CHRISTIAN FAITH PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP AND BUSINESS

Biblical
Leadership
Development

Principles for Developing

Organizational Leaders
at Every Level

STUART W. BOYER
 Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership
and Business

Series Editors
Doris Gomez
Regent University
Virginia Beach, VA, USA

Kathleen Patterson
School of Global Leadership and Entrepreneurship
Regent University
Virginia Beach, VA, USA

Bruce E. Winston
Regent University
Virginia Beach, VA, USA

Gary Oster
Regent University
Virginia Beach, VA, USA
This book series is designed to integrate Christian faith-based perspec-
tives into the field of leadership and business, widening its influence
by taking a deeper look at its foundational roots. It is led by a team of
experts from Regent University, recognized by the Coalition of Christian
Colleges and Universities as the leader in servant leadership research and
the first Christian University to integrate innovation, design thinking,
and entrepreneurship courses in its Masters and Doctoral programs.
Stemming from Regent’s hallmark values of innovation and Christian
faith-based perspectives, the series aims to put forth top-notch scholar-
ship from current faculty, students, and alumni of Regent’s School of
Business & Leadership, allowing for both scholarly and practical aspects
to be addressed while providing robust content and relevant material
to readers. Each volume in the series will contribute to filling the void
of a scholarly Christian-faith perspective on key aspects of organiza-
tional leadership and business such as Business and Innovation, Biblical
Perspectives in Business and Leadership, and Servant Leadership. The
series takes a unique approach to such broad-based and well-trodden
disciplines as leadership, business, innovation, and entrepreneurship,
positioning itself as a much-needed resource for students, academics,
and leaders rooted in Christian-faith traditions.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15425
 Stuart W. Boyer

Biblical Leadership
Development
Principles for Developing
Organizational Leaders at Every Level
Stuart W. Boyer
Horizon University
Indianapolis, In, USA

Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business

ISBN 978-3-030-00077-6 ISBN 978-3-030-00078-3  (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3

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 Praise for
Biblical Leadership Development

“Dr. Boyer’s book is a masterful presentation of Scripturally-based

principles and concepts about leading and developing people in con-
temporary organizations. His insight from Exodus 18 about Moses is
helpful for those who are involved in leadership development in their
own organizations. Dr. Boyer presents conflict resolution within an
organization via the lens of Exodus 18 and shows the preferred role of
the leader in creating and maintaining a peaceful environment. Students
of leadership studies, researchers wanting to have a better understand-
ing of Scripturally-based leadership concepts, as well as senior leaders
in contemporary organizations would benefit from reading Dr. Boyer’s
book.”
—Bruce E. Winston, Ph.D., Professor of Business & Leadership, Regent
University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA

“Biblical Leadership Development is a fresh scholarly work that brings a

dynamic understanding of group behavior and leadership development.
Dr. Boyer provides insightful and sound principles toward developing
leaders in the context of community. Dr. Boyer’s remarkable research
provides expertise toward leadership transformation and small groups;

v
vi    
Praise for Biblical Leadership Development

including aspects of ethics, trust, and conflict management. Dr. Boyer’s

insights provide applicable principles that are Biblically sound and
exceptionally practical, which will propel leadership at every level in an
organization. It’s with great pleasure that I endorse Dr. Boyer’s excellent
research and vision to empower leaders to fulfill their ultimate purpose.”
—Mickey Stonier, Ph.D., Rock Church, San Diego, Adjunct Professor,
Azusa Pacific Seminary/Bethel Seminary

“Stuart has written a compelling book for all leaders in any organization
to enrich your people-his scholarly work and insight from experience
brings a new fresh look which will enhance your life.”
—Kevin Grant, Ph.D., Scholar, Lecturer, Author and Consultant

“Stuart Boyer’s important work on leadership development using

discipleship principles from Christian scripture will prove to be an
important foundation for future leaders. While his biblical analysis
anchors his research in a historically tested phenomena, his application
to real-world contexts make the work accessible to both scholars and
practitioners.”
—Russell L. Huizing, Ph.D., Adjunct Professor, Regent University, USA

“Biblical Leadership Development takes an academically unhindered and

determined look at developing multigenerational organizational lead-
ers across every spectrum of an organization’s matrix. Dr. Boyer practi-
cally elucidates the importance of the role of small groups in developing
authentic leaders while illustrating a leadership methodology through
a careful hermeneutic of the biblical texts. He brilliantly uses the life of
Moses in Exodus 18 to demonstrate the ‘cognitive and moral require-
ments and developments’ in the life of an authentic and spiritual leader.
Biblical Leadership Development will succor in the development of this
generation of leaders as well as future generations to come. For the stu-
dent of leadership, I highly recommend this book.”
—Garrett Graupner, D.Min., Strategic Leadership Candidate. Church
Planter, Strategist, and Church Consultant
 Praise for Biblical Leadership Development     
vii

“Christian leaders rightly desire to employ biblical principles and mod-

els in their leadership contexts. Stuart Boyer offers a thorough and
insightful glimpse into one of the earliest and most foundational exam-
ples of biblical leadership there is—that of Moses in Exodus. Anyone
who leads others will find satisfying material to work with in these
pages.”
—David Kosobucki, Academic Dean, Horizon University, Indianapolis

“In this volume, Dr. Boyer does a masterful job of extracting leadership
principles from a classic passage on leadership in the bible, Exodus 18.
He then expertly applies those principles to the context of small groups
as a primary venue for leadership development. He shows how biblical
leaders enhance trust, are deeply connected with God, enhance family,
reduce conflict and multiply peace. This work makes an invaluable con-
tribution towards leadership development in the church, academy and
beyond.”
—Dr. Victor Borchard, Adjunct Faculty Pacific Bible College; Lead
Pastor of Calvary Crossroads Church
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
An Organizational Multigenerational Concern 7
Leadership Development 9
Small Groups 10
Focusing on Developing Leaders 14
Leadership Development and Scripture 14
Leadership Principles and Moses 15
Definition of Terms 16
Organization of the Study 19
Summary 19
References 20

2 Aspects of Leadership 25
Leadership Development 26
Authentic Leadership 32
Spiritual Leadership 35
Small Group Leadership 40
The Leadership of Moses 47
Summary 54
References 55
ix
x    
Contents

3 Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method 61

Research Design 62
Sociorhetorical Analysis 65
Sociorhetorical Analysis 66
Inner Texture 68
Intertexture 69
Social and Cultural Texture 71
Ideological Texture 72
Sacred Texture 73
Limitations of the Study 75
Summary 76
References 77

4 Leadership Principles in Exodus 18 79

Sociorhetorical Analysis 81
Exodus 18:1–5 82
Exodus 18:6–8 87
Exodus 18:9–12 89
Exodus 18:13–16 94
Exodus 18:17–23 99
The Era of Jesus to Constantine 105
Ambrose: The Ecclesial and Small Group Leader 106
Exodus 18:24–27 117
Summary of Data—Principles of Leadership
from Exodus 18 119
References 122

5 Small Groups and Leader Personal Development 127

Moses and Leadership Values and Practices 127
Leadership Principles in Exodus 18 128
Leader Personal Development 129
Confidence in God 132
Serving Others 134
Integrity 137
Remaining Teachable 138
Humility 140
 Contents    
xi

Empowerment 142
Altruism 143
References 144

6 The Development and Proliferation of Trust

in Small Groups 147
Trust and Elected Verses Appointed Leaders 154
Organizational Identification Leadership and Trust
Through Social Identity 154
Social Identity Model of Leadership 154
Organizational Citizenship Behavior and the Leader’s
Trustworthiness 155
Collectivistic and Individualistic Cultures 155
Reciprocal Dyadic Trust 159
Leadership and Follower Outcomes 159
References 160

7 Connection with God and the Small Group Leader 165

Spiritual Formation 168
Prayer 171
Spiritual Disciplines 173
Fasting 173
Spirituality Formation Terms 174
References 176

8 Small Group Leaders and the Betterment

of the Family 179
Cohesiveness and Unity 181
Organizational Diagnosis 183
References 186

9 Conflict Reduction and Peace Multiplication 189

References 197

10 Conclusion 199
Authentic Small Group Leadership Implications 199
xii    
Contents

Limitations of the Study 200

Future Research 201
References 202

References 203

Index 221
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Authentic leadership elements 35

Fig. 2.2 Spiritual leadership elements 36
Fig. 5.1 On target transformation 136

xiii
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Cultural impact within US newsfeeds 9

Table 3.1 Wilson’s sociological typology of sects 72
Table 3.2 Textures in sociorhetorical interpretation 74
Table 4.1 Inner texture of Exodus 18:13–16 94
Table 4.2 Biblical references for ‘to inquire of God’ 97
Table 4.3 Inner texture of Exodus 18:17–23 100
Table 4.4 Inner texture of Exodus 18:24–27 118

xv
 1
Introduction

Leadership remains a complex phenomenon. Over the past few ­decades,

news feeds have been filled with the moral and ethical failures leaders
from various corners of society: politicians, businessmen, and clergy.
Significant differences exist between leadership motivated and con-
trolled through selfism and leadership that closely follows the principles
and behavior of Jesus. Leaders influence follower attitudes, behaviors,
and performance (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May,
2004). Given this, the factors that motivate leadership in turn influ-
ence followers. The implication of beneficial as well as reciprocal lead-
ership and subordinate relationships remains a topic involving much
research (Barentsen, 2011; Brenkert, 1998; Van Dick, Hirst, Grojean,
& Wieseke, 2007). The relationship between leaders and their follow-
ers has the potential for positively correlated outcomes such as trust,
positive attitudes, satisfaction, commitment and perceptions of sup-
port and equity. On the other hand, there are the potential negative
outcomes as well. Due to this, the behavior and attitudes modeled by
leaders are all the more important. Cenac (2011) asks, as many before:
Are leaders born or made? Cenac posits that leaders emerge. Likewise,
Hybels (2002) recognizes that leaders are developed. Further Comiskey
© The Author(s) 2019 1
S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_1
2    
S. W. Boyer

(2008) states that any personality type or person can lead. The com-
plexity of leadership development does not negate the possibility. Both
secular and Biblical resources include the phenomenon of leadership
development.
Leadership development remains a multifaceted phenomenon,
which involves complex contextual elements including the social, cul-
tural, and organizational environment (Barentsen, 2011; Day, Fleenor,
Atwater, Sturm, & McKee, 2013). The dynamic process of leadership
development involves multiple interactions that continue throughout
a period of time (Day et al., 2013). Authentic Leadership (AL) focuses
on personal and follower development, while remaining transparent and
open during the process. Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and
Peterson (2008) define AL:

A pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive
psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater
self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of
information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working
with followers, fostering positive self-development. (Walumbwa et al.,
2008, p. 94)

Ilies, Morgeson, and Nahrgang (2005) advanced a complementary

model of AL and posits AL provides for the eudaemonic well-being
leader—follower outcomes.
Walumbwa et al. (2008) developed and tested the theory-based
measure of AL with samples from China, Kenya, and the USA. AL
was supported with various cultures and “revealed a positive relation-
ship between authentic leadership and supervisor-rated performance”
(Walumbwa et al., 2008, p. 89). Ivancevich and Konopaske (2010)
report a psychological contract between workers’ and employers’ con-
cerns and unwritten statement of expectations, involving an employee’s
desire to see organizations reveal an active interest in their personal lives
and family situations, including physical and mental health. Ivancevich
and Konopaske recognize use within incorporations for spiritual leader-
ship, the spiritual development of employees. Yet the national cultural
and organizational cultural organizations operating in the United States
 1 Introduction    
3

and Africa doubtless have different perspectives of how to accomplish

the psychological contract.
A leader’s practice remains tantamount toward the local culture
and the success of the leader. “National culture is the sum total of
beliefs, rituals, rules, customs, artifacts, and institution that charac-
terize the population of the nation” (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010,
p. 35). Several studies reveal that leadership theory needs to fit the local
socio-cultural implications (Barentsen, 2011; Northouse, 2013; Yukl,
2013). Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, and House (2012)
reveal through the GLOBE study that the leadership best fit style and
behavior includes leaders who embrace the cultural dimensions within
local context. Javidan and House (2001) declare the major thrust of
project GLOBE concerns the study of nine cultural attributes (pp. 293–
301). Javidan and House (2001) quantified these attributes and refer to
them as cultural dimensions (p. 293). The nine dimensions that Javidan
and House (2001) list concern, assertiveness, future orientation, gender
egalitarianism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, institutional col-
lectivism, in-group collectivism, performance orientation, and humane
orientation (pp. 293–301).
One example concerns leadership within the United States, which
remains an individualistic culture (Dorfman et al., 2012). Culture, val-
ues, and culture within organizations may present barriers.

Spirituality in organizations can be productive, encouraging trust,

work/life balance, empathy and compassion about others, the valuing of
human assets, the full development and self actualization of people, and
ethical behavior. (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010, p. 59)

One of the major problems that can arise with differing values, and cul-
tures is the element of trust. Trust remains important for individualistic
and collectivistic cultures; the trust is achieved and maintained differ-
ently within the cultures.
A potential problem with persons of individualistic cultures, the
prevalent attitude is not humbly seeking a mentoring relationship
(Comiskey, 2000). Additionally, leaders need to know and practice
aspects of discipleship. Unfortunately, many leaders do not understand
4    
S. W. Boyer

the process of making disciples, or leadership development (Eims,

1978). Ogden (2003) describes the discipleship happening today as
superficial. Given this, there remains a need toward clarifying Biblical
principles toward developing substantial leaders.
From a Biblical perspective, leadership development is encompassed
by the term disciple. The Great Commission requires all believers in
Jesus Christ to make disciples (Matt. 28:19–20). Mathēteúō, the Greek
word for disciple remains distinguished from the verb mathéō (n.f.) or
manthánō, which is isolated from a personal relationship with the per-
son who teaches:

Mathēteúō means not only to learn, but to become attached to one’s

teacher and to become his follower in doctrine and conduct of life. It is
really not sufficient to translate this verb as “learn” but as “making a disci-
ple,” in the NT sense of mathētḗs. (Zodhiates, 2000, p. 933)

Interestingly, the Hebrew equivalent focuses on the instruction from

God, not the human counterpart (Kittel, Friedrich, & Bromiley, 1985).
The human counterparts were considered stewards.

They are stewards passing on God’s word to God’s people. The commitment
they seek is commitment to God. No place remains for the authority of a
great personality or for the resultant master/disciple relation. (Kittel et al.,
1985, p. 553)

Whereas the NT term Mathēteúō reveals the relational learner. Given

this, the leadership role remains integrated toward providing a men-
toring relationship, which reveals principles communicated and proven
through behavioral patterns. The heart of discipleship remains focused
on investing and assisting toward the maturity of others in Christ
(Ogden, 2003). The very heart of the word Mathēteúō reveals the
relational aspect of discipleship—akin with a psychological contract
(Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010). Not all employees engage in a psy-
chological contract, even so, a distinct difference remains between those
who are saved, and those who are disciples (Pentecost, 1996; Sanders,
2007). “A disciple must, of course, be a believer; but according to
 1 Introduction    
5

Christ’s conditions of discipleship (Luke 14:25–33), not all believers

are disciples of the New Testament stamp” (Sanders, 2007, p. 8). “There
is a vast difference between being saved and being a disciple. Not all
men who are saved are disciples although all who are disciples are saved”
(Pentecost, 1996, p. 10). Conversely, Organizational and Ecclesial lead-
ers focus more on discipleship programs—or profit margin, than build-
ing relationships with others toward producing disciples that will make
other disciples (Ogden, 2003). A central lacuna within this theory con-
cerns the needful aspect of relationship (Ogden, 2003).
Studying a program together neglects the relational aspects of dis-
cipleship. Additionally, it rejects the principles of Jesus, our model,
who said to His disciples, “follow me and I will make you become
fishers of men” (ESV, Mark 1:17). Morgan (1897) reveals, “The term
disciple marks an individual relationship… existing between Christ
and each single soul, and suggesting our consequent position in all
the varied circumstances of everyday living” (p. 12). The relationship
that existed between Jesus and his disciples provides practical and
useful elements.

It was a personal and intimate relationship — a relationship based on the

knowledge of the person of Christ, a love for the person of Christ, sub-
mission to the person of Jesus Christ, and obedience to the commands of
Jesus Christ. (Pentecost, 1996, p. 10)

The term Mathēteúō encompasses a learner in a relationship with the

teacher (Zodhiates, 2000, p. 933). The term includes additional aspects.
Pentecost (1996) identifies the following characteristics of a disciple;
intimate relationship based on knowledge, love for Jesus, submission,
learner, scholar, and obedience. The aforementioned characteristics cor-
respond toward an organization’s leader and developing leader—includ-
ing or excluding a love for Jesus.
Within the Biblical perspective, a disciple remains focused upon
the intent and desire of Jesus. Disciples “are not casual listeners, nei-
ther are we merely interested hearers desiring information, we are
disciples, looking toward and desiring the same end as the Master”
(Morgan, 1897, p. 14). Given this, discipleship remains an intentional,
6    
S. W. Boyer

interactive, relational, dedicated and disciplined pattern of being trans-

formed into the likeness of Jesus (Rom. 8:29; 12:1–2).
Jesus remains the goal, focus, model, guide, and the one whom all
disciples are to conform toward (Eph. 4:15; Heb. 12:2). In Jesus all
the treasures of wisdom and knowledge are found (Col. 2:3)—there-
fore organizational leaders do well to embrace Him. One of the main
focuses of Jesus, during his life on earth, concerns making a small group
of disciples (Eims, 1978). Jesus selected from a larger group, those who
became the inner group, the apostles (Ogden, 2003), who became lead-
ers that developed other leaders, even to changing the world (Coleman
& Graham, 2006). Discipleship happens best in the context of commu-
nities (Comiskey, 2007, p. 37), that is to say, the Gospel maintains “max-
imum effectiveness” within a small group setting (Mayer, 1976, p. 295).

One key reason Jesus chose the home as his operational headquarters was
because he wanted to create a new spiritual family. And to make this hap-
pen, he first had to transform people where they lived and where essential
character values were displayed. Jesus wanted to infuse the normal fam-
ily network with a new vision of love and sacrifice. To do this, he lived
among his disciples in houses, showing them practically how to love and
serve one another. (John 13:1–17; Comiskey, 2014, pp. 126–129)

The theological implications of discipleship toward the betterment and

success of Ecclesial leaders cannot be understated. The need for disci-
pleship within an organization-organism such as the church remains
imperative for the global church community. Given this, the integration
of the aforementioned elements remains beneficial toward organizations
and organizational settings.
Discipleship happens best in small group settings where each person
can incorporate Christian principals into life transformation (Coleman
& Graham, 2006; Comiskey, 2007; Mayer, 1976). Icenogle (1994) states
“the small group is a generic form of the human community that is trans-
cultural, transgenerational, and even transcendent; the small group is
birthed out of the very nature of God” (p. 13). This statement captures
the good intent of the cell groups and even Christian theology. The main
functions of the cell are evangelism and discipleship within the context of
 1 Introduction    
7

community (Comiskey, 2013). God calls individuals for His supreme

purposes working through communities. God lives within a community
of three distinct persons. God exists as three Persons. In fact, it may be
stated that the Tri-unity of God is a small group; God lives in commu-
nity as Trinity (Icenogle, 1994; Kennedy, 1996). “The Life of the church
is found in the Trinitarian nature of God” (Beckham, 2002, p. 31).
God’s desire for community is demonstrated in His call of people in
the OT. This principle is represented in Abraham (Kennedy, 1996) and
Moses (Neighbour, 2000). Abraham was raised in Haran (Gen. 12:4)
and Moses in Egypt (Exo. 2), which reveals transcultural, transgenera-
tional small group elements. In consideration of the above-mentioned
information, small groups remain the most effective form aimed at dis-
cipleship or leadership development. Given this, Scripture remains a
valuable resource toward discipleship, particularly for leadership.

