The

Elements
of
Graphic
Design
adpapers The func- Space, Unity,
1difference between Page Architecture,
vel and a pitchfork is and Type
1etal that is missing.

Alex W. White

ALLWORTH PRESS
~E W \ ' ORK
 * 5 Unity 57 I Gesta lt 59 I Space 63 I Dominance 63 I
Hierarchy 63 I Balance 65 I Color 65

he essence oftaste is suitability. Divest the word

0 The huge size of the

T ofits prim and priggish implications, and see
how it expresses the mysterious demand of
the eye and mind for symmetry, harmony,
UNITY above represents and order. - Edith Wharton (1862-1937)
its position ?f sup~eme
importance rn design. Wolfgang Weingart, the Swiss design er and design educator,
...e
Q

........
t;; .!:!
~ "'
said, "I am convinced that...investigation of elementary typo-
... e
_
------- ___.....
.... -·-·--
........-_...... _
C Visual unity is shown
in a series of design ele-
ments that share verticali-
graphic exercises is a prerequisite for the solution of complex
typographic problems." That point is equal ly valid with reference
ty (top). Conceptual unity to design problems.
is expressed in a group of
objects found, for example, This chapter describes the elementary design components. Mas-
at the beach (middle). A
designer must often unify tering them will produce exceptional results regardless of the
elements that do not design problem's complexity.
share visual characteris-
tics (bottom). Unity
Unity in design exists when all elements are in agreement. Ele-
ments are made to look like they belong together, not as though
they happened to be placed randomly. Unity requires that the
whole design be more important than any subgroup or individual
"The whole point of com- part. Unity is therefore the goal of all design. It is the most im-
posing is to make the re-
sult seem inevitable."
portant aspect of design, so important that its achievement ex-
Aaron Copland (1900- cuses any design transgression.
1990)
Unity exists in elements that have a visual similarity - in, for ex-
ample, elements that are all vertical (left, top). Unity also exists
in elements that have a conceptual similarity, as shown in the
collection of things that can be found at the beach (left, center).

"The most difficult things Similitude can be carried too far, resulting in a unified but dull
to design are the sim- design. Contrastingly, little similarity between elements wi ll
plest." Raymond Loewy
0893-1986) dazzle, but the design - and the message it is trying to commu-
nicate - will not be unified. So, without unity a design becomes
chaotic and unreadable. But without variety, a design becomes

5 57
 0 C There are four ways inert, lifeless, and uninteresting. A balance must be found be-
f tating elements to tween the two.
Och~ ve unity (examples
a the
ie h
right column s ow All formal relationships - relationships between forms, not rela-
in e effective treatments):
mor tionships in evening dress - must be created so that unity among
• Proximity: Elements
that are physically close
the parts is achieved. This can be accomplished by mani pulat-
are Se
en as related. At fa r ing proximity, simi larity, repetition, and theme with va riations:
left. the elements are
seen as two groups, cap- Proximity (also called grouping or relative nearness): The sim-
tions and imag~s. ~n the
nght. each capt!on. 1s cor-
plest way to achieve unity. Elements that are physically close
rectly joined to its image. together are seen as related. The further apart they are sepa-
e Similarity: Elements rated, the less they appear to be related.
cistoruftcicitius to ut ascuf cistoruftciciti ustoutascu f that share similar posi-
tion, size, color, shape, or Similarity(also cal led correspondence): Elements that share simi-
OTCU Lalti us lSLOTAIURSF otcu la /ti usislota i u rs fa i texture are seen as relat-
ed and grouped. larity of size. color, shape, position, or textu re are seen as alike.
sufoi roctu Iai sn !+Jo4ta Iocu sufoiroctula iforti us ta locu e Repetition: Recurring The reverse of similarity is intentional contrast: type or imagery
position, size, color, and that is bigger is seen as more important. Alignment is an espe-
use of graphic elements
create unity. cial ly sign ifica nt aspect of similarity in whi ch elements that line
8 Theme with variations: up with one another appear related.
Transmettez horribles meprisable de mon Alteration of a basic theme
des au pickpocket qui m'a portefeuillr. retains connectedness Repetition (related to similarity): Any idea that is repeated pro-
_
maladies deleste
while providing interest.
Ondcs:&~ce
..... .....
/tyf .... rtwJpvt~ C"e1'1:115ftf.:c.-. s....Dw.u1(11
In this example the theme vides unity. The repeated idea may be positioning, size, color, or
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1s small type set flush left. use of rules, background tints, and boxes. Repetition prod uces
rhythm.
Theme with variations: Simple repetition without variety can be-
come boring in its sa meness. Alteration of a basic theme retains
connectedness while providing interest.
Gestalt

