: Chlorination

The most common disinfection method involves some form of chlorine or its compounds such as
chloramine or chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many harmful
micro-organisms. Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with
its use. This problem is avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively
inexpensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can
be generated on site by electrolyzing common salt solutions. A solid form, calcium hypochlorite
exists that releases chlorine on contact with water. Handling the solid, however, requires greater
routine human contact through opening bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach
which are more easily automated. The generation of liquid sodium hypochlorite is both
inexpensive and safer than the use of gas or solid chlorine. All forms of chlorine are widely used
despite their respective drawbacks. One drawback is that chlorine from any source reacts with
natural organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful chemical by-products
trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), both of which are carcinogenic in large
quantities and regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the
Drinking Water Inspectorate in the UK. The formation of THMs and haloacetic acids may be
minimized by effective removal of as many organics from the water as possible prior to chlorine
addition. Although chlorine is effective in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against
protozoa that form cysts in water (Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, both of which are
pathogenic).

[edit] Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection

Chlorine dioxide is a faster-acting disinfectant than elemental chlorine, however it is relatively

rarely used, because in some circumstances it may create excessive amounts of chlorite, which is
a by-product regulated to low allowable levels in the United States. Chlorine dioxide is supplied
as an aqueous solution and added to water to avoid gas handling problems; chlorine dioxide gas
accumulations may spontaneously detonate.

[edit] Chloramine disinfection

The use of chloramine is becoming more common as a disinfectant. Although chloramine is not
as strong an oxidant, it does provide a longer-lasting residual than free chlorine and it won't form
THMs or haloacetic acids. It is possible to convert chlorine to chloramine by adding ammonia to
the water after addition of chlorine. The chlorine and ammonia react to form chloramine. Water
distribution systems disinfected with chloramines may experience nitrification, as ammonia is
used a nutrient for bacterial growth, with nitrates being generated as a by-product.

[edit] Ozone disinfection

O3is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful
oxidizing agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum
disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful
protozoa that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made by
passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical discharge. To use ozone as a
disinfectant, it must be created on-site and added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the
advantages of ozone include the production of fewer dangerous by-products (in comparison to
chlorination) and the lack of taste and odour produced by ozonisation. Although fewer by-
products are formed by ozonation, it has been discovered that the use of ozone produces a small
amount of the suspected carcinogen bromate, although little bromine should be present in treated
water. Another of the main disadvantages of ozone is that it leaves no disinfectant residual in the
water. Ozone has been used in drinking water plants since 1906 where the first industrial
ozonation plant was built in Nice, France. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has accepted
ozone as being safe; and it is applied as an anti-microbiological agent for the treatment, storage,
and processing of foods.

[edit] Ultraviolet disinfection

Ultraviolet light is very effective at inactivating cysts, as long as the water has a low level of
colour so the UV can pass through without being absorbed. The main disadvantage to the use of
UV radiation is that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water. Because
neither ozone nor UV radiation leaves a residual disinfectant in the water, it is sometimes
necessary to add a residual disinfectant after they are used. This is often done through the
addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner,
chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the negative aspects of
chlorination.

[edit] Hydrogen peroxide disinfection

Works in a similar way to ozone. Activators such as formic acid are often added to increase the
efficacy of disinfection. It has the disadvantages that it is slow-working, phytotoxic in high
dosage, and decreases the pH of the water it purifies.

[edit] Various portable methods of disinfection

Available for disinfection in emergencies or in remote locations. Disinfection is the primary

goal, since aesthetic considerations such as taste, odour, appearance, and trace chemical
contamination do not affect the short-term safety of drinking water.

[edit] Solar water disinfection

One low-cost method of disinfecting water that can often be implemented with locally available
materials is solar disinfection (SODIS).[10][11][12][13] Unlike methods that rely on firewood, it has
low impact on the environment.

