Problem 2.

1 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Viscous liquid sheared between parallel disks.

Upper disk rotates, lower fixed.
r rω z
Velocity field is: V = eˆθ
h
Find:
a. Dimensions of velocity field.
b. Satisfy physical boundary conditions.
r r
Solution: To find dimensions, compare to V = V ( x, y, z ) form.
r r
The given field is V = V (r , z ) . Two space coordinates are included, so the field is 2-D.

Flow must satisfy the no-slip condition:

r
1. At lower disk, V = 0 since stationary.
r rω 0
z = 0, so V = eˆθ = 0 , so satisfied.
h

r
2. At upper disk, V = eˆθ rω since it rotates as a solid body.

r rωh
z = h, so V = eˆθ = eˆθ rω , so satisfied.
h
 Problem 2.2 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Equation for streamlines

Streamline Plots
Solution: 5
2 C=1
v dy B⋅ x⋅ y B⋅ y
For streamlines = = = 4
C=2
u dx 2 A⋅ x C=3
A⋅ x ⋅ y
C=4
dy B dx 3
= ⋅

y (m)
So, separating variables
y A x
2
B 1
Integrating ln( y ) = ⋅ ln( x ) + c = − ⋅ ln( x ) + c
A 2 1

C
The solution is y=
0 1 2 3 4 5
x
x (m)
The plot can be easily done in Excel.
 Problem 2.3 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Equation for streamlines; Plot several in the first quadrant, including one that passes through point (0,0)

Solution:
v dy
Governing equation: For streamlines =
u dx

Assumption: 2D flow

v dy A⋅ y y
Hence = =− =− Streamline Plots
u dx A⋅ x x
5
C=1
dy dx
So, separating variables =− 4
C=2
y x C=3
C=4
Integrating ln( y ) = −ln( x ) + c 3
y (m)

2
The solution is ln( x ⋅ y ) = c

1
C
or y=
x
0 1 2 3 4 5
The plot can be easily done in Excel.
x (m)

The streamline passing through (0,0) is given by the vertical axis, then the horizontal axis.
The value of A is irrelevant to streamline shapes but IS relevant for computing the velocity at each point.
 Problem 2.4 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Whether field is 1D, 2D or 3D; Velocity components at (2,1/2); Equation for streamlines; Plot

Solution:
The velocity field is a function of x and y. It is therefore 2D.
1 1 m
At point (2,1/2), the velocity components are u = a⋅ x ⋅ y = 2 ⋅ × 2⋅ m × ⋅m u = 2⋅
m⋅ s 2 s

2
2 1 ⎛ 1 ⋅ m⎞ 3 m
v = b ⋅ y = −6 ⋅ × ⎜2 v=− ⋅
m⋅ s ⎝ ⎠ 2 s

2
v dy b⋅ y b⋅ y
For streamlines = = =
u dx a⋅ x ⋅ y a⋅ x

dy b dx
So, separating variables = ⋅
y a x
b
b a
Integrating ln( y ) = ⋅ ln( x) + c y = C⋅ x
a

−3
The solution is y = C⋅ x

1 −3 1 3 4
The streamline passing through point (2,1/2) is given by = C⋅ 2 C = ⋅2 C= 4 y=
2 2 3
x

20
Streamline for C
16 Streamline for 2C
Streamline for 3C
12 Streamline for 4C

1 1.3 1.7 2

This can be plotted in Excel.

 Problem 2.5

t=0 t =1 s t = 20 s
(### means too large to view)
c=1 c=2 c=3 c=1 c=2 c=3 c=1 c=2 c=3
x y y y x y y y x y y y
0.05 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.05 20.00 40.00 60.00 0.05 ###### ###### ######
0.10 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.10 10.00 20.00 30.00 0.10 ###### ###### ######
0.20 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.20 5.00 10.00 15.00 0.20 ###### ###### ######
0.30 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.30 3.33 6.67 10.00 0.30 ###### ###### ######
0.40 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.40 2.50 5.00 7.50 0.40 ###### ###### ######
0.50 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.50 2.00 4.00 6.00 0.50 ###### ###### ######
0.60 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.60 1.67 3.33 5.00 0.60 ###### ###### ######
0.70 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.70 1.43 2.86 4.29 0.70 ###### ###### ######
0.80 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.80 1.25 2.50 3.75 0.80 86.74 173.47 260.21
0.90 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.90 1.11 2.22 3.33 0.90 8.23 16.45 24.68
1.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
1.10 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.10 0.91 1.82 2.73 1.10 0.15 0.30 0.45
1.20 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.20 0.83 1.67 2.50 1.20 0.03 0.05 0.08
1.30 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.30 0.77 1.54 2.31 1.30 0.01 0.01 0.02
1.40 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.40 0.71 1.43 2.14 1.40 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.50 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.50 0.67 1.33 2.00 1.50 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.60 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.60 0.63 1.25 1.88 1.60 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.70 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.70 0.59 1.18 1.76 1.70 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.80 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.80 0.56 1.11 1.67 1.80 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.90 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.90 0.53 1.05 1.58 1.90 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
 Streamline Plot (t = 0)
3.5
c=1
3.0
c=2
2.5 c=3

2.0
y

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x

Streamline Plot (t = 1 s)
70
c=1
60
c=2
50 c=3
40
y

30

20

10

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x

Streamline Plot (t = 20 s)
20
18 c=1
16 c=2
14 c=3
12
10
y

8
6
4
2
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
x
 Problem 2.6

2.6 A velocity field is defined by u = 3y2, v = 5x, w = 0. At point

(2, 4, 0), compute the following.
a) velocity
b) local acceleration and
c) convective acceleration

Given: Velocity field

To find: Velocity; local acceleration and convective acceleration

Solution:

given velocity field, u  3 y 2 ; v  5x ; w  0 so, V  3 y 2iˆ  5xjˆ  0kˆ

a) Thus, the velocity at point (2, 4, 0) is given by

V2,4,0  3  42  iˆ  5  2  ˆj  0kˆ
 48iˆ  10 ˆj  0kˆ

And the absolute value  482  102  02  49.03 units

b) Now from the above equation, we can examine that

u v w
 0,  0,  0 which implies that local acceleration is zero
t t t

c) Also from the above equation, we can find the convective acceleration as follow
u u u
ax  u v w  30 xy
x y z
v v v
a y  u  v  w  15 y 2
x y z
w w w
az  u v w 0
x y z

Thus the convective acceleration, a  axiˆ  a y ˆj  az kˆ

Acceleration at (2, 4, 0); a 2,4,0  240iˆ  240 ˆj

Absolute value;

a  2402  2402  339.41 units

Thus convective acceleration is 339.41 units

 Problem 2.7 [Difficulty: 2]

 
2.9 A flow is described by the velocity field V = ( Ax + B ) i +

( − Ay ) j , where A = 3 m/s/m and B = 6 m/s. Plot a few stream-
lines in the xy plane, including the one that passes through the
point (x, y) = (0.3, 0.6).

Given: Velocity field.

Find: Plot streamlines.
Solution:
v dy -A ⋅ y
Streamlines are given by = =
u dx A ⋅ x + B
dy dx
So, separating variables =
-A ⋅ y A ⋅ x + B
1 1  B
Integrating - In(y) = ⋅ In  x + 
A A  A
C
The solution is y=
B
x+
A
 B  6
For the streamline that passes through point ( x, y ) = (0.3, 0.6) C = y ⋅  x +  = 0.6 ⋅  0.3 +  = 1.4
 A  3
1.4
y=
6
x+
3
A=3
B=6
C = 0.5, 0.8, 1.0, and 1.4

0.5 0.8 1.0 1.4

x y y y y Streamline Plot
0.7
0.00 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.70
0.10 0.24 0.38 0.48 0.67 C = 1.4
0.6
0.20 0.23 0.36 0.45 0.64
0.30 0.22 0.35 0.43 0.61 0.5
0.40 0.21 0.33 0.42 0.58 C = 1.0
0.50 0.20 0.32 0.40 0.56 0.4
0.60 0.19 0.31 0.38 0.54 C = 0.8
y

0.70 0.18 0.30 0.37 0.52 0.3

0.80 0.18 0.29 0.36 0.50
C = 0.5
0.90 0.17 0.28 0.34 0.48 0.2
1.00 0.17 0.27 0.33 0.47
1.10 0.16 0.26 0.32 0.45 0.1
1.20 0.16 0.25 0.31 0.44
1.30 0.15 0.24 0.29 0.42 0.0
1.40 0.15 0.24 0.29 0.41 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
1.50 0.14 0.23 0.29 0.40 x
1.60 0.14 0.22 0.28 0.39
1.70 0.14 0.22 0.27 0.38
1.80 0.13 0.21 0.26 0.37
1.90 0.13 0.21 0.26 0.36
2.00 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.35
 Problem 2.8

2.8 The velocity for a steady, incompressible flow in the xy plane

is given by , where A = 3 m2/s, and the
coordinates are measured in meters. Obtain an equation for the
streamline that passes through the point (x,y) = (2,6) .
Calculate the time required for a fluid particle to move from x
=1 m to x = 3 m in this flow field.

Given: Velocity field

To find: Equation for streamlined through (2,6)

Solution:

y
A
V dy x2  y
For strealines  
u dx A x
x
dy dx
so, separating variables 
y x
Integrating ln  y   ln  x   c
The solution is y  cx  a

The equation (a) is the equation of a straight line for the streamline through point (2,6)

y Cx
6  C 2
C  3 and y  3x

dx A
for a particle up   or x  dx  A  dt
dt x
On intergrating x  2 At  C
x2 C
t 
2A 2A

Hence the time for a particle to go from

x  1m to x  3m is
 t  t  x  3   x  1
 3m 
 C 1m   C
2 2

t  
2A 2A
9m  1m
2 2

m2
2 2
s
t  2s

The time for a particle to go from x  1m to x  3m is 2s

 Problem 2.9 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Flow field

Find: Plot of velocity magnitude along axes, and y = x; Equation for streamlines

Solution:
M⋅ y M⋅ x
On the x axis, y = 0, so u=− =0 v=
2⋅ π 2⋅ π
Plotting
200

150
v (m/s)

100

50

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

x (km)
The velocity is perpendicular to the axis and increases linearly with distance x.

This can also be plotted in Excel.

M⋅ y M⋅ x
On the y axis, x = 0, so u=− v= =0
2⋅ π 2⋅ π
Plotting
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
− 50
u (m/s)

− 100

− 150

− 200

y (km)

The velocity is perpendicular to the axis and increases linearly with distance y.
This can also be plotted in Excel.
 M⋅ y M⋅ x M⋅ x
On the y = x u=− =− v=
axis 2⋅ π 2⋅ π 2⋅ π

The flow is perpendicular to line y = x: Slope of line y = 1

x:
u
Slope of trajectory of = −1
motion: v
2 2 2 2
If we define the radial position: r= x +y then along y = r= x + x = 2⋅ x
x
2 2 M 2 2 M⋅ 2⋅ x M⋅ r
Then the magnitude of the velocity along y = x is V = u +v = ⋅ x +x = =
2⋅ π 2⋅ π 2⋅ π

Plotting
200

150
V(m/s)

100

50

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

r (km)

This can also be plotted in

Excel. M⋅ x
v dy 2⋅ π x
For = = =−
streamlines u dx M⋅ y y
−
2⋅ π

So, separating y ⋅ dy = −x ⋅ dx
variables

2 2
y x
Integrati =− +c
ng 2 2

2 2
The solution x +y =C which is the equation of a
is circle.
The streamlines form a set of concentric circles.

This flow models a rigid body vortex flow. See Example 5.6 for streamline plots. Streamlines are circular, and the velocity
approaches zero as we approach the center. In Problem 2.10, we see that the streamlines are also circular. In a real tornado, at
large distances from the center, the velocities behave as in Problem 2.10; close to the center, they behave as in this problem.
 Problem 2.10 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Flow field

Find: Plot of velocity magnitude along axes, and y = x; Equations of streamlines

Solution:
q⋅ x q q⋅ y
On the x axis, y = 0, so u=− =− v=− =0
(2
2 ⋅ π⋅ x + y )
2 2 ⋅ π⋅ x (2
2 ⋅ π⋅ x + y )
2

Plotting
100

50
u (m/s)

−1 − 0.5 0 0.5 1
− 50

− 100

x (km)
The velocity is very high close to the origin, and falls off to zero. It is also along the axis. This can be plotted in Excel.
q⋅ x q⋅ y q
On the y axis, x = 0, so u=− =0 v=− =−
(2
2 ⋅ π⋅ x + y )
2 (2
2 ⋅ π⋅ x + y )
2 2 ⋅ π⋅ y

Plotting
100

60
v (m/s)

20
−1 − 0.5 − 20 0 0.5 1

− 60

− 100

y (km)

The velocity is again very high close to the origin, and falls off to zero. It is also along the axis.