•••• • •••
• Gestalt is a German term , coi ned at the Staatl iches Bauhaus in
•••••• •••
• Weimar in the early 1920s, that describes a design's wholeness:
••• A design's unity is more than the simple addition of its parts. In
other words, each part of a design is affected by what surrounds
it. By manipulating the interaction of the individual parts, you
affect the cumulative perception (page 60). Gestalt is the over-
0 Random dots (top al l quality being described when you say, 'This design works."
left) can be arranged to
~:vey a message, making When we look at a building or a painting or a magazine spread,
11 sum different from
we perceive it first as a whole because the eye automatically
~n~ "}ore important than
eir Individual fea tures. seeks wholeness and unity. Rudolf Arnheim, psychologist and

5 59
 Gestalt describes in- art theoretician, writes in Visual Thinking, "We see the various
Cividual elements relat_- components, the shapes and colors and the relations between
~ as a unified whole in
~~~se three ways (exam- them .... The obseNer receives the tota l image as the resu lt of the
n right show more interact ion among the components. This interaction ... is a com-
p1es O )·
effective treatments .
plex process, of which, as a rule, very little reaches conscious-
• Figure/ground: ~mbi-
between a subject ness." But, he says, there is an alternative way of seeing. We can
gu1 ty d.
and its surroun mg space. consciously pick out each individual element and notice its rela-
• eompletion ordosure: tionships to the other elements. Once the elements have been
Unfinished forms can be
seen as wh ole (right). consciously collected, they are mentally combined into an inte-
They intrigue and involve grated whole. The first process is intuitive. The latter process is
the viewer more than sta-
ble, complete shapes. intellectual and considers a design's elements in sequence.
e continuation: The eye For example, if you listen to record ed versions of the same move-
follows a path, whether 1t
15 real or implied, as shown ment of a piece of orchestral music, you will hear nuances and
with the separated head.
subtle differences between them, even though the same notes
are being played. Their totality, their wholeness differs, and that
is musical gestalt.
Either process results in a complete perception by the viewer.
The techniques for manipulating that perception include the four
unity ideas described on the previous page, as well as the fol-
lowing three ideas.
Figure/ ground: The relationship of the subject to its surround-
ing space. Confusing the foreground and background is a visu-
ally stimulating technique.
0 Closure is illustrated
Closure (also ca lled completion):The viewer's natural tendency
in the apparent random-
ness of the flyi ng birds. is to try to close gaps and complete unfinished forms. Closure
On closer inspection our
encourages active pa rticipation in the creation of the message.
eyes "connect the d~ts"
and we see that the birds
are arranged in the shape
Continuation: The arrangement of forms so they are "continu-
0 fthe sponsor's trademark. ous" from one element to another, leading the eye across space.
Continuation also can lead from one page to another.
Gestalt, or cumulative perception, helps us see a significant
C Gestalt principles are message in the arrangement of the dots in the illustration on
~P.ressed in these Bauhaus the preceding page. In a more complex way, gestalt helps us un-
esigns. Far left: Ladislav
Sutna ·
i rs cover for a maga- derstand the message revea led in a group of images and words
1'~;·6Left: Herbert Bayer's designed as a magazine story.
1 Poster for a col-
eague's sixtieth birthday.

5 61
~ Dominance: Manipu- Space
v . 9 sizes so one element Consider white space in relation to the other design components
latt~helrns another af-
:S meaning. as shown
this four-step process.
of unity, gestalt, dominance, hierarchy, ba lance, and color as
primus inter pares ("first among equals").
~expected dom!nance
can make an ordinary To avoid a stale approach to organizing elements on the page,
idea seem fresh. look at the blank area you start with and think of displacing the
emptiness with pictures, display and text type, and graphic em-
bellishments like rules. Stay conscious of the remaining empty
C Scale: Readers perceive areas and use it to guide, attract, and arouse the viewer to be-
an element as ~eing .
'small" or "big" mcompan· come engaged.
son to nearby elements.
and to natural human size. Dominance
Dominance is closely related to contrast, since there must be
contrast for one element to dominate another. Dominance is cre-
ated by contrasting size (also cal led scale), positioning, color,
style, or shape.
Lack of dominance among a group of equally-weighted elements
forces competition among them. Readers must then discover
their own entry point, which is a chore. Generally speaking, ev-
ery design should have a single primary visual element, known
as a focal point, which dominates the designscape. Readers then
have an obvious starting point and are more easily guided to
subsequent levels of a information.