An Organizational Multigenerational Concern

In respect of the aforementioned material concerning the aspects of
discipleship, disciples are people looking toward and desiring the same
end as Jesus (Morgan, 1897, p. 14). Additional characteristics include;
an intimate relationship with Jesus based on knowledge, love for Jesus,
submission, learner, scholar, and obedience (Pentecost, 1996). Yet the
culture and trends of United States today may hinder these discipleship
aspects.
Barna (2011) highlights trends such as family life foundations, atti-
tudes, and values (or lack of ), immoral media explosion, religious
beliefs (orthodox or not), the behavior of the religious society and a
waning belief in the truthfulness and accuracy of the Bible. The trends
of America, according to Barna, tend toward the anti-religious move-
ment (also immoral) sweeping across America, threatening the very
foundations of family life and values so many Americans purport as
foundational to living well. A disciple’s decisions and values remain
connected, and ought to correspond to Scripture. “Values are guide-
lines and beliefs that a person uses when confronted with a situation
8    
S. W. Boyer

in which a choice must be made” (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010,

p. 418). Yukl (2013) states values concern internalized attitudes, which
direct between right and wrong, moral and immoral. Yukl underscores
the importance of values stating that values guide the person’s prefer-
ences, perception of problems, and choice of behavior.
Barna (2011) reveals only seven percent of the US public classifies
as evangelical Christians, whereas one out of every 10 persons within
the United States claims no religious faith. “The foundation of what we
know and believe about the Christian faith is contained in the Bible”
(Barna, 2011, p. 131). Yet only six out of 10 within the United State
believe the Bible is without error (Barna, 2011). “Protestants are 48 per-
cent more likely to believe that the Bible is totally accurate in all the
principles it teaches. Protestants are twice as likely to say that the Bible
can be taken literally, word for word” (Barna, 2011, p. 134). Culture
tends to affect behavior.
Culture, attitudes, and values likely shape leadership decisions.
Dickerson (2013) declares change exists toward the climate and val-
ues of the United States. Recent headlines support the value/culture
war within the United State (Dickerson, 2013, pp. 38–39, Table 1.1).
Dickerson (2013) provides insight into how this cultural war exists even
within the White House (Table 1.1).
It may be that the current US culture negatively relates toward super-
ficial discipleship. There remains a concern for robust discipleship
within the United States.
Bergler (2012) reports on the juvenilization of US Christianity.
Juvenilization, according to Bergler, “is the process by which the reli-
gious beliefs, practices, and developmental characteristics of adolescents
become accepted as appropriate for Christians of all ages” (p. 4). Bergler
reports “the story of a key period in recent church history that contin-
ues to significantly shape American Christians, their churches, and to a
lesser extent even American society itself ” (p. 7). Bergler states, “when
post-Christian Americans described themselves as “spiritual but not
religious” and pursue a ‘faith journey’ characterized by mix-and-match
spirituality, they are displaying the effects of juvenilization” (p. 7).
Juxtaposing discipleship aspects with the aforementioned US statistics,
the need for more robust discipleship remains supported.
 1 Introduction    
9

Table 1.1  Cultural impact within US newsfeeds

Headline Date Sources
“California Pastor Arrested for May 23, 2011 ChristianExaminer.com
Reading Bible in Public”
“Christian Ministers Arrested For July 10, 2007 FreeRepublic.com
Praying Near Gay Festival”
“Christians Arrested For June 19, 2010 Politics4all.com
Proselytizing Near Muslim
Gathering In Dearborn Michigan”
“Pastor Is Shot And Killed At Illinois March 8, 2009 New York Times
Church”
“Shooting At The Family Research August 17, 2012 Washington Times
Council: Hate From The Left”
“Texas School Punishes Boy for September 22, FOXNews.com
Opposing Homosexuality” 2011
“Pres. Obama seems aware of the 2013 Dickerson (2013, p. 56)
anti-Christian, pro-homosexual
cultural tides. His White House
has been the first in years not to
participate in the national Day of
prayer and celebrate homosexual-
ity instead”

Leadership Development

The Biblical perspective encompasses leadership development with the

term disciple. The Great Commission requires all believers in Jesus
Christ to make disciples (Matt. 28:19–20). Eims (1978) reveals three
principles concerning Jesus’ method of making disciples. Eims presents
the principle of selection, the prayerful selection of teachable, ordinary
men. Second, the principle of association, those who remained with
Jesus, present and committed (Eims). Thirdly, Eims posits the princi-
ple of instruction, teaching the necessary and often unpalatable truths
(Eims). Eims describes relational discipleship, as does Ogden (2003).
Additionally, leadership development and organizational management
consider personality constructs, individual differences which con-
cern personality, perception, abilities and skills, attitudes, work behav-
ior including productivity, creativity, and performance (Ivancevich &
10    
S. W. Boyer

Konopaske, 2010). Another aspect of consideration toward discipleship

and leadership development includes the five big personality dimensions
include extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientious-
ness, and openness to experience (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010).
Ogden (2003) purports four stages of Jesus’ discipleship method.
Stage one: Jesus is the living example, which Ogden describes as “I do,
you watch” (Ogden, 2003, p. 83). Stage two: Jesus is the provocative
teacher, which Ogden describes as “I do, you help” (Ogden, 2003,
p. 87). Stage three: Jesus is the supportive coach, which Ogden
describes as “you do, I help” (Ogden, 2003, p. 92). And finally, stage
four: Jesus is the ultimate delegator, which Ogden describes as “you do,
I watch” (Ogden, 2003, p. 83). The leadership development principles
revealed above incorporate the essential, and Biblical element of rela-
tional discipleship. Small groups provide relational venue for disciple-
ship (Comiskey, 2016b). A popular Christian author conveyed the idea
of church being one individual watching a Christian TV show, the epit-
ome of individualism, for a Western individualized culture (Comiskey,
2016a, b). Comiskey states one of the purposes of a mega church he
visited a few years ago was personal anonymity—no membership
requirements and no accountability—which correspond to no intimate
relationships, no biblical leadership development. Eims suggests, leaders
do not understand the process of making disciples, or leadership devel-
opment (Eims, 1978). The need and command for leadership devel-
opment remains (Matt. 28:19–20), as well as the lacuna of developing
leadership due to moral failures (Yukl, 2013). For this reason, interest in
aspects of ethical leadership increases (Avolio et al., 2004). Jesus incor-
porated small groups toward developing ethical leaders.

Small Groups

Discipleship happens best in small groups settings (Coleman & Graham,

2006; Comiskey, 2007; Mayer, 1976). In organizational environments,
discipleship corresponds toward leadership development. Jesus’ goal for
the twelve apostles was to continue his mission (Ogden, 2003). “The
incarnate Son of God intended from the beginning to extend his life
 1 Introduction    
11

and ministry through this small core of disciples and through them, set
up an interlocking, multigenerational chain of disciple making” (John
17:20; Ogden, 2003, p. 99). Concerning groups as a concept, various
elements exist including formation. Small group research considers the
reason why the group was formed, the size of the group, and the pur-
pose of the group (Arrow, McGrath, & Berdahl, 2000). Group forma-
tion remains a cognitive and behavior process, according to Arrow et al.,
which incorporates a prehistory aspect of the group. Research need to be
done toward pre-history aspects of groups, in effort to minimize fallout,
problems, and maximize success (Arrow et al., 2000).
The purpose of the group also determines the type, a focus group,
task forces, crews, and teams as well as economic club social clubs or
activity clubs (Arrow et al., 2000). At the formation of a group each
individual considers various elements. Who can be trusted within the
group, what risk should be taken towards those individuals, who will
lead the group, and what steps will be taken when conflict arises within
the group (Arrow et al., 2000; Gillette & McCollom, 1995). Some
of the aspects of consideration for group members concern a need for
community, the need for productivity, power, and resources found
within the group itself (Arrow et al., 2000; Gillette & McCollom,
1995). Organizations form small groups or teams toward goal
fulfillment.
Organizations maintain specific training—information and skills—
toward leadership development, according to organizational product and
goals. Formal groups are established to the end that organizational goal
is accomplished (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010). Arrow et al. (2000)
select important elements concerning group formation, specifically
assembly and emergence. Arrow et al. consider four forces of formation,
which still require ongoing research. Arrow et al. list the transformation
of the people, resources, and intentions in the context of the whole, and
the emergence of group-level features as the members of the new group
come together (p. 63). Specific reasons toward how and why particular
groups form remains an important aspect of future work for a researcher.
Arrow et al. (2000) posit circumstantial groups, concocted groups,
founded groups, and self-organized groups. The researchers’ ongoing
12    
S. W. Boyer

concern and work need to remain attentive toward the how and why
concerning the formation of groups, in effort to aid groups continu-
ance and success (Arrow et al., 2000). Katz (1993) reviews research on
Minimal Group Paradigm (MGP), which focuses on one or more peo-
ple who see themselves as part of a group. Katz (1993) reports MGP
behaviors have more to do with a rational interest in maximizing eco-
nomic self-interest, rather than positive social identity. This informa-
tion provides yet another consideration for further research, per group,
respectively. Katz (1993) offers extending elements toward further
research, including environment, resources, boundaries, and exchanges.
Continuing aspects requiring further research concern collaborative
ties during the formation of a group, and group boundaries (Arrow
et al., 2000; Gillette & McCollom, 1995). Arrow et al. (2000) state that
boundaries happen soon after the formation of a group, those inside
the group remain inside the boundary, and people outside the group
become outside the group boundary. Some of the boundaries within the
group concern information or resources, which are available to people
inside the group (Arrow et al., 2000; Gillette & McCollom, 1995). For
people outside the group boundaries exist including trust and shared
information (Arrow et al., 2000; Gillette & McCollom, 1995). Given
this, difficulty exists in adding new persons to a group.
Hahn, Moon, and Zhang (2008) found that a developer is more
likely to join a group project when strong collaborative ties exist with
the initiator. Hahn et al. (2008) also indicate the perceived status of
non-initiator members of a project influences its probability of attract-
ing developer. Further, boundaries remain vital elements of groups,
which ought to remain a portion of needful ongoing research. Arrow
et al. (2000) consider permeability of boundaries, which refers to access-
ing resources the group needs outside of boundaries, without over-
reaching influence negatively draining the group. The permeability of
boundaries remains an area of need ongoing research, per group.
Another consideration for groups, concerning the type and length
of groups, some groups are formed for temporary purpose, while other
groups are formed with indefinite existence (Arrow et al., 2000; Gillette
& McCollom, 1995). Environmental changes exist which provide a
 1 Introduction    
13

metamorphosis of the group itself (Arrow et al., 2000). Some of these

can be natural people moving on to a different job, or the introduc-
tion of a new skilled worker (Arrow et al., 2000). Other elements exist
including the death of an associate or the completion of a job project
(Arrow et al., 2000). Some elements may cause group conflict, which
exists for many reasons, including environmental reasons, a lack of
trust, or prehistory elements of the group (Arrow et al., 2000). This dis-
trust within the group can cause a phenomenon known as groupthink.
The Abilene paradox may happen within a group that seeks to sup-
press personal responsibility within the group and/or deny negative
consequences from group decisions (Dumville, 1999; Harvey, 1988).
With the Abilene paradox or groupthink, group members defer the
responsibility of individuals, in essence making it a group problem
(Dumville, 1999). The group takes greater risks, yet without personal
responsibility of individuals within the group (Dumville, 1999). This
also has a historical and Biblical context.
Barentsen (2011) offers insights into first-century leadership meth-
odology and praxis through the application of the Social Identity
Model Of Leadership (SIMOL), which he applies toward 1–2
Corinthians, Ephesians, and 1–2 Timothy. The SIMOL describes the
social position of group members relative to one another, and thus of
the leader(s) relative to other group members. Thus, a person belong-
ing to the group remains an essential aspect of SIMOL, which also
indicates by default some people remain in-group due to likenesses,
while others remain outgroup because of differences. Barentsen focuses
not only on the climate of the culture but the praxis of leadership, with
special attention toward leadership emergence (how the leader comes
in-group) leadership maintenance (how the leader remains ingroup)
and finally succession (how the leader appoints emerging leaders
toward the in-group). The aforementioned principles provide a foun-
dational starting point and catalyst toward discipleship within a small
group context. The necessity for leadership development, enhanced
through moral failures and the Great Commission, provides two
­reasons as to why small groups are necessary.
14    
S. W. Boyer

Focusing on Developing Leaders

Discovering a method or principle within Scripture ought not be

the only supporting evidence necessary for implementation. In other
words, locating house churches or small groups within the sacred
text does not necessitate churches establishing and maintaining small
groups (Kennedy, 1996). Likewise, developing leaders within a small
group within organizations ought not remain a lacuna of organiza-
tional leadership development. Nevertheless, small groups remain the
best setting for discipleship (Coleman & Graham, 2006; Comiskey,
2007; Mayer, 1976).

Leadership Development and Scripture

The practice of leadership development, particularly within the

church, ought to be derived and maintain from careful herme-
neutics and orthodox theology. This corresponds to consideration
that “Theology Breeds Methodology” (Neighbour, 2000, p. 111).
Additionally, deriving models from Scripture to implement in pres-
ent circumstance remains perilous. Better to integrate principles
than models (Comiskey, 2016a). “The basic evangelical fallacy of our
generation is ‘proof-texting,’ that process whereby a person ‘proves’
a doctrine or practice merely by alluding to a text without consid-
ering its original inspired meaning” (Osborne, 2006, p. 23). Proof-
texting seeks to find models of small groups within Scripture, and
then demands like patterns in today’s small groups (Comiskey, 2016a).
Hermeneutics according to Osborne (2006) is the “science that delin-
eates principals or methods for interpreting an individual authors
meaning” (p. 22). “Hermeneutics is important because it enables one
to move from text to context, to allow the God inspired meaning of
the Word to speak today with as fresh and dynamic relevance as it had
in its original setting” (Osborne, 2006, p. 23). Osborne makes clear
that the purpose and intent of hermeneutics concerns understanding
and allowing the God of the Word and the Word of God to speak,
rather than the opinions of the preacher (p. 23).
 1 Introduction    
15

Leadership Principles and Moses

Given this, this study illuminates leadership principles from the

sacred text, specifically the book of Exodus chapter 18, and reveals
the cognitive and moral requirements and developments that took
place through the leadership of Moses. Scripture reveals Moses was
a man who trusted God, yet during the origin of Moses’ leader-
ship the sacred text reveals Moses was a murderer (Exo. 2:11–14).
The aforementioned pericope clearly points to the developing mor-
als of Moses. Authentic leaders remain motivated toward self-
improvement (Yukl, 2013). To be sure, both God and Moses knew
intimately the man whom Moses was prior to leadership devel-
opment. Yukl (2013) states authentic leaders remain with “high
self-awareness about their values, beliefs, emotions, self-identities,
and abilities” (p. 351). Avolio et al. (2004) consider authentic lead-
ers “as persons who have achieved high levels of authenticity in that
they know who they are, what they believe and value, and they act
upon those values and beliefs while transparently interacting with
others,” undoubtedly this perspective and practice involves cour-
age. Authentic leaders are transparent, open to feedback, and eager
for positive transformation, due to a commitment for self-improve-
ment (Yukl). The person and character of Moses transformed from
a murderer to that which God highly acclaimed (Num. 12:6–8).
Consistent with OT historiography, God provides salvation and
deliverance for one man, extending through “him a universal bless-
ing” (Motyer, 1979, p. 257). Moses was transformed, and then
through his leadership others were transformed (Ex. 18:25–26).
Likewise, the OT reveals a pattern of one individual being trans-
formed and then through their leadership others follow—Noah,
Abraham, Moses, and Joshua (Motyer, 1979)—a similar pattern
is found in the New Testament (NT) with the apostle Paul and
Timothy. Given this, the sociorhetorical analysis of a pericope
within the book of Exodus provides insightful principles toward
cognitive and moral leadership development.
16    
S. W. Boyer

In summary, the purpose of this book is to elucidate the principles

and procedures implemented by Moses toward developing leaders at
every level (Exo. 18). Further, the purpose is to explain, through scien-
tific research, in amalgamation with research that is scholarly. Finally,
this explanation of Scripture and research creates a robust understand-
ing concerning principles of leadership development from the Christian
worldview.

Definition of Terms
Values concern internalized attitudes, which direct between right
and wrong, moral, and immoral (Yukl, 2013). Some examples of val-
ues include fairness, justice, honesty, freedom, equality, altruism, loy-
alty, civility, pragmatism, and performance orientation, or excellence
(Yukl). Values are “guidelines and beliefs that a person uses when con-
fronted with a situation in which a choice must be made” (Ivancevich
& Konopaske, 2010, p. 418). Yukl underscores the importance of values
stating that values guide the person’s “preferences, perception of prob-
lems, and choice of behavior” (p. 136). For the purpose of this study,
values are cognitive and ethical elements held tightly toward behavior
and decision-making that remains revealed in the sacred text.
Spirituality is defined as the way an “individual keeps interconnect-
edness with the world,” and “it’s about self-awareness and about unity
with others” (Howard, 2002, p. 231). Spitzer (1999) recognizes many
definitions have been given for the word spirit. “The word spirit con-
notes energy, enthusiasm, and a psychic surge that goes beyond the
laws of physics. There are many theories about why people achieve this
surge in energy and creativity, but I define ‘spirit’ by its effects” (Spitzer,
1999, p. 12). Benefiel (2005) reports in her article the understanding
of “spiritual” concerns a theistic view, although without reference. An
understanding of spiritual, with theistic view must involve Scriptural
support. “It is the Spirit who gives life; the flesh is no help at all. The
words that I have spoken to you are spirit, and life” (John 6:63). Jesus
provides the true meaning of spirit or spiritual. If the Holy Spirit does
not provide life, spirituality profits nothing. Jesus must remain the
 1 Introduction    
17

source or else nothing is accomplished with lasting significance. In

keeping with sacred text, spiritual or spirituality remains the influential
life of Jesus Christ empowering an individual through the Holy Spirit
toward transformational, transcendent life of honesty, integrity, humil-
ity, compassion, remaining a trustworthy person, who supplies a worthy
example. For the purpose of this study spiritual or spirituality refers to
the life of Jesus supplied through the Holy Spirit, encompassing values
and principles revealed through the Scriptures.
Spiritual Leadership (SL) is defined as “as comprising the values, atti-
tudes, and behaviors that are necessary to intrinsically motivate one’s
self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through
calling and membership” (Fry, 2003, p. 694). SL within organizations
positively promotes health, productivity, lowered stress, security, turn-
over, ethicality, satisfaction, significance, and organizational citizenship
behavior (Benefiel, 2005; Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005; Fry, 2003;
Howard, 2002; Kriger & Seng, 2005).
As previously stated, Fry (2003) declares this entails a sense of calling,
which then produces efforts toward empowerment, as well as love, care,
and concern. Sanders (2007) comments SL concerns power from on
high—divine power—SL remains effective only due to the Holy Spirit’s
work within. Grant (2008) provides insight toward spiritual leadership,
in that SL is a phenomenon producing integrity, trust, and admirable
desires. “Areas of overlap between the authentic and spiritual leadership
theories include their focus on integrity, trust, courage, hope, and perse-
verance (resilience)” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 331). Yet the various
contributors toward SL provide no conclusive support toward how an
SL obtains to the constructs, values/attitudes, and behaviors within SL
theory save Sanders (2007). For the purpose of this study SL refers to
leadership, empowered by God, which maintains values and principles
revealed through the Scriptures.
Authentic leadership (AL) is leadership that remains real, genuine,
and authentic (Northouse, 2013). AL is based on psychological theo-
ries of self-regulation while encompassing psychology (Yukl, 2013).
There remains difficulty in defining AL, “there is no single accepted
definition” (Northouse, 2013, p. 254). AL emphasizes the impor-
tance of consistency in leaders words, actions, and values (Yukl, 2013).
18    
S. W. Boyer

AL includes positive leader values, self-awareness, and trusting rela-

tionships with followers (Yukl). AL values include: altruism, optimism,
trust, honesty, kindness, fairness, and accountability (Yukl, 2013,
p. 351). This study bases the understanding of AL upon the works of
various researchers (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans,
May, & Walumbwa, 2005; Yukl, 2013). As stated previously, the lacuna
within AL theory remains due to no specifics concerning where or how
an AL obtains and develops, particularly in morals and values, since
no mentions of God exists within the theory. This study introduces
and employs divine influence and power within the AL toward holistic
development.
Leadership development concerns enhancing the capacity of followers
toward effective engagement of leadership roles (Day, 2000). Leadership
is “the process of influencing others to facilitate the attainment of
organizationally relevant goals” (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010,
p. 440). Northouse (2013) defines leadership as “a process whereby
an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common
goal” (p. 5). Leadership remains a “transactional event that occurs
between the leader and followers” (Northouse, 2013, p. 5). Ivancevich
and Konopaske also note “you do not have to be in the formal lead-
ership position to exert leadership behavior” (p. 440). Further, lead-
ership development encompasses training leaders to effectively deal
with unpredictable issues, as well as complex cognitive and behavioral
adaptability toward wide-range problems (Day, 2000). Additionally,
leadership development is defined as “a measure of a leader’s changing
capacity to influence, in terms of various factors, over time” (Clinton,
1988, p. 245). The Biblical perspective encompasses leadership devel-
opment with the term disciple. The Great Commission requires all
believers in Jesus Christ to make disciples (Matt. 28:19–20). Given this,
Christian leaders or Christian laymen, all have a mandate toward lead-
ership development. For the purpose of this study, leadership develop-
ment concerns the multifaceted process whereby the leader and follower
engage in a trusting, reciprocal relationship involving shared meaning,
values, and commitment.
Small group(s ) provides the ideal setting for discipleship (Coleman &
Graham, 2006; Comiskey, 2007; Mayer, 1976). Given the relationship
 1 Introduction    
19

between discipleship and small groups, a definition of a small group

remains necessary. A small group or cell group (the terms may be used
interchangeably) is a body of believers wherein each person remains
connected to a group of no more than fifteen people meeting weekly
outside the church (Comiskey, 1995). Icenogle (1994) defines the
cell group “a face-to-face gathering of a few (three to twenty) ­persons
which share and act for the betterment of one another and the wider
good of others” (p. 22). The small group is an excellent way to enhance
community while opening up an area of ministry for each person
according to their gifts. The cell group is a great way to implement
practical Christianity. For the purpose of this proposed study, particu-
larly within the context of Exodus, a small group concerns a fraction
of the whole nation of Israel—groups of thousands, hundreds, ­fifties,
and tens—engaging leadership for the purpose of learning God’s
judgments.