This can also be plotted in Excel.

 q⋅ x q q⋅ x q
On the y = x axis u=− =− v=− =−
(
2 ⋅ π⋅ x + x
2 2) 4 ⋅ π⋅ x (
2 ⋅ π⋅ x + x
2 )
2 4 ⋅ π⋅ x

The flow is parallel to line y = x: Slope of line y = x: 1

v
Slope of trajectory of motion: =1
u
2 2 2 2
If we define the radial position: r= x +y then along y = x r= x +x = 2⋅ x

2 2 q 1 1 q q
Then the magnitude of the velocity along y = x is V= u +v = ⋅ + = =
4⋅ π 2 2 2 ⋅ π⋅ 2 ⋅ x 2 ⋅ π⋅ r
x x

Plotting
100

60
V(m/s)

20
−1 − 0.5 − 20 0 0.5 1

− 60

− 100

r (km)

This can also be plotted in Excel.

q⋅ y
−

For streamlines
v
=
dy
=
(2
2 ⋅ π⋅ x + y
2) =
y
u dx q⋅ x x
−
(2
2 ⋅ π⋅ x + y
2)
dy dx
So, separating variables =
y x

Integrating ln( y ) = ln( x ) + c

The solution is y = C⋅ x which is the equation of a straight line.

This flow field corresponds to a sink (discussed in Chapter 6).

 Problem 2.11 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Velocity field

A⋅ t − A⋅ t
Find: Proof that the parametric equations for particle motion are x p = c1 ⋅ e and y p = c2 ⋅ e ; pathline that was at
(2,2) at t = 0; compare to streamline through same point, and explain why they are similar or not.

Solution:
dx dy v dy
Governing equations: For pathlines up = vp = For streamlines =
dt dt u dx

Assumption: 2D flow

dx dy
Hence for pathlines up = = A⋅ x vp = = −A⋅ y
dt dt

dx dy
So, separating variables = A⋅ dt = −A⋅ dt
x y

Integrating ln( x ) = A⋅ t + C1 ln( y ) = −A⋅ t + C2

A⋅ t+ C1 C1 A ⋅ t A⋅ t − A⋅ t+ C2 C2 − A ⋅ t − A⋅ t
x=e =e ⋅e = c1 ⋅ e y=e =e ⋅e = c2 ⋅ e

A⋅ t − A⋅ t
The pathlines are x = c1 ⋅ e y = c2 ⋅ e

⎛ 1 1⎞
Eliminating t t=
1
⋅ ln⎛⎜
⎞ = − 1 ⋅ ln⎛ y ⎞
x
A ⎜ c2
⎜ A A
ln⎝ x ⋅ y ⎠ = const or ( A A) = const
ln x ⋅ y
A
⎝ c1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
A A
so x ⋅y = const or x⋅ y = 4 for given data

v dy A⋅ y y
For streamlines = =− =
u dx A⋅ x x

dy dx
So, separating variables =−
y x

Integrating ln( y ) = −ln( x ) + c

The solution is ln( x ⋅ y ) = c or x ⋅ y = const or x⋅ y = 4 for given data

The streamline passing through (2,2) and the pathline that started at (2,2) coincide because the flow is steady!
 Problem 2.12 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Velocity field

A⋅ t 2⋅ A ⋅ t
Find: Proof that the parametric equations for particle motion are x p = c1 ⋅ e and y p = c2 ⋅ e ; pathline that was at
(2,2) at t = 0; compare to streamline through same point, and explain why they are similar or not.

Solution:
dx dy v dy
Governing equations: For pathlines up = vp = For =
dt dt streamlines u dx

Assumption: 2D flow

dx dy
Hence for pathlines up = = A⋅ x vp = = 2 ⋅ A⋅ y
dt dt

dx dy
So, separating variables = A⋅ dt = 2 ⋅ A⋅ dt
x y

Integrating ln( x ) = A⋅ t + C1 ln( y ) = 2 ⋅ A⋅ t + C2

A⋅ t+ C1 C1 A ⋅ t A⋅ t 2⋅ A⋅ t+ C2 C2 2⋅ A ⋅ t 2⋅ A⋅ t
x=e =e ⋅e = c1 ⋅ e y=e =e ⋅e = c2 ⋅ e

A⋅ t 2⋅ A ⋅ t
The pathlines are x = c1 ⋅ e y = c2 ⋅ e

2
= c2 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
2⋅ A ⋅ t x 2 1 2
Eliminating t y = c2 ⋅ e so y = c⋅ x or y= ⋅x for given data
⎝ c1 ⎠ 2

v dy 2 ⋅ A⋅ y 2⋅ y
For streamlines = = =
u dx A⋅ x x

dy 2 ⋅ dx
So, separating variables = Integrating ln( y ) = 2 ⋅ ln( x ) + c
y x

ln⎛
y ⎞
⎜ 2 =c
The solution is
⎝x ⎠

2 1 2
or y = C⋅ x or y= ⋅x for given data
2

The streamline passing through (2,2) and the pathline that started at (2,2) coincide because the flow is steady!
 Problem 2.13 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Time-varying velocity field

Find: Streamlines at t = 0 s; Streamline through (3,3); velocity vector; will streamlines change with time

Solution:
v dy a⋅ y ⋅ ( 2 + cos( ω⋅ t) ) y
For streamlines = =− =−
u dx a⋅ x ⋅ ( 2 + cos( ω⋅ t) ) x
dy y
At t = 0 (actually all times!) =−
dx x
dy dx
So, separating variables =−
y x

Integrating ln( y ) = −ln( x ) + c

C
The solution is y= which is the equation of a hyperbola.
x
3 1
For the streamline through point (3,3) C = C=1 and y=
3 x

The streamlines will not change with time since dy/dx does not change with time.
1
At t = 0 u = a⋅ x ⋅ ( 2 + cos( ω⋅ t) ) = 5 ⋅ × 3⋅ m × 3
5 s
m
4 u = 45⋅
s
3 1
v = −a⋅ y ⋅ ( 2 + cos( ω⋅ t) ) = 5 ⋅ × 3⋅ m × 3
y

s
2 m
v = −45⋅
s
1
The velocity vector is tangent to the curve;
0 1 2 3 4 5
dy y
x Tangent of curve at (3,3) is =− = −1
dx x
v
Direction of velocity at (3,3) is = −1
This curve can be plotted in Excel. u
 Problem 2.14 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Plot of pathline traced out by particle that passes through point (1,1) at t = 0; compare to streamlines through same
point at the instants t = 0, 1 and 2s

Solution:
dx dy v dy
Governing equations: For pathlines up = vp = For streamlines =
dt dt u dx

Assumption: 2D flow

dx m 1 dy 1
Hence for pathlines up = = A⋅ ( 1 + B⋅ t) A = 1⋅ B = 1⋅ vp = = C⋅ t ⋅ y C = 1⋅
dt s s dt 2
s

dy
So, separating variables dx = A⋅ ( 1 + B⋅ t ) ⋅ dt = C⋅ t⋅ dt
y

⎛ t
2⎞
1
x = A⋅ ⎜ t + B⋅
2
Integrating + C1 ln( y ) = ⋅ C⋅ t + C2
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
⋅ C⋅ t + C2 C2 2 ⋅ C⋅ t ⋅ C⋅ t
2 2
y=e =e ⋅e = c2 ⋅ e

1 2
⎛ ⋅ C⋅ t
t ⎞
2
The pathlines are ⎜
x = A⋅ t + B⋅ + C1 y = c2 ⋅ e
2
⎝ 2⎠

1 2
⎛ ⋅ C⋅ t
t ⎞
2
x = A⋅ ⎜ t + B⋅
2
Using given data +1 y=e
⎝ 2⎠

v dy C⋅ y ⋅ t
For streamlines = =
u dx A⋅ ( 1 + B⋅ t )

dy C
So, separating variables ( 1 + B⋅ t) ⋅ = ⋅ t⋅ dx which we can integrate for any given t (t is treated as a constant)
y A

C
Integrating ( 1 + B⋅ t ) ⋅ ln( y ) = ⋅ t⋅ x + c
A
1
( 1+ B⋅ t)
1+ B⋅ t C ⎛ C ⋅ t⋅ x + const⎞
The solution is y = ⋅ t⋅ x + const y= ⎜A
A ⎝ ⎠
 1 1
2 3
For particles at (1,1) at t = 0, 1, and 2s, using A, B, and C data: y=1 y=x y = (2⋅ x − 1)

Streamline and Pathline Plots

5
Streamline (t=0)
Streamline (t=1)
Streamline (t=2)
4 Pathline

3
y (m)

0 1 2 3 4 5

x (m)
 Problem 2.15

2.15 Estimate the pressure difference between a droplet of water

at 20°C when the droplet has a diameter of 0.06 cm.

Solution:

Write the expression for pressure difference P .

2
P  (1)
r

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

2  0.0728
P  N/m 2
0.0003
 485.33 N/m 2

Hence the required pressure difference is 485.33 N/m2 .

 Problem 2.16 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Eulerian Velocity field

Find: Lagrangian position function that was at point (1,1) at t = 0; expression for pathline; plot pathline and compare to
streamlines through same point at the instants t = 0, 1 and 2s

Solution:
dx dy v dy
Governing equations: For pathlines (Lagrangian description) up = vp = For streamlines =
dt dt u dx

Assumption: 2D flow

dx m dy m
Hence for pathlines up = =A A = 2 vp = = −B⋅ t B = 2
dt s dt 2
s

So, separating variables dx = A⋅ dt dy = −B⋅ t⋅ dt

2
t
Integrating x = A⋅ t + x 0 x0 = 1 m y = −B⋅ + y0 y0 = 1 m
2

2
t
The Lagrangian description is x ( t) = A⋅ t + x 0 y ( t) = −B⋅ + y0
2

2
Using given data x ( t) = 2 ⋅ t + 1 y ( t) = 1 − t

The pathlines are given by combining the equations t =

x − x0 t
2 (x − x0)2
y = −B⋅ + y 0 = −B⋅ + y0
A 2 2
2⋅ A

(x − x0)2 ( x − 1)
2
Hence y ( x ) = y 0 − B⋅ or, using given data y(x) = 1 −
2 4
2⋅ A

v dy −B⋅ t
For streamlines = =
u dx A

B⋅ t
So, separating variables dy = − ⋅ dx which we can integrate for any given t (t is treated as a constant)
A
 B⋅ t B⋅ t B⋅ t
The solution is y=− ⋅x + c and for the one through (1,1) 1=− ⋅1 + c c=1+
A A A

B⋅ t
y = − ⋅ ( x − 1) + 1 y = 1 − t⋅ ( x − 1)
A
x = 1 , 1.1 .. 20

Streamline Plots
20

−40 5 10 15 20 25

− 28
y (m)

− 52

− 76 Streamline (t=0)
Streamline (t=1)
Streamline (t=2)
Pathline
− 100

x (m)
 Problem 2.17 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Plot of pathline of particle for t = 0 to 1.5 s that was at point (1,1) at t = 0; compare to streamlines through same
point at the instants t = 0, 1 and 1.5 s

Solution:
dx dy v dy
Governing equations: For pathlines up = vp = For streamlines =
dt dt u dx