Scale, or relative size, is described by Engl ish sculptor Henry
Moore: "We relate everything to our own [human] size." Scale
can be used to attract attention by making the focal point life
size or, for even more drama, larger-than-l ife size. Consciously
reversing the sizes of adjacent elements is also arresting.
0 Hierarchy is best ex-
pres~d through proximity, Hierarchy
gr?upmg less important
The best design moves the reader across the page in order of
thin~s near each other and
putt1e one thing apart the type and images' significance. Content is best expressed as
and . s1m1 · ·iarity, making
most important, least important, and all the remaining informa-
all things alike. If all ele-
~ents. are too similar, even tion made equivalently important. Having more than three lev-
their specialness - as
els of information is confusing because, whi le it may be clear what
~own in this Wiley Miller
~n Sequitur cartoon - the is most important and what is least important, it is rarely clear
0
~.Y ~ay to make a focal what the significant difference is between middling material.
int is by making it plain.

5 63
 C ASymmetric:al balance Our eyes respond to elements' relative nearness and similarities,
sing page pem~1 eter and so repeat the same shape (or color or type) to guide the reader
uleed to emphasize the
bft edge of a spread forces to corresponding elements.
~~e reader to look ba.ck. Balance
d forth from the missing
anse to the headline. They Ba lance, or eq uilibrium, is the state of equa lized tension. It is
no uivale.nt .in atten t'ion·
are eq . h. d not necessarily a state of calm. There are three types of balance.
getting weight 1n t 1s a.
..._
_ __
................. designed by Herb Lubahn.
Note that the nose and
Symmetrical, or formal, balance is vertically centered and is vi-
sually equivalent on both sides. Symmetrical designs are static
headline are hori zo~ta lly
aligned, strengthening and evoke feelings of classicism, formality, and constancy.
their relatedness.
Asymmetri cal, or informa l, balance attracts attention and is dy-
namic. Asymmetry requires a variety of element sizes and care-
ful distribution of white space. Because they have more complex
relationships, it takes sensitivity and skill to handle elements
asymmetrically. Asymmetrical designs evoke feelings of modern-
ism, forcefu lness, and vita lity.
The third type of balance is overall, or mosaic, ba lance. This is
usually the result of too much being forced on a page. Overall
balance lacks hierarchy and meaningful contrast. It is easy for
this type of organization to look "noisy." For that reason, some
0 Symmetrical balance elements should be placed elsewhere or deleted.
looks classical, though
static, on th is ca refu Ily Ba lance is an important route to achieving unity in design. If the
crafted cover by Canadian various elements are seen to be in balance, the design will look uni-
designer Tony Sutton.
fied. It will make a single impression. If a design is out of balance,
C "Overall balance," used its constituent parts will be more visible than the overall design.
to great effect in Katie
Schofield's digital painting Color
!ransparent Alphabet #4,
IS similar to wallpaper. It Color is pa rtly artistry but mostly science and common sense.
lacks both a focal point
Like good writing and good design, good color is a raw material
and hierarchy. Overall bal-
a~ce is often used by re- to be used strategically for a clear purpose. Color contrast has
taile.rs who want to pack
the same potential for communicating hierarchy as typeface, type
maximum information into
their advertising space. weight and size, or placement contrasts. Random appl ication or
changes in color work against the reader's understanding j ust
"When in doubt, make it
rec1. If you're stll.il as do any random changes in design.
doubt, make it u n.
Ivan Chermayeff (19f!'- .) As a functional way to help guide the reader, color:
• Aids organization, establishing character th rough consis-
tency. Develop a color strategy. Limit color use as you limit

5 65
 font use to communicate rea l differences. D Plan color use
from the start. If it is added on at the end, its use is most likely
O Marshall McLuhan's to be only cosmetic. 0 Use color consistently. Along with ty-
three-level "~ier~rchy of
rnunicat1on. Color 1s pography and spacing attributes, a unique color scheme can
'°'"the bottom, function· be an identifying characteristic.
at . r' b-
1119 in the v1ewe s su
conscious. Above 1t are
• Gives emphasis, ranking elements in order of importance. Re-
• Complementary • Analogous colors
syrntiols and signs, and at gardless of ink color used, every element has a color - or per-
the top are words.
colors are opposite are next to each other ceptual emphasis - that must be considered. Type itself is said
each other. on the color wheel.
to have "color," or gray value, that can be used to create hi-
Colors have particul_ar
associations, according to erarchy. Darker type is seen first, so display type is usually
or. Max Luescher, a SWISS
OOll psychologist These general
bolder and bigger. O Color highlights elements of impor-