Organization of the Study

The literature review begins perhaps the most important portion, setting
the direction and nature of the book, towards the exploratory research
within Exodus 18, toward providing both historical and contempo-
rary leadership principles. Specifically, the book focuses on Scriptural
leadership values, which might relate toward contemporary leadership
theory. The manuscript will then provide implications toward small
group leadership. The document seeks to create an understanding of
the selection and developmental process of small group leadership as
revealed through the sacred text. The manuscript will employ an analy-
sis through sociorhetorical criticism.

Summary
Leadership studies remain with keen focus and interest with the public
and scholars (Northouse, 2013; Yulk, 2013). The need for leadership
development has existed for millennia, but “appears to be at its zenith”
20    
S. W. Boyer

(Day, 2000, p. 581). The sacred text provides rich data including ageless
values and ethics—beyond cultures—including timeless leadership, and
leadership development principles. The scientific study of the Scriptures
provides leadership scholars with robust leadership selection and leader-
ship development ideologies; this includes the small group leader.
Small groups provide the best venue toward leadership development
(Coleman & Graham, 2006; Comiskey, 2007; Mayer, 1976). “Leadership
training cannot be done on a mass scale” (Sanders, 2007, p. 150). Given
this, the need for more robust small group leadership development
according to the Scriptures remains. The manuscript will use Robbins’
(1996a, b) sociorhetorical critical analysis toward the exploration of
Exodus 18 and compare the findings to SL and AL. The multidisciplinary
process of sociorhetorical criticism provides analysis and results for under-
standing and applying the timeless values, ethics, and principles toward
contemporary leadership theory.

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Ogden, G. (2003). Transforming Discipleship: Making Disciples a Few at a
Time. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Osborne, G. R. (2006). The Hermeneutical Spiral. Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press.
Pentecost, J. D. (1996). Design for Discipleship: Discovering God’s Blueprint for
the Christian Life (p. 10). Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications.
Robbins, V. K. (1996a). The Tapestry of Early Christian Discourse: Rhetoric,
Society and Ideology. New York: Routledge Publishing.
24    
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Robbins, V. K. (1996b). Dictionary of Socio-Rhetorical Terms. Retrieved from

http://www.religion.emory.edu/faculty/robbins/SRI/defns/index.cfm.
Sanders, J. O. (2007). Spiritual Discipleship: Principles of Following Christ for
Every Believer. Chicago, IL: Moody Publishers.
Spitzer, R. (1999, June). Animated Leadership. Executive Excellence, 16(6), 13.
Van Dick, R., Hirst, G., Grojean, M. W., & Wieseke, J. (2007). Relationships
Between Leader and Follower Organizational Identification and
Implications for Follower Attitudes and Behaviour. Journal of Occupational
& Organizational Psychology, 80(1), 133–150.
Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson,
S. J. (2008). Authentic Leadership: Development and Validation of a
Theory-Based Measure. Journal of Management, 34(1), 89–126.
Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in Organizations (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Zodhiates, S. (2000). The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament
(Electronic ed.). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
 2
Aspects of Leadership

The purpose of a literature review remains multifaceted. Providing

a “comprehensive and an up-to-date review” (Galvan, 2009,
p. 13) remains one concern. The literature review also provides
what is already known or that which is unknown (Patton, 2002).
Additionally, the literature review summarizes findings, highlights
strong or weakly supported research, reveals unreliable or lacking
investigation, and discusses future directions for research (Cozby
& Bates, 2012). In this chapter, there are five distinct elements
examined: (a) leadership development, (b) authentic leadership,
(c) spiritual leadership, (d) small group leadership principles, (e)
Moses’ leadership as found in the sacred text of Exodus 18. The first
chapter revealed aspects of leadership development, authentic lead-
ership, spiritual leadership, and small group leadership principles.
This chapter provides the scholarly research toward the components
while seeking to amalgamate the literature toward revealing connect-
ing relationships and principles involving leadership development,
authentic leadership, and small group leadership.

© The Author(s) 2019 25

S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_2
26    
S. W. Boyer

Leadership Development
As previously mentioned, leadership development remains a multifac-
eted phenomenon, which involves complex contextual elements includ-
ing the social, cultural, and organizational environment (Barentsen,
2011; Day, Fleenor, Atwater, Sturm, & McKee, 2013). Barentsen
(2011) provides socio-cultural leadership implications.
Barentsen (2011) offers insights into first-century leadership method-
ology and praxis through the application of the social identity model
of leadership (SIMOL), which he applies toward 1–2 Corinthians,
Ephesians, and 1–2 Timothy. The SIMOL “describes the social position
of group members relative to one another, and thus of the leader(s) rel-
ative to other group members” (Barentsen, 2011, p. 6). According to
Barentsen (2011), persons belonging to the group remains an essential
aspect of SIMOL, which also indicates by default some people remain
in-group due to likenesses, while others remain out-group because of
differences. The essential factor of trust corresponds to including or
excluding members.
Barentsen (2011) focuses not only on the climate of the culture but
the praxis of leadership, with special attention toward leadership emer-
gence (how the leader comes in-group) leadership maintenance (how
the leader remains in-group) and finally succession (how the leader
appoints emerging leaders toward the in-group). Barentsen (2011) pro-
vides three dimensions of identity-based leadership. Leadership is exer-
cised in a process of identity management concerning three dimensions:
“a cognitive, a performative, and behavioral dimension” (Barentsen,
2011, p. 55). Barentsen (2011) states “leaders are artists or visionaries
of identity” (p. 56). “Leaders exercise their influence by directing the
social identification of group members, so they create and present a
vision of social identity as a compelling cognitive alternative to the sta-
tus quo” (Barentsen, 2011, p. 56). Barentsen (2011) also states “leaders
are impresarios/managers of identity” (p. 56). “Leaders not only paint
a verbal picture of social identity, they also engage group members in
activities by which they experience and express their social identity”
(Barentsen, 2011, p. 56). Finally, Barentsen (2011) declares “leaders are
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
27

engineers of identity” (p. 56). “Leaders need to mobilize group mem-

bers in turning their vision of social identity into a social reality, which
demonstrates the day-to-day value of their social identity” (Barentsen,
2011, p. 56) or in other words implementing the vision. The final stage
for the leader, according to Barentsen (2011), concerns leader succes-
sion. Leadership succession involves joining or succeeding established
leaders (Barentsen). “In succession, complex interactions take place
between the predecessor, the successor, and the group” (Barentsen,
2011, p. 62). Therefore, SIMOL reveals leadership processes within the
group, provides identity management leading to emergence, mainte-
nance, and succession of new leaders. Given this, leadership develop-
ment involves trusting, intimate, relationships with a commitment and
benefit toward the community. Another socio-cultural leadership study
is the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness
(GLOBE).
The 62 different societies included within the GLOBE involves over
200 researchers from multiple academic disciplines located across all
parts of the globe for the study of cultures (Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges,
Dastmalchian, & House, 2012; House, Quigley, & de Luque, 2010;
Javidan & House, 2001). Javidan and House (2001) declare the major
thrust of project GLOBE concerns the study of nine cultural attrib-
utes. Javidan and House (2001) quantified these attributes and refer
to them as cultural dimensions. The nine dimensions listed by Javidan
and House include assertiveness, future orientation, gender differentia-
tion, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, institutional collectivism,
in-group collectivism, performance orientation, and humane orienta-
tion (pp. 293–301). Dorfman et al. (2012) reveal through the GLOBE
study that leadership best fit includes leaders who embrace the cultural
dimensions within local context. Dorfman et al. support the theory that
certain leadership behaviors remain universally supported, while oth-
ers elements of leadership, due to cultural affinities, remain rejected.
Therefore, effective leadership and leadership development occur
through congruence toward local-cultural values and behaviors modeled
by the leader and developing leader. The implication of trust within the
relationships remains.
28    
S. W. Boyer

The aspect of trust within organizations remains an integral part of

the effectiveness, success, and betterment of the organization includ-
ing the church. Trust concerns factors encompassing the leaders trust
toward the subordinate(s), and the subordinates’ trust in the leadership.
The implication of trust within AL and SL remains a topic involving
much research (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004;
Fry, 2003; Sanders, 2007). Brenkert (1998) reports three characteri-
zations of trust, attitudinal, predictability, and voluntarist. Brenkert
(1998) claims attitudinal trust is the “mutual confidence that no party
to an exchange will exploit another’s vulnerabilities” (p. 295). Brenkert
(1998) continues to describe attitudinal trust as an attitude, inclina-
tion, and disposition that counts the risk of vulnerability to harm worth
the prospect of good. The predictability view claims that “trust is to be
interpreted as the extent to which one person can expect predictabil-
ity in the other’s behavior in terms of what is ‘normally’ expected of a
person acting in good faith” (Brenkert, 1998, p. 295). Brenkert (1998)
explains the voluntarist sense of trust. Brenkert (1998) states “to trust
another is to voluntarily make oneself vulnerable with respect to some
good, having been led to believe by the other’s actions toward one that
no loss or harm will come to one as a result” (p. 295). Brenkert (1998)
continues to expound upon attitudinal trust stating “when people
trust, in light of shared values, their trust involves a mutual affirmation
or identification with the agent trusted through these common values
or aims” (Brenkert, 1998, p. 299). Brenkert (1998) includes that trust
may involve judgments about others trustworthiness and discretion on
the part of the person trusted. Given this, leadership development suc-
cessfully takes place while reciprocal goodwill, values, and vulnerability
transpires. Trust remains a major factor toward effective relationships.
Van Dick, Hirst, Grojean, and Wieseke (2007) research the conse-
quence of a leaders effect toward the follower. Particularly, Van Dick
et al. (2007) study the organizational identification of the leader and
trust through social identity in connection with the follower. Van Dick
et al. (2007) research concerns a sample within Germany. Javidan and
House (2001) declare Germany ranks high on individualism. Van Dick
et al. (2007) establish support for the theory that a leader within the
in-group maintains a positive effect on the subordinates’ organizational
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
29

identification, which increases Organization Citizen Behavior (OCB).

Therefore, leadership development effectively happens through the
reciprocal relationship between the leader and developing leader. One
key element toward leadership development concerns mutual trust.
In consideration of leadership Cenac (2011) posited that leaders
emerge. Cenac recites the biblical account in the book of Acts, revealing
leader emergence through the phenomenon of the Holy Spirit. Cenac
(2011) sums up the provoking study asking, “How many great, but
undiscovered, emergent leaders have been overlooked or presumptively
ignored (in research and practice) because they did not resemble soci-
ety’s subjective outward credentials.” (p. 134). This thought-provoking
question might drive researchers on and may well become a focused
followed up in leadership development. Given this, leaders do well to
practice a continual observation and consideration toward developing
leaders, while remaining confident in the Holy Spirits’ ability in devel-
oping said leaders. Has leadership development been neglected so as to
negatively affect the United States?
Barna (2011) provides trends taking place in the United States,
which may threaten the make-up of the church, and the United States.
Barna (2011) highlights trends such as family life foundations, conti-
nuity, disruptions, and possibilities, and attitudes and values (or lack
of ), immoral media explosion, religious beliefs (orthodox or not),
the behavior of the religious society and the ability to redirect trends
in America. The trends of America, according to Barna (2011), tend
toward the anti-religious movement (also immoral) sweeping across
America, threatening the very foundations of family life and values so
many Americans purport as foundational to living well. Given this,
leadership development may be the most pressing need today.
Bergler (2012) reports on the juvenilization of American Christianity.
Bergler (2012) states that in the “1930s and 40s Christian teenagers
and youth leaders staged a quiet revolution in American church life,
the juvenilization of American Christianity” (p. 4). “Juvenilization
is the process by which the religious beliefs, practices, and develop-
mental characteristics of adolescents become accepted as appropriate
for Christians of all ages” (Bergler, 2012, p. 4). Bergler adds, “at least
some traits that should be included in Christian maturity have been
30    
S. W. Boyer

decoupled from adulthood in post-1960s America, and this change is

encouraged juvenilization in churches” (p. 6). A lack of love toward
theology and truth provide milk toast discipleship. Therefore, the need
remains toward robust leadership development.
Hybels (2002) provides leadership developmental principles so
that men and women with the gift of leadership might more effec-
tively, energetically, lead the people of God triumphantly with much
joy. Hybels notion is that leadership within the church may become
the force against evil that it should be. Hybels (2002) states leadership
development requires a vision. Further, leadership development initi-
ates through someone spotting potential leaders (Hybels, 2002). Next,
developing emerging leaders happens through the investment of a men-
tor, according to Hybels (2002). Hybels then describes the relational
aspect of Jesus’ disciples-making process. Therefore, developing leaders
occurs through a leaders vision, constant on looking toward emerging
leaders and the commitment and investment toward the developing
leader.
Previously noted, Eims (1978) reveals three principles concerning
Jesus’ method of making disciples. Eims presents the principle of selec-
tion, the prayerful selection of teachable, commonplace men. Second,
the principle of association, “Jesus chose these men to be with him”
(Eims, 1978, p. 30) people who remained present and committed.
Thirdly, Eims (1978) suggests the principle of instruction, instruc-
tion toward the indispensable and frequently unpleasant truths. Eims
(1978) explains the essential aspect of leadership development con-
cerns a relational discipleship, as does Ogden (2003). Hence, leader-
ship development effectively occurs through the prayerful selection,
constant association, and thorough instruction toward emerging
leaders.
Ogden (2003) states discipleship involves “a relationship in which
one or more believers assist or invest in each other in order to grow to
maturity in Christ” (p. 129). A more descriptive definition of disciple-
ship states “discipling is an intentional relationship in which we walk
alongside other disciples in order to encourage, equip, and challenge
one another in love to grow toward maturity in Christ. This includes
equipping the disciple to teach others as well” (Ogden, 2003, p. 129).
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
31

The breakdown of the phrases follows. The idea concerning an inten-

tional relationship within leadership development, according to Ogden
(2003), concerns the commitment between parties to meet regularly,
on a weekly schedule. The notion of walking alongside other disciples
intentionally states the process is nonhierarchical (Ogden, 2003).
Ogden (2003) lists three principles concerning this reciprocal dis-
cipling relationship. First, the relationship focuses on encouragement,
and a “safe place where we are free to explore who we are in Christ in a
positive, grace giving environment” (Ogden, 2003, p. 130). Second, the
process involves equipping including disciplines toward the transforma-
tion into Christlikeness (Ogden, 2003). Finally the relationship involves
loving accountability and challenge (Ogden, 2003).
The phrase in love concerns the commitment within the relationship
toward reciprocal love and trust (Ogden, 2003). The idea of growing
toward maturity in Christ includes the process of each person becom-
ing “whole, complete or mature in Christ” (Ogden, 2003, p. 131). And
finally the notion of equipping to teach others concerns the goal of
reproduction (Ogden, 2003), that is, disciples making more disciples.
Therefore, leadership development successfully happens with committed
accountability relationships, including trust, and love.
Leadership development remains much more than choosing the
correct leadership theory (Day et al., 2013). Day et al. (2013) state
“leader development focuses on developing individual leaders whereas
leadership development focuses on a process of development that
inherently involves multiple individuals (e.g., leaders and followers
or among peers in a self-managed work team)” (p. 64). Additionally,
leadership development occurs “in the context of adult development”
which then highlights the importance of focusing on “development as
much as leadership” (Day et al., 2013, p. 64). Leadership development
concerns intrapersonal factors and interpersonal factors (Day et al.,
2013). Given this, leader development and leadership development
successfully occur simultaneously. The leadership development princi-
ples revealed above incorporate the essential, and Scriptural element of
relational discipleship. Authentic Leadership (AL) theory and Spiritual
Leadership (SL) theory are included within ethical leadership theories
(Yukl, 2013).
32    
S. W. Boyer

Authentic Leadership
Authentic Leadership (AL) is aptly termed, for the main focus of
AL concerns leadership, which remains, real, genuine, and authentic
(Northouse, 2013). The need for a fresh leadership theory arose out
of the leadership troubles within the past decade (Avolio et al., 2004;
Northouse, 2013). The AL contemporary model, developed due
to moral leadership failures, such as Enron, Worldcom and Global
Crossing (Avolio et al., 2004; Northouse, 2013). Northouse divulges
the difficulty in defining AL, summing up with intrapersonal (lead-
ers self-knowledge, self-regulation, and self-concept) interpersonal
(relational, reciprocal, interactions of leader-follower) and develop-
mental (leadership nurtured, rather than fixed trait) leadership skills
developing in people over a long period of time (Northouse, 2013,
p. 254).
The first article on authentic leadership appeared in 2003 (Northouse,
2013). “A leadership summit at the University of Nebraska…sponsored
by the Gallup Leadership Institute… focused on the nature of authen-
tic leadership and its development” (Northouse, 2013, p. 261). AL
includes positive leader values, which may influence followers’ attitudes
and behaviors (Avolio et al., 2004). The transparent interacting with
­followers, along with optimism, confidence, hope, and decision making,
help encourage trusting relationships with followers (Gardner, Avolio,
Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005). These ideologies are well articu-
lated through Gardner et al. (2005).