Assumption: 2D flow

dx 1 dy 1 1
Hence for pathlines up = = ax a = 2 vp = = b ⋅ y ⋅ ( 1 + c⋅ t ) b = 2 c = 0.4
dt s dt 2 s
s

dx dy
So, separating variables = a⋅ dt dy = b ⋅ y ⋅ ( 1 + c⋅ t ) ⋅ dt = b ⋅ ( 1 + c⋅ t ) ⋅ dt
x y

ln⎛⎜ ⎞ = a⋅ t ln⎛⎜ ⎞ = b ⋅ ⎛ t + 1 ⋅ c⋅ t2⎞

x y
Integrating x0 = 1 m ⎜ 2 y0 = 1 m
⎝ ⎠
x0
⎝ y0 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ 1 2⎞
b⋅ ⎜t+ ⋅ c⋅ t
Hence x ( t) = x 0⋅ e
a⋅ t
y ( t) = e ⎝ 2 ⎠

2
2⋅ t 2⋅ t+ 0.4⋅ t
Using given data x ( t) = e y ( t) = e

v dy b ⋅ y ⋅ ( 1 + c⋅ t )
For streamlines = =
u dx a⋅ x

dy b ⋅ ( 1 + c⋅ t )
So, separating variables = ⋅ dx which we can integrate for any given t (t is treated as a constant)
y a⋅ x

ln⎛⎜ ⎞ = b ⋅ ( 1 + c⋅ t) ⋅ ln⎛ x ⎞
y
Hence ⎜x
⎝ y0 ⎠ a ⎝ 0⎠
b
⋅ ( 1+ c⋅ t)
a
y = y 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
x
The solution is
⎝ x0 ⎠
 b b b
⋅ ( 1+ c⋅ t) ⋅ ( 1+ c⋅ t) ⋅ ( 1+ c⋅ t)
a a a
y = y 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞ t = 1 y = y 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞ y = y 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
x x 1.4 x 1.6
For t = 0 = x = x t = 1.5 = x
⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎝ x0 ⎠

Streamline and Pathline Plots

10
Streamline (t=0)
Streamline (t=1)
Streamline (t=1.5)
Pathline
8

6
y (m)

0 2 4 6 8 10

x (m)
 Problem 2.18 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Plot of pathline of particle for t = 0 to 1.5 s that was at point (1,1) at t = 0; compare to streamlines through same
point at the instants t = 0, 1 and 1.5 s

Solution:
dx dy v dy
Governing equations: For pathlines up = vp = For streamlines =
dt dt u dx

Assumption: 2D flow

dx 1 1 dy 1 1
Hence for pathlines up = = a⋅ x a = vp = = b⋅ y⋅ t b =
dt 5 s dt 25 2
s

dx dy
So, separating variables = a⋅ dt dy = b ⋅ y ⋅ t⋅ dt = b ⋅ t⋅ dt
x y

ln⎛⎜ ⎞ = a⋅ t ln⎛⎜ ⎞ = b ⋅ 1 ⋅ t2
x y
Integrating x0 = 1 m y0 = 1 m
⎝ ⎠
x0
⎝ y0 ⎠ 2

1 2
⋅ b⋅ t
a⋅ t 2
Hence x ( t) = x 0⋅ e y ( t) = y 0⋅ e

2
t t
5 50
Using given data x ( t) = e y ( t) = e

v dy b⋅ y⋅ t
For streamlines = =
u dx a⋅ x

dy b⋅ t
So, separating variables = ⋅ dx which we can integrate for any given t (t is treated as a constant)
y a⋅ x

ln⎛⎜ ⎞ = b ⋅ t⋅ ln⎛ x ⎞
y
Hence ⎜x
⎝ y0 ⎠ a ⎝ 0⎠
b
⋅t
a b
y = y 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
x = 0.2 x0 = 1 y0 = 1
The solution is a
⎝ x0 ⎠
 b
⋅t
a
y = y 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
x
For t = 0 = 1
⎝ x0 ⎠

b
⋅t
a
y = y 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
x b
t = 5 = x ⋅t = 1
⎝ ⎠
x0 a

b
⋅t
a
y = y 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
x 2 b
t = 10 = x ⋅t = 2
⎝ ⎠
x0 a

Streamline and Pathline Plots

10

6
y (m)

2 Streamline (t=0)
Streamline (t=1)
Streamline (t=1.5)
Pathline

0 2 4 6 8 10

x (m)
 Problem 2.19 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Flow field

Find: Pathline for particle starting at (3,1); Streamlines through same point at t = 1, 2, and 3 s

Solution:
dx dy
For particle paths = u = a⋅ x ⋅ t an =v=b
dt d dt
dx 1 2
Separating variables and integrating = a⋅ t⋅ dt or ln( x ) = ⋅ a⋅ t + c1
x 2
dy = b ⋅ dt or y = b ⋅ t + c2

Using initial condition (x,y) = (3,1) and the given values for a and b
c1 = ln( 3 ⋅ m) an c2 = 1 ⋅ m
d
2
0.05⋅ t
The pathline is then x = 3⋅ e and y = 4⋅ t + 1

v dy b
For streamlines (at any time t) = =
u dx a⋅ x ⋅ t
b dx
So, separating variables dy = ⋅
a⋅ t x
b
Integrating y= ⋅ ln( x ) + c
a⋅ t

We are interested in instantaneous streamlines at various times that always pass through point (3,1). Using a and b values:
b 4
c=y− ⋅ ln( x) = 1 − ⋅ ln( 3)
a ⋅t 0.1⋅ t

⋅ ln⎛⎜
40 x⎞
The streamline equation is y= 1+
t ⎝ 3⎠
30
Pathline
Streamline (t=1)
20
Streamline (t=2)
Streamline (t=3)
10
y

0 1 2 3 4 5

− 10

− 20 These curves can be plotted in

Excel.
x
 Problem 2.20 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Plot streamlines that are at origin at various times and pathlines that left origin at these times

Solution:

v 0 ⋅ sin⎡⎢ω⋅ ⎛⎜ t − ⎞⎤
x
u0 ⎥
For streamlines
v
=
dy
=
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
u dx u0

v 0 ⋅ sin⎡⎢ω⋅ ⎛⎜ t − ⎞⎤
x
u0 ⎥
So, separating variables (t=const) dy =
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⋅ dx
u0

v 0 ⋅ cos⎡⎢ω⋅ ⎛⎜ t − ⎞⎤
x
u0 ⎥
Integrating y=
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ + c
ω

v 0 ⋅ ⎡⎢cos⎡⎢ω⋅ ⎛⎜ t − ⎞⎤ − cos( ω⋅ t)⎤

x
u0 ⎥ ⎥
Using condition y = 0 when x = 0 y=
⎣ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎦
ω This gives streamlines y(x) at each time t

dx
For particle paths, first find x(t) = u = u0
dt

Separating variables and integrating dx = u 0 ⋅ dt o x = u 0 ⋅ t + c1

r
Using initial condition x = 0 at t = τ c1 = −u 0 ⋅ τ x = u 0 ⋅ ( t − τ)

⎡ ⎡ u 0 ⋅ ( t − τ) ⎤⎤
= v = v 0 ⋅ sin⎡⎢ω⋅ ⎛⎜ t −
dy x ⎞⎤ dy
For y(t) we have ⎥ so = v = v 0 ⋅ sin⎢ω⋅ ⎢t − ⎥⎥
dt
⎣ ⎝ u 0 ⎠⎦ dt
⎣ ⎣ u0
⎦⎦
dy
and = v = v 0 ⋅ sin( ω⋅ τ)
dt

Separating variables and integrating dy = v 0 ⋅ sin( ω⋅ τ) ⋅ dt y = v 0 ⋅ sin( ω⋅ τ) ⋅ t + c2

Using initial condition y = 0 at t = τ c2 = −v 0 ⋅ sin( ω⋅ τ) ⋅ τ y = v 0 ⋅ sin( ω⋅ τ) ⋅ ( t − τ)

The pathline is then

x ( t , τ) = u 0 ⋅ ( t − τ) y ( t , τ) = v 0 ⋅ sin( ω⋅ τ) ⋅ ( t − τ) These terms give the path of a particle (x(t),y(t)) that started at t = τ.
 0.5

0.25

0 1 2 3

− 0.25

− 0.5

Streamline t = 0s
Streamline t = 0.05s
Streamline t = 0.1s
Streamline t = 0.15s
Pathline starting t = 0s
Pathline starting t = 0.05s
Pathline starting t = 0.1s
Pathline starting t = 0.15s

The streamlines are sinusoids; the pathlines are straight (once a water particle is fired it travels in a straight line).
These curves can be plotted in Excel.
 Problem 2.21 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Plot of pathline for t = 0 to 3 s for particle that started at point (1,2) at t = 0; compare to streakline through same
point at the instant t = 3
Solution:
dx dy
Governing equations: For pathlines up = vp =
dt dt

Following the discussion leading up to Eq. 2.10, we first find equations for the pathlines in form

(
x p( t) = x t , x 0 , y 0 , t0 ) and (
y p( t) = y t , x 0 , y 0 , t0 )

( ) (
x st t0 = x t , x 0 , y 0 , t0 ) and ( ) (
y st t0 = y t , x 0 , y 0 , t 0 )
which gives the streakline at t, where x 0, y 0 is the point at which dye is released (t0 is varied from 0 to t)

Assumption: 2D flow

dx 1 1 1 m dy
For pathlines up = = a⋅ x ⋅ t a = b = vp = =b
dt 4 2 3 s dt
s

dx
So, separating variables = a⋅ t⋅ dt dy = b ⋅ dt
x

ln⎛⎜ ⎞ = a ⋅ ⎛ t2 − t 2⎞
( )
x
Integrating y − y0 = b⋅ t − t0
⎝ 0 ⎠
⎝ x0 ⎠ 2

⋅ ⎛t − t0
a 2 2⎞

x = x0⋅ e
2 ⎝ ⎠ (
y = y0 + b⋅ t − t0 )

⋅ ⎛t − t0
a 2 2⎞
⎝ ⎠
The pathlines are x p( t) = x 0⋅ e
2
(
y p( t) = y 0 + b ⋅ t − t0 )
where x 0, y 0 is the position of the particle at t = t0. Re-interpreting the results as streaklines:

⋅ ⎛t − t0
a 2 2⎞
⎝ ⎠
The pathlines are then ( )
x st t 0 = x 0 ⋅ e
2
( ) (
y st t0 = y 0 + b ⋅ t − t0 )
where x 0, y 0 is the point at which dye is released (t0 is varied from 0 to t)
 Streakline and Pathline Plots
2
Streakline
Pathline

1.5
y (m)

0.5

0 1 2 3 4

x (m)
 Problem 2.22

2.22 A flow is described by velocity field , where

a = 2 m−1s−1 and b = 3 m/s. Coordinates are measured in
meters. Obtain the equation for the streamline passing through
point (8, 8). At t = 2 s, what are the coordinates of the particle
that passed through point (1, 6) at t= 0? At t = 4 s, what are the
coordinates of the particle that passed through point (−4, 0) 2 s
earlier? Show that pathlines, streamlines, and streaklines for
this flow coincide.

Given: 2D velocity field

To find: Streamlines passing through (8, 8); Coordinates of particle starting at (1, 6); that
pathlines, streamlines and streamlines coincide.

Solution:

For streamlines

V dy b
  or
u dx a  y 2

 a  y dy   bdx
2

Integrating
a  y3
 bx  c
3

For the streamline through point (8, 8)

ay 3
c  bx
3
2 8
3

  3 8
3
 317.33

Substitute corresponding values in the above equation

3  3 x 3  317.33
y3  
2 2
 4.5 x  475.95

Hence, the equation for the streamline passing through point (8, 8) is y 3  4.5 x  475.95 .

For particle that passed through (1, 6) at t  0 ,

 dx
u  a. y 2 ,  dx  x  xo   a. y 2 dt we need y  t 
dt

For the particle that passed through  4, 0  at t  1

dy
v  b,  1dy   bdt
dt
y  yo  b  t
 yo  2  t (1)

 1dy   bdt
y  yo  b  t  to 

x  xo   a   yo  b  t  dt
t 2
to

 b2 
x  xo  a  yo2  t  to   b  yo  t 2  to2    t 3  to3  
 3 

xo  4, yo  0 at to  1
 
x  4  2 0  0   t 3  1 
9
Hence, with  3 
 4  6  t  1
3

y  2  t  1

Evaluating at t  4
x  374 m, y  6 m

Hence, the co-ordinates of the particle passed through point  4, 0  is  374 m, 6 m  .

This steady flow, so, pathlines, streamlines and streaklines always coincide.