• Hues are colors, like red, yellow, and green. associations must be tance. You read this first, didn't you? O Color codes informa-
tempered by context and
tion, simplifying complex data. O Color's high lighting benefit
application.
BLUE is quickly exhausted and devolves into a co lorful mess.

I
DIGNIFIED
GREEN PERSISTENT
RE 0 ASSERTIVE
0 People gravitate to whatever looks different on a page.
OPTIMISTIC • Provides direction, relating parts to each other. Warm colors
BROWN PASSIVE

I VIOLET MEDITATIVE move elements forward while cool colors move elements back,
BLACK SURRENDER so a wa rm tone shou ld be given to display type that is in front
GRAY BARRIER
• Shades are made by • Tints are made by • Triadic harmonies • Monochromatic Apractical guide is to use of an image to further the ill usion of spatiality. D Use gradu-
adding black, which adding white, which are three co Iors that color is a single hue color's relative tempera- ated tints since there are no flat colors in nature.
reduces saturation. reduces saturation. are equidistant. with tints and shade~ ture to make elements
Achromatic colors are come forward or recede. Printed color is affected by "ink holdout," the ab il ity of paper to
• Value is the lightness or darkness of a color.
black, white, and gra)\ All colors are relatively
• Saturation orchroma or intensity is the
which can be made by warmer or cooler, depend· keep ink on the surface and not dissipate by soaking in. Coated
brightness or dullness of a color. mg on what they are next
mixing complementa~ papers have high ink holdout and make photos look much
colors. to. Red m m1m pop
forward. Blue and green sharper. The extra processing makes coated papers cost more.
recede. Paper with the lowest ink holdout is the paper towel, whose very
pu rpose is to absorb.
Black type on white paper has the most contrast possible. Any
color applied to type will make the type weaker. Counteract this
C Use less color (left)
rather than more (right) effect by increasing type weight from book to regular or from
or your readers will have regular to semibold, and increase type size for optical equivalency.
acolorful mess to decipher.
Color should be used in Everyone perceives light and color a little differently and with
~e same way that type
size is used: to emphasize their own set of subconscious associations. But all readers re-
importanee, not decorate spond to usefulness of information. Analyze, defi ne what's use-
the page.
ful to the reader, and point out its potential value with color and
the six other design components.

5 67
 All parts must fit to- How to use the seven design components
Space is what man needs Cether. This Germa n b~ nk
~ uses space, abstraction,
dominance, hierarchy, and
lor to excellent effect,
:at is, to illustrate the
6 Think of shapes 11 I Design evolves 73

define beauty to be a harmony of all the parts...

I
very concept of the ad .
fitted together with such proportion and
connection, that nothing could be added,

•
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Man longs for distance and free-
dom. But mostly he is wedged in:
on the street, on vacation, at work,
in his living environment. That is
why it is more important than ever
today to get some personal space.
diminished or altered, but for the worse.
- Leon Battista Alberti (1406-1 472)
The seven design components - unity, gestalt, space, dominance,
hierarchy, ba lance, and color - are sliding switches, like a lamp's
dimmer, that help achieve visible, effective design (left). While
~-.,.riow....,...t~

....----~-
........... _s. _ _ ...... Whether it is the houseorthe garden
or a spacious condo apartment as a
nJoin elements to make you may choose to have more or less of each of these compo-
~'°""""~NN'nl a unified design. At left
mortgage bank we can helpyou cre- 1s a naive drawing of nents, it isn't possible to select just one and not use the others.
ate the spaceyou wish for. Munich. eyes, ears, and mouth on They come bu ndled as a group.

•
a head. On the right, the
head in its entirety is Good design necessitates that one element dominate the oth-
South German Bodencreditbank more important than its
individual elements. ers in the context of a cumulative perception, or gestalt. Choos-
ing that emphasis suggests a design's starting point. Balance
one large or bright element against a few smaller or muted ones.
C Simplify by thinking Function in design is paramount. What is the message? Choose
of design elements as
pictures t hat tell the story. Use color to show what is important.
shapes. Designers learn
how to see abstractly by Motivate the reader by arranging the elements in a logical hier-
replacing naturalistic ele-
ments with points, lines,
archy. The top left corner of every page or spread is a va luable
and planes. starting point because readers look there first. Exploit the reader's
natural habits.
The purpose of design is emphatically not to fi ll up all the space.
Don't let overa bundance make the information in your design
":·.A building is not de-
signed by putting to- impenetrable. As Steven Ledbetter, music historian and critic,