By being true to one’s core beliefs and values and exhibiting authen-
tic behavior, the leader positively fosters the development of associates
until they become leaders themselves. Authentic leaders are also posited
to draw from the positive psychological states that accompany optimal
self-esteem and psychological well-being, such as confidence, optimism,
hope and resilience, to model and promote the development of these
states in others. Moreover, they apply a positive moral perspective to lead
by example as they communicate through their words and deeds high
moral standards and values. (p. 345)
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
33

AL values include: altruism, optimism, trust, honesty, kindness, fair-

ness, and accountability (Yukl, 2013, p. 351). “We expect authentic
leaders to demonstrate through their words and deeds the importance
of integrity, trust, transparency, openness, respect for others, and fair-
ness—end values that are more closely aligned with self-transcendence
than self-enhancement” (Gardner et al., 2005, p. 361). Additionally,
because authentic leaders seek improvement they are open to feed-
back (Yukl, 2013). Due to the leader–follower relationship emphasis,
AL behavior is consistent with values and with follower values (Avolio
& Gardner, 2005). Four positive psychological attributes exist which
“impact authentic leadership: confidence, hope, optimism, and resil-
ience” (Northouse, 2013, p. 264). Therefore, authentic leaders focus on
personal development and empower others toward developing positive
attributes.
The basis of AL concerns psychology and psychological theories of
self-regulation (Yukl, 2013). AL integrates ideas of effective leadership
with ethical leadership, and emphasizes the importance of consistency
in leaders words, actions, and values (Yukl, 2013). Therefore the need
for truth and honesty remains a primary factor.
One of the chief principles of AL concerns self-awareness, pulling
from Greek philosophy, or the concept of “know thyself ” and “to thine
own self be true” (Avolio et al., 2004, p. 802). Authentic leaders hope,
trust, and positive emotions influence followers’ attitudes and behaviors
(Avolio et al., 2004). Authentic leaders are:

Those individuals who are deeply aware of how they think and behave
and are perceived by others as being aware of their own and others’ val-
ues/moral perspective, knowledge, and strengths; aware of the context in
which they operate; and who are confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient,
and high on moral character. (Avolio et al., 2004, pp. 803–804)

Authentic leaders remain “guided by the qualities of the heart, passion,

and compassion as they are by qualities of the mind” with the major
focus of empowerment and betterment of others (Avolio et al., 2004,
p. 806). Therefore, authentic leaders maintain a present focus and
34    
S. W. Boyer

awareness of personal values and morals, while seeking positive develop-

ment in their own lives, and the lives of others.
AL theory focuses on the authenticity of leaders, and may therefore
remain in peril of not attaining to stated objectives, since inauthen-
ticity is unavoidable, according to Algera and Lips-Wiersma (2011).
“Existentialists contend that the authentic state of being is desirable
over a non-authentic existence and they are concerned with making
people realize and accept responsibility for their own life” (Algera &
Lips-Wiersma, 2011, p. 122). The multifaceted elements of life demand
that people maintain factors of inauthenticity (Algera & Lips-Wiersma,
2011). Therefore, authentic leaders ought to maintain an honest and
holistic view of self, rather then hiding or convincing self that authen-
ticity exists when it does not.
Some limitations to AL theory include “lack of clarity in definition
of essential qualities and explanation of influence process” (Yukl, 2013,
p. 352). Additionally, researchers reveal concern that “the meaning of the
descriptor ‘authentic’ will be diluted, making it difficult to operation-
alize the construct in subsequent research” (Gardner et al., 2005, p. 324)
Further, it remains unclear whether the goals, and values is a description
of attributes expected to be possessed by the AL and then congruently
embraced and revealed through followers (Algera & Lips-Wiersma, 2011).
Finally, the lacuna within AL theory remains due to no specifics concerning
where or how an AL obtains qualities and values and develops, particularly
in morals and values, since no mentions of God exist within the theory.
Undoubtedly, AL theory corresponds closely with charismatic, trans-
formational, spiritual, and servant leadership theories (Gardner et al.,
2005). The main proposition, according to Gardner et al., “is that
through increased self-awareness, self regulation, and positive modeling,
authentic leaders foster the development of authenticity in followers”
(Gardner et al., 2005, p. 318). Given this, AL focuses on follower devel-
opment, as rendered in Fig. 2.1.
In consideration of self-awareness, self-regulation, or “know thyself ”
and “to thine own self be true” (Avolio et al., 2004, p. 802), Gardner
et al. separate authenticity from sincerity. Additionally, Avolio, et al.
discuss the argument of remaining authentic, as opposed to inauthen-
tic. Avolio et al. (2004) report better accuracy remains in describing or
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
35

Fig. 2.1  Authentic leadership elements

rather “achieving levels of authenticity” (Avolio et al., 2004, p. 320).

Therefore, authentic leaders increasingly achieve higher levels of authen-
ticity, while helping developing leaders do the same.

Spiritual Leadership
Spiritual Leadership (SL) within organizations positively promotes health,
productivity, lowered stress, security, turnover, ethicality, satisfaction,
significance, and organizational citizenship behavior (Benefiel, 2005;
36    
S. W. Boyer

Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005; Fry, 2003; Howard, 2002; Kriger &
Seng, 2005; Mitroff & Denton, 1999). Fry (2003) defines define SL
“as comprising the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are necessary to
intrinsically motivate one’s self and others so that they have a sense of
spiritual survival through calling and membership” (p. 694). Fry declares
this entails a sense of calling, which then produces efforts toward empow-
erment, as well as love, care, and concern. Sanders (2007) comments SL
concerns power from on high—divine power—SL remains effective only
due to the Holy Spirits work within. Given this, SL provides toward con-
necting divine ability and personal cooperation, according to purpose
providing organizational connection while fulfilling organizational goals
(Fig. 2.2).
It has already been stated that “areas of overlap between the authen-
tic and spiritual leadership theories include their focus on integ-
rity, trust, courage, hope, and perseverance (resilience)” (Avolio &
Gardner, 2005, p. 331). Similarities exist among various leadership
theories. According to Avolio and Gardner (2005), there is a theoreti-
cal relationship between Transformational Leadership (TL), Behavioral
Theory of Charismatic Leadership (CLB), Self-Concept Based Theory
of Charismatic Leadership (CLSC), Servant Leadership Theory (SVT),
and Spiritual Leadership Theory (SP) (p. 323).
Yet the various contributors toward SL provide no conclusive sup-
port toward how an SL obtains to the constructs, values/attitudes, and
behaviors within SL theory save Sanders. Given the need for leadership
development due to ethical failures (Yukl, 2013), and moreover, the
need and command for leadership development remains through the

Fig. 2.2  Spiritual leadership elements

 2  Aspects of Leadership    
37

Great Commission (Matt. 28:19–20). The need for leadership devel-

opment remains an ever-important element. The necessity exists for
leadership development with ethical standards that embraces biblical
principles.
The current state of research stream toward SL, spirituality in the
workplace, remains infiltrated with broad conjectures, suggestions, the-
ories, and definitions involving common constructs, as well as disagree-
ment and opposing concepts. Some of the areas of agreement follow. SL
within organizations involves self-actualization, knowing self, transcend-
ence, unity with others and the world, and empowerment through the
Spirit of God (Benefiel, 2005; Dent et al., 2005; Fry, 2003; Howard,
2002; Kriger & Seng, 2005). There is also agreement, as previously
stated, that SL within organizations positively promotes health, pro-
ductivity, lowered stress, security, turnover, ethicality, satisfaction, sig-
nificance, and organizational citizenship behavior (Benefiel, 2005; Dent
et al., 2005; Fry, 2003; Grant, 2008; Howard, 2002; Kriger & Seng,
2005). Additionally, Fry (2003) defines SL “as comprising the values,
attitudes, and behaviors that are necessary to intrinsically motivate one’s
self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through
calling and membership” (p. 694).
Fry (2003) declares this entails a sense of calling, which then pro-
duces qualities and efforts toward empowerment, as well as love, care,
and concern. Fry (2003) states SL is necessary for the “transforma-
tion to and continued success of a learning organization” (p. 694).
According to Fry (2003), religion involves spirituality, but spirituality
does not need religion to be meaningful. Additionally, SL enhances
follower motivation by connecting work with spiritual meaning (Fry,
2003). Fry’s (2003) definition of SL includes transcendence of self and
fellowship. Transcendence of self includes one’s sense of the calling of
God, which provides spiritual meaning toward all activities, outside of
economic reasons (Fry, 2003). Fellowship includes meaningful relation-
ships and wholeness (Fry, 2003). Therefore, SL includes a sense of call-
ing which then provides motivation toward the betterment of self and
other through love, care, and concern.
Benefiel (2005) states SL involves phases, which include awakening,
transition, recovery, dark night, and dawn. Benefiel (2005) states the
38    
S. W. Boyer

awakening phase happens due to dissatisfaction in life. The transition

phase includes the second half of the journey, as Benefiel (2005) states,
the person realizes that the spiritual journey is much more than getting
gifts it’s about transformation. Recovery has to do with letting go of
your own ways to the ways of God and relying on his power (Benefiel,
2005). The dark night includes a period of realizing that the journey is
about God himself and not what God can give and the dawn involves
the new perspective of life toward the higher good (Benefiel, 2005,
pp. 732–734).
Most of the disagreement with SL concerns a clear definition of the
term spiritual. Benefiel (2005) presents a definition of spiritual aspects
(or rather spiritual transformation or spiritual process, without a clear
definition of spiritual) that, left unstated produce ambiguity, and there-
fore a more complete definition toward clarity remains needed. Benefiel
(2005) states that there have been many studies done by scholars, a
list which could be vastly expanded by adding descriptions of spiritual
transformation by great spiritual teachers through the ages, such as
Moses, the Buddha, Jesus, Rumi, Teresa of Avila, the Ba’al Shem Tov,
Gandhi, Thich Nhat Hanh, and many others (p. 732). Additionally,
Benefiel (2005) states that the definition in this article remains a the-
istic definition, opposed to some other scholars. The problem and
need remain to provide Scriptural support for the theistic definition of
spiritual. Furthermore, because Benefiel (2005) uses the term spiritual
as well as the term soul, clarity remains a problem. Therefore, the
spiritual leader may attain positive change, the power and motivation
for the changes remain ambiguous.
Kriger and Seng (2005) research on SL includes the focus on Judaism,
Christianity and Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism, due to the fact
“there are indications of a common underlying multiple level ontology
of spiritual leadership” (Kriger & Seng, 2005, p. 773). Throughout the
study, implications are drawn from various connecting factors among
the various religions (e.g., love, courage, faith, kindness, patience).
The researchers’ focus remains on leadership aspects, including “deep
inner meaning” which results from the “ontological level we form our
worldview around. Stated simply, it is a question of whether leadership
is based on having, doing, or being” (Kriger & Seng, 2005, p. 788).
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
39

Therefore, SL contains similar values and factors among ­ differing

religions, without providing a clear understanding of how these are
obtained.
Dent et al. (2005) provide research toward spiritual leadership within
the context of the workplace (p. 628). While many scholars seek a unified
definition of spirituality at work, others do not seek consensus, rather a
robust definition (Dent et al., 2005). Dent et al. (2005) reveal spirituality
“definitions offered cover a wide range of phenomena including”:

(a) Khanna and Srinivas (2000), who call it beauty and then discuss
transformational relationships;
(b) Levine (1994), who, in addition to creativity, insight, openness, and
extraordinary performance calls it emptiness-emptying oneself or cre-
ating a vessel for receiving or containing spirit;
(c) Boozer (1998), who calls it everything, as does Sperry (1997), who
defines it as a spiritual union with any- and everything;
(d) Levy (2000), who says it’s inside of him, his quiet zone, very per-
sonal, encompassing everything he does;
(e) Mason and Welsh (1994) who define it as wonder, play, ignorance,
spontaneity, joy, imagination, celebration, discernment, insight, and
creativity; and,
(f ) Lichtenstein (1997) who writes of grace, magic and a miracle—com-
ponents of personal and organizational transformation. (Dent et al.,
2005, p. 623)

According to Dent et al. (2005) some researchers tie spirituality to

religion, while others do not. Therefore a more robust definition of
spiritual leadership remains necessary.
Howard (2002) defines spirituality as the way an “individual keeps inter-
connectedness with the world”, and “it’s about self-awareness and about
unity with others” (p. 231). “The ‘hidden yearning’ within us is an indicator
of our spirituality” (Howard, 2002, p. 231). Some believe spirituality does
not need religious affiliation, whereas Howard (2002) notes it corresponds
to the “unseen order of things” beyond what can be seen (p. 231). Howard
substantiates this statement with Quantum physics, chaos, and complexity
systems rather than biblical support. Therefore, the phenomenon of
­spirituality remains, while a Scriptural definition remains essential.
40    
S. W. Boyer

Yukl (2013) connects transcendence and fellowship with altruistic

love and faith. Altruistic love is linked with: humility, trust, kindness,
compassion, gratitude, understanding, forgiveness, patience, honesty,
and loyalty (Yukl, 2013).
Faith and hope links to: optimism, confidence, courage, endurance,
persistence, resilience, and serenity (Yukl, 2013). According to Yukl
(2013), satisfying transcendence and fellowship increase intrinsic moti-
vation, confidence, OCB, builds trust, appreciation, and higher per-
formance. Therefore SL provides positive attitudes/behaviors through
satisfying transcendence and fellowship.
Sanders (2007) declares spiritual leaders pay a cost daily. “A cross
stands in the path of spiritual leadership, and the leader must take it up”
(Sanders, 2007, p. 116). Sanders (2007) comments, “Spiritual leadership
requires superior spiritual power, which can never be generated by the
self. There is no such thing as a self-made spiritual leader. A true leader
influences others spiritually only because the Spirit works in and through
him to a greater degree than those he leads” (p. 28). Sanders (2007) lists
various qualities of the spiritual leader, providing an example and com-
municating either audibly or visibly. Sanders (2007) provides essential
qualities of SL including discipline, vision, wisdom, decision-making,
love, courage, humility, integrity, and sincerity. Therefore, SL requires the
power of the Holy Spirit, empowering and enabling the transformation
of self and others in the similitude of God.

Small Group Leadership

The primary aspects regarding the life and ministry of Jesus concern
providing atonement for forgiveness, establishing the church (Matt.
16:18) and ushering in the kingdom of heaven (Cairns, 1996, p. 54).
Jesus formed a small group of followers (Peter, James and John) toward
instruction on kingdom purposes (Larkin, 1920) and starting other
small groups (Comiskey, 2014; Mayer, 1976). From an organizational
perspective, the plan of implementing small groups effectively produced
massive multiplication with a global impact—great success! Arrow,
McGrath, and Berdahl (2000) select important elements concerning
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
41

group formation, specifically assembly and emergence. The formation of

groups happens for various reasons “kinship, professional identity, and
religious affiliation” (Arrow et al., 2000, p. 68).
The beginning stage involves expectation: “before the group meets,
each member develops expectations about how the group will operate
and about what membership will mean” (Gillette & McCollom, 1995,
p. 43). “The second step is interaction: people test their expectations
against what really happens in the first group meeting” (Gillette &
McCollom, 1995, p. 43). Without a doubt leadership is established and
tested through these early meetings.
Arrow et al. (2000) consider four forces of formation important for
the researcher, “the transformation of people, resources, and intentions
in the context of the whole, and the emergence of group-level features
as the members of the new group come together” (p. 63). How and why
a group forms remains an important aspect for a researcher. Arrow et al.
(2000) cite circumstantial groups, concocted groups, founded groups
and self-organized groups. Group formation remains a cognitive and
behavior process, according to Arrow et al., which incorporates pre-his-
tory aspect of the group. Jesus corresponds personal history with group
benefit.
The plan of God through Jesus was for all men to be saved and
come to the knowledge of the truth (1 Timothy 2:3). Jesus provided
for this—and the many organizations and denominations within the
church—beginning with a small group of 12. In fact, one of the most
intimate and impactful teachings recorded concerns the time with Jesus
and the apostles in a home together in the upper room (Luke 22:7–38;
John 13–16). Jesus taught with maximum effectiveness within small
group settings (Mayer, 1976). This pattern of intimate home church
gatherings continued with the apostles (Acts 2:46). Paul the apos-
tle followed the pattern of Jesus teaching doctrine in intimate, small
group settings (Acts 20:20). Small groups and house churches began,
in part, because of persecution (Acts 5:17–18, 8:3; 17:5). Under the
reign of Constantine, the church no longer needs to hide, and small
groups waned (Comiskey, 2014; Mayer, 1976). Former ecclesial lead-
ership practices radically depart. Ecclesial leaders became more of rul-
ers of masses and doctrine overseers then doctrine teachers of intimate
42    
S. W. Boyer

small groups (Mayer, 1976). The research reveals small groups, though
reduced, still existed during Ambrose era. Small groups somehow
became part of the practice of the official church structure. The tac-
tic of small groups providing leadership development and multiplica-
tion was not lost during a secular time of the church, and ought not
be lost toward corporations today. Therefore, small groups provide vital
dynamics, and elements that enhance robust discipleship/leadership
development.
God calls people out toward the gathering of small groups for His
purposes (Kennedy, 1996). The calling of Abram reveals God purposes
concern individual and community (Gen. 12:2), and Abram remained a
leader of his small group. God builds from one man a nation to be his
own (Ex. 9:5) (Kennedy, 1996). This reveals the work of God within
an individual, small group, family, nation, that “all family of the earth
shall be blessed” (Gen 12:3) (Kennedy, 1996). Kennedy offers another
example with God’s separating of individuals for the betterment of the
community within the priesthood (Num. 3:4). Kennedy (1996) reports
Israel was always to be a priestly kingdom representative to the whole
world (Ex. 19:5–6). Israel accomplished this grudgingly, states Kennedy
(1996), only after Gentiles were brought into the fold (Gal. 3:28). The
truth remains; Gentiles were always to be a part of the fold of God (2
Chron. 6:32). Therefore, the small group leader ought to practice the
mindset of blessing toward individuals, small groups, and for the pur-
pose of global evangelization. Correspondingly, in an organizational
context, early schools of research studying small groups focused on
“studying groups as systems for influencing members” (Arrow et al.,
2000, p. 12). Additionally, the research revealed small groups as “sys-
tems for performing tasks” recording also the small groups toward
“effectiveness, member satisfaction” (Arrow et al., 2000, p. 12). Arrow
et al. research reveals small groups as “information-processing systems”
(p. 12).
Icenogle (1994) declares “the small group is the ideal microcosm” or
perhaps venue for the mining and exploration “simplicity and delicacy”
of God and the human community (p. 22). With greater clarification,
Icenogle (1994) posits:
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
43

Entering into human community with God is a “movement of release”

from the determinism of such naturalistic pagan fates. God is at the
center of human community or there is no human community. It maybe
a collection of animals or zombies, but without God it is not a commu-
nity of human beings called into deeper followership with the Theos of the
universe. (Icenogle, 1994, p. 23)

The main point Icenogle (1994) provides is humans find personal

meaning and purpose not in the environment or nature, but in God.
Once this happens, God moves people toward the nurture and service
of others (Icenogle, 1994). God desires to transform people “to see and
understand one another” even as he does (Icenogle, 1994). Effectual
leadership happens when individuals and groups dream big for God,
attaching themselves to God’s dream for them (Icenogle, 1994). This
happens within churches and organizations.
Small groups leaders lead people toward this dream, even when trou-
bles and qualms exist, due to the groups’ lack of confidence in the direc-
tion (Icenogle, 1994). The small group leader helps solve intra-group
conflict through empowering each person to become “the whole per-
son God wants each person to be” (Icenogle, 1994, p. 87). Arrow et al.
(2000) state a positive relationship exists toward small groups as systems
and “managing conflict and attaining consensus” (p. 12).
Group conflict may happen in organizations due to the complexity
of organizations. Boal and Schultz (2007) state that many organiza-
tions are now considered complex adaptive systems. Complex-adaptive
Systems (CAS) or organizations, remain with continuous environmen-
tal changes including numerous agents acting in non-linear ways, which
demand the modifications of the system. Choi, Dooly, Rungtusanatham
state that “an agent interacts meaningfully in the course of events”
(Choi et al., 2001, p. 353).
While one leader might have information toward change, another
provides the tension to provoke the change. Choi et al. suggest “the
leader brings change in CAS through altering the boundary, remov-
ing or adding agents” (p. 355). These represent major factors con-
cerning group conflict. Another element of consideration for group
conflict concerns the culture. Regarding collectivistic and individualistic
44    
S. W. Boyer

cultures, trust remains a major factor. Simpson (2006) considers group

conflict that occurs in cultures with specific aspect concerning trust.
Simpson delineates two forms of trust, general trust and assurance.
General trust, reports Simpson concerns expectation of good or benign
intent, “whereas assurance concerns benign behavior for reasons other
than goodwill” (p. 1627). Assurance remains multiplied, states Simpson
within a collectivist’s in-group due to the monitoring and expectation
of behavior. Outside of the in-group, the behavior of outsiders remains
unpredictable, therefore assurance fails and general trust remains low,
according to Simpson.
Van Dick et al. (2007) report on group conflict specifically how lead-
ers affect the followers. Van Dick et al. research the consequence of a
leaders effect toward the follower. Particularly, Van Dick et al. study the
organizational identification of the leader and trust through social iden-
tity in connection with the follower. Van Dick et al. establish support
for the theory that a leader within the in-group maintains a positive
effect on the subordinates’ organizational identification, which increases
Organization Citizen Behavior (OCB). The key element concerns
mutual trust.
Edmund (2010) considers three intensities of group conflict.
Edmund focuses on event-based conflict, communicative-affective
conflict, and identity-based conflict. “Event-based conflicts are short
conflicts without deep roots” (Edmund, 2010, p. 36). Communicative-
Affective Conflict concerns “a longer history between the parties and
involves emotions, and goals which the parties must process together”
(Edmund, 2010, p. 36). Edmund states that “Communicative-Affective
Conflicts occur because issues are significantly meaningful and have
personal or whole-group impact, but miscommunication and/or heated
affect have developed in the conflict episode or period” (Edmund,
2010, p. 37). “Identity-Based Conflict”, according to Edmund,
“involves the primary group memberships that underlie personal, sta-
ble identity: family, belief system, self-concept” (Edmund, 2010, p. 39).
This type of conflict “occurs when one or more of the four pillars of
identity is threatened” (Edmund, 2010, p. 39). Helpful keys in solv-
ing these conflicts involve courage, patience and perhaps a mediator,
according to Edmund.
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
45