Then,
2
x  xo   a  yo  b  t  dt
t

 b 2t 3 
x  xo  a  yo2t  byot 2   (2)
 3 

Hence, with xo  1, yo  6
Substitute corresponding values in equation (2)

  3 t 3 
2

x  1  2 36t  3  6  t 
2

 3 

 1  2 36t  18t 2  3t 3 
 1  72t  36t 2  6t 3

At t  2s
x  1  72  2   36  2   6  2 
2 3

 337 m

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

y  6  2  2
 10 m

Hence the coordinates of the particle that passed through point (1, 6) are  x, y    337 m,10 m  .
 Problem 2.23 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Equation for streamline through point (2.5); coordinates of particle at t = 2 s that was at (0,4) at t = 0; coordinates of
particle at t = 3 s that was at (1,4.25) at t = 1 s; compare pathline, streamline, streakline

Solution:
v dy dx dy
Governing equations: For streamlines = For pathlines up = vp =
u dx dt dt

Assumption: 2D flow
m 1
Given data a = 2 b = 1 x0 = 2 y0 = 5 x = 1 x = x
s s

v dy b⋅ x
For streamlines = =
u dx a

a
So, separating variables ⋅ dy = x ⋅ dx
b

⋅ y − y0 = ⋅ ⎛ x − x0 ⎞
( )
a 1 2 2
Integrating
b 2 ⎝ ⎠

2
⋅ ⎛ x − x0 ⎞ =
2 b 2 x
The solution is then y = y0 + +4
2⋅ a ⎝ ⎠ 4

dx dy
Hence for pathlines up = =a vp = = b⋅ x
dt dt

Hence dx = a⋅ dt dy = b ⋅ x ⋅ dt

Integrating x − x 0 = a⋅ t − t 0 ( ) ( )
dy = b ⋅ ⎡x 0 + a⋅ t − t0 ⎤ ⋅ dt
⎣ ⎦

y − y 0 = b ⋅ ⎡⎢x 0 ⋅ t − t0 + ⋅ ⎛ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞ ⎞ − a⋅ t0 ⋅ t − t0 ⎥⎤
( ) ( )
a 2 2
⎣ 2 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ ⎦

( ) y = y 0 + b ⋅ ⎡⎢x 0 ⋅ t − t0 + ⋅ ⎛ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞ ⎞ − a⋅ t0 ⋅ t − t0 ⎥⎤
( ) ( )
a 2 2
The pathlines are x = x 0 + a⋅ t − t 0
⎣ 2 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ ⎦
For a particle that was at x 0 = 0 m, y 0 = 4 m at t 0 = 0s, at time t = 2 s we find the position is

( ) y = y 0 + b ⋅ ⎡⎢x 0 ⋅ t − t0 + ⋅ ⎛ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞ ⎞ − a⋅ t0 ⋅ t − t0 ⎤⎥ = 8m
( ) ( )
a 2 2
x = x 0 + a⋅ t − t 0 = 4 m
⎣ 2 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ ⎦

For a particle that was at x 0 = 1 m, y 0 = 4.25 m at t 0 = 1 s, at time t = 3 s we find the position is

( ) y = y 0 + b ⋅ ⎡⎢x 0 ⋅ t − t0 + ⋅ ⎛ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞ ⎞ − a⋅ t0 ⋅ t − t0 ⎤⎥ = 10.25
( ) ( )
a 2 2
x = x 0 + a⋅ t − t 0 = 5 m
⎣ 2 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ ⎦
m

For this steady flow streamlines, streaklines and pathlines coincide; the particles refered to are the same particle!

Streamline and Position Plots

15
Streamline
Position at t = 1 s
Position at t = 5 s
Position at t = 10 s
12

9
y (m)

0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6

x (m)
 Problem 2.24 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Velocity field

Find: Coordinates of particle at t = 2 s that was at (1,2) at t = 0; coordinates of particle at t = 3 s that was at (1,2) at t = 2 s;
plot pathline and streakline through point (1,2) and compare with streamlines through same point at t = 0, 1 and 2 s

Solution
: dx dy v dy
Governing equations: For pathlines up = vp = For =
dt dt streamlines u dx

Following the discussion leading up to Eq. 2.10, we first find equations for the pathlines in form

(
x p( t) = x t , x 0 , y 0 , t0 ) and (
y p( t) = y t , x 0 , y 0 , t0 )

( ) (
x st t0 = x t , x 0 , y 0 , t0 ) and ( ) (
y st t0 = y t , x 0 , y 0 , t 0 )
which gives the streakline at t, where x 0, y 0 is the point at which dye is released (t0 is varied from 0 to t)

Assumption: 2D flow
1 m
Given data a = 0.2 b = 0.4
s 2
s

dx dy
Hence for pathlines up = = a⋅ y vp = = b⋅ t
dt dt

y − y0 = ⋅ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞
b 2 2
Hence dx = a⋅ y ⋅ dt dy = b ⋅ t⋅ dt
2 ⎝ ⎠

dx = ⎡⎢a⋅ y 0 + a⋅ ⋅ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞⎤⎥ ⋅ dt
b 2 2
For x
⎣ 2 ⎝ ⎠⎦

⎡⎢ 3 t 3 ⎤⎥
x − x 0 = a⋅ y 0 ⋅ ( t − t 0 ) + a⋅ ⋅ ⎢ − − t0 ⋅ ( t − t0 )⎥
b t 0 2
Integrating
2 ⎣3 3 ⎦
⎡⎢ 3 t 3 ⎤⎥
x ( t ) = x 0 + a⋅ y 0 ⋅ ( t − t 0 ) + a⋅ ⋅ ⎢ − − t0 ⋅ ( t − t0 )⎥ y ( t) = y0 + ⋅ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞
b t 0 2 b 2 2
The pathlines are
2 ⎣3 3 ⎦ 2 ⎝ ⎠

These give the position (x,y) at any time t of a particle that was at (x 0,y 0) at time t0

Note that streaklines are obtained using the logic of the Governing equations, above
 ⎡⎢ 3 t 3 ⎤⎥
x ( t 0 ) = x 0 + a⋅ y 0 ⋅ ( t − t 0 ) + a⋅ ⋅ ⎢ − − t0 ⋅ ( t − t0 )⎥ y t0 = y 0 + ⋅ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞
( )
t 0 b 2 b 2 2
The streaklines are
2 ⎣3 3 ⎦ 2 ⎝ ⎠

These gives the streakline at t, where x 0, y 0 is the point at which dye is released (t0 is varied from 0 to t)

For a particle that was at x 0 = 1 m, y 0 = 2 m at t 0 = 0s, at time t = 2 s we find the position is (from pathline equations)

⎡⎢ 3 t 3 ⎤⎥
x = x 0 + a⋅ y 0 ⋅ ( t − t 0 ) + a⋅ ⋅ ⎢ − − t 0 ⋅ ( t − t0 )⎥ = 1.91m y = y 0 + ⋅ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞ = 2.8 m
bt 0 2 b 2 2
2 ⎣3 3 ⎦ 2 ⎝ ⎠

For a particle that was at x 0 = 1 m, y 0 = 2 m at t 0 = 2 s, at time t = 3 s we find the position is

⎡⎢ 3 t 3 ⎤⎥
x = x 0 + a⋅ y 0 ⋅ ( t − t 0 ) + a⋅ ⋅ ⎢ − − t 0 ⋅ ( t − t0 )⎥ = 1.49m y = y 0 + ⋅ ⎛ t − t0 ⎞ = 3.0
bt 0 2 b 2 2
2 ⎝ ⎠ m
2 ⎣3 3 ⎦

v dy b⋅ t
For streamlines = =
u dx a⋅ y

b
So, separating variables y ⋅ dy = ⋅ t⋅ dx where we treat t as a constant
a

2 2
y − y0 b⋅ t
Integrating
2
=
a
(
⋅ x − x0 ) and we have x0 = 1 m y0 = 2 m

2⋅ b⋅ t
The streamlines are then y = y0 +
2
a
(
⋅ x − x0 = ) 4 ⋅ t⋅ ( x − 1) + 4
 Pathline Plots Streamline Plots
5 15
Pathline (t0=0) Streamline (t=0)
Pathline (t0=2) Streamline (t=1)
4 Streakline 12 Streamline (t=2)
Streamline (t=3)
3 9
y (m)

y (m)
2 6

1 3

0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3 0 2 4 6 8 10

x (m) x (m)
 Problem 2.25

2.25 A 60cm diameter ram is fitted inside a hydraulic lift which

slides in a cylinder of 60.085 cm. The annular space of the
hydraulic lift is filled up with oil whose kinematic viscosity is
0.045cm2/s and specific gravity is 0.95. The ram travels at the
rate of 10.15m/min. What is the frictional resistance when 4.25
m of ram is inside the cylinder?

Given: The diameter of the ram and of the cylinder. The kinematic viscosity and specific
gravity of the oil.

To find: The frictional resistance when 4.25m of ram is inside the cylinder.

Solution:

Use basic definitions

ρ kg
SG = , SG = 0.95 From Appendix A ρ w  1000
ρw m3

kg kg
So, ρ = SG  ρ w  0.95 1000 3
 950 3
m m

60.085  60
Oil thickness is, dy   4.25 102 cm = 4.25 104m
2

The dynamic viscosity of the oil is given by,

   v
kg cm 2 1m 1Ns
 950 3
 0.045 4 2

m s 10 cm kg
Ns
 0.042 2
m

Shear stress

dv N
   16.72 2
dy m

Since, 4.25 m of ram is engaged, the contact area becomes,

A  2 rL  8.011m2
Total frictional force is given by,

F   A
 133.94 N

Thus, frictional resistance is 133.94N

 Problem 2.26 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Sutherland equation

Find: Corresponding equation for kinematic viscosity

Solution: 1
2
b⋅ T
Governing equation: μ= Sutherland equation p = ρ⋅ R⋅ T Ideal gas equation
S
1+
T
Assumptions: Sutherland equation is valid; air is an ideal gas

−6 kg J
The given data is b = 1.458 × 10 ⋅ S = 110.4 ⋅ K R = 286.9 ⋅ p = 101.3 ⋅ kPa
1 kg⋅ K
2
m⋅ s⋅ K
1 3 3
2 2 2
μ μ⋅ R⋅ T R⋅ T b ⋅ T R⋅ b T b'⋅ T
The kinematic viscosity is ν= = = ⋅ = ⋅ =
ρ p p S p S S
1+ 1+ 1+
T T T

2
R⋅ b −9 m
where b' = b' = 4.129 × 10
p 1.5
K ⋅s

2 2
N⋅ m −6 kg m −9 m
b' = 286.9 ⋅ × 1.458 × 10 ⋅ × = 4.129 × 10 ⋅
kg⋅ K 1 3 3
101.3 × 10 ⋅ N
2 2
m⋅ s⋅ K s⋅ K

3
2 2
b'⋅ T −9 m S = 110.4 K
Hence ν= with b' = 4.129 × 10 ⋅
S 3
1+
T 2
s⋅ K
 2
−5 m
Check with Appendix A, Table A.10. At T = 0 °C we find T = 273.1 K ν = 1.33 × 10 ⋅
s
3
2
−9 m 2
4.129 × 10 × ( 273.1 ⋅ K)
3
2 2
s⋅ K −5 m
ν = ν = 1.33 × 10 ⋅ Check!
110.4 s
1+
273.1

2
−5 m
At T = 100 °C we find T = 373.1 K ν = 2.29 × 10 ⋅
s
3
2
−9 m 2
4.129 × 10 × ( 373.1 ⋅ K)
3
2 2
s⋅ K −5 m
ν = ν = 2.30 × 10 ⋅ Check!
110.4 s
1+
373.1

Viscosity as a Function of Temperature

−5
2.5× 10
Calculated
Table A.10
Kinematic Viscosity (m2/s)

−5
2× 10

−5
1.5× 10

0 20 40 60 80 100

Temperature (C)
 Problem 2.27

2.27 A vertical cylinder of 0.085 metres diameter is mounted

concentrically in a drum of 0.086 metres internal diameter. Oil
fills the space between them to a depth of 0.4m. The torque
required to rotate the cylinder in the drum is 6 Nm when the
speed of rotation is 8.5 revs/sec, Assuming that the end effects
are negligible, calculate the coefficient of viscosity of the oil.