One recent study has found that the wild Salmonella which would reproduce quickly during
subsequent dark storage of solar-disinfected water could be controlled by the addition of just 10
parts per million of hydrogen peroxide.[14]

[edit] Additional treatment options

1. Water fluoridation: in many areas fluoride is added to water with the goal of preventing
tooth decay.[15] Fluoride is usually added after the disinfection process. In the U.S.,
fluoridation is usually accomplished by the addition of hexafluorosilicic acid,[16] which
decomposes in water, yielding fluoride ions.[17]
2. Water conditioning: This is a method of reducing the effects of hard water. Hardness salts
are deposited in water systems subject to heating because the decomposition of
bicarbonate ions creates carbonate ions that crystallise out of the saturated solution of
calcium or magnesium carbonate. Water with high concentrations of hardness salts can
be treated with soda ash (sodium carbonate) which precipitates out the excess salts,
through the common-ion effect, producing calcium carbonate of very high purity. The
precipitated calcium carbonate is traditionally sold to the manufacturers of toothpaste.
Several other methods of industrial and residential water treatment are claimed (without
 general scientific acceptance) to include the use of magnetic or/and electrical fields
reducing the effects of hard water.[citation needed]
3. Plumbosolvency reduction: In areas with naturally acidic waters of low conductivity (i.e.
surface rainfall in upland mountains of igneous rocks), the water may be capable of
dissolving lead from any lead pipes that it is carried in. The addition of small quantities
of phosphate ion and increasing the pH slightly both assist in greatly reducing plumbo-
solvency by creating insoluble lead salts on the inner surfaces of the pipes.
4. Radium Removal: Some groundwater sources contain radium, a radioactive chemical
element. Typical sources include many groundwater sources north of the Illinois River in
Illinois. Radium can be removed by ion exchange, or by water conditioning. The back
flush or sludge that is produced is, however, a low-level radioactive waste.
5. Fluoride Removal: Although fluoride is added to water in many areas, some areas of the
world have excessive levels of natural fluoride in the source water. Excessive levels can
be toxic or cause undesirable cosmetic effects such as staining of teeth. Fluoride is also a
known carcinogen. One method of reducing fluoride levels is through treatment with
activated alumina.

[edit] Other water purification techniques

Other popular methods for purifying water, especially for local private supplies are listed below.
In some countries some of these methods are also used for large scale municipal supplies.
Particularly important are distillation (de-salination of seawater) and reverse osmosis.

1. Boiling: Water is heated hot enough and long enough to inactivate or kill micro-
organisms that normally live in water at room temperature. Near sea level, a vigorous
rolling boil for at least one minute is sufficient. At high altitudes (greater than two
kilometres or 5000 feet) three minutes is recommended.[18] In areas where the water is
"hard" (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes the
bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium carbonate. This is the "fur"
that builds up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium,
boiling does not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact increases
their concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave a
residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that has been boiled and then stored
for any length of time may have acquired new pathogens.
2. Granular Activated Carbon filtering: a form of activated carbon with a high surface area,
adsorbs many compounds including many toxic compounds. Water passing through
activated carbon is commonly used in municipal regions with organic contamination,
taste or odors. Many household water filters and fish tanks use activated carbon filters to
further purify the water. Household filters for drinking water sometimes contain silver as
metallic silver nanoparticle. if water is held in the carbon block for longer period,
microorganisms can grow inside which results in fouling and contamination. Silver
nanoparticles are excellent anti-bacterial material and they can decompose toxic halo-
organic compounds such as pesticides into non-toxic organic products[citation needed].
3. Distillation involves boiling the water to produce water vapour. The vapour contacts a
cool surface where it condenses as a liquid. Because the solutes are not normally
vaporised, they remain in the boiling solution. Even distillation does not completely
 purify water, because of contaminants with similar boiling points and droplets of
unvapourised liquid carried with the steam. However, 99.9% pure water can be obtained
by distillation.
4. Reverse osmosis: Mechanical pressure is applied to an impure solution to force pure
water through a semi-permeable membrane. Reverse osmosis is theoretically the most
thorough method of large scale water purification available, although perfect semi-
permeable membranes are difficult to create. Unless membranes are well-maintained,
algae and other life forms can colonize the membranes.
5. The use of iron in removing arsenic from water. See Arsenic contamination of
groundwater.
6. Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD). Applicable to desalination. Heated
seawater is passed along the surface of a hydrophobic polymer membrane. Evaporated
water passes from the hot side through pores in the membrane into a stream of cold pure
water on the other side. The difference in vapour pressure between the hot and cold side
helps to push water molecules through.
7. Gas hydrate crystals centrifuge method. If carbon dioxide gas is mixed with contaminated
water at high pressure and low temperature, gas hydrate crystals will contain only clean
water. This is because the water molecules bind to the gas molecules at molecular level.
The contaminated water is in liquid form. A centrifuge may be used to separate the
crystals and the concentrated contaminated water.