Additionally, the small group leader remains vulnerable and open,

helping others to do the same (Icenogle, 1994), this links well with AL
theory. The small group leader develops and nurtures individuals and
the group toward cohesiveness and “building a stronger sense of fam-
ily” (Icenogle, 1994, p. 87). Finally, small group leadership concerns
equipping, giving away resources, empowering others to then practice
similarly (Icenogle, 1994). Arrow et al. (2000) include other aspects
including small groups as systems of “motivating, regulating, and coor-
dinating,” as well as education (p. 13). Therefore, small group leaders
remain vulnerable, transparent, endeavoring toward empowering each
person and the group to embrace Gods’ perfect will for them.
Earley (2001) provides eight practices for effective small group lead-
ers. The first pattern for the small group leader concerns “dreaming for
a healthy, growing, and multiplying group” (Earley, 2001, p. 19). The
second habit concerns praying for the group members (Earley, 2001).
Third, the small group leader ought to remain inviting toward those
outside the group (Earley, 2001). Fourthly, small groups leaders remain
effective through a pattern of regularly contacting group members
(Earley, 2001). The fifth item the small group leader does well to prac-
tice, concerns the necessary preparation for the meetings (Earley, 2001).
Sixth, the leader ought to stay in the habit of mentoring individuals
(Earley, 2001). Seventh, Fellowship activities should be a pattern of the
meetings (Earley, 2001). Finally, the small group leader ought to always
remain committed toward personal growth (Earley, 2001). Therefore,
the effective small group leader maintains habits of praying, inviting,
mentoring, and intimate relational contact that provides for the better-
ment of the leader and those in the group. Correspondingly, the leader
ought to remain mindful that “all groups have two generic functions; to
complete group projects, and fulfill member needs” (Arrow et al., 2000,
p. 47).
Likewise, Comiskey (2000) provides principles for effective small group
leaders. The first concerns the pattern of mentoring. “Success in appren-
ticing future leaders is a biblical way of life” (Comiskey, 2000, p. 72).
Secondly, the effective small group leader has a passion and pattern of
prayer, not only individual, but also forming the pattern for the small
group (Comiskey, 2000). Another aspect is “radical evangelism” that
46    
S. W. Boyer

happens naturally and authentically within the context of small groups,

which “is relational and ongoing as opposed to impersonal and immedi-
ate” (Comiskey, 2000, p. 74). Other important principles for the small
group leader include constant care, welcoming non-Christians, consist-
ent visitation, effective communication, and lifelong learning (Comiskey,
2000, pp. 75–80). Therefore, the small group leader shepherds the flock
of God with relational discipleship, while maintaining a focus on evange-
lizing the non-Christian.
All the most important events in the life of Jesus occurred in the con-
text of community (Beckham, 2002). “More often then not, it was in
a small group context” (Beckham, 2002, p. 135). Jesus painstakingly
trained the disciples for massive growth at Pentecost (Beckham, 2002).
The prototype period of time, according to Beckham (2002) concerns
a “time when vision is discovered and cast”, values established, leader-
ship manifested, body life happens, foundation proven, and “power is
anticipated and received” (Beckham, 2002, p. 159). Beckham posits the
initial objective of small group leaders—living in community, vulnera-
ble, transparency, learning edification, realize small group format, dwell
in dynamic small group life, and “nurture a passion for evangelism”
(Beckham, 2002, p. 184). Therefore, the small group leader embraces
relational discipleship in the context of transparent community.
“Most scholars agree that the early house churches emphasized the
following elements: worship, practice of the spiritual gifts, teach-
ing, prayer, fellowship evangelism, the Lord’s Supper, and baptism”
(Comiskey, 2016, p. 25). Neighbour (2000) concurs and declares the
small group leader trains toward the maturity of the group so the gifts
of the Spirit remain manifest. Moreover, “each believer ought be active
in this ministry” (Neighbour, 2000, p. 182). As mentioned before, The
OT reveals a pattern of one individual being transformed and then
through their leadership others follow—Noah, Abraham, Moses, and
Joshua (Motyer, 1979)—the similar pattern is found in the NT with
the apostle Paul and Timothy. Moses was called out toward the small
group then large group: “Our Lord knows there are two factors in
spiritual growth: One is receiving His power and the other is becoming
a channel of it” (Neighbour, 2000, p. 62). The account of Moses lead-
ing God’s people reveals this. Moses not only received God’s power, but
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
47

also became a channel of it. Therefore, the small group leader embraces
God’s calling and gifting toward the betterment, and empowerment of
others.

The Leadership of Moses

Before investigating the leadership of Moses, a helpful explanation is
necessary. As stated before, the Scriptural viewpoint links leadership
development with the term disciple. The Great Commission requires all
believers in Jesus Christ to make disciples (Matt. 28:19–20). Mathēteúō,
the Greek word for disciple remains distinguished from the verb mathéō
(n.f.) or manthánō, which is isolated from a personal relationship with
the person who teaches. Whereas the NT term Mathēteúō reveals the
relational learner. Interestingly, the Hebrew equivalent talmîḏ occurs
only in 1 Chronicles 25:8, and is used of “a student in musical instruc-
tion” (Nässelqvist, 2016, para. 2), of which the root term is lmd.
The NT “usage manifests a close linguistic relation to the rabbinic
use of talmîḏ ” (Kittel, Friedrich, & Bromiley, 1985, p. 553). Due to the
Old Testament (OT) use of the term, the rabbis sometimes use lmd in
a secular sense, e.g., for learning a trade, or getting information about
something, or drawing knowledge from a book, “the OT relates the
group lmd to the revealed will of God; other terms are used for human
instruction (Gk. paideía )” (Kittel et al., 1985, p. 553). The root of the
term paideia encompasses a Hellenistic understanding of education and
training.
Jaeger (1939) revealed the Greek concept of education as involv-
ing intergenerational cognitive and social factors. Therefore, for Jaeger,
paideia encompasses not only individual cognitive factors, but social
aspects as well. For Jaeger, paideia connects the community with behav-
ior and the formation of values. Additionally, in the OT, “Individuals
are chosen only in order that they may perform special tasks on behalf
of the whole. It is thus inappropriate to use a word of the lmd group”
(Kittel et al., 1985, p. 553). Kittel et al., provide greater clarity toward
the terms:
48    
S. W. Boyer

The religion of Israel is a religion of revelation. Human speakers are the

agents by which God proclaims himself and his will. They do not speak
for themselves or champion their own causes. They are stewards passing
on God’s word to God’s people. The commitment they seek is commit-
ment to God. No place remains for the authority of a great personality or
for the resultant master/disciple relation. (Kittel et al., 1985, p. 553)

Again, the Hebrew equivalent focuses on the instruction from God, not
the human counterpart (Kittel et al., 1985). The human counterparts
were considered stewards. Given this, the relational aspect still existed,
with a different perspective, nevertheless, the function of OT leadership
concerns instructing “God’s word to God’s people,” (Kittel et al., 1985,
p. 553). People of faith, or the community of covenant, have been also
been called the covenant people (Kaiser, 1990; Motyer, 1979; Pink,
1962; Stuart, 2006). Therefore, leadership development remains within
the context of the OT, with perhaps greater view on instruction from
God than the relationship.
Within the timeline of Exodus, Israel already considered themselves
as God’s covenant people (Motyer, 1979). This was largely because of
“total absence of idolatry in their devotions” (Motyer, 1979, p. 257).
Additional factors concern the promise land, and the law (Motyer,
1979). Given this, the establishing of covenantal faith community
dwelling together remains emphasized.
Assumptions have been made (Durham, 1998; Pink, 1962) denounc-
ing the chronological order of the event within Exodus 18. Yet other
scholars (Enns, 2000; Kaiser, 1990; Stuart, 2006) have provided sup-
port for the chronological order of the event (Ex. 15:24–26; Duet.
19–15). This sort of speculation is beyond the scope of this study.
Another conjecture concerns the separation or divorce (Pink, 1962)
and reunion of Moses’s wife Zipporah (Ex. 18: 1–5). There remains
no definitive support (Kaiser, 1990) rather a suggestion that “perhaps
Moses sent them away before the plagues so as to protect his family
from Pharaoh’s wrath” (Enns, 2000, p. 367). This speculation likewise
remains beyond the scope of this research.
The initial reception of Moses and his father-in-law Jethro took
place according to normal cultural greetings (Kaiser, 1990). Moses then
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
49

declares the covenantal name of God to Jethro (Kaiser, 1990), including

all the Yahweh has done. Kaiser (1990) declares Jethro praises God and
submits offerings, but states Jethro was not the one to offer, rather wor-
ship and fellowship with Moses and Aaron. Jethro offers an altercation
of Moses’ administration method, which consisted of instruction, and
judicial disbursements and Moses accepts the change “with divine per-
mission” (Kaiser, 1990, p. 412).
God commanded Moses in the structuring of Israel, forming small
groups within the organization of the nation around tens, fifties, hun-
dreds, and thousands (Ex. 18:13–27). The basic building block reveals
a group of ten, groups of ten formed communities of fifties. The next
cluster involves hundreds (plural), revealing about 200–250 persons.
Finally, these clusters of hundreds formed into groups of thousands,
the final size for structuring the people of Israel. With a conservative
estimate of 1.5 million Israelites, this would mean there were 150,000
small groups. There were 30,000 clusters of fifties, 15,000 clusters of
hundreds, seventy elders (Ex. 24:9) who would have been over the
thousands (Comiskey, 2009).
Through the work of all the people (Duet. 1:9, 13) Moses appointed
capable men as leaders (Kaiser, 1990). The function of the leaders
included instruction in “decrees” or “specific enactments,” and “laws”
or “general enactments” and “the way to live” or their specific “life-
style and path of duty,” as well as “duties” or “jobs” for each individ-
ual (Kaiser, 1990, p. 413). The selection process involves the following
qualifications.
The leaders were to be “capable men,” or men with a native aptitude
for “judging” as well as “men who fear”—revere God (Kaiser, 1990, p.
413). The leaders were also to be “trustworthy” (Kaiser, 1990, p. 413).
Finally, the leaders were to be men who “hated dishonest gain” (Kaiser,
1990, p. 413). Therefore, Moses and the developing leaders maintained
a covenantal relationship with God and the faith community providing
specific instruction and their own sterling example.
Fretheim (1991) provides several insights into Exodus 18: 1–12.
Jethro has a positive reception of the testimony of what God has done
for Israel (Fretheim, 1991). The family reception is cordial and warm,
and Jethro rejoices, gives thanks, and makes a public confession of
50    
S. W. Boyer

the goodness of God (Fretheim, 1991). Fretheim (1991) states this

may or may not support the conversion of Jethro. Fretheim (1991)
points out Moses’ evangelism efforts remain shared with God’s peo-
ple throughout the ages. Concerning verses 13–27 Fretheim (1991)
understands the new administration order provided through Jethro
as not necessarily divine action, but through divine providence wis-
dom, insight, and skills are provided to the faithful and faithless alike.
Moses enacts the newly accepted system, “representing the community
before God, bringing their concerns into the divine presence and dis-
cerning the will of God for their daily life” (Fretheim, 1991, p. 199).
Moses remains the teacher of the community, now only deciding spe-
cific cases (Fretheim, 1991). The developing leaders ought to remain
with integrity, incorruptible, “trustworthy individuals who fear God”
(Fretheim, 1991, p. 199). The decentralized structure now dispatches
justice throughout the community (Fretheim, 1991). Therefore the
leadership of Moses provided an example of humility, and evangelism
while contributing instruction, and the developing leaders for the bet-
terment of the whole community.
“Exodus 18 is a parenthesis, interrupting the chronological order of
the book,” (Pink, 1962, p. 146). Additionally, Pink’s (1962) main focus
on the first 12 verses remains pictorial, as “we are carried forward to
the next dispensation and are furnished with a blessed foreshadowment
of millennial conditions” (Pink, 1962, p. 147). The following pericope
(Ex. 18:13–27) is an admonition to us of Moses failures (Pink, 1962).
“One thing that this passage does is to warn God’s servant’s against fol-
lowing the advise of their relatives according to the flesh” (Pink, 1962,
p. 149). Pink (1962) proclaims the failure of Moses, not trusting God’s
strength through him to lead. Therefore, the leadership of Moses may
be insightful toward remaining with faith in God, while also remaining
honest with self.
Janzen (2000) records the first pericope (Ex. 18:1–12) as a warm
family reunion. On the conjecture concerning the separation or divorce
and reunion of Moses’s wife Zipporah Janzen (2000) states, “Moses sent
them back, possibly when the contest with Pharaoh escalated and their
life was endangered” (Janzen, 2000, p. 224), provides insight toward the
Moses’ children’s names. “Both the meeting and the sons’ names work
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
51

together to emphasize that Moses’ commission to bring Israel out of

Egypt has been completed and Israel has ‘arrived’” (Janzen, 2000, pp.
225–226). The declaration of Moses toward the deliverance of Israel
and all God had done, and Jethros’ response—Janzen (2000) posits this
event as salvific for Jethro—otherwise he would not have been invited
to worship, and offer sacrifices with Moses and Aaron. According to
Janzen (2000) the next section (Ex. 18:13–27):

Is a transition from a people led theocratically through one man to a peo-

ple governed, in its everyday affairs, by a civic administration. This civic
structure, however, is accountable to a supreme God through the mediat-
ing agency of a central religious authority, Moses. (Janzen, 2000, p. 228)

Moses ought to “preserve his energies for mediating between the peo-
ple and God, not between the people among themselves” (Janzen, 2000,
p. 228). According to Janzen (2000), the major function of adminis-
tration change concerns the civil order, providing peace (for a time)
within Israel. Therefore, through the leadership of Moses the commu-
nity gained order, and peace.
The first pericope (Ex. 18:1–12) concerns authenticity of the historic-
ity of the events within Exodus 18 (Enns, 2000). A high level “of lexical
overlap” occurs throughout Chapter 18 and the former chapter (Enns,
2000, p. 367).

In 17:8, the Amalekites came and attacked; in 18:5–7, Jethro comes and
greets. In both 17:9 and 18:25, men are chosen for some specific task. In
17:12, Moses sits on a stone; in 18:13 he sits to judge. Moreover, both
activities are said to commence on the next day (17:9; 18:13) and last all
day until evening (17:12; 18:13–14). In both 17:12 and 18:18 Moses is
said to be tired, with help provided in each instance. (Enns, 2000, p. 367)

Enns (2000) records the main purpose of the section is more than a
family reunion, rather emphasizes the deliverance of Moses and Israel.
For this reason, the text lists the names and meanings of his sons.
“Eliezer, meaning ‘my God is helper,’ He is a reminder of deliverance,
not only for Moses but for Israel (Enns, 2000, p. 368). The theological
52    
S. W. Boyer

highpoint within the chapter, according to Enns (2000), concerns the

response Jethro concerning God’s greatness and deliverance (18:8–9).
Enns (2000) reports Jethro and therefore Midian, “not Pharaoh or the
Amalekites” who produce the proper response of praise toward God
(Enns, 2000, p. 369). The next section (Ex. 18:13–27) “Jethro is return-
ing a favor,” just Moses helped the daughters of Jethro at the well, so
now Jethro rescues Moses (Enns, 2000, p. 371).
Jethro provides Moses help with shepherding of God’s people, just as
Moses once help the shepherding of Jethro’s flock (Enns, 2000). Moses
ought to remain the leader and teacher, but also select capable men to
judge over the simple cases before the people (Enns, 2000). The advice
of Jethro toward restructuring of civil judgments might as well come
from God (Enns, 2000). Enns declares elements of the qualification
of the developing leaders. Some of the qualifications cited in Numbers
11:16 and Deuteronomy 1:9–18 are not mentioned here, however: peo-
ple who are known, respected, and, above all, wise and understanding.
The qualifications of Exodus 18:21 are simple in comparison (Enns,
2000, p. 372). Therefore, the focus concerning Moses’ leadership
remains toward special judicial cases and teaching, while integrity, and
wisdom are the necessary characteristics of developing leaders.
Stuart (2006) states the first pericope (Ex. 18:1–12) reveals the con-
version of Jethro. Stuart (2006) agrees with Enns that Chapters 17–18
are related. “The defeat of the Amalekites (17:8–16), followed by the
conversion of a Midianite (high?) priest (18:1–12) both demonstrate
Yahweh’s truth and power and his superiority over false gods and their
adherents” (Stuart, 2006, p. 402). Stuart (2006) considers the main
point of the first section, the salvation of Jethro, over and above the
reuniting of family. The support of Jethro’s conversion includes prais-
ing God and eating a covenant meal with fellow worshipers (Stuart,
2006). Stuart (2006) connects the salvation of Jethro with the advice for
restructuring Israel’s judicial system (Ex. 18:13–27).
Stuart (2006) posits the reason for the current judicial model—
Moses alone before Israel—was Moses likely saw this within both Egypt
and Midian. More importantly, Moses was the only judge since he was
the only prophet, and judging was “revelatory process” (Stuart, 2006,
p. 416). According to Stuart (2006) “the method can’t be right if it results
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
53

in everyone’s frustration and exhaustion…” as has been stated “Justice

delayed is justice denied” (Stuart, 2006, p. 416). The main selection fac-
tors concerning the developing leaders are “honesty and ability” (Stuart,
2006, p. 416). This delegation of duties allowed Moses “to lead the peo-
ple in other ways, including his ministry of prayer and worship and his
ministry of teaching and preaching all God’s laws” (Stuart, 2006, p. 418).
Therefore paramount to Moses’s leadership concerns the intimate knowl-
edge of God, following the careful selection of developing leaders.
According to Durham (1998) the main theme of the chapter is the
reunion of Abraham’s family with Keturah’s decedents. The first per-
icope (Ex. 18: 1–12) “describe[s] the moment and the solemnization of
that reunion” (Durham, 1998, p. 242). Durham (1998) relates Moses’
witness of God provokes Jethro’s conversion, of whom then presides
over the sacrificial offering. The next section relates that which is sec-
ondary to the reunion story (Durham, 1998).
The next pericope (Ex. 18:13–27) reveals Moses’ function as judge
and the selection of leaders regarding Israel’s civil system (Durham,
1998). Durham (1998) recognizes that through Moses’s knowledge of
God, judicial decision is made. Likewise, developing leader learn to fol-
low his pattern (Durham, 1998). Durham (1998) reveals God as the
source of Jethro’s advice, and Moses ought to remain the supreme judge
and teacher. Durham (1998) states “the selection process of ­developing
leader must happen with great care (almost with reliance upon a vision-
ary perception, ‫ )חזה‬from the whole of Israel, and is to include only
men who are able, firm, and honest and ‘who have reverence for God’”
(Durham, 1998, p. 250). Although the division of people to leaders
(tens, fifties, hundreds, and thousands) may be seen as military struc-
ture, Durham finds no supporting evidence. Yet, the judgment of Moses
and the newly installed leaders must be obeyed.

In Israel as elsewhere in the [Ancient Near East] ANE, all laws were the
gift of deity, and obedience of them, finally, amounted to obedience of
God or gods. The requirements and instructions Moses’ chosen helpers
are to promulgate are thus no more “secular” and no less divinely drawn
and monitored than are those Moses himself promulgates. (Durham,
1998, p. 251)
54    
S. W. Boyer

Durham (1998) reiterates stating obedience must happen since the both
Moses and the developing leaders have one source of judgment and wis-
dom, God. The only difference of the judgments concerns the difficulty
of the cases (Durham, 1998). In a sense, Moses took the cases in which
no precedence exists, while simultaneously teaching the new leaders
(Durham, 1998). Therefore, essential factors concerning Moses’ lead-
ership include the reuniting of family, the intimate knowledge of God
and developing new leadership.