Solution:

From the given problem:

0.086
r1 
2
0.085
r2 
2
Torque  6 Nm
L  0.4 m

The velocity of the edge of the cylinder is:

ucyl  8.5  2 r
 8.5  2    0.0425
 2.27 m/s
ucyl  0.0

Torque needed to rotate cylinder

T    surface area
6    2 r2  L 

Substitute corresponding values in the above expression

6    2    0.0425  0.4 
6    0.1068 
  56.18 N/m 2

Distance between cylinder and drum

r1  r2  0.043  0.0425
 0.0005 m

Using Newtons Law of viscosity:

 du
 
dr
du 2.27  0

dr 0.0005
  56.18   4540
  0.0123 kg/ms

Hence, the coefficient of viscosity of the oil is 0.0123 kg/ms .

 Problem 2.28

Given: Velocity distribution between the plates

To find: Shear stress on upper plate; sketch stress distribution.

Solution:

Calculation:
Basic Equation
du
 yx  
dy
du d   2 y 2   4 8u y
 umax 1      umax  2  2 y  max
dy dy   h   h  h2
8umax y
 yx  (1)
h2
At the upper surface;
h
y  and h  0.2 mm
2
umax  0.2 m/s
From table A8, at 20C
u  1.01103 Ns/m2

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

2
 0.2   1 m  1 1000 mm 
 yx   8  1.0110 Ns/m   0.2 m/s  
3 2
mm     
 2   1000 mm  0.1 mm 1m 
 4.04 N/m 2
The upper plate is a minus y surface. Since  yx  0 , the shear stress on the upper plate must act
in the plus x -direction.

The shear stress varies linearly with y

  8  u  umax 
 yx  y      y
 h2 

Required sketch
 Problem 2.29 [Difficulty: 2]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: Explain how an ice skate interacts with the ice surface.
What mechanism acts to reduce sliding friction between skate and ice?

Discussion: The normal freezing and melting temperature of ice is 0°C (32°F) at atmospheric
pressure. The melting temperature of ice decreases as pressure is increased. Therefore ice can be caused to
melt at a temperature below the normal melting temperature when the ice is subjected to increased pressure.
A skater is supported by relatively narrow blades with a short contact against the ice. The blade of a typical
skate is less than 3 mm wide. The length of blade in contact with the ice may be just ten or so millimeters.
With a 3 mm by 10 mm contact patch, a 75 kg skater is supported by a pressure between skate blade and
ice on the order of tens of megaPascals (hundreds of atmospheres). Such a pressure is enough to cause ice
to melt rapidly.
When pressure is applied to the ice surface by the skater, a thin surface layer of ice melts to become liquid
water and the skate glides on this thin liquid film. Viscous friction is quite small, so the effective friction
coefficient is much smaller than for sliding friction.
The magnitude of the viscous drag force acting on each skate blade depends on the speed of the skater, the
area of contact, and the thickness of the water layer on top of the ice.
The phenomenon of static friction giving way to viscous friction is similar to the hydroplaning of a
pneumatic tire caused by a layer of water on the road surface.
 Problem 2.30 [Difficulty: 2]

2.30 Crude oil, with specific gravity SG = 0.85 and viscosity µ = 0.1 N
s/m2, flows steadily down a surface inclined θ = 45 degrees below
the horizontal in a film of thickness h =2.5 mm. The velocity
profile is given by
ρg  y2 
u=  hy −  sin θ
µ  2 
(Coordinate x is along the surface and y is normal to the surface.)
Plot the velocity profile. Determine the magnitude and direction of
the shear stress that acts on the surface.

Given: Velocity profile.

Find: Plot of velocity profile; shear stress on surface.
Solution:
ρ⋅g  y2 
The velocity profile is u= ⋅ h ⋅ y −  ⋅ sin θ so the maximum velocity is at y = h
µ  2 
ρ ⋅ g h2
u max = ⋅ ⋅ sin (θ)
µ 2
u y 1 y 
2

Hence we can plot = 2⋅  − ⋅  

u max  h 2  h  
1.0

0.8

0.6
y/h

0.4

0.2

0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
u/umax
This graph can be plotted in Excel

The given data is h = 2.5 mm µ = C ⋅1 N s/m 2 θ = 45 ⋅ deg

du
Basic equation τ yx =µ⋅
dy
du d ρ⋅g  y2 
τ yx = µ ⋅ = µ⋅ ⋅h ⋅ y  ⋅ sin ( θ ) = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( h − y ) ⋅ sin ( θ )
dy dy µ  2 

At the surface y = 0 τ yx = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ sin(θ)

kg 2 1m N s2 N
Hence τ yx = 0.85 ×1000 × 9.81 m/s × 2.5 mm × × sin (45 deg) × τ yx = 14.74
m3 1000 mm kg ⋅ m m2
The surface is a positive y surface. Since τ yx > 0 , the shear stress on the surface must act in the plus x direction.
 Problem 2.31 [Difficulty: 2]

2.31 A female freestyle ice skater, weighing 450 N, glides

on one skate at speed V = 6 m/s. Her weight is supported
by a thin film of liquid water melted from the ice by the
pressure of the skate blade. Assume the blade is L = 0.3
m long and w = 3 mm wide, and that the water film is h
= 0.0015 mm thick. Estimate the deceleration of the
skater that results from viscous shear in the water film, if
end effects are neglected.

Given: Ice skater and skate geometry. τ yx = µ

du
dy
V = 6 m/s

Find: Deceleration of skater. y

h

Solution: x

du
Governing equation: τ yx = µ ⋅ ∑ Fx = M ⋅ a x
dy

Assumptions: Laminar flow

The given data is W = 450 N V = 6 m/s L = 0.3 m W = 3 mm h = 0.0015 mm

−3 N ⋅s
µ = 1.76 × 10 Table A.7 @ 273 K
m2

du V −3 N ⋅ s m 1 1000 mm
Then τ yx = µ ⋅ = µ ⋅ = 1 ⋅ 76 × 10 × 6 × ×
dy h m2 s 0.0015 mm 1m

N
τ yx = 7040
m2

−W
Equation of motion ∑ Fx = M ⋅ a x or τ yx ⋅ A = ⋅ ax
g

τ yx ⋅ A ⋅ g τ yx ⋅ L ⋅ W ⋅ g
ax = =
W W

N m 1 1m
a x − 7040 × 0.3 m × 3 mm × 9.8 2 × ×
m2 s 450 N 1000 mm

m
a x = − 0.138
s2
 Problem 2.32 [Difficulty: 2]

2.32 A block weighing 45 N and having dimensions 250 mm on

each edge is pulled up an inclined surface on which there is a
film of SAE 10 W oil at 37°C. If the speed of the block is
0.6 m/s and the oil film is 0.025 mm thick, find the force
required to pull the block. Assume the velocity distribution in
the oil film is linear. The surface is inclined at an angle of 25°
from the horizontal.

Given: Block pulled up incline on oil layer.

Find: Force required to pull the block.

Solution:

du
Governing equations: τ yx = µ ⋅
dy

∑ Fx = M ⋅ a x

Assumptions: Laminar flow

m
The given data is W = 45 N U = 0.6 w = 250 mm d = 0.025 mm θ = 25 ⋅ deg
s

N ⋅s
µ = 3.7 × 10−2 ⋅ Fig. A.2 @ 37°C
m2

Equation of motion ∑ Fx = M ⋅ a x = 0 so F − f − W⋅sin (θ) = 0

du U
The friction force is f = τ yx ⋅ A = µ ⋅ ⋅ A = µ ⋅ ⋅ w2
dy d

U 2
Hence F = f + W ⋅ sin(θ) = µ ⋅ ⋅ w + W ⋅ sin(θ)
d

2
N ⋅s m 1 1000 mm  m 
F = 3.7 × 10−2 ⋅ 2
× 0.6 × × ×  250 mm ×  + 45 N sin (25 deg)
m s 0.025 mm m  1000 mm 

F = 74.52 N
 Problem 2.33 [Difficulty: 2]

2.33 A block of mass 10 kg and measuring 250 mm on each

edge is pulled up an inclined surface on which there is a film
of SAE 10 W −30 oil at −1.1°C (the oil film is 0.025 mm
thick). Find the steady speed of the block if it is released. If a
force of 75 N is applied to pull the block up the incline, find
the steady speed of the block. If the force is now applied to
push the block down the incline, find the steady speed of the
block. Assume the velocity distribution in the oil film is
linear. The surface is inclined at an angle of 30° from the
horizontal.

Given: Block moving on incline on oil layer.

Find: Speed of block when free, pulled, and pushed.

Solution:
du
Governing equations: τ yx = µ.
dy
Σ Fx = M ⋅ a x

Assumptions: Laminar flow

The given data is M = 10∙kg W = M∙g W = 98.066 N w = 250∙mm

d = 0.025∙mm θ = 30∙deg F = 75∙N

N ⋅s
µ = 10−1 ⋅ Fig. A.2 SAE 10-39 @ −1.1°C
m2

Equation of motion ∑ FX = M ⋅ a X = 0 so F − f − W ⋅ sin ( θ ) = 0

du U 2
The friction force is f = τ yx ⋅ A = µ ⋅ ⋅A = µ⋅ ⋅w
dy d

U 2 d ⋅ ( F − W ⋅ sin (θ) )
Hence for uphill motion F = f + W ⋅ sin (θ) = µ ⋅ ⋅ w + W ⋅ sin (θ) U=
d µ ⋅ w2
(For down push change sign of W)

d ⋅ W ⋅ sin (θ) m
For no force: U= U = 0.196
µ ⋅ w2 s
d ⋅ ( F − W ⋅ sin (θ) ) m
Pushing up: U= U = 0.104
µ ⋅ w2 s
d ⋅ ( F + W ⋅ sin (θ) ) m
Pushing down: U = U = 0.496
µ ⋅ w2 s
 Problem 2.34 [Difficulty: 2]

2.34 Tape is to be coated on both sides with glue by drawing it

through a narrow gap. The tape is 0.38 mm thick and
25 mm wide. It is centered in the gap with a clearance of
0.3 mm on each side. The glue, of viscosity µ = 1 N⋅s/m2,
completely fills the space between the tape and gap. If the
tape can withstand a maximum tensile force of 110 N,
determine the maximum gap region through which it can
be pulled at a speed of 1 m/s.

Given: Data on tape mechanism.

Find: Maximum gap region that can be pulled without breaking tape.

Solution:

du
Basic equation τ yx = µ ⋅ and F = τ yx ⋅ A
dy

Here F is the force on each side of the tape; the total force is then FT = 2 ⋅ F = 2 ⋅τ yx ⋅ A

du V−0 V
The velocity gradient is linear as shown = =
dy c c

The area of contact is A = w ⋅L

V
Combining these results FT = 2 ⋅ µ ⋅ ⋅w ⋅L
c

FT ⋅ c
Solving for L L=
2⋅µ ⋅V ⋅ w

N⋅s m
The given data is FT = 110 N c = 0.3 mm µ= 1 V =1 w = 25 mm
m2 s

m 1 1 m2 1 s 1 1000 mm
L = 110 N × 0.3 mm × × × ⋅ × ⋅ ×
Hence 1000 mm 2 1 N ⋅ s 1 m 25 mm m
L = 0.66 m
 Problem 2.35

Given: the given data are as follows

 Dpiston   75 mm
 Dtube   78 mm
 m   5 kg
 L   120 mm
Specific gravity
 SGA1  of aluminium  2.64

Solution:

From figure A.2; the dynamic viscosity of SAE 10W-30 at 25C is   0.13 N  s/m2

The terminal velocity of the mass is equivalent to the terminal velocity of the piston. At the
terminal speed, the acceleration of the piston is zero. Therefore all forces acting on the piston
must be balanced. This means that the force driving the motion (i,e the weight of the mass ‘m’
and the piston) balances the viscous force acting on the surface of the piston. Thus at r  Rpiston .
    Dpiston
2
L   d 
 Mass  SGAl   water     g   rz A     Vz   Dpiston  L 
  4    dr 
The velocity profile within the oil film is linear...
Therefore,
d V
Vz 
dr  Dtube  Dpiston 
 
 2 
Thus, the terminal velocity of the piston V is;
g  SGAl   water    Dpiston
2
 L  4  Mass   Dtube  Dpiston 
V (1)
8      Dpiston  L
Substitute corresponding equation in equation (1)

 9.81 m/s   2.64  1000 kg/m      0.075 m   0.12 m   4 5 kg   0.078  0.075 m
2 3 2

V
8  0.13 Ns/m    0.075  0.12
 0.7533 
  m/s
 0.02940 
 25.62 m/s

Hence, the terminal velocity of mass “m” is 25.62 m/s .