[edit] Hydrogen production

For the small scale production of hydrogen, water purifiers are installed to prevent formation of
minerals on the surface of the electrodes and to remove organics and chlorine from utility water.
First, the water passes through a 20 micrometre interference (mesh or screen filter) filter to
remove sand and dust particles, then a charcoal filter using activated carbon to remove organics
and chlorine and finally a de-ionizing filter to remove metallic ions. Testing can be done before
and after the filter to verify the proper removal of barium, calcium, potassium, magnesium,
sodium and silica.

Another method that is used is reverse osmosis.

[edit] Safety and controversies

Drinking water pollution detector Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is being used in water
purification plants to detect acute water pollution

In April, 2007, the water supply of Spencer, Massachusetts became contaminated with excess
sodium hydroxide (lye) when its treatment equipment malfunctioned.[citation needed]

Many municipalities have moved from free chlorine to chloramine as a disinfection agent.
However, chloramine in some water systems, appears to be a corrosive agent. Chloramine can
dissolve the "protective" film inside older service line, with the leaching of lead into residential
spigots. This can result in harmful exposure to lead, with elevated blood levels of lead the
outcome. Lead is a known neurotoxin.[19]

[edit] Demineralized water

Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and
nanofiltration remove most to all minerals. This results in demineralized water which is not
considered ideal drinking water. The World Health Organization has investigated the health
effects of demineralized water since 1980.[20] Experiments in humans found that demineralized
water increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with decreased blood serum
potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium, and other minerals in water can help to protect
against nutritional deficiency. Demineralized water may also increase the risk from toxic metals
because it more readily leaches materials from piping like lead and cadmium, which is prevented
by dissolved minerals such as calcium and magnesium. Low-mineral water has been implicated
in specific cases of lead poisoning in infants, when lead from pipes leached at especially high
rates into the water. Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L
with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a
total water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2 to 4 mmol/L. At water hardness
above 5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and
arthropathies have been observed.[21] Additionally, desalination processes can increase the risk of
bacterial contamination.[21]

Manufacturers of home water distillers, of course, claim the opposite—that minerals in water are
the cause of many diseases, and that most beneficial minerals come from food, not water.[22][23][24]
They quote the American Medical Association as saying "The body's need for minerals is largely
met through foods, not drinking water."[25] The WHO report agrees that "drinking water, with
some rare exceptions, is not the major source of essential elements for humans" and is "not the
major source of our calcium and magnesium intake", yet states that demineralized water is
harmful anyway. "Additional evidence comes from animal experiments and clinical observations
in several countries. Animals given zinc or magnesium dosed in their drinking water had a
significantly higher concentration of these elements in the serum than animals given the same
elements in much higher amounts with food and provided with low-mineral water to drink."

See Distilled_water#Criticism

What specific water purification methods are there?

