PHYSICS ASSIGNMENT

SURAJ SINGH
ECE 2
08810102818
Q1. Explain the role of special theory of relativity in following :
1. Cathode ray tube
2. Particle accelerator
3. Global positioning system ( GPS )
4. Atom bombs

Answer.

1. Cathode-ray tubes. I.e., old television screens. You don't see many of these
anymore, but we wouldn't be where we are today if they hadn't been invented
first. The electron beams in a CRT monitor move at about 30% the speed of
light, and relativistic effects are significant in determining their motion.
Without special relativity, we wouldn't have known how to aim electron beams
correctly, and CRTs wouldn't work.

2. We describe the consequences of the theory of special relativity on particle accelerators

and present a historical overview of their evolution and contributions to science and
the present limitations of existing accelerator technology. We report recent results of
our experiment where we succeeded in accelerating relativistic electrons with visible
light in vacuum. The experimental demonstration is the first of its kind and is the proof
of principle for future linear laser-driven particle acceleration schemes in vacuum that
may lead to the realization of electron–positron colliders beyond the TeV scale.

3. GPS tells us exactly where we are on the planet. You have one in your phone. To
do this task the phone has a special GPS chip. The chip recieves data from each
satellite (at least three). The satellite data is (essentially) a train of pulses each
stamped with the time the pulse was sent. Since the satellite data travels at the
speed of light you can find out where you are if you know where the satellites are
(and you have a terrain map to back out elevation). You should be able to convince
yourself this is true.
This requires of course that the satellites send the right time pulse. This means the
satellites must have good clocks. The problem is that because the satellites move so
fast time slows down (according to relativity theory), so the clocks slow down.
Relativity is needed to back out these errors.

4. The main principle on which nuclear bombs are built, is that mass can be turned into
energy, and the equation that precisely predicts that conversion is E = mc^2 the famous
equation that is derived directly from Special Relativity. That is the relationship.

Otto Hahn, a German scientist independently discovered nuclear fission of heavy

elements back in 1938. It turned out to be an exothermic reaction which released large
amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy.

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Q.2 list 10 application of ultrasonic wave and describe one
in detail.

Application of Ultrasonic's wave:

1.Ultrasonic's are used in directional signaling.

2.Ultrasonic's are used in the detection of aircraft, submarines and schools of fish
etc.
Ultrasonic's generated by a piezoelectric crystal generator are transmitted
towards a target. These waves are reflected by an aircraft or submarine coming
across their path. The reflected beam is detected by means of a quartz detector.
The device used for the purpose is called SONAR – sound navigation and ranging.

3.The reflection of ultrasonic is used to estimate the depth of the sea. By

measuring the elapsed time between the transmission and reception, after
reflection from the bottom, of ultrasonic waves, the depth of the sea can be
computed.

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4.Heat is produced when an intense beam of ultrasonic's passes through a
substance. Joints of thermoplastic materials can be welded homogeneously and
water can be boiled with the heat thus generated.

5.An ultrasonic drill is used for preparing teeth for filling. Ultrasonic cleaning
machines have been developed to clean very small objects such as hypodermic
needles, minute parts of watches etc.

6.Ultrasonic's waves of frequency 60 kHz are used for removing grease, dust etc.
from metals. They are also used in ultrasonic washing machines.

7.Ultrasonic are used to detect flaws in metals. They are used in metallurgy to
prepare alloys of uniform composition.

8.Ultrasonic's find a number of applications in the field of medicine as ultra sound

scanners. They are used in the diagnosis of tumors and in the treatment of certain
cancers as well as arthritis and related diseases. They are used in bloodless brain
surgery.

9.They are used for killing mosquitoes and flies.

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10. Ultrasonic waves are used in the metal welding used for combining non
ferrous metal articles.
Thus ultrasonic's find a variety of applications not only our daily life but also in
the field of medicine and industry.

Ultrasonography

Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound (ultrasound) waves to produce

images of internal organs and other tissues. A device called a transducer converts
electrical current into sound waves, which are sent into the body’s tissues. Sound
waves bounce off structures in the body and are reflected back to the transducer,
which converts the waves into electrical signals. A computer converts the pattern
of electrical signals into an image, which is displayed on a monitor and recorded
on film, on videotape, or as a digital computer image. No x-rays are used.

Ultrasonography is painless, relatively inexpensive, and considered very safe,

even during pregnancy.

PROCEDURE FOR ULTRASONOGRAPHY

If the abdomen is being examined, people may be asked to refrain from eating and
drinking for several hours before the test.

Usually, the examiner places thick gel on the skin over the area to be examined to
ensure good sound transmission. A handheld transducer is placed on the skin and
moved over the area to be evaluated.

To evaluate some body parts, the examiner inserts the transducer into the body—
for example, into the vagina to better image the uterus and ovaries or into the
anus to image the prostate gland.

