Instrument Flying

Introduction
Flight in cloud can be dangerous because when Instrument flight is challenging because of the
we are deprived of visual references, the body’s need to interpret and anticipate the instrument
other senses may provide conflicting information readings while recognising or ignoring the
to the brain. Without the benefit of visual conflicting messages sent to the brain by our
references to resolve these conflicts, loss of earthbound orientated senses.
aeroplane control can occur very quickly, usually Inadvertent flight into cloud can be avoided by
within a minute. maintaining a high level of situational awareness.
However, instrument flying has a practical However, a five-hour course of instrument flying
application to visual flying when the normal cues is included in the requirements for PPL issue, to
are missing or misleading; for example, low flying, give the pilot and passengers some chance of
mountain flying, night flying, or flying over water survival should the event occur.
with a poor horizon.

Objectives Considerations
To experience the sensory illusions Describe the method of simulation that you will
use, for example, hood or glasses.
which occur when deprived of
Discuss the direct and indirect information that
visual references. each of the flight and engine instruments give,
as well as their power source.
To maintain straight and level flight
The formula Power + Attitude = Performance
by sole reference to the aeroplane’s remains unchanged for instrument flight. There are
instruments. two types of instruments; control instruments and
performance instruments.
To climb, descend and turn by
sole reference to the aeroplane’s Control Instruments
instruments. Attitude Indicator or Artificial Horizon The
Attitude Indicator (AI) or Artificial Horizon (AH) is
the master instrument, because it presents pitch
and bank attitude information directly (in
miniature) against an artificial horizon.
Miniaturisation of the outside world means
that small movements indicated on the attitude
indicator represent quite noticeable changes in
pitch and bank. Therefore, it is common to speak
of pitch attitude changes in relation to the
width of the wing bars representing the aeroplane
within the AI. For example, the straight and level
attitude is half a wing bar width above the horizon.
2 Instrument Flying: Introduction

Indirectly, the attitude indicator is a guide to Balance Indicator

airspeed (nose low – high or increasing airspeed, This Balance Indicator is commonly incorporated
nose high – low or decreasing airspeed). within the turn coordinator and directly indicates
The attitude indicator is most commonly driven balance. Indirectly, it indicates yaw if the wings
by an engine-driven vacuum pump. are level, or bank. Its power source is gravity, or
the resultant of in-flight accelerations (CPF, CFF).
Tachometer
The tachometer directly indicates the engine Vertical Speed Indicator
rpm and indirectly the engine power output. The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) directly
In addition, rpm may indirectly indicate pitch indicates the rate of change of altitude. Indirectly,
attitude (rpm increasing – nose low, rpm it indicates pitch attitude, and it is most useful
decreasing – nose high). when used as a trend indicator, as it will indicate
a tendency to change altitude long before the
The tachometer is commonly driven from
altimeter registers any change. Its information
the engine by a mechanical cable.
source is the static system.

Performance Instruments Instrument Layout

Airspeed Indicator The four instruments, Attitude Indicator, Airspeed
This gives the aeroplane’s speed directly and, Indicator, Altimeter, and Heading Indicator,
indirectly, pitch attitude (airspeed increasing – are arranged on the instrument panel in a Basic
nose low, airspeed decreasing – nose high). Its T-shape.
source of information is the pitot-static system. The addition of the Turn Coordinator/Balance
Indicator, and the Vertical Speed Indicator make
Altimeter up the full instrument flying panel.
The altimeter directly indicates the height of While not part of the six instruments referred
the aeroplane above a datum, usually sea level. to the rpm gauge is incorporated into scan
Indirectly, it indicates pitch attitude (altitude techniques as appropriate.
decreasing – nose low, altitude increasing –
nose high). Its source of information is the
Instrument Lag
static system.
All instruments suffer from lag, some to a greater
extent than others. All instruments, other than the
Heading Indicator
VSI, can be considered to be responsive enough
The heading indicator is known as the Directional
for light aeroplane use. The VSI, however, suffers
Indicator (DI), Directional Gyro (DG), or Horizontal
from significant lag, and must be cross-referenced
Situation Indicator (HSI). The DI directly indicates
with other instruments to check its indications.
the aeroplane’s heading when aligned with the
magnetic compass. Indirectly, it can indicate bank.
Heading indicators are commonly driven by the
engine-driven vacuum pump.
Airmanship
The importance of checking instruments while
taxiing, and in-flight SADIE checks are revised.
Turn Coordinator
The Turn Coordinator (TC), or Turn Indicator, During visual flight training the requirement to
directly indicates the rate of change of direction. counteract inertia (change – check – hold – adjust
Indirectly, it can indicate limited angles of bank – trim) will have become automatic as a result
(provided balance is maintained), commonly up of cues detected by peripheral vision. These
to about 35 degrees. Any further increase in bank cues will no longer be available and the necessity
angle will not be indicated by the turn coordinator. to consciously counteract inertia through this
Turn coordinators are normally electrically driven. process when changing attitude will need to be
emphasised during early instrument lessons.
 Instrument Flying: Introduction 3