 Problem 2.36 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Flow data on apparatus

Find: Sketch of piston speed vs time; the time needed for the piston to reach 99% of its new terminal speed.

Solution:
m
Given data: Dpiston = 73⋅ mm Dtube = 75⋅ mm L = 100 ⋅ mm SG Al = 2.64 V0 = 10.2⋅
s
kg
Reference data: ρwater = 1000⋅ (maximum density of water) (From Problem 2.48)
3
m
N⋅ s
From Fig. A.2, the dynamic viscosity of SAE 10W-30 oil at 25oC is: μ = 0.13⋅
2
m

The free body diagram of the piston after the cord is cut is:
⎛⎜ π⋅ D 2⎞
piston
Piston weight: Wpiston = SGAl⋅ ρwater⋅ g ⋅ ⎜ ⋅L
⎝ 4 ⎠

Viscous force: Fviscous( V) = τrz⋅ A

Fviscous( V) = μ⋅ ⎡⎢ ⎤ ⋅ π⋅ D
⎥ ( piston⋅ L)
V
or
⎢ ( tube piston)⎥
1
⋅ D − D
⎣2 ⎦
dV
Applying Newton's second law: mpiston⋅ = Wpiston − Fviscous( V)
dt

dV 8⋅ μ
Therefore = g − a⋅ V where a =
dt (
SGAl⋅ ρwater⋅ Dpiston⋅ Dtube − Dpiston )
dX dV
If V = g − a⋅ V then = −a⋅
dt dt

dX
The differential equation becomes = −a⋅ X where X( 0 ) = g − a⋅ V0
dt

− a⋅ t − a⋅ t
The solution to this differential equation is: X( t) = X0 ⋅ e or ( )
g − a⋅ V( t ) = g − a⋅ V0 ⋅ e
 V( t) = ⎛⎜ V0 − ⎞ ⋅ e
g ( − a⋅ t) g
Therefore +
⎝ a⎠ a

Plotting piston speed vs. time (which can be done in Excel)

Piston speed vs. time

12

10

V ( t) 6

0 1 2 3
t

The terminal speed of the piston, Vt, is evaluated as t approaches infinity

g m
Vt = or Vt = 3.63
a s

The time needed for the piston to slow down to within 1% of its terminal velocity is:

⎛ V − g ⎞
1 ⎜ 0 a
t = ⋅ ln⎜ ⎟ or t = 1.93 s
a
⎜ 1.01⋅ Vt − g
⎝ a⎠
 Problem 2.37

2.37 The velocity distribution of a viscous liquid (dynamic

viscosity µ = 0.8 Ns/m2) flowing over a rigid plate is given by
u = 0.78y – y2 (u is velocity in m/s and y is the distance from
the plate in m).What are the shear stresses at the plate surface
and at y = 0.39m ?

Solution:

From the given condition:

u  0.78y  y 2
Differentiate above equation
u
 0.78 y  2 y ...... (1)
y

At the plate face,

y0
So the equation (1) is transform to the following expression:
u
 0.78 y  2  0 
y
 0.78 y
Now, calculate the shear stress at the plate face
u
 
y

Substitute corresponding values in the above expression

   0.8 0.78
 0.624 N/m 2

At y  0.39 m
u
 0.78  2  0.39 
y
0

As the velocity gradient is zero at y  0.39 m then the shear stress must also be zero .
 Problem 2.38 [Difficulty: 4]

Ff = τ⋅ A

x, V, a

M⋅ g

Given: Data on the block and incline

Find: Initial acceleration; formula for speed of block; plot; find speed after 0.1 s. Find oil viscosity if speed is 0.3 m/s after
0.1 s
Solution:
2
Given data M = 5 ⋅ kg A = ( 0.1⋅ m) d = 0.2⋅ mm θ = 30⋅ deg

N⋅ s
From Fig. A.2 μ = 0.4⋅
2
m

Applying Newton's 2nd law to initial instant (no friction) M ⋅ a = M ⋅ g ⋅ sin( θ) − Ff = M ⋅ g ⋅ sin( θ)

m m
so ainit = g ⋅ sin( θ) = 9.81⋅ × sin( 30⋅ deg) ainit = 4.9
2 2
s s
du V
Applying Newton's 2nd law at any instant M ⋅ a = M ⋅ g ⋅ sin( θ) − Ff and Ff = τ⋅ A = μ⋅ ⋅ A = μ⋅ ⋅ A
dy d

dV μ⋅ A
so M⋅ a = M⋅ = M ⋅ g ⋅ sin( θ) − ⋅V
dt d

dV
Separating variables = dt
μ⋅ A
g ⋅ sin( θ) − ⋅V
M⋅ d

M⋅ d μ⋅ A
Integrating and using limits − ⋅ ln⎛⎜ 1 − ⋅ V⎞ = t
μ⋅ A ⎝ M ⋅ g ⋅ d ⋅ sin( θ) ⎠

⎛ − μ⋅ A ⎞
⋅t
M ⋅ g ⋅ d ⋅ sin( θ) ⎜ M⋅ d
or V( t) = ⋅⎝1 − e ⎠
μ⋅ A

⎡ ⎛ 0.4⋅ 0.01 ⋅ 0.1⎞⎤

−⎜
2 2
N⋅ s ⎢ ⎠⎥
× ⎣1 − e ⎝
m m 5⋅ 0.0002
At t = 0.1 s V = 5 ⋅ kg × 9.81⋅ × 0.0002⋅ m⋅ sin( 30⋅ deg) × × ⎦
2 2 kg⋅ m
s 0.4⋅ N⋅ s⋅ ( 0.1⋅ m)

m
V( 0.1⋅ s) = 0.404 ⋅
s
The plot looks like

1.5

1
V (m/s)

0.5

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

t (s)

To find the viscosity for which V(0.1 s) = 0.3 m/s, we must solve

⎡ − μ⋅ A
⋅ ( t= 0.1⋅ s )⎤
M ⋅ g ⋅ d ⋅ sin( θ) ⎢ M⋅ d ⎥
V( t = 0.1⋅ s) = ⋅ ⎣1 − e ⎦
μ⋅ A

The viscosity µ is implicit in this equation, so solution must be found by manual iteration, or by any of a number of classic
root-finding numerical methods, or by using Excel's Goal Seek

N⋅ s
Using Excel: μ = 1.08⋅
2
m
 Problem 2.39

Given: Block sliding an oil layer

To find: Direction of friction on bottom of block and on plate; expression for speed
U versus time; time required to close 85% of initial speed.

Solution:

Required figure:

Governing Equation
du
 yx  
dy
 Fx  M  ax

Assumption:
Laminar flow; linear velocity profile in oil layer,
The bottom of the block is a  y surface, so  yx acts to the left. The plate is a a  y surface, so
acts to the right.

Equation of motion
 Fx  M  ax
So,
dU
FV  M 
dt
The friction force is
dU U
FV   yx  A     A     a2
dy h
Hence,
  a2 dU
 U  M 
h dt

To solve separate variables,

1   a2
 dU   dt
U M h
U    a2
ln    
 U0  M h
Hence taking algorithms
 a 2
 t
U  U 0  e M h
Solve for t
M h  U 
t ln   (1)
  a2  U0 

U
Hence, for  0.15 in equation (1)
U0
M h
t  ln  0.15 
  a2
M h
 1.9
  a2

Hence, the sketch of resulting speed versus time curve for the block is shown below:
 Problem 2.40 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Varnish-coated wire drawn through die

Find: Force required to pull wire r

F
x d D

Solution:
du
Governing equations: τyx = μ⋅ ΣFx = M ⋅ ax
dy L

Assumptions: Laminar flow; linear velocity profile in varnish layer

m −2
The given data is D = 1 ⋅ mm d = 0.9⋅ mm L = 50⋅ mm V = 50⋅ μ = 20 × 10 poise
s

Equation of motion ΣFx = M ⋅ ax so F − Fv = 0 for steady speed

du V
The friction force is Fv = τyx⋅ A = μ⋅ ⋅ A = μ⋅ ⋅ π⋅ d ⋅ L
dr ⎛D − d⎞
⎜ 2
⎝ ⎠

Hence F − Fv = 0

2 ⋅ π⋅ μ⋅ V⋅ d ⋅ L
so F =
D− d

−2 0.1⋅ kg m 1 m
F = 2 ⋅ π × 20 × 10 poise × × 50⋅ × 0.9⋅ mm × 50⋅ mm × ×
m⋅ s⋅ poise s ( 1 − 0.9) ⋅ mm 1000⋅ mm

F = 2.83 N
 Problem 2.41

2.41 A square slab weighing 2.0 kN with a side surfaces area of

0.2 m2 slides down an inclined surface with an angle of 20°C.
The surface is sheltered with oil film. The oil creates a distance
between the block and the inclined surface of 2 x 10-6 m. What
is the speed of the block at steady state? Assuming a linear
velocity profile in the oil and that the whole oil is under steady
state. The viscosity of the oil is 5 x 10-5 m2/s.

Solution:

The shear stress at the surface is estimated for steady state by the following below expression:
dU
T 
dx
U
 5 105 
2 106
 25U

The total fiction force is then,

f  TA
 0.2  25U
 5U

The gravity force that acting against the friction is equal to the friction hence
Fg  f  5U
mg sin 20
U
5
Or the solution is
2  9.8  sin 20
U
5
 1.34

Hence, the speed of the block is 1.34

 Problem 2.42

Given: Flow between two plates

To find: Force to move upper plate; Interface velocity

Solution:

The shear stress is the same throughout (the velocity gradient are linear and the stress in the field
at the interface must be equal and opposite).
Hence,
du  du
T  1 1  2 2 or
dy dy

1 
Vi
 2
V  Vi 
h1 h2
Here,
Vi is the interface velocity.

Solve for the interface velocity Vi

V
Vi  (1)
 h
1 1  2
2 h1

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

 2 m/s
Vi   1.22 m/s
 0.2  0.8 
1   
 0.25  1.0 
Vi  1.22 m/s
Then, the force required is
V
F  T  A  1  i  A (2)
h1

Substitute corresponding values in equation (2)

 1  1000 mm 
F   0.2 Ns/m 2  1.22 m/s     2 m 
2

 1.0 mm  1 m 
 488 N

Hence, the fluid velocity is 1.22 m/s and the required force is 488 N .
 Problem 2.43 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Flow of three fluids between two plates

Find: Upper plate velocity; Interface velocities; plot velocity distribution

Solution:
The shear stress is the same throughout (the velocity gradients are linear, and the stresses in the fluids at the interfaces must be
equal and opposite).

Given data F = 100 ⋅ N h 1 = 0.5⋅ mm h 2 = 0.25⋅ mm h 3 = 0.2⋅ mm

2 N⋅ s N⋅ s N⋅ s
A = 1⋅ m μ1 = 0.15⋅ μ2 = 0.5⋅ μ3 = 0.2⋅
2 2 2
m m m
F
The (constant) stress is τ = τ = 100 Pa
A
∆V τ⋅ ∆y
For each fluid τ = μ⋅ or ∆V = where ∆V is the overall change in velocity over distance ∆y
∆y μ

τ⋅ h 1 m
Hence V12 = V12 = 0.333 where V 12 is the velocity at the 1 - 2 interface
μ1 s
τ⋅ h 2 m
Hence V23 = + V12 V23 = 0.383 where V 23 is the velocity at the 2 - 3 interface
μ2 s
τ⋅ h 3 m
Hence V = + V23 V = 0.483 where V is the velocity at the upper plate
μ3 s

0.75
Position (mm)

0.5

0.25

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Velocity (m/s)
Problem 2.44 [Difficulty: 2]
Problem 2.45 [Difficulty: 2]
 Problem 2.46

Solution:

Apply Newtons law of viscosity

Basic Equation:

du
  0;
dy
M  0;
T   AR

Assumption:

i) Newtonian liquid
ii) Narrow gap, so linear profile
iii) Steady angular speed

Summing torque on the rotor

 M  Mgr   AR  0 ; A  2 RH

Because a  R , treat the gap as plane, Then

du u U 0   V  Vm R
         
dy y  a0  a ar
On substitution

 V R 
Mgr   m   2 RHR   0
 ar 
 2Vm R 3 H 
Mgr   0
 ar 
So,
Mgr 2 a
 (1)
2 Vm R3 H

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

 
 0.2 kg   9.81 m/s 2   0.050  m 2  0.0004  
1 s

2

2  0.060 m 
1 1 N  s2
  
 0.1 0.160 m kg  m
3 3
m
 0.0325 N  s/m
 32.5 mPa  s

Hence, the viscosity of the liquid is 32.5 mPa  s .