9ether a series of rooms. wrote, "Beethoven's control of relative tension and relative re-
Any (good) building has
an Underlying design laxation throug hout the gigantic architectural span [of t he fi rst
: cept that binds all movement of his Symphony No.3] remains one of the most awe-
Vfh Parts .together into a
ole. Without this it is inspiring accomplishments in the history of music."
~tarchitecture." Edmund
·Bacon (1 910- ) Organize elements so al l parts fit together to make a unified
whole. Find design unity in the elements' commonalities. Orga-
nize elements by their shared subject matter, shape, or color.
 Designers have different sensibilities and preferences, which is
why five designers given the same pictures and copy wou ld cre-
ate five differe nt designs. But given a single message to get
across, we expect they would develop compara ble solutions.
Think of shapes
Readers operate subconsciously on these design truisms:
• We read from left to right.
• We start at the top and work down the page.
• Pages in a publication are related to each other.

'\
O Create a buffer zone
that uses surrou nding
white space. Interrupt a
• Closeness connects whi le distance separates.
• Big and dark is important; sma ll and light is less important.
• Fullness shou ld be ba lanced with emptiness.
• Everything has a shape, including emptiness.
Design is, among other th ings, the arrangement of shapes. Ex-
thick white border on
each side to make your periment by mentally setting aside the meaning of headli nes,
space look bigger than it copy, visuals, and other elements and treat them as if they were
actually is. This technique
is used by artist Summer purely shapes (facing page, top). Henry Moore, the English sculp-
Jellison in her "Glass Owl." tor, said, "The sensitive observer of [design] must feel shape sim-
ply as shape, not as a description or idea. He must, for example,
perceive an egg as a simple solid shape, quite apart from its sig-
C Top row: Students learn
to see letters as shape. nificance as food, or from the idea that it wi ll become a bird."
Each of these studies uses
asingle letter. Shapes exist in the realm of fig ure and ground only. Try overlap-
Bottom row: A letterform ping and clustering shapes to create visually interesting concen-
and textures are combined
on a grid. Attention to trations. To simplify a design, reduce the total number of shapes
white space is emphasized. by joining two or three at a time.
Letterforms are shapes that can be exploited in display typogra-
phy and logo design. It is necessary to see the form of letters

I
"At the defi nition stage before complex typographic ideas ca n be developed (facing
of a project, we are less
concerned with what it page, bottom). Without exploiting letters' individual forms and
Will look like and more the shape of the space arou nd and with in letterforms, the on ly
t~ncerned with what it
~111 be." John Ormsbee option is mere typesetting in groups of letters and words.
Simonds, Landscape Archi·
tecture White space, within type and around columns and pictures, must
be considered as a shape. Push it in chunks to the perimeter or
to the bottom of the page.

6 71
 c stoesign solutions
evolve. Solutions
Design evolves
11111 Uncovering and recognizing design relationships takes time. Just
wfrom familiarity with
~~ rnatenals at hand. as when we walk into a dark room, it takes time to accustom
AS familia rity grows, the. our eyes to the materials at hand.
11 process beco~es more 1n·
teresting, design relation· Design must evolve from basic relationships to more complex,
ships be~ome dearer, and
abstraction can be ma·
more refined relationships. Start the process by becoming inti·
01 pulated. mately fami liar with the content. Read every word of the text.
Understand what is being said. Understand, too, why it was writ·
ten and why it is being published. Then find out who is going to
read it and what the reader's motivation is. Finally, develop a
MORTON strategy for expressing it to the reader's greatest advantage.
SALT ..trot
d
llllTWT.
16 "Design is about making
Design evolution should proceed on two levels simultaneously.
Mill.J
-it
01 Cl l8.,
10 order out of chaos." Cipe One is to seek relationships of meaning, which appeals to the
,,_, oum ""~es(1 908-1991)
1
reader's need for understanding. The other is to seek relation-
IMS• t Wf'UllS•a
, .UO\.tHM..l•f
-
~·
Wllf--'•-··" I
11t•t•9"
• OllU"•• •N!OI
ships of form, which appeals to the reader's need for attraction.
Balancing these two ensures effective visual commu nication.
Design is spoiled more often by the designer's having been overly
cautious rather than having been overly bold. Dare to be bold.

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I Add column width and
'l'HOlOHl fOR ntE DA' 1rwcdof'M)I raelrcwihtns,. wcc.:u p~y 1h~ u111 ltthngs type placement contrast·
If •c do .oc fe.:l rcq.w111g. 'tliC. c.an pn;) that'* ittkngi •ilJChns;C' add map. '
•illthartg~ THlf 11•) (C"~J

I Change font assign·

ments; adjust some line·
Sp .
acing and type sizes·
add rules. ,
0

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