Water that is distributed in cities or communities is treated extensively. Specific water
purification steps are taken, in order to make the water meet current water standards.
Purification methods can be divided up into settling of suspended matter, physical/ chemical
treatment of colloids and biological treatment. All these treatment methods have several different
applications.

How do specific water purification methods work?

1 Physical water purification

Physical water purification is primarily concerned with filtration techniques. Filtration is a

purification instrument to remove solids from liquids. There are several different filtration
techniques. A typical filter consists of a tank, the filter media and a controller to enable
backflow.

Screens

Filtration through screens is usually done at the beginning of the water purification process. The
shape of the screens depends on the particles that have to be removed.

Sand filtration

Sand filtration is a frequently used, very robust method to remove suspended solids from water.
The filter medium consists of a multiple layer of sand with a variety in size and specific gravity.
When water flows through the filter, the suspended solids precipitate in the sand layers as residue
and the water, which is reduced in suspended solids, flows out of the filter. When the filters are
loaded with particles the flow-direction is reversed, in order to regenerate it. Smaller suspended
solids have the ability to pass through a sand filter, so that secondary filtration is often required.

Cross flow filtration

Cross flow membrane filtration removes both salts and dissolved organic matter, using a
permeable membrane that only permeates the contaminants. The remaining concentrate flows
along across the membrane and out of the system and the permeate is removed as it flows along
the other side of the membrane.
There are several different membrane filtration techniques, these are: micro filtration, ultra
filtration, nano filtration and Reversed Osmosis (RO). Which one of these techniques is
implemented depends upon the kind of compounds that needs to be removed and their particle
size. Below, the techniques of membrane filtration are clarified.

1) Microfiltration
Microfiltration is a membrane separation technique in which very fine particles or other
suspended matters, with a particle size in the range of 0.1 to 1.5 microns, are separated from a
liquid. It is capable of removing suspended solids, bacteria or other impurities. Microfiltration
membranes have a nominal pore size of 0.2 microns.
2) Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration is a membrane separation technique in which very fine particles or other
suspended matters, with a particle size in the range of 0.005 to 0.1 microns, are separated from a
liquid. It is capable of removing salts, proteins and other impurities within its range.
Ultrafiltration membranes have a nominal pore size of 0.0025 to 0.1 microns.

3) Nanofiltration
Nanofiltration is a membrane separation technique in which very fine particles or other
suspended matters, with a particle size in the range of approximately
0.0001 to 0.005 microns, are separated from a liquid. It is capable of removing viruses, pesticides
and herbicides.

4) Reversed Osmosis (RO)

Reversed Osmosis, or RO, is the finest available membrane separation technique. RO separates
very fine particles or other suspended matters, with a particle size up to
0.001 microns, from a liquid. It is capable of removing metal ions and fully removing aqueous
salts.

More on RO

Cartridge filtration

Cartridge filtration units consist of fibres. They generally operate most effectively and
economically on applications having contamination levels of less than 100 ppm. For heavier
contamination applications, cartridges are normally used as final polishing filters.

2 Chemical water purification

Chemical water purification is concerned with a lot of different methods. Which methods are
applied depends on the kind of contamination in the (waste)water. Below, many of these
chemical purification techniques are summed up.

Chemical addition

There are various situations in which chemicals are added, for instance to prevent the formation
of certain reaction products. Below, a few of these additions are summed up:
- Chelating agents are often added to water, in order to prevent negative effects of hardness,
caused by the deposition of calcium and magnesium.
- Oxidizing agents are added to act as a biocide, or to neutralize reducing agents.
- Reducing agents are added to neutralize oxidizing agents, such as ozone and chlorine. They
also help prevent the degradation of purification membranes.

Clarification

Clarification is a multi-step process to remove suspended solids. First, coagulants are added.
Coagulants reduce the charges of ions, so that they will accumulate into larger particles called
flocs. The flocs then settle by gravity in settling tanks or are removed as the water flows through
a gravity filter. Particles larger than 25 microns are effectively removed by clarification. Water
that is treated through clarification may still contain some suspended solids and therefore needs
further treatment.