To evaluate the heart, the examiner sometimes attaches the transducer to a

viewing tube called an endoscope and passes it down the throat into the
esophagus. This procedure is called transesophageal echocardiography.

After the test, most people can resume their usual activities immediately.

USES OF ULTRASONOGRAPHY

Ultrasound images are acquired rapidly enough to show the motion of organs and
structures in the body in real time (as in a movie). For example, the motion of the
beating heart can be seen, even in a fetus.

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Ultrasonography is effectively used to check for growths and foreign objects that
are close to the body’s surface, such as those in the thyroid gland, breasts, testes,
and limbs, as well as some lymph nodes.

Ultrasonography is effectively used to image internal organs in the abdomen,

pelvis, and chest. However, because sound waves are blocked by gas (for example,
in the lungs or intestine) and by bone, ultrasonography of internal organs requires
special skills. People who have been specifically trained to do ultrasound
examinations are called sonographers.

Ultrasonography is commonly used to evaluate the following:

 Heart: For example, to detect abnormalities in the way the heart beats,
structural abnormalities such as defective heart valves, and abnormal
enlargement of the heart’s chambers or walls (ultrasonography of the heart
is called echocardiography)
 Blood vessels: For example, to detect dilated and narrowed blood vessels
 Gallbladder and biliary tract: For example, to detect gallstones and
blockages in the bile ducts (see Imaging Tests of the Liver and Gallbladder :
Ultrasonography)
 Liver, spleen, and pancreas: For example, to detect tumors and other
disorders (see Imaging Tests of the Liver and Gallbladder :
Ultrasonography)
 Urinary tract: For example, to distinguish benign cysts from solid masses
(which may be cancer) in the kidneys or to detect blockages such as stones
or other structural abnormalities in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder
(see Ultrasonography)
 Female reproductive organs: For example, to detect tumors and
inflammation in the ovaries, fallopian tubes, or uterus (see Tests for
Gynecologic Disorders: Ultrasonography)
 Pregnancy: For example, to evaluate the growth and development of the
fetus and to detect abnormalities of the placenta (such as a misplaced
placenta, called placenta previa—see Ultrasonography)

Ultrasonography can also be used to guide doctors when they remove a sample of
tissue for a biopsy. Ultrasonography can show the position of the biopsy
instrument, as well as the area to be biopsi Ad (such as a mass). Thus, doctors can
see where to insert the instrument and can guide it directly to its target.

DISADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONOGRAPHY

Insertion of the transducer into the body may cause some discomfort. Rarely,
when a transducer is inserted, tissue is damaged, causing bleeding or infection.

Bone or gas can block ultrasonography. Thus, using it to obtain images of certain
structures (those behind bone or gas) is difficult.

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 Q 3. Elaborate on some of the practical application of half life of
the radioactive substance
Answer.

A knowledge of radioactive half-life is important because:

1. It enables the dating of artifacts.

2. It allows us to calculate how long we must store radioactive waste until they
become safe.
3. It enables doctors to use safe radioactive tracers.
Half-life is the time it takes for one-half of the atoms of a radioactive material to
disintegrate.
Scientists can use the half-life of carbon-14 to determine the approximate age of
organic objects. They determine how much of the carbon-14 has transformed.
They can then calculate the age of a substance.
All nuclear reactors produce radioactive waste. The waste must be stored until it is
safe for disposal.
The rule is that a sample is safe after 10 half-lives. Thus, we can dispose of waste
containing iodine-131 (t½ = 8 days) after 80 days.
We must store the plutonium-239 in spent nuclear fuel (t½ = 24 000 years) for
almost a quarter of a million years.
Doctors use radioactive isotopes as medical tracers.
The nuclei must be active long enough to treat the condition, but they must also
have a short enough half-life so that they don’t have time to injure

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Q 4. Differentiate between ionisation Chamber and Geiger
– Muller counter.

Answer.

They are both gas filled detectors. A Geiger-Muller counter works at a voltage
so high that any incoming radiation will completely discharge the gas in the tube.
A low energy beta or a high energy gamma will both cause a discharge (a count).
Thus it is very sensitive to any kind of radiation, but cannot distinguish between
them. A count is a count. Geiger counters are cheap and common. They measure
the presence of radiation, but do not indicate danger (dose rate).

Ionization chamber, radiationdetector used for determining the intensity of a

beam of radiation or for counting individual charged particles. The device may
consist of a gas-filled, cylindrical container in which an electric field is maintained
by impressing a voltage that keeps the wall negative relative to a wire extending
along the axis. When a photon or a charged particle enters the chamber, it
converts some of the gas molecules to positive ions and electrons; under the
influence of the electric field, these particles migrate to the wall and the wire,
respectively, and cause an observable pulse of current to flow through the circuit
joining these elements.