 Problem 2.47 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Data on the viscometer

Find: Time for viscometer to lose 99% of speed

Solution:
2 N⋅ s
The given data is R = 50⋅ mm H = 80⋅ mm a = 0.20⋅ mm I = 0.0273⋅ kg⋅ m μ = 0.1⋅
2
m
The equation of motion for the slowing viscometer is I⋅ α = Torque = −τ⋅ A⋅ R

where α is the angular acceleration and τ is the viscous stress, and A is the surface area of the viscometer

du V− 0 μ⋅ V μ⋅ R⋅ ω
The stress is given by τ = μ⋅ = μ⋅ = =
dy a a a

where V and ω are the instantaneous linear and angular velocities.

2
dω μ⋅ R⋅ ω μ⋅ R ⋅ A
Hence I⋅ α = I⋅ =− ⋅ A⋅ R = ⋅ω
dt a a
2
dω μ⋅ R ⋅ A
Separating variables =− ⋅ dt
ω a⋅ I
2
μ⋅ R ⋅ A
− ⋅t
a⋅ I
Integrating and using IC ω = ω0 ω( t) = ω0 ⋅ e
2
μ⋅ R ⋅ A
− ⋅t
a⋅ I a⋅ I
The time to slow down by 99% is obtained from solving 0.01⋅ ω0 = ω0 ⋅ e so t=− ⋅ ln( 0.01)
2
μ⋅ R ⋅ A

a⋅ I
Note that A = 2 ⋅ π⋅ R ⋅ H so t=− ⋅ ln( 0.01)
3
2 ⋅ π⋅ μ⋅ R ⋅ H

2 2 2
0.0002⋅ m⋅ 0.0273⋅ kg⋅ m m 1 1 N⋅ s
t = − ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ln( 0.01) t = 4.00 s
2⋅ π 0.1⋅ N⋅ s 3 0.08⋅ m kg⋅ m
( 0.05⋅ m)
 Problem 2.48

Solution:

Required sketch:

Basic Equation:

du
 yx  
dy

Assumption:

i) Newtonian fluid
ii) Gap is narrow, so velocity profile is linear,
du u

dy u
Then shear stress is,
u U  D
 yx    
y t 2t

Neglecting end effects, torque is

D  D3 L
  FR   yx AR   yx  DL  
2 4t

Solving for viscosity,

4t
 (1)
 D3 L

Substitute corresponding values in (1)

4  s  1  1   rev  3 mm
3
   0.4 mm  0.0040 Nm    3    1000 
  40 rev  20 mm  80 mm   2 rad  m
 0.0126 Ns/m2

Hence, the viscosity of the oil that fills the gap is 0.0126 Ns/m2 .
Problem 2.49 [Difficulty: 4]
 Problem 2.50

Given: Shock free coupling assembly

To find: required viscosity

Solution:

Governing Equation
du
Tr  
dr
Shear force; F    A
Torque;   F  R
Power; P  T  

Assumption:
Newtonian Fluid,
Linear velocity profile
 V 1 R  2   R    

du
Tr   
dr r 
  2  R Because   R
 1


Then,
P  T  2  F  R  2    A2  R  2


1  2  R  2 RLR
 2

22 1  2  R3 L
 (1)


Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

15 W  3.0 104 m 1 min 1 min 1

   
2 800 rev 1000 rev  0.02 m 3
2 2
1 Nm  rev   60 s 
    
0.03 m sW  2 rad   min 
 0.0340 Ns/m 2

Hence, the viscosity that should be specified to satisfy the requirement for this device is
0.0340 Ns/m2 .
Problem 2.51 [Difficulty: 4] Part 1/2
[Difficulty:] Part 2/2
Problem 2.52 [Difficulty: 4]
 Problem 2.53

2.53 A plate of dimensions 3m x 3m is placed 0.37 mm apart

from a fixed plate. The plate requires a force of 2N to move at
speed of 45 cm/s. Evaluate the viscosity of the fluid in between
the plates.

Given: The velocity of the plate and the force required.

To find: The dynamic velocity of the fluid in between the plates.

Solution:

dv = 45cm/s

dy = 0.27mm

Figure

The change of velocity is given by dv  45cm/s  0.45m/s

Distance between the plates, dy  0.37mm = 0.037cm = 0.00037m

Contact Area of the plate with the fluid is, A  3m  3m = 9m2

The force required to move the plate, F  2N

Now,

F
Shear stress is,  
A

Substituting the values into the equation

F 1 1 N
  2N   2  0.22 2
A 9 m m
 dv   dy Ns
And,    so,    1.8  104 2
dy dv m

Ns
The dynamic viscosity of the fluid in between the plate is 1.8  104
m2
 Problem 2.54 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Data on insulation material

Find: Type of material; replacement material
Solution:

The velocity gradient is

du/dy = U/ δ where δ = 0.001 m

Data and τ (Pa) U (m/s) du/dy (s-1)

computations 50 0.000 0
100 0.000 0
150 0.000 0
163 0.005 5
171 0.01 10
170 0.03 25
202 0.05 50
246 0.1 100
349 0.2 200
444 0.3 300

Hence we have a Bingham plastic, with τy = 154 Pa

µp = 0.963 N·s/m2

At τ = 450 Pa, based on the linear fit

-1
du/dy = 307 s

For a fluid with τy = 250 Pa

we can use the Bingham plastic formula to solve for µ p given τ , τ y and du/dy from above

µp = 0.652 N·s/m2

Shear Stress vs Shear Strain

500
450
400
350
τ (Pa)

300
250
Linear data fit:
200 τ = 0.9632(du/dy ) + 154.34
2
150 R = 0.9977
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
du/dy (1/s)
Problem 2.55 [Difficulty: 5]
Problem 2.56 [Difficulty: 5]
 Problem 2.57 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Conical bearing geometry

Find: Expression for shear stress; Viscous torque on shaft

Solution: ds dz

du z
Basic equation τ = μ⋅ dT = r⋅ τ⋅ dA Infinitesimal shear torque AA
dy
r

Assumptions: Newtonian fluid, linear velocity profile (in narrow clearance gap), no slip condition
Section AA
r U = ωr
tan( θ) = so r = z⋅ tan( θ)
z
a
du ∆u ( ω⋅ r − 0 ) μ⋅ ω⋅ z⋅ tan( θ)
Then τ = μ⋅ = μ⋅ = μ⋅ =
dy ∆y (a − 0) a

As we move up the device, shear stress increases linearly (because rate of shear strain does)

dz
But from the sketch dz = ds ⋅ cos( θ) dA = 2 ⋅ π⋅ r⋅ ds = 2 ⋅ π⋅ r⋅
cos( θ)
3 3
μ⋅ ω⋅ z⋅ tan( θ) dz 2 ⋅ π⋅ μ⋅ ω⋅ z ⋅ tan( θ)
The viscous torque on the element of area is dT = r⋅ τ⋅ dA = r⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ π⋅ r⋅ dT = ⋅ dz
a cos( θ) a⋅ cos( θ)
3 4
π⋅ μ⋅ ω⋅ tan( θ) ⋅ H
Integrating and using limits z = H and z = 0 T=
2 ⋅ a⋅ cos( θ)

2 ⋅ a⋅ cos( θ) ⋅ T
μ=
Solving for µ 3 4
π⋅ ω⋅ tan( θ) ⋅ H

rev
Using given data H = 25⋅ mm θ = 30⋅ deg a = 0.2⋅ mm ω = 75⋅ T = 0.325 ⋅ N⋅ m
s

2 ⋅ a⋅ cos( θ) ⋅ T N⋅ s
μ = μ = 1.012 ⋅
3 4 2
π⋅ ω⋅ tan( θ) ⋅ H m

From Fig. A.2, at 20oC, CASTOR OIL has this viscosity!

Problem 2.58 [Difficulty: 5]
 Problem 2.59

2.59 A cylindrical shaft of 100 mm is fixed in a cylindrical tube

of length 55 cm and of internal diameter of 110 mm. The shaft
is rotating about a vertical axis inside the cylinder. The space
between the tube and shaft is filled by an oil of dynamic
viscosity 3.0 poise. If shaft is rotating at a speed of 290 rpm,
calculate the power required to overcome viscous resistance.

Given: A shaft is rotating about a vertical axis inside a cylinder. The dynamic viscosity of
the lubricant.

To find: The power required to overcome the viscous resistance when shaft is rotating at
speed of 290 rpm

Solution:

V  circumferential velocity of the shaft

 r
2 N
 r
60
2  290 0.10
 
60 2
 1.52 m/s

110  100
Clearance, h   5 mm
2

Assuming linear variation of velocity across the gap,

Velocity gradient is given by,

du V

dr h
1.52
 3
 304 s 1
5 10

Dynamic viscosity,   3.0 poise = 0.3 Pa.s

Shear stress on the shaft is,

 du
 
dr
 0.3  304
 91.2 Pa

Shear force is given by,

Fs    2 r  L
 0.10 
 91.2   2    0.55
 2 
 15.76 N

Torque is calculated as,

T  Fs r
0.10
 15.76 
2
 0.79 N.m

Power required,

2 N
P T
60
2  290
  0.79
60
 24 W

Thus, the power required to overcome the viscous resistance is 24 W

 Problem 2.60

Solution:

Consider a free body diagram of half a bubble:

The forces act:

πD2
Pressure  Fp = Δp
4
Surface Tension  Fσ = σπD

Summing forces for equilibrium

πD 2
 Fx = Fp -Fσ = Δp 4
-σπD = 0

πD 2
 Δp = σπD
4
ΔpD 4σ
 = σ or Δp =
4 D

Assuming soda glass interface is similar to water-air, then σ  72.8 mN m , and

N 1
Δp = 4×72.8×10-3 ×
m 0.2×10-3m
N
= 1.46×103 = 1.46 kPa
m2
Hence the pressure difference ( Δp ) between the inside and outside of such a bubble is 1.46 kPa
 Problem 2.61

Given: Data on size of various needles

To find: Which needles, if any, will float

Solution:

For a steel needle of length L, diameter D, and density ρ s , to float in water with surface tension
 and contact angle θ , the vertical force due to surface tension must equal or exceed the weight.

πD 2
2  L    cos  θ   W  m  g   ρs  L  g
4
or
8 cos  θ 
D
πρs g

From table A.4

The surface tension (  ) of water is

N
  72.8 103
m

The contact angle ( θ ) of water is

θ  0 deg

The density of water is

kg
ρ  1000
m3

From table A.1 for steel the specific gravity

SG = 7.83

There, substituting values in

 8 cos  
D
π  SG  ρ  g
8 N m3 s2 kg×m
D  72.8 103   
π  7.83 m 999kg 9.81m Ns 2
D  1.55 103  1.55 mm

Hence, D < 1.55 mm. No single needle will float (needle length is irrelevant)
 Problem 2.62 [Difficulty: 3]

2.62 According to Folsom [6], the capillary rise ∆h (mm) of a water–air interface in a tube is
correlated by the following empirical expression:
∆h = Ae−b⋅D
where D (mm) is the tube diameter, A = 0.400, and b = 4.37. You do an experiment to
measure ∆h versus D and obtain:

D (mm) 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5

∆h (mm) 5.8 4.6 2.25 1.48 1.30 0.83 0.43 0.25 0.15 0.1 0.08

What are the values of A and b that best fit this data using Excel’s Trendline feature? Do
they agree with Folsom’s values? How good is the data?

Given: Caplillary rise data.

Find: Values of A and b.