Summary
Leadership and the development of leaders occur within complex con-
textual elements including the social, cultural, and organizational
environment (Barentsen, 2011; Day et al., 2013). The effectiveness
of leaders multiplies, as attention toward the dominant culture values
remains (Dorfman et al., 2012). Leadership development is a major
focus within authentic leadership.
Authentic leaders remain “guided by the qualities of the heart, pas-
sion, and compassion as they are by qualities of the mind” with the
major focus of empowerment and betterment of others (Avolio et al.,
2004, p. 806). Klenke (2007) “hypothesize that spirituality (defined as
self-transcendence, self-sacrifice, and a sense of meaning and purpose)
actually serves as a precursor of authentic leadership” (Klenke, 2007,
p. 73). Klenke (2007) likewise raises the notion of leaders maintaining
greater spiritual maturity than their counterparts. Spiritual leadership
within organizations involves self-actualization, knowing self, transcend-
ence, unity with others and the world, and empowerment through the
Spirit of God (Benefiel, 2005; Dent et al., 2005; Fry, 2003; Howard,
2002; Kriger & Seng, 2005; Sanders, 2007), yet only Sander (2007)
specifically acknowledges empowerment through the Spirit of God. The
literature reveals significant lacuna in the connection between spiritual-
ity (as defined through the Scriptures, an intimate knowledge and rela-
tionship with God) within both authentic and spiritual leadership.
The Scriptures remain a desirable source toward data on both spirit-
uality and leadership. A connecting factor within Exodus 18 reveals that
 2  Aspects of Leadership    
55

God remains the source of wisdom, knowledge and morals. God is spirit
(John 4:24) and therefore remains the supreme source of spirituality.
Disagreement throughout the literature concerns the main purpose—
family reunion, Jethro’s conversion, or as an admonition to avoid Moses’
failure. Nevertheless, leadership and leadership selection and developmental
principles may be revealed. The leadership, laws, decrees, and judgments are
from God. Moses remained the primary human figure disseminating the
judgments, due to Moses intimate relationship with God. Moses’ counter-
parts were then carefully selected and mentored as developing leaders. A
sociorhetorical analysis provides insights from Exodus 18 toward leaders,
specifically the small group leadership selection and development.

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 3
Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method

This research explores the Scriptures toward more robust small group
leadership development principles. Scripture commands that not a
single word be added (Duet. 12:32; Prov. 30:6; Rev. 22:18–19) or
taken away from the word of God (Duet. 12:32; Rev. 22:18–19).
Additionally, the apostle Paul admonished his protégé Timothy to “do
your best to present yourself to God as one approved, a worker who
has no need to be ashamed, rightly handling the word of truth” (2 Tim.
2:15). Orthotoméō is the Greek word for the phrase rightly handling and
may be defined as “to cut or divide, to handle correctly, skillfully; to
correctly teach the word of truth” (Zodhiates, 2000, p. 1057). The apos-
tle Peter also warns of proper interpretation of the Scriptures, particu-
larly in difficult passages “there are some things in them that are hard to
understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruc-
tion, as they do the other Scriptures” (1 Peter 3:16). Given this, the
careful and scientific study of Scriptures remains a necessity. The study
employs Robbins (1996a) sociorhetorical critical analysis toward the
exploration of Exodus 18 and compares the findings to SL and AL. Due
to critical factors within the text, historicity, social, cultural, narrative,
linguistic, and rhetoric, are necessitating a careful and comprehensive
© The Author(s) 2019 61
S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_3
62    
S. W. Boyer

hermeneutic. The multidisciplinary process of sociorhetorical criti-

cism provides analysis and results for understanding and applying the
timeless values, ethics, and principles toward contemporary leadership
theory.

Research Design
The study explores the leadership of Moses within Exodus 18 toward
applicable small group leadership principles through the lens of AL
and SL. Hermeneutics remains a significant factor toward the study of
Exodus 18. “Hermeneutics is the science and art of biblical interpreta-
tion” (Ramm, 1984, p. 1).

Hermeneutics is a science in that it can determine certain principles for

discovering the meaning of a document, and in that these principles are
not a mere list of rules but bear organic connection to each other. It is
also an art as we previolsy indicated because principles or rules can never
be applied mechanically but involve the skill (techne) of the interpreter.
(Ramm, 1984, p. 11)

God speaking within the Holy Scriptures remains at the very heart of
the Christian faith (Ramm, 1984). Given this, the preeminent pur-
pose of hermeneutics is “to ascertain what God has said in the Sacred
Scriptures; to determine the meaning of the word of God” (Ramm,
1984, p. 2). “The Greek term hermēneuein, means to explain or inter-
pret” (Stein, 2011, p. 17). The term is found within the Scriptures in
John 1:42; 9:7; Hebrews 7:2; and Luke 24:27 (Stein, 2011).
Hermeneutics is the “science that delineates principals or methods for
interpreting an individual authors meaning” (Osborne, 2006, p. 22).
Additionally, “hermeneutics is important because it enables one to move
from text to context, to allow the God inspired meaning of the Word to
speak today with as fresh and dynamic relevance as it had in its original
setting” (Osborne, 2006, p. 23). Osborne (2006) makes clear the pur-
pose and intent of hermeneutics concerns understanding and allowing
the God of the Word and the Word of God to speak, rather then the
 3  Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method    
63

opinions of the preacher. Finally, a warning is offered through Osborne

that hermeneutics, specifically the careful application of hermeneu-
tics, remains a sentry to assure that appropriate application is applied
through the consistent and conscientious use.
“The word hermeneutics is ultimately derived from Hermes the
Greek god who brought the messages of the gods to the mortals, and
was the god of science, invention, eloquence, speech, writing, and
art” (Ramm, 1984, p. 11). Yet, spiritual qualifications also maintain
an important factor toward interpretation (Ramm, 1984). Further,
this proposed research accords with the qualifications of an interpreter
including: (a) “that he be born again, (b) a passion to know God’s word,
(c) the interpreter have always a deep reverence for God, (d) and utter
dependence upon the Holy Spirit to guide and direct” (Ramm, 1984,
p. 13).
Of the many problems that researchers encounter in utilizing texts
as primary research sources, to name just two; deconstructionism, or
the undoing of truth and meaning, and projecting of self into text. This
remains a difficulty of qualitative/phenomenological research as well as
within hermeneutics. According to Vanhoozer (2009) deconstruction-
ism remains a strategy for taking apart or undoing. Hatch (2006) states
deconstructionism is reading, rereading text, revealing different context
in order to reveal meaning, is alluding and varying because of changing
situations. Derrida (1970, as cited in Vanhoozer, 2009) states that no
one interpretation can claim the fixed or correct view, thus text has no
intentional or unchanging meaning. Solutions offered by multidiscipli-
nary approaches in textual research reveal that text does have meaning
(Osborne, 2006; Ramm, 1984; Vanhoozer, 2009).
Vanhoozer (2009) states two responsibilities of the interpreter. Make
every effort to know what can be known, and avoid claiming to know
what cannot be known about a text. Vanhoozer then suggests avoid-
ing pride (my meaning is correct, even without much labor) and sloth
(I can never know for sure, so why try). Clearly, the purpose of research
is to allow the message to provide full application into the reader’s life.
Derrida (1970, as cited in Vanhoozer, 2009) would say people
put so much of themselves into the text that real meaning is illusive.
Hermeneutics requires discipline, not abandonment of comprehending
64    
S. W. Boyer

the truth (Osborne, 2006; Snodgrass, 2011; Vanhoozer, 2009).

Osborne (2006) confesses that every person brings a portion of them
into this process of hermeneutics. Snodgrass (2011) deals with this in
his evaluation of the hermeneutics of identity: “Identity is the result of
the person thinking, interpreting, and concentrating life and character”
(p. 13). This means the reader must submit to allowing the text to speak
and not force the text into the reader’s desired message. This process
must incorporate discipline. The study answers these questions:

RQ1: What cognitive and ethical standards did Moses require concerning
developing leaders?
RQ2: What leadership values and practices did Moses develop within
followers?
RQ3: Is there a potential impact toward principles for small group
leadership?

Researcher bias may happen within quantitative, qualitative, or exe-

getical research.
Padgett (2008) declares statistical research favors a closed or con-
trolled system in which much effort is made to eliminate or minimize
the effect of observational context, as well as the observer. Quantitative
research includes various instruments that provide evaluation of con-
structs with numerical values, yet without providing personal percep-
tions, meaning, and values through document analysis. Padgett (2008)
declares that qualitative research remains an open system that seeks to
represent the world and all its complexities, particularly and holistically
with detail concerning insiders’ stories. Patton (2002) states qualitative
methods typically produce a wealth of exhaustive information with a
much smaller number of people and cases then quantitative research.
Enhancing the quality and credibility of research requires the research-
ers’ acknowledgment of potential bias. The researcher of this study
holds the view that all Scripture, inerrant as originally given, were ver-
bally inspired by God, revealing the will of God toward the salvation
of humanity, and that Scripture remains the divine rule for faith and
practice (2 Peter 1:20–21; 2 Timothy 3:15–16). This view of Scripture
facilitates, rather then hinders, the findings through literature, cultural,
 3  Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method    
65

social implications, including all aspects revealed through sociorhetor-

ical analysis. This research embraces the employment of various ele-
ments of qualitative, phenomenological, exegetical approaches toward
document analysis. The significance of this study concerns reporting
accurately with trustworthiness and authenticity the ability toward
researching, analyzing, with neutrality, the effect of providing insights
from Exodus 18 toward leaders, specifically the small group leadership
selection and development.

Sociorhetorical Analysis
Robbins (1996a) states that sociorhetorical criticism offers many ben-
efits to the researcher, although it was never intended to be all things
to all people. According to Robbins (1996a) sociorhetorical criticism
incorporates a four-arena approach to interpreting Scripture; “inner
texture, intertexture, social and cultural texture, ideological texture in
exegetical interpretation” (p. 3). Robbins (1996b) now incorporates an
additional facet to sociorhetorical criticism, sacred texture analysis in
exegetical interpretation. de Silva (2004) breaks Robbins’ process down
in this way, “Engages the text itself in detailed analysis, examines the
way the text converses with other ‘text’ in its environment, investigates
the world that produced the text, and analyzes how the text affects that
very world” (p. 24).
Robbins (1996a) states that “no interpreter should allow one arena of
texture” to create a boundary, but rather removing boundaries (p. 20).
In other words, states Robbins (1996a) each portion of methodology
stands with equal consideration (p. 41). de Silva (2004) states “an inter-
preter will not always use everyone of the resources of socio-rhetorical
criticism” because “some are more suited to one kind of text that to
another” (p. 25).
de Silva (2004) breaks Robbins’ (1996a) process down in this way.
“Engages the text itself in detailed analysis, examines the way the text con-
verses with other ‘text’ in its environment, further, investigates the world
that produced the text, and analyzes how the text affects that very world”
(de Silva, 2004, p. 24). Koptak (1999) describes Robbins’ method.
66    
S. W. Boyer

Five textures— inner texture (getting inside a text), intertexture (entering

the interactive world of a text), social and cultural texture (living with a
text in the world), ideological texture (sharing interests in commentary
and text) and sacred texture (seeking the Divine in a text)—offer a com-
prehensive map of the various interpretive methods practiced in the acad-
emy today. (Koptak, 1999, p. 123)

Koptak may have better-stated intertexture as entering the interactive

world of text(s), including the fact that other texts will be incorporated.
de Silva (2004) adds that New Testament writers often incorporate
lines or phases of Hebrew text. This study seeks to apply the method of
sociorhetorical critical analysis discovering through the sacred text the
intent and meaning or meanings for which the divine purpose commu-
nicates to humanity. The study, through sociorhetorical analysis, pro-
vides insights from Scripture toward leaders, specifically the small group
leadership selection and development.

Sociorhetorical Analysis
The genesis of sociorhetorical criticism developed through the disunity
of individuals due to an onslaught of interpretation methods including
new literary, rhetorical, structuralist, linguistic, sociological, materialist,
and ideological methods (Robbins, 1996a). Social scientific criticism
developed through a similar situation.

The rise to prominence of the social sciences from the late nineteenth
century on, and the impact of the sociology of knowledge in a wide
range of academic disciplines; the influence on interpretation theory of
the hermeneutics of suspicion represented by such intellectual giants as
Nietzsche, Durkheim, Marx, and Freud; the exhaustion of the histor-
ical-critical method as traditionally understood, and the failure of form
criticism to fulfill its promise of identifying the Sitze im Leben of New
Testament texts; shifts in historiography generally away from the “great
man” view of history typical of Romanticism to one more attentive to his-
tory “from below,” with a much stronger popular and sociological dimen-
sion; the influence of the discovery of texts and archaeological remains,
 3  Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method    
67

as at Qumran, which provide important new comparative data for social

history and sociological analysis; and the surfacing of different kinds of
questions to put to the New Testament in the light of developments in
twentieth-century theology, not least, the failure of liberal theology and
the urgent concerns (often of a social and political kind) raised by libera-
tion and feminist theologies. (Barton, 2002, p. 278)

Due to these factors cultural and historical background remain inte-

gral aspects of exegesis (Dvorak, 2007), yet additional multidiscipli-
nary approaches in textual research remain anticipated. Social scientific
criticism is “that phase of the exegetical task which analyzes the social
and cultural dimensions of the text and of its environmental context
through the utilization of the perspectives, theory, models, and research
of the social sciences” (Elliot, 1993, p. 7).
Dvorak (2007) states two chief focuses of social scientific criticism,
sociocultural anthropology and social-scientific exegesis.

The objective of sociological exegesis is the determination of the social as

well as the literary and theological conditions, content and intended con-
sequences of our text; that is, the determination of the sum of its features
which make it a vehicle of social interaction and an instrument of social
as well as literary and theological consequence. (Elliot, 1981, pp. 7–8)

Sociorhetorical criticism provides a combination of social ­scientific

criticism and rhetorical criticism (Henson, 2014; Robbins, 1996b).
“The socio refers to the rich resources of anthropology and sociol-
ogy that contribute to social–scientific criticism” (Henson, 2014,
p. 60). The term rhetorical refers to the communication process pro-
vided through the author, text, and reader (Robbins, 1996b). “The
first sustained socio-rhetorical study was an analysis of the rela-
tion of the we-passages in Acts to ancient Mediterranean sea voy-
ages” (Robbins, 2004, p. 6). Robbins (1996a) introduced the term
sociorhetorical in 1984 “to describe a set of integrated strategies that
would move coherently through inner literary and rhetorical features
of the Gospel of Mark into a social and cultural interpretation of its
discourse in the context of the Mediterranean world” (p. 3). There
68    
S. W. Boyer

remains a dynamic movement within sociorhetorical criticism “from

author to reader and from reader to author, words, characters, repre-
sented world, implied author and implied reader al ‘imitate’ the world”
(Robbins, 1996b, p. 24).
“Between 1983 and 1991 sociorhetorical criticism focused on Luke-
Acts, pronouncement stories, miracle stories and sayings” (Robbins,
2004, p. 8). Since this time, sociorhetorical criticism has been imple-
mented in various NT passages. Sociorhetorical criticism is now used
toward the analysis of extra biblical literature (Robbins, 2004). This
happened as researchers began using sociorhetorical criticism within the
researchers’ particular field of study. The first OT usage of sociorhetor-
ical criticism happened “in 1997, Martin Oosthuizen produced a mul-
tiple texture sociorhetorical interpretation of Deuteronomy 15:1-18”
(Robbins, 2004, p. 8). Currently, in the twenty-first century sociorhe-
torical studies are formulated throughout the globe (Robbins, 2004).
One of the purposes of sociorhetorical criticism concerns provid-
ing “areas of analysis in conversation with one another” (Robbins,
1996a, p. 3). The process encourages interpreters toward the explo-
ration of “human reality and religious beliefs and practice” through
the many layered textural contexts (Robbins, 1996a, p. 13).
Additionally, the method provides angles through “multiply tex-
tures of meanings, convictions, beliefs, values, emotions and actions
(Robbins, 1996a, p. 18). The approach of sociorhetorical criticism
involves a four-arena approach to interpreting Scripture; “inner tex-
ture, intertexture, social and cultural texture, ideological texture in
exegetical interpretation” (p. 3). Robbins currently integrates a fur-
ther aspect to sociorhetorical criticism, sacred texture analysis in exe-
getical interpretation.

Inner Texture

Inner texture analysis in sociorhetorical criticism involves incorpo-

rating the world of the author and the world of the reader, so that
the world of the author, interpreter, and text are intertwined to inter-
pret the inner texture of the text (Robbins, 1996a). The focus of the
 3  Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method    
69

analysis remains within the text, author and reader/interpreter, inter-

playing a world within. Robbins (1996a) states that inner texture
“concerns relationships among word-phrase and narrational patterns
that produce argumentative and aesthetic patterns in texts” (p. 46).
The process endeavors toward the author’s original meaning (textual
criticism) understanding meanings and connotations, (word stud-
ies, grammatical analysis) content of meaning related toward context
(literary context) examining repetition (repetitive context), persuad-
ing power of text toward readers and hearers (rhetorical criticism)
and “reflects on the way the text communicates and creates meaning
as literature” (narrative criticism) (de Silva, 2004, p. 24). Robbins
involves five kinds of inner texture in text. The textures include (a)
repetitive-progressive; (b) opening-middle-closing; (c) narrational;
(d) argumentative, and (e) aesthetic (Robbins, 1996a). Robbins
(1996a) states “argumentative texture appears when interpreters use
rhetorical resources of analysis in the context of repetitive-progres-
sive, opening-middle-closing, and narrational texture” (pp. 58–59).
Finally, Robbins (1996a) understands the most significant findings
through argumentative texture concerns “awareness of social and cul-
tural presuppositions and networks of reasoning” (p. 64). Given the
multidisciplinary functions of argumentative texture, and the primary
purpose of the research within Exodus 18, the research will focus on
the argumentative texture. The narrative of Exodus 18 contains social
and cultural implications of Hebrew and Midian (Enns, 2000), while
involving literature and rhetorical elements.

Intertexture

Intertexture is the process of the text conversing with other text

(de Silva, 2004). The interpreter focuses on author and the text, not
the reader (Robbins, 1996a). de Silva (2004) states NT writers often
“incorporate lines” or phases of “Hebrew” text (p. 24). The questions
may then arise, “what resources did the author use and how did the
author incorporate or apply them? How does the author’s perspec-
tive and purpose emerge through the study of changes made to a
70    
S. W. Boyer

literary source (redaction criticism)?” (de Silva, 2004, p. 24). The pro-
cess heightens awareness of elements outside the text, “social, histor-
ical, and material information,” yet riddled within the text through
“quotations and allusions” (p. 32). Robbins puts forth a four-point
method that includes: (a) Oral-scribal intertexture, (b) histori-
cal intertexture, (c) social intertexture, and (d) cultural intertexture
(Robbins, 1996a).
Oral-scribal intertexture. The text incorporates the recontextualiza-
tion, or the oral-scribal intertexture (citing terms out of biblical text
without stating where) of several terms within Exodus 18, the LORD
God, The God of my father, the LORD is greater than all gods, as well
as the use of numerical groupings. Additionally, as noted previously, a
high level “of lexical overlap” occurs throughout Chapter 18 and the
former chapter (Enns, 2000, p. 367).