Deionisation and softening

Deionisation is commonly processed through ion exchange. Ion exchange systems consist of a
tank with small beds of synthetic resin, which is treated to selectively absorb certain cations or
anions and replace them by counter-ions. The process of ion exchange lasts, until all available
spaces are filled up with ions. The ion-exchanging device than has to be regenerated by suitable
chemicals.
One of the most commonly used ion exchangers is a water softener. This device removes
calcium and magnesium ions from hard water, by replacing them with other positively charged
ions, such as sodium.

For specific information on water softening move to the water softener FAQ

Disinfection

Disinfection is one of the most important steps in the purification of water from cities and
communities. It serves the purpose of killing the present undesired microrganisms in the water;
therefore disinfectants are often referred to as biocides. There are a variety of techniques
available to disinfect fluids and surfaces, such as: ozone disinfection, chlorine disinfection and
UV disinfection.

Chlorine has a downside: it can react to chloramines and chlorinated hydrocarbons, which are
dangerous carcinogens. To prevent this problem chlorine dioxide can be applied. Chlorine
dioxide is an effective biocide at concentrations as low as
0.1 ppm and over a wide pH range. ClO2 penetrates the bacteria cell wall and reacts with vital
amino acids in the cytoplasm of the cell to kill the organism. The by-product of this reaction is
chlorite. Toxicological studies have shown that the chlorine dioxide disinfection by-product,
chlorite, poses no significant adverse risk to human health.

Ozone has been used for disinfection of drinking water in the municipal water industry in Europe
for over a hundred years and is used by a large number of water companies, where ozone
generator capacities up to the range of a hundred kilograms per hour are common. When ozone
faces odours, bacteria or viruses, the extra atom of oxygen destroys them completely by
oxidation. During this process the extra atom of oxygen is destroyed and there are no odours,
bacteria or extra atoms left. Ozone is not only an effective disinfectant, it is also particularly safe
to use.

UV-radiation is also used for disinfection nowadays. When exposed to sunlight, germs are killed
and bacteria and fungi are prevented from spreading. This natural disinfection process can be
utilised most effectively by applying UV radiation in a controlled way.
Distillation

Distillation is the collection of water vapour, after boiling the wastewater. With a properly
designed system removal of organic and inorganic contaminants and biological impurities can be
obtained, because most contaminants do not vaporize. Water will than pass to the condensate and
the contaminants will remain in the evaporation unit.

Electro dialysis

Electro dialysis is a technique that employs an electrical current and special membranes, which
are semi permeable to ions, based on their charge. Membranes that permeate cations and
membranes that permeate anions are placed alternately, with flow channels between them, and
electrodes are placed on each side of the membranes. The electrodes draw their counter ions
through the membranes, so that these are removed from the water.

pH-adjustment

Municipal water is often pH-adjusted, in order to prevent corrosion from pipes and to prevent
dissolution of lead into water supplies. The pH is brought up or down through addition of
hydrogen chloride, in case of a basic liquid, or natrium hydroxide, in case of an acidic liquid.
The pH will be converted to approximately 7 to 7.5, after addition of certain concentrations of
these substances.

Scavenging

Most naturally occurring organics have a slightly negative charge. Organic scavenging is done
by addition of strong-base anion resin. The organics will fill up the resin and when it is loaded it
is regenerated with high concentrations of sodium chloride.

3 Biological water purification

Biological water purification is performed to lower the organic load of dissolved organic
compounds. Microrganisms, mainly bacteria, do the decomposition of these compounds. There
are two main categories of biological treatment: aerobic treatment and anaerobic treatment.
The Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) defines the organic load. In aerobic systems the water is
aerated with compressed air (in some cases merely oxygen), whereas anaerobic systems run
under oxygen free conditions.

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