The student should be prompting the lookout, by In instrument flight conditions the visual references
calling “clear left?” if a left turn is to be conducted used to resolve ambiguous or conflicting
and should receive a “clear left” response from orientation information are not available. Until
the instructor. considerable practice has been carried out
to replace the normal visual cues with instrument
readings, orientation conflicts may occur, causing
Aeroplane Management various illusions, for example, the leans.
The aeroplane’s vacuum and pitot-static systems Because the limitations of the human orientation
should be described. system are considerable, and instrument failure
The method of setting the attitude indicator’s is rare, trust the instruments.
aeroplane symbol before flight, and the desirability
of not altering it in flight, are explained.
Air Exercise
The air exercise starts with a demonstration
Human Factors of the limitations of the vestibular and
Humans use three sensing systems to gather muscular systems.
and transmit information to the brain in order to
remain orientated. These are the balance organs Selective Radial Scan
within the vestibular system of the inner ear, Selective radial scanning recognises that the
the muscular pressure sensors of the nervous attitude indicator is the master instrument and
system, and vision – the most powerful system therefore employs an instrument scanning pattern
of the three. that radiates out from, and always returns to, the
attitude indicator.
The balance organs of the vestibular system
sense angular acceleration or change of direction The relative importance of the performance
in three different planes by the detection of fluid instruments varies – and therefore the scan rate
movement in the semicircular canals. In addition, varies – with the manoeuvre being executed.
the otolith organ senses linear acceleration as well Describe this in relation to maintaining straight
as head or body tilt, through the movement of a and level as well as achieving straight and level
jelly-like mass over sensitive hairs. from the climb and descent.
This system is limited by the inability to detect
change when the direction or the angular
acceleration is constant or very slow. It can also Airborne Sequence
misrepresent acceleration as a nose pitch up,
The Exercise
because of the effect of inertia.
It is important to demonstrate the limitations
The muscular pressure sensors of the nervous of the body’s physiological orientation systems
system are affected by gravity and allow us to carefully. The instructions below should be
detect, for example, whether we are standing followed exactly so that the student experiences
or sitting when our eyes are closed. the false sensations of turning and pitching.
Crucially, this system cannot differentiate between An unconvincing demonstration may lead the
the various causes of increased G, for example, student to believe they are immune to false
as the result of pulling out of a dive or of entering indications. There are many demonstrations that
a steep turn. show the susceptibility of the human senses
to disorientation; it should only be necessary to
The visual system is the most powerful of the
show a few of them.
orientation systems and normally resolves any
ambiguous or conflicting information received by
the brain, for example, this is a steep turn not a
pull-out of a dive.
4 Instrument Flying: Introduction

The False Sensation of Turning Student Practice

In straight and level flight, ask the student to The student should have observed the
close their eyes and lower their head, remind instruments on previous VFR flights to verify that
them to resist any temptation to look out, if they small movements on the AI result in noticeable
do they will not feel what is normally sensed changes in pitch and bank.
during instrument flight. Now have the student put on the hood or glasses,
Lower the right wing very gently and then get comfortable and ensure they cannot see out.
positively roll the wings level while raising the Then they should practice the selective radial
nose attitude without changing power. At this scan, first in straight and level, and then moving
stage ask the student what attitude the aeroplane on to climbs, descents and turns, emphasising the
is in. Their balance and postural sensations will change – check – hold – adjust – trim sequence.
normally lead them to conclude that the aeroplane
has entered a turn to the left. On the Ground
The handout for this lesson should include the
The False Sensation of Climbing limitations of the human balance system, as well
In straight and level flight, ask the student to close as a range of articles on incidents and accidents
their eyes and lower their head. Enter a medium resulting from attempting continued VFR flight
turn to the left using a positive entry, then very into deteriorating weather.
gently change to a turn to the right while applying
consistent backpressure to the control column.
Ask the student to tell you what attitude they think
the aeroplane is in. The sensation they have felt
will be that the aeroplane is in a climbing left turn.
Once the student has seen that the sensation
received from the senses of balance and posture
can be misleading, they will have a better
appreciation of the need to be able to fly by
instrument reference before attempting to enter
cloud or any other condition where outside visual
references are minimal or completely absent.
It is not necessary to handle the aeroplane
violently or adopt extremes of attitude to achieve
the effects of disorientation.
During transitions from the climb or descent
to straight and level it will be necessary to
slow the students actions down to consciously
follow the change – check – hold – adjust – trim
sequence.