In 17:8, the Amalekites came and attacked; in 18:5–7, Jethro comes

and greets. In both 17:9 and 18:25, men are chosen for some spe-
cific task. In 17:12, Moses sits on a stone; in 18:13 he sits to judge.
Moreover, both activities are said to commence on the next day (17:9;
18:13) and last all day until evening (17:12; 18:13–14). In both
17:12 and 18:18 Moses is said to be tired, with help provided in each
instance. (Enns, 2000, p. 367)

Historical intertexture focuses on a particular event or period of time

(Robbins, 1996a, p. 127). This feature is revealed through the his-
toricity of the events that take place in Exodus 17–18, specifically, in
Chapter 17 the battle of Israel and Amalek, in Chapter 18 the reunion
of Jethro and Moses’ wife and children (Enns, 2000). Social intertexture
refers to information that raises a ‘social reality’ and is generally availa-
ble to people groups within the Mediterranean world (Robbins, 1996a,
p. 118). Cultural Intertexture “concerns symbolic worlds and particu-
lar communities discourse nurtured with special nuances emphases”
(Robbins, 1996a, p. 115). Social and cultural intertexture will illumi-
nate aspects of social and cultural implications concerning the Hebrew
and Midian peoples.
 3  Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method    
71

Social and Cultural Texture

The use of anthropological and sociological theory provides the dif-

ference from intertexture (Robbins, 1996a). Social and culture tex-
ture interchanges “the world of the text to the world of the author
and audience” (de Silva, 2004, p. 24). Through the process the histor-
ical event is revealed accurately, in other words, “discerning the situa-
tion behind the text” (de Silva, 2004, p. 24). Additionally, the process
seeks to reveal, implementing social-scientific analysis, the everyday liv-
ing events which took place, now revealing to the audience (de Silva,
2004). Robbins (1996a) defines three dimensions of social and cul-
tural texture: (a) Specific topics—opinions, concepts, and subjects that
take center stage within local social conversation. (b) Common top-
ics—values, patterns, or codes dominant in a particular culture. (c)
Final topics—concerns what Robbins (1996b) calls ‘culture location’
which reveals the custom of the culture toward presenting and dis-
cussing propositions, arguments, and ideals. “Specific social topics, the
first dimension, are thoughts, ideas, and subjects that are central to a
particular kind of social discourse. These topics distinguish one kind
of social discourse from another” (Bayes, 2010, p. 117). In one event,
the three dimensions of social and cultural texture within Exodus 18
include Moses declaring the covenantal name of God to Jethro (Kaiser,
1990), including all that Yahweh has done. Toward the common top-
ics, Moses relates the “decrees” or “specific enactments,” and “laws” or
“general enactments” and “the way to live” or their specific “lifestyle and
path of duty,” for each individual (Kaiser, 1990, p. 413). In view of final
topics, Moses is God’s leader “representing the community before God,
bringing their concerns into the divine presence and discerning the will
of God for their daily life” (Fretheim, 1991, p. 199). Moses remains the
teacher of the community, now only deciding specific cases (Fretheim,
1991).
Robbins uses an adaptation of Bryan Wilson’s sociological definitions
to sociorhetorical descriptions of religious rhetoric, which include seven
major divisions (Robbins, 1996a). The seven major responses to the
world brought through the religious discourse, as shown in Table 3.1,
involve the following:
72    
S. W. Boyer

Table 3.1  Wilson’s sociological typology of sects

Response Description
Conversionist Views the world as corrupt because all people are corrupt: if
people can be changed then the world will be changed
Revolutionist Assumes that only the destruction of the world, of the nat-
ural but more specifically of the social order, will suffice to
save people
Introversionist Sees the world as irredeemably evil and presupposes that
salvation can be attained only by the fullest possible with-
drawal from it
Gnostic Seeks only a transformed set of relationship—a transformed
(manipulation- method of coping with evil—since salvation is possible in
ist) the world if people learn the right means, improved tech-
niques, to deal with their problems
Thaumaturgical Focuses on the concern of individual people for relief from
present and specific ills by special dispensations
Reformist Assumes that people may create an environment of salva-
tion in the world by using supernaturally given insights to
change the present social organization into a system that
functions toward good ends
Utopian Presupposes that people must take an active and constructive
role in replacing the entire present social system with a new
social organization in which evil is absent
Note Adapted with permission from “Socio-Rhetorical Criticism: Mary, Elizabeth
and the Magnificat as a Test Case,” by V. K. Robbins, as cited in E. McKnight & E.
Malbon (Eds.), 1994, Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplemental
Series, 109, pp. 185–186. Retrieved from www.religion.emory.edu/faculty/rob-
bins/Pdfs/Magnificat.pdf

Ideological Texture

The main function of ideological texture concerns aspects of cognitive

moral, and social order (Robbins, 1996a). Ideology within text is defined
as “an integrated system of beliefs, assumptions, and values” (Davis, as
cited in Robbins, 1996b, p. 14), which takes place within a specific time,
location, and culture. “The investigation especially seeks to identify the
intersection of ideas, ideals, and social action and to detect the collective
needs and interests that patterns represent” (Elliot, as cited in Robbins,
1996a, p. 193). For Elliot, this provides a view of God’s people becom-
ing a family (Robbins, 1996a).
 3  Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method    
73

Robbins (1996a) states ideological analysis happens in four locations:

(a) within the text, (b) accepted traditions and interpretations, (c) s­cholarly
discourse and, (d) individuals and groups (p. 193). Ideological textural
analysis provides understanding that the text is not just providing ideas, but
“a vehicle by which the author hopes to achieve a certain goal” (de Silva,
2004, p. 25). The interplay of other texts is required for the successful anal-
ysis of the “authors ideological strategy” (de Silva, 2004, p. 25). “Repetition
of words and phases, rhetorical analysis, use of other text (intertexture), use
of cultural and social scripts, and the rest have the potential of a­ dvancing
the authors agenda for the hearers in their situation” (de Silva, 2004,
p. 25). Fretheim invites cultural overlays within the establishing of Israel’s
newly established values system. Fretheim (1991) understands the new
administration order provided through Jethro as not necessarily divine
action, but through divine providence wisdom, insight, and skills that are
provided to the faithful and faithless alike. Durham (1998) reveals that
through Moses’s knowledge of God, legal decisions are made. Similarly,
new leaders follow Moses’ pattern (Durham, 1998). Durham (1998) dis-
closes that since God is the source of Jethro’s advice, Moses ought to
remain the highest judge and teacher. As noted previously, Durham (1998)
states the selection process of developing leader must happen with “great
care (almost with reliance upon a visionary perception, ‫ )הזח‬from the whole
of Israel, and is to include only men who are able, firm, and honest and
‘who have reverence for God’” (Durham, 1998, p. 250).

Sacred Texture

The primary function of sacred texture analysis concerns the way the
text related toward the human and the divine. This texture is closely
interwoven within the other four textures (Inner, inter, social/cultural,
and ideological). This texture includes particular characteristics regard-
ing deity, holy persons, divine history, human redemption, human
commitment, religious community, and ethics (Robbins, 1996b). The
specific purpose within the communication between God and man
revolves around the salvation of humanity. Exodus 18 reveals beliefs
and values established center on salvation and deliverance. One reveals
74    
S. W. Boyer

the reunion of Moses’s wife Zipporah, “Moses sent them back, possibly
when the contest with Pharaoh escalated and their life was endangered”
(Janzen, 2000, p. 224). Another provides insight toward the Moses’
children’s names. “Both the meeting and the sons’ names work together
to emphasize that Moses’ commission to bring Israel out of Egypt has
been completed and Israel has ‘arrived’” (Janzen, 2000, pp. 225–226).
Finally, the section ends with the declaration of Moses toward the deliv-
erance of Israel and all God had done, and Jethros’ response—Janzen

Table 3.2  Textures in sociorhetorical interpretation

Figure 1 Textures in sociorhetorical interpretation. Reprinted with permission

from http://www.religion.emory.edu/faculty/robbins/Pdfs/SRIBegDevRRA.pdf.
The table is available interactively at http://www.religion.emory.edu/faculty/rob-
bins/SRI/defns/index.cfm by V. K. Robbins, 1996, Atlanta, GA: Emory University.
Copyright 1996 by V. K. Robbins
 3  Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method    
75

(2000) posits this event as salvific for Jethro—otherwise he would not

have been invited to worship, and offer sacrifices with Moses and Aaron.
As previously mentioned, Robbins (1996a) states that “no interpreter
should allow one arena of texture” to create a boundary, but rather
removing boundaries (p. 20). In other words, Robbins (1996a) states
each portion of methodology stands with equal consideration (p. 41).
Table 3.2 reveals the multidimensional aspects of sociorhetorical anal-
ysis. de Silva (2004) states “an interpreter will not always use everyone
of the resources of socio-rhetorical criticism” because “some are more
suited to one kind of text that to another” (p. 25). Koptak (1999)
declares, “Robbins does not attempt to show how the approaches may
be integrated, but rather allows each to stand on its own, cautioning
that exclusive focus on any of the five would limit and impoverish
interpretation” (p. 123). Koptak (1999) also relates Robbins comment
that no one method of interpretation yields all the insights that can be
drawn from a text. This research applies the sociorhetorical analysis dis-
covering through the sacred text the intent and meaning/meanings for
which the divine purpose communicates to humanity.

Limitations of the Study

The first mentionable limitation occurs in view of inner texture—open—
middle—closing texture. Open, middle, closing refers to the begin-
ning and end of a story within the context of time (Peterson, as cited
in Robbins, 1996a). “A lexical overlap” occurs throughout Chapter 18
and the former chapter (Enns, 2000, p. 367). The emphasis within
suggests connections and conflicts within the cultures and families of
Amelak, Hebrews, and Midain, although this research remains con-
fined to Exodus 18. The second limitation concerns the marriage and
possible divorce of Moses and his wife Zipporah, this research provides
only limited research toward the family aspect, not concerning the his-
toricity of the alleged divorce. Thirdly, the intertexture analysis engaged
other text, and will only be engaged as the study demands. Fourthly, the
research is limited within the current data toward AL and SL theories,
and seeks corresponding principles through the leadership of Moses and
76    
S. W. Boyer

the developing leader selection. Whereas AL and SL theories continue to

develop, this research seeks only to provide correlation within current AL
and SL theories through principles mined with Exodus 18.
Finally, the research involves a sociorhetorical analysis of Exodus
18, for the purpose of deriving leadership and leadership development
principles. The proposed research seeks to engage a five-arena approach
to interpreting Scripture, to record no study has engaged all five
approaches toward Exodus 18.
Additionally and noteworthy, the scholars within the literature
review use the OT text from the biblia hebraica stuttgartensia, which
is a version of the Masoretic Text (MT), combined with the Septuagint
(Durham, 1998; Janzen, 2000) while others use the biblia hebraica
stuttgartensia with the MT (Enns, 2000; Kaiser, 1990) yet others pre-
ferred only the MT (Fretheim, 1991; Stuart, 2006). Concerning the
text of book of Exodus “was, of course, copied many dozens of times
thereafter before it came into the form now known as the MT and
exemplified by the most commonly used manuscript from that tra-
dition, the Leningrad Codex of ad 1008” (Stuart, 2006, p. 26). This
research uses the MT, in which Stuart (2006) comments:

The lxx of these books is not expansionistic, but rather the MT of these
books tends now and again to be haplographic, that is, characterized by
omissions that shorten the overall text slightly. Most of these omissions
are minor; none has, in our opinion, any significant meaning-changing
bearing on the interpretation of the book of Exodus or any full passage
therein. (Stuart, 2006, p. 27)

Importantly, the prosed research is confined toward a Western

Christianity biblical perspective (previously noted bias) of leadership
selection, and leadership development as represented in Exodus 18.

Summary
The main focus concerning the researches involves principles relat-
ing toward cognitive and moral implications of leadership selection, and
leadership development. More precisely, the emphasis of the leadership
 3  Hermeneutics and the Exegetical Method    
77

principles concerns small group leadership. The leadership principles

mined through this study are correlated to contemporary leadership the-
ories, specifically AL and SL theories. Moreover, the sociorhetorical anal-
ysis employed is guided by the admonitions of Scripture (Duet. 12:32;
Prov. 30:6; 2 Tim. 2:15; 1 Peter 3:16; Rev. 22:18–19) and scholars alike
(Osborne, 2006; Ramm, 1984; Vanhoozer, 2009).

References
Barton, S. C. (2002). Social-Scientific Criticism. In S. E. Porter (Ed.),
A Handbook to the Exegesis of the New Testament. Boston: Brill.
Bayes, J. D. (2010). Five Fold Ministry: A Social and Cultural Texture Analysis
of Ephesians 4: 11–16. Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership, 3(1),
113–122.
de Silva, D. A. (2004). An Introduction to the New Testament: Contexts, Methods
and Ministry Formation. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.
Durham, J. I. (1998). Exodus. Dallas: Word, Incorporated.
Dvorak, J. D. (2007). John H. Elliott’s Social-Scientific Criticism. Trinity
Journal, 28NS, 251–278.
Elliot, J. H. (1981). A Home for the Homeless. Philadelphia: Fortress.
Elliot, J. H. (1993). What Is Social-Scientific Criticism? Minneapolis, MN:
Fortress Press.
Fretheim, T. E. (1991). Exodus. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press.
Enns, P. (2000). Exodus. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
Hatch, M. J., & Cunliffe, A. L. (2006). Organization Theory: Modern,
Symbolic, and Postmodern Perspectives (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Henson, J. D. (2014). An Examination of the Role of Spirituality in the
Development of the Moral Component of Authentic Leadership Through a
Sociorhetorical Analysis of Paul’s Letter to Titus (PROQUESTMS disserta-
tions & theses @ Regent University; ProQuest dissertations & theses Full
Text, Regent University).
Janzen, W. (2000). Exodus. Waterloo, ON and Scottdale, PA: Herald Press.
Kaiser, W. C., Jr. (1990). Exodus. In F. E. Gaebelein (Ed.), The Expositor’s Bible
Commentary: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers (Vol. 2, p. 412). Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.
78    
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Koptak, P. E. (1999). Exploring the Texture of Texts: A Guide to Socio-

Rhetorical Interpretation. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society,
42(1), 122–124. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCO host.
Osborne, G. R. (2006). The Hermeneutical Spiral. Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press.
Padgett, D. (2008). Qualitative Methods in Social Work Research. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ramm, B. (1984). Protestant Biblical Interpretation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Book House.
Robbins, V. K. (1996a). The Tapestry of Early Christian Discourse: Rhetoric,
Society and Ideology. New York: Routledge.
Robbins, V. K. (1996b). Dictionary of Socio-Rhetorical Terms. Retrieved from
http://www.religion.emory.edu/faculty/robbins/SRI/defns/index.cfm.
Robbins, V. K. (2004). Beginnings and Developments in Socio-Rhetorical
Interpretation. Retrieved from http://www.religion.emory.edu/faculty/rob-
bins/Pdfs/SRIBegDevRRA.pdf.
Snodgrass, K. (2011). Introduction to a Hermeneutics of Identity. Bibliotheca
Sacra, 168(669), 3–19.
Stein, R. H. (2011). Playing by the Rules: A Basic Guide to Interpreting the Bible.
Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.
Stuart, D. K. (2006). Exodus (Vol. 2). Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman.
Vanhoozer, K. J. (2009). Is There a Meaning in This Text?: The Bible, The Reader
and The Morality of Literary Knowledge. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
Zodhiates, S. (2000). The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament
(Electronic ed.). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
 4
Leadership Principles in Exodus 18

Author, implied reader, date, and purpose of Exodus remain varied and
debated among scholars. While there remains value in determining the
author, implied reader, date, and purpose of Exodus, the main focus
of the researcher concerns the body of text itself (Cassuto, 1997; Cole,
1973; Enns, 2000; Kaiser, 1990). Nevertheless, a succinct review of
consensus, and moreover viewpoint of the researcher, remains helpful.
Through source criticism, scholars have suggested to the neglect
of internal biblical support, that multiple sources and authors exist
for Exodus. “The well-known Documentary Hypothesis, popular-
ized by the German scholar Julius Wellhausen in the latter half of the
nineteenth century, is certainly guilty of this” (Enns, 2000, p. 20).
However, researchers remain inclined toward accepting Documentary
Hypothesis (Fretheim, 1991; Propp, 2008). Other biblical schol-
ars reject Documentary Hypothesis, yet without assigning authorship
toward Exodus (Cassuto, 1997; Cole, 1973; Enns, 2000). Moreover,
internal claims (17:14; 24:4; 34:27) provide support toward the author-
ship of Moses. Given this, scholars remain convinced of the ancient
acknowledgment that Moses is the author of Exodus (Kaiser, 1990; Keil
& Delitzsch, 1996; Smith, 1993; Stuart, 2006; Willmington, 1997).
© The Author(s) 2019 79
S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_4
80    
S. W. Boyer

Additionally, support for Moses’ authorship exists within the New

Testament. “Mark 12:26 locates Exodus 3:6 in ‘the book of Moses,’
while Luke 2:22–23 assigns Exodus 13:2 to both ‘the law of Moses,’ and
‘the Law of the Lord’” (Kaiser, 1990, p. 288). Kaiser (1990) provides
additional New Testament support including Mark 7:10, and John
7:19. Therefore, this research accepts and supports Moses as the author
of Exodus.
The implied reader, as with all other technical historicity factors of
Exodus remains difficult if not impossible to discern (Enns, 2000).
Janzen (2000) posits a first-time reader and repeat reader. “First-time
readers—sometimes called ‘narratees’ in literary theory—are imaginary
readers” (Janzen, 2000, p. 17). These supposed readers might have dif-
ficulty with new material. “Repeat readers, on the other hand, already
‘know their Bible.’ They not only know the (Genesis) story preceding
Exodus, but also the rest of Exodus and much of Israel’s later history,
whether through texts or tradition” (Janzen, 2000, p. 17). This research
accepts this proposal offered through Janzen.
The date of the book has two main theories, based on the men-
tion of two Pharaohs (1:8, 1115, 19, 22; 2:15, 23). One view places
the Pharaohs under the Eighteenth Dynasty—1580–1321—the other
placing of Pharaohs is within the Nineteenth Dynasty—1321–1205—
of the thirteenth century (Kaiser, 1990). Kaiser (1990) provides sig-
nificant reasoning toward debunking the late date in support for the
early date of 1446 B.C., and the early date remains supported through
other scholars (Cabal et al., 2007; Easley, 2002; MacDonald, 1995;
Willmington, 1997). This research agrees with an early date for Exodus.
The purpose of Exodus tapestries of sociocultural focused on God,
and the salvation and deliverance of Israel. Fretheim states the main
“purpose of Exodus is ‘kerygmatic’ that is, it seeks to confront the
reader with the word of God, not a constructive theological statement”
(Fretheim, 1991, p. 11). Yet, Fretheim agrees with theological reflec-
tions within Exodus.
Contrariwise, Kaiser includes various theological themes including
the revelation of God, “his redemption, his law, and his worship…and
the covenant relationship between God and his people” (Kaiser, 1990,
p. 292). Kaiser also includes “attributes of justice, truthfulness, mercy,
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
81

faithfulness, and holiness” (Kaiser, 1990, p. 292), including deliverance,

salvation, ethics, and morality.
Another purpose of Exodus concerns “deliverance from bad servitude
to good servitude” (Stuart, 2006, p. 35). Stuart also finds, in agreement
with Kaiser, the self-disclosure or revelation of God toward his people.
Stuart (2006) additionally includes a covenant relationship with God,
the provision of God in the Promised Land, the holiness of God, the
invisibility of God represented through symbols, and the necessity
of the law while growing in a relationship with the only all-powerful
God. Therefore the purpose of Exodus concerns “confronting the reader
with the word of God” (Fretheim, 1991, p. 11), “his redemption, his
law, and his worship…and the covenant relationship between God and
his people” (Kaiser, 1990, p. 292), and “attributes of justice, truthful-
ness, mercy, faithfulness, and holiness,” (Kaiser, 1990, p. 292), includ-
ing deliverance, salvation, ethics and morality. Additionally, it includes
the necessity of the law while growing in a relationship with the only
all-powerful God (Stuart, 2006).

Sociorhetorical Analysis
Within qualitative phenomenological research, methods of organizing and
analyzing data include “horizonalizing the data and regarding every hori-
zon or statement relevant to the topic” and “meaning or meaning units
are listed” (Moustakes, 1994, p. 118). Furthermore, “cluster themes and
meanings are used to develop the textual descriptions of the experience”
(Moustakes, 1994, p. 118). Similarly, sociorhetorical analysis seeks to pro-
vide perspectives through “multiple textures of meanings, convictions,
beliefs, values, emotions and actions (Robbins, 1996a, p. 18). Through
sociorhetorical analysis the intent and meaning or meanings for which the
divine purpose communicates to humanity are discovered within the sacred
text. Meaning or meanings are discovered through the multilayers of text
within the tapestries of socio-cultural, historical, rhetorical, and literature
analysis. Robbins’ (1996a) approach of sociorhetorical criticism involves a
five-arena approach to interpreting Scripture; “inner texture, intertexture,
social and cultural texture, ideological texture” (p. 3), and sacred texture
82    
S. W. Boyer

analysis in exegetical interpretation. Given this, the research employs socior-

hetorical criticism toward Exodus 18, unveiling historical, theological, cul-
tural, moral, and leadership principles. Although historical, theological,
cultural, moral principles are revealed throughout the text, the text will be
divided into several pericopes for the purpose of mining and examining
leadership and leadership development principles.
Several scholars simply divide the text into two pericopes (Cassuto,
1997; Cole, 1973; Durham, 1998; Enns 2000; Fretheim, 1991; Stuart,
2006). Smith (1993) provides an additional breakdown and includes
three sections. The former breakdown, in essence, reveals Jethro’s arrival
(18:1–12) and then Jethro’s advice (18:13–27), while Smith adds Jethro’s
arrival (18:1–8) and then Jethro’s confession (18:9–12), following
Jethro’s counsel (18:13–27). Kaiser (1990) provides five pericopes (1–5;
6–8; 9–12; 13–16; 17–23), without postulating titles for each section.
This study follows these aforementioned pericopes adding one additional
(1–5; 6–8; 9–12; 13–16; 17–23; 24–27). Although this research follows
the above-mentioned pericopes, the focus of the study differs. This study
seeks to provide insights from Exodus 18 toward leaders, specifically the
small group leadership selection and development.