Solution:

D (mm) ∆h
(mm)

2.5 5.8
5.0 4.6
7.5 2.25
10.0 1.48
12.5 1.30 A = 0.400
15.0 0.83
b = 4.37
17.5 0.43
20.0 0.25
22.5 0.15
25.0 0.1 The fit is a good one (R2 = 0.9919)
27.5 0.08

Capillary Rise vs. Tube Diameter

7.5
∆h 5 0.400e24.37D
R2 5 0.9919
5.0
∆h (mm)

2.5

0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
D (mm)
 Problem 2.63 [Difficulty: 2]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: Slowly fill a glass with water to the maximum possible
level before it overflows. Observe the water level closely. Explain how it can be higher than the rim of the
glass.

Discussion: Surface tension can cause the maximum water level in a glass to be higher than the rim of
the glass. The same phenomenon causes an isolated drop of water to “bead up” on a smooth surface.
Surface tension between the water/air interface and the glass acts as an invisible membrane that allows
trapped water to rise above the level of the rim of the glass. The mechanism can be envisioned as forces
that act in the surface of the liquid above the rim of the glass. Thus the water appears to defy gravity by
attaining a level higher than the rim of the glass.
To experimentally demonstrate that this phenomenon is the result of surface tension, set the liquid level
nearly as far above the glass rim as you can get it, using plain water. Add a drop of liquid detergent (the
detergent contains additives that reduce the surface tension of water). Watch as the excess water runs over
the side of the glass.
 Problem 2.64 [Difficulty: 5]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: Plan an experiment to measure the surface tension of a

liquid similar to water. If necessary, review the NCFMF video Surface Tension for ideas. Which method
would be most suitable for use in an undergraduate laboratory? What experimental precision could be
expected?

Discussion: Two basic kinds of experiment are possible for an undergraduate laboratory:
1. Using a clear small-diameter tube, compare the capillary rise of the unknown liquid with that of a
known liquid (compare with water, because it is similar to the unknown liquid).

This method would be simple to set up and should give fairly accurate results. A vertical
traversing optical microscope could be used to increase the precision of measuring the liquid
height in each tube.

A drawback to this method is that the specific gravity and co ntact angle of the two liquids must be
the same to allow the capillary rises to be compared.

The capillary rise would be largest and therefore easiest to measure accurately in a tube with the
smallest practical diameter. Tubes of several diameters could be used if desired.

2. Dip an object into a pool of test liquid and measure the vertical force required to pull the object
from the liquid surface.

The object might be made rectangular (e.g., a sheet of plastic material) or circular (e.g., a metal
ring). The net force needed to pull the same object from each liquid should be proportional to the
surface tension of each liquid.

This method would be simple to set up. However, the force magnitudes to be measured would be
quite small.

A drawback to this method is that the contact angles of the two liquids must be the same.

The first method is probably best for undergraduate laboratory use. A quantitative estimate of experimental
measurement uncertainty is impossible without knowing details of the test setup. It might be reasonable to
expect results accurate to within ± 10% of the true surface tension.

*Net force is the total vertical force minus the weight of the object. A buoyancy correction would be
necessary if part of the object were submerged in the test liquid.
 Problem 2.65 [Difficulty: 2]

2.65 Water usually is assumed to be incompressible when function of p/patm up to a pressure of 350 MPa,
evaluating static pressure variations. Actually it is 100 which is the approximate pressure used for high-
times more compressible than steel. Assuming the bulk speed cutting jets of water to cut concrete and other
modulus of water is constant, compute the percentage composite materials. Would constants density be a
change in density for water raised to a gage pressure of reasonable assumption for engineering calculation.
100 atm. Plot the percentage change in water density as a for cutting jets?

dp
Solution: By definition , E
= . Assume E
= constant. Then
dρ ρ
dρ dp
=
ρ E

ρ p − p0 ∆p ρ
Integrating, from ρo to ρ gives ln = = , so = e ∆p / E

ρ0 E
E
ρ0
The relative change in density is

∆ρ ρ − ρ0 ρ
= = − 1 = e ∆p / E
− 1
ρ0 ρ0 ρ0

From Table A, Z, E
= 2.24 GPa for water at 20°C.

For p = 100 atm (gage) , ∆ρ = 100 atm, so

∆ρ  1 Pa 
= exp  100 atm × 9
× 101.325 × 103  − 1 = 0.00453, or 0.453%
ρ0  2.24 × 10 Pa atm 

For ∆ρ = 350 MPa,

∆ρ  1 
= exp  350 × 106 Pa × 9  − 1 = 0.169 or 16.9%
ρ0  2.24 × 10 Pa 

Thus constant density is not a reasonable assumption for a cutting jet operating at 350 MPa. Constant density
(5% change) would be reasonable up to ∆p ≈ 110 MPa.
 Problem 2.66 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Boundary layer velocity profile in terms of constants a, b and c

Find: Constants a, b and c

Solution:
2
u = a + b ⋅ ⎛⎜
y⎞
+ c⋅ ⎛⎜
y⎞
Basic equation
⎝δ⎠ ⎝δ⎠
Assumptions: No slip, at outer edge u = U and τ = 0

At y = 0 0=a a=0

At y = δ U= a+ b+ c b+c=U (1)

du
At y = δ τ = μ⋅ =0
dy

2
a + b ⋅ ⎛⎜
y⎞
+ c⋅ ⎛⎜
d y⎞ b y b c
0= = + 2 ⋅ c⋅ = + 2⋅ b + 2⋅ c = 0 (2)
dy ⎝δ⎠ ⎝δ⎠ δ 2
δ
δ δ

From 1 and 2 c = −U b = 2⋅ U
2 2
u = 2 ⋅ U⋅ ⎛⎜
y⎞
− U⋅ ⎛⎜
y⎞
= 2 ⋅ ⎛⎜
u y⎞ ⎛y⎞
Hence − ⎜δ
⎝δ⎠ ⎝δ⎠ U ⎝δ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

1
Dimensionless Height

0.75

0.5

0.25

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

Dimensionless Velocity
 Problem 2.67 [Difficulty: 1]

2.67 At what minimum speed (in km/h) would an automobile have

to travel for compressibility effects to be important? Assume the
local air temperature is 15.5°C.

Given: Local temperature.

Find: Minimum speed for compressibility effects.

Solution:

Basic equation V=M⋅c and M = 0.3 for compressibility effects

c = k⋅R ⋅T For air at STP, k = 1.40 and R = 286.9 J/kg⋅K

Hence V = M ⋅c = M ⋅ k ⋅R ⋅T

1
km
96.56
 J  2 h
V = 0.3 × 1.4 × 286.9 × ( 273 + 15.5 ) K  ⋅
 kg ⋅ K  m
26.8
s
V = 368 km/h
 Problem 2.68

Given: Data on water tube

To find: Reynolds number of flow; temperature at which flow becomes turbulent

Solution:

Basic equation for pipe flow

 VD VD
Re   i 
μ v

At 30oC, from Fig A.3

m2
v  7.9 107
s

Substituting value of v in equation (i)

m 1 s
Re  0.30  0.006m  7
× 2
s 7.9 10 m
Re  2278

For the heated pipe

VD
Re   2300 for transition to turbulence
v

Hence,

VD
v
2300
1 m
  0.30  0.006m
2300 s
m2
v  7.826 107
s
From fig A.3, the temperature of water at this viscosity is approximately T = 33°C
 Problem 2.69

Given: Data on supersonic aircraft

To find: Mach number; Point at which boundary layer becomes turbulent

Solution:

Basic equation

V = Mc and
c = k R T

For air at STP, k =1.40 and R  286.9 J kg  K 53.33ft lbf lbm°R 

V V
Hence, M  
c k R T

At 30 km the temperature is approximately (from table A.3)

T = 226.5 K
1

 m 1hr   1 1 kg×K 1Ns 2 1 1 2

M   800 103        
 hr 3600s   1.4 286.9 Nm kg×m 226.5 K 
M  2.6

For boundary layer transition from section 2-6

 Vxtrans
Re trans  so

 Re trans
xtrans 
 V

We need to find the viscosity and density at this altitude and pressure. The viscosity depends on
temperature only, but at 265.5 K = -46oC, it is off scale of Fig A.3. Instead we need to use
formulas as in Appendix A

At this altitude the density is (Table A.3)

 kg
  0.01503 1.225
m3
kg
  0.0184
m3
for  :
1
bT2
 , where
S
1
T
kg
b = 1.458 10 6 1
m s  K2
S  110.4K

kg Ns
  1.459 105 ;   1.459 105
m×s m2

Hence,

kg 1 m3 1 1 hr 3600s
xtrans  1.459 105  500000    3 
m s 0.0184 kg 2800 10 m 1hr
xtrans  0.51m
 Problem 2.70

Given: Type of oil, flow rate, and, tube geometry

To find: Whether flow is laminar or turbulent

Solution:

Data on SAE 30 oil SG or density is limited in the appendix. We can google it or use the
following

 
v so 
 v

At 110oC, from figs A.2 and A.3

2
Ns 6 m
  7.2 103 v  4.3  10
m2 s
Ns 1 s kg  m
  7.2 103 2  6

m 4.3 10 m 2 s 2  N
kg
  1674.4 3
m

Hence,

 kg
SG   water  1000
 water m3
1674.4 kg m3
SG  ×
1000 m3 kg
SG  1.67

The specific weight is

   g
kg m Ns 2
  1674.4  9.81 ×
m3 s 2 kg×m
N
  16.426 103 3
m
For pipe flow (section 2-6)

 D2 4Q
Q V so V
4  D2
106 m3 1 1
Q  110mL  
1mL 10 s
m3
Q  1.1105
s

Then,
2
4 m3  1 1000mm 
V 1.1105   
 s  14mm 1m 
m
V  0.0714
s

Hence,

 VD
Re 

kg m 1 m 2 Ns 2
Re  1674.4 ×0.0714 ×0.014m× × ×
m3 s 7.2×10-3 Ns kgm
Re  232.46
 Problem 2.71 [Difficulty: 2]

2.71 A seaplane is flying at 160 km/hr through air at 7°C. At

what distance from the leading edge of the underside of the
fuselage does the boundary layer transition to turbulence?
How does this boundary layer transition change as the
underside of the fuselage touches the water during landing?
Assume the water temperature is also 7°C.

Given: Data on seaplane.

Find: Transition point of boundary layer.

Solution:

For boundary layer transition, from Section 2–6 Re trans = 500000

ρ ⋅ V ⋅ x trans V ⋅ x trans v ⋅ Re trans

Then Re trans = = so x trans =
µ ν V

m2
At 7°C (Fig A.3) v = 0.8 × 10−5 ⋅
s
m2 1 36 km
As the seaplane touches down: x trans = 0.8 × 10−5 ⋅ 500000 × × hr x trans = 0.09 m
s 160 km 10 m
hr s
2
−5 m
At 7°C (Fig A.3) v =1.5 × 10 ⋅
s

m2 1 36 km
x trans = 1.5 × 10−5 ⋅ 500000 × × hr x trans = 0.169 m
s 160 km 10 m
hr s
 Problem 2.72 [Difficulty: 4]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: How does an airplane wing develop lift?

Discussion: The sketch shows the cross-section of a typical airplane wing. The airfoil section is
rounded at the front, curved across the top, reaches maximum thickness about a third of the way back, and
then tapers slowly to a fine trailing edge. The bottom of the airfoil section is relatively flat. (The discussion
below also applies to a symmetric airfoil at an angle of incidence that produces lift.)

NACA 2412 Wing Section

It is both a popular expectation and an experimental fact that air flows more rapidly over the curved top
surface of the airfoil section than along the relatively flat bottom. In the NCFMF video Flow Visualization,
timelines placed in front of the airfoil indicate that fluid flows more rapidly along the top of the section
than along the bottom.

In the absence of viscous effects (this is a valid assumption outside the boundary layers on the airfoil)
pressure falls when flow speed increases. Thus the pressures on the top surface of the airfoil where flow
speed is higher are lower than the pressures on the bottom surface where flow speed does not increase.
(Actual pressure profiles measured for a lifting section are shown in the NCFMF video Boundary Layer
Control.) The unbalanced pressures on the top and bottom surfaces of the airfoil section create a net force
that tends to develop lift on the profile.