Exodus 18:1–5

As previously mentioned, some scholars (Durham, 1998; Pink, 1962)

denounce the chronological order of the events within Exodus, includ-
ing Exodus 18. Other scholars (Childs, 1976; Cole, 1973) provide no
comment. Nevertheless, other scholars (Kaiser, 1990; Stuart, 2006) have
provided support for the chronological order of the events (Ex. 15:24–
26; Duet. 19–15). Further, arguments have been made toward sup-
porting the chronological order of the events concerning the battle of
Israel and the Amalekites (Exodus 17) just prior to the family reunion
with Jethro and Moses’ family (Cassuto, 1997; Enns, 2000; Fretheim,
1991). Juxtaposing the battle of Israel and the Amalekites with the fam-
ily reunion aligns with argumentative texture, “where narrators attribute
speech or action to specific people” (Robbins, 1996a, p. 63). The word
usage within the chapter is striking. While 743 words are present in the
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
83

chapter, 297 belong to Jethro, Moses speaks some 65 words, (including

former words spoken in description of his sons names) and finally nar-
ration involves 381. A social and cultural textual aspect in connection
with this concerns that “in Hebrew culture the esteem held for the aged
was related to the assumption that the old had received divine favor (e.g.,
Lev. 19:32; Ps. 128:5–6; Prov. 17:6; Zech. 8:4) and possessed wisdom
(Job 12:12; 32:7; Ps. 105:22),” which provides support toward the mul-
titude of Jethro’s word comparative to Moses’ (Mathews, 2005, p. 846).
Additionally, the text provides various layers of textural insight. Along
with argumentative texture, historical intertexture remains within and
“focuses on a particular event or period of time” (Robbins, 1996a, p.
127).
In consideration of the inner texture within the narrative, specifically
argumentative texture, which concerns “awareness of social and cultural
presuppositions and networks of reasoning” (Robbins, 1996a, p. 64),
the text supports an aspect of “social, cultural environment that the nar-
rator” left unclear (Robbins, 1996a, p. 59). This form of chreia or anec-
dote reveals the difference in socio-cultural environments Moses and the
Israelites were facing. “Chreiai were a major medium for transmitting
tradition and culture in Late Antiquity” (Robbins, 1996a, p. 63). This
practice of chreia or anecdote may “take the form either of interchange
between characters or of commentary, dispute or affirmation after the
narration of the speech and action” (Robbins, 1996a, p. 63).
The meeting represents a family reunion (Durham, 1998; Fretheim,
1991; Janzen, 2000), and the salvation of Jethro (Stuart, 2006) more
importantly, it includes the deliverance of Moses and Israel (Enns,
2000). The passage provides clear support toward the conflict between
Israel and the Amalekites with the family reunion (Cassuto, 1997;
Edersheim, 1975; Enns, 2000; Fretheim, 1991; Janzen, 2000; Stuart,
2006). The tendency between the passages represents a tension within
collectivistic culture. The battle of Israel and the Amalekites (Exodus
17), just prior to the family reunion with Jethro and Moses’ family, sup-
ports a theory toward a lack of trust between Israel and the Amalekites,
and a trusting relationship between Jethro and Moses’ family. The
aspect of trust within groups or organizations remains an essential part
of the effectiveness, success, and betterment of groups or organizations.
84    
S. W. Boyer

Trust concerns factors encompassing the leader’s trust toward the

subordinate(s), and the subordinates’ trust in the leadership, and how
the leader deals with those on the outside. Chun-Hsi Vivian, Shih-Jon,
Wei-Chieh, and Chin-Shin (2008), declare that existing and increasing
trust includes a positive interactive relationship. Trust concerns “a psy-
chological state comprising a willingness to accept vulnerability based
on positive expectations about the intentions or behavior of another”
(Yang & Mossholder, 2010, p. 50). The text supports a lack of vulner-
ability and a lacuna concerning positive expectations between Israel
and the Amalekites, while also revealing a trusting relationship between
Jethro and Moses’ family. Therefore, a trusting family atmosphere sup-
ports the reduction of conflict and supports peace.
The introductory verses 1–5 of chapter 18 begin with the posi-
tive acceptance of a widely broadcasted report (Ex. 15:14) concerning
the great things God has done for Israel (Cassuto, 1997; Enns 2000;
Fretheim, 1991). Cassuto (1997) posits the long absence of Jethro from
the narrative (Ex. 2–4) is the reason for the reintroduction of Jethro.
Jethro the priest of Midian, was a man of importance among his people
(Cassuto, 1997) and “to judge by later Hebrew usage, that would mean
the chief priest of Midian (1 Sam. 1:9), and thus denote a high posi-
tion” (Cole, 1973, p. 144). This text provides insights involving social/
culture intertexture, the interaction of the Hebrew and Midian peoples.
Jethro “is described as a Kenite (Judg. 1:16). This association suggests
a close relationship between the Kenites and Midianites” (Brand et al.,
2003, p. 978). The Midianites began from:

The fourth son of Abraham and his concubine Keturah; eponymous

ancestor of the Midianites (Gen. 21:1; 1 Chr. 1:32). Aside from Isaac,
Sarah’s only child, the fate of all of Abraham’s children was to be sent into
the Arabian desert where they became the eponymous ancestors of Arab
tribes (Gen. 25:6), and “The area associated with Midian was the north-
western corner of the Arabian Peninsula”. (Phelps, 2000, p. 896)

The Kenite theory posits Moses and Israel learned about Yahweh from
Jethro, the Kenite/ Midianite (Durham, 1998). The theory has been
largely debunked (Brand et al., 2003; Cassuto, 1997; Childs, 1976;
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
85

Durham, 1998). Durham (1998) finds the connection between the

Kenites and Midianites lacks support. Cassuto dissents the theory with
a focus on the beginning of the narrative.

The fact that the narrative begins with the name ‫’ אֱֹלהִ ים‬Elōhīm [‘God’]
and continues to use this name and not the Tetragrammaton, except for
verses that seek to emphasize specifically the name of Israel’s God, proves
that there is no substance in the conjecture of a number of scholars that it
was from the Kenites that the Israelites learned to know the name of
YHWH. (Cassuto, 1997, p. 213)

Not only is Jethro mentioned within the first pericope but also
Zipporah, causing the reader to refer back to the earliest portions of
the Exodus narrative (Childs, 1976). Exodus 4:24–26 reveals the cir-
cumcision dispute and the last record of Zipporah (Childs, 1976). The
narrative records that Jethro took Zipporah home after Moses had sent
her away. Implementing sacred texture analyses provides understating
including particular characteristics regarding deity, holy persons, divine
history, human redemption, human commitment, religious community,
and ethics (Robbins, 1996b). The specific purpose within the commu-
nication between God and man revolves around humanities salvation.
Exodus 18 reveals beliefs and values that are established and focus on
salvation and deliverance. This is seen in Moses’ care and deliverance
from peril toward Zipporah and his children.
The phrase concerning sending Zipporah away was subject to the dis-
cussion of divorce. As previously noted, this subject matter is beyond
the scope of this research and will only receive summary notes. In
view of the phrase concerning Moses sending Zipporah away, “In later
Hebrew this verb would refer to divorce, but here it seems to refer to
some event not otherwise recorded in Scripture. Zipporah and her sons
had perhaps been sent back to Midian by Moses for safety” (Cole, 1973,
p. 145). Stuart also disagrees with the divorce theory.

The evidence, then, suggests on balance that Moses was not divorced from
Zipporah and that the Cushite woman he later married was a second wife,
married either with Zipporah’s knowledge and understanding or, possibly,
after Zipporah’s untimely death in the wilderness. (Stuart, 2006, p. 408)
86    
S. W. Boyer

This statement that Jethro took Zipporah home after Moses had sent
her away, serves as a reminder of what had taken place just before the
great signs and wonders Almighty God performed delivering Israel from
Pharaoh and the Egyptians, thus relieving Moses of family concerns
regarding their safety (Cassuto, 1997; Enns, 2000; Janzen, 2000).
At this juncture within the historical account, Moses’ immediate
family consisted of Zipporah, Gershom, and Eliezer. The names of the
sons are representative toward the whole narrative of God’s deliverance
and awaiting Promised Land. Social intertexture refers to information
that raises a ‘social reality’ and is generally available to people groups
(Robbins, 1996a, p. 118). A social reality revealed through this portion
concerns the deliverance God performed for Moses and the Israelites.
Cultural intertexture “concerns symbolic worlds and particular
communities of discourse nurtured was special nuances emphases”
(Robbins, 1996a, p. 115). Layers of cultural intertexture are revealed
through the names of Moses’ children. Moses provides the name of
his first-born, Gershom, with the mindset that Moses remains sepa-
rate from Egypt within a foreign land. “gēr (“alien”) and šōm (close in
sound to šām, “there”) combining to suggest the approximate meaning
“an alien there” (Stuart, 2006, p. 101). This serves the prophetic office
Moses obtained, as once a sojourner in Midian, clearly revealed later
that Moses and all Israel were sojourners in Egypt (Cassuto, 1997).
Likewise the name of Eliezer remains with significance.
This is the first mention of Moses’ second son’s name. The clear defi-
nition provided in the sacred text for Eliezer which Moses provided
states, “The God of my father was my help, and delivered me from the
sword of Pharaoh” (ESV, Ex. 18:4). Cassuto (1997) states Eliezer was
born “shortly after Moses’ return to Egypt,” and that Moses obtained
joy due the fact that he returned to Egypt without the “fear of the
death-sentence that had been passed on him at the king’s command”
(Cassuto, 1997, p. 214). Clearly, Moses was not the only one delivered
from Pharaoh, but all of Israel (Enns, 2000) which points once again
toward Moses’ role as prophet (Cassuto, 1997).
Jethro happily accepts the news of God’s deliverance for the Israelites
and that they “had arrived at Rephidim/Sinai” (Stuart, 2006, p. 408).
Jethro undoubtedly was familiar with the area, since it was not far from
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
87

his dwelling (Cassuto, 1997). The Israelites were now encamped at the
mountain of God, in the region of Sinai/Horeb (Stuart, 2006). This is
the same area previously mentioned (3:1; 4:27) concerning the meeting
with Moses and Aaron. The text in 19:1–2 states the Israelites came into
the wilderness and encamped at the mountain of God. “It is possible
that the Israelites have already moved to the area mentioned in Exodus
19:2, immediately below the slopes of the mountain” (Cole, 1973,
p. 145). To better understand this, it remains helpful to note that in
17:1–7 the Israelites were already at Rephidim. Therefore the reunion
with Jethro and Moses’ family happens within a familiar location.
This pericope (vv. 1–5) begins with juxtaposition from the former
chapter concerning the battle of Israel and the Amalekites, moving
forward into the family reunion. Within the tapestry of the textures,
apparent themes appear toward the deliverance of Israel from Egypt
to the deliverance from the Amalekites ushering a more peaceful pres-
ence among family. The element of trust remains throughout involving
Moses’ family including Jethro, Zipporah, Gershom, and Eliezer. Given
this, a clear distinction remains apparent revealing that the deliverance
of God provides an atmosphere with trusting relationships and peace.

Exodus 18:6–8

Cassuto suggests Jethro sent a messenger when he “arrived at the gate-

way of the camp, through one of the guards” (Cassuto, 1997, p. 215).
Stuart (2006) adds that Jethro may merely be returning a message from
Moses. The meeting represents at minimum a family reunion (Durham,
1998; Fretheim, 1991; Janzen, 2000), and the salvation of Jethro
(Stuart, 2006), more importantly it includes the deliverance of Moses
and Israel (Enns, 2000). Both men greet the other with normal cultural
greetings (Kaiser, 1990).
The implementation of social and culture texture is helpful at this
juncture. Social and culture texture interchanges “the world of the
text to the world of the author and audience” (de Silva, 2004, p. 24).
Through the process the historical event is revealed accurately, in other
words, “discerning the situation behind the text” (de Silva, 2004, p. 24).
88    
S. W. Boyer

Childs (1976) notes kinship is repeated seven times in twelve verses

and supports the family bond and affection. “Both men are now great
chiefs in their own right, and behave accordingly. For the respect shown
by Moses to his father-in-law, compare his readiness to accept Jethro’s
advice about judicial structures” (Cole, 1973, pp. 145–146). The greet-
ing was multipurpose.

In accordance with the eastern custom obtaining to this day among the
Arabs, which requires the guest and the host to begin their conversa-
tion with explicit questions and answers regarding their well-being and
that of each member of the family, and the welfare of all that they have.
(Cassuto, 1997, p. 215)

The conversation continues toward aspects of social culture texture.

Robbins (1996a) defines three dimensions of social and cultural texture:
(a) Specific topics—opinions, concepts, and subjects that take center
stage within local social conversation. (b) Common topics—values, pat-
terns, or codes dominant in a particular culture. (c) Final topics—con-
cerns what Robbins (1996b) calls “culture location” which reveals the
custom of the culture toward presenting and discussing propositions,
arguments, and ideals.
Following the greeting, Moses and Jethro retreat to the tent. Fretheim
posits the importance of the tent, due to what happens in verse 12.
Fretheim (1991) also states the tent may very well reference the trav-
eling sanctuary (16:34; 33:7–11). Once inside the tent the conversation
becomes more causal (Childs, 1976). Moses enthusiastically proclaims
(Childs, 1976) and evangelizes (Stuart, 2006) Jethro concerning all that
God had done to deliver the Israelites.
Intertexture, or in other words, how the text converses with other
text (de Silva, 2004), occurs within this pericope. The interpreter
focuses on author and the text, not the reader (Robbins, 1996a). In
consideration of oral-scribal intertexture, the text incorporates the
recontextualization, or the oral-scribal intertexture (citing terms out of
biblical text without stating where) of several terms within Exodus 18,
the LORD God, The God of my father; the LORD is greater than all
gods.
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
89

Cassuto notes that “here Moses is speaking; hence the Tetragrammaton

is used and not the generic name ‫’ אֱֹלהִ ים‬Elōhīm God” (Cassuto, 1997,
p. 215). Importantly, both names for God remain within the chapter
(Elohim ) and LORD (Yahweh ). Kaiser (1990) states that the usage of
kōl “all,” must be understood “hyperbolically and not literally because
the first two kōls (“in all Egypt” 9:24–25) are immediately qualified
in verse 26 to exempt the land of Goshen” (Kaiser, 1990, p. 362). As
always, the necessary method of hermeneutics concerns context, “other
nuances of its use can be discerned from studying its context closely
(Baker & Carpenter, 2003, p. 506). Cassuto (1997) suggests some of
the declarations to Jethro. “After the exodus from Egypt—the pursuit
of the Egyptians, the division of the Sea of Reeds, the lack of water, the
dearth of food, and the war with Amalek—and how everything ended
happily” (Cassuto, 1997, p. 215). Layers of social and cultural texture
within this pericope happen, Moses declaring the covenantal name of
God to Jethro (Kaiser, 1990), including all that Yahweh has done.
This pericope (vv. 6–8) reveals the family reunion and the salvation
of Jethro as well as the deliverance of Moses and Israel. Textures of trust
are continually developing throughout the section, revealing the impor-
tance of family and peace. Moses evangelizes Jethro, declaring all the
great things God has done for Israel.

Exodus 18:9–12

Verse 9 reveals the proclamation Jethro heard that provoked praise to

Yahweh (Cassuto, 1997; Kaiser, 1990). Kaiser (1990) notes the invo-
cation of praise from Jethro either is indicative of his continual belief
of the God of his fathers—Genesis 25:2 reveals Midian was born of
Keturah, Abrahams’ second wife after the death of Sarah—or that Jethro
had gained spiritual knowledge from the 40 years Moses dwelt with
Jethro and family. “Both names God (’Elohim ) and LORD (Yahweh ) are
used in this chapter” (Janzen, 2000, p. 226). Janzen (2000) rightly notes
that Moses uses the later name, significantly due to the new action and
knowledge, which God reveals toward Moses and Israel (Ex. 3:13–15).
Ideological texture provides perceptions within this context.
90    
S. W. Boyer

As previously noted, the main function of ideological texture con-

cerns aspects of cognitive moral, and social order (Robbins, 1996a).
“The investigation especially seeks to identify the intersection of ideas,
ideals, and social action and to detect the collective needs and interests
that patterns represent” (Elliot, as cited in Robbins, 1996a, p. 193). For
Elliot, this provides a view of God’s people becoming a family (Robbins,
1996a). The new action and knowledge of God provide moral and
social order.
The first term ‫’ אֱֹלהִ ים‬Elohim “ʾlh is the assumed root of ʾēl, ʾĕlōah,
and ʾĕlōhîm, which means ‘god’ or ‘God’” (Scott, 1999a, p. 41).
Additionally, “The Phoenician term is ʾl “El”; the plural is ʾlm which
seems to be construed sometimes as a singular” and likely “comes from
ʾĕlōah as a unique development of the Hebrew Scriptures and ­represents
chiefly the plurality of persons in the Trinity of the godhead” (Scott,
1999a, p. 41). ‫( יַהוֶה‬Yahweh ), as briefly noted, stems from God’s inter-
vention and action toward Israel. “The Tetragrammaton YHWH, the
Lord, or Yahweh, the personal name of God and his most frequent
designation in Scripture,” are “occurring 5321 times in the OT” (Payne,
1999, p. 210).
The repetition of deliverance is repeated once again (18:4, 8, 9, 10), a
resounding rhetoric within chapter 18 as well as the Book of Exodus as
a whole. ‫ נָצַ ל‬nāṣal: “A verb meaning to deliver. Deliverance often indi-
cated the power of one entity overcoming the power of another” (Baker
& Carpenter, 2003, p. 749). The word can refer to:

Deliverance from the hand (i.e., power) of another (Gen. 32:11[12]; Hos.
2:10[12]). God was frequently honored as delivering His people, whether
from earthly enemies (2 Sam. 22:1; Jer. 1:8); or from more abstract things
like transgressions (Ps. 39:8[9]); and death (Ps. 33:19; 56:13[14]). The
word also refers to the taking of objects from another’s power and is thus
translated to recover (Judg. 11:26; 1 Sam. 30:8); to strip (2 Chr. 20:25);
or to spoil (Ex. 3:22; 12:36). In a special usage, the word signifies warriors
delivering one’s eyes, that is, escaping from sight (2 Sam. 20:6). (Baker &
Carpenter, 2003, p. 749)

After Jethro rejoiced, he blessed Yahweh. Cassuto (1997) states the con-
struction of the sentence within verse 10 is different then the ESV
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
91

rendering—Blessed be the LORD—rather Cassuto offers, “to the God

whom you call by the name of YHWH,” obviously making the statement
less personal (Cassuto, 1997, p. 216). Towners’ (1968) research focused
on the ‫“ יהוה ברוך‬blessed be Yahweh” statement and determined that it
was used “not as prayer but as a kerygmatic utterance” (p. 389), projected
“to express joy in God’s gracious acts and to proclaim those acts to the
world” (Towners, 1968, pp. 387–389). This statement projects Jethro as a
preacher of God’s goodness. Cassuto provides the interpretation of verse
10 this way:

Who has delivered you—you Moses and your brother Aaron—out of the
hand of the Egyptians and out of the hand of Pharaoh—who threatened to
put you to death (10:28)—and who likewise has delivered the people from
under the burden of bondage at the hand of the Egyptians. (Cassuto, 1997,
p. 216)

In verse 11 Jethro again uses the Tetragrammaton YHWH, the Lord,

or Yahweh. Stuart (2006) comments that Jethro has been wondering
if the LORD would indeed be able to deliver Moses and Israel from
Pharaoh and the gods of Egypt. The second portion of the verse is so
very difficult to interpret that Janzen states “all attempts to make sense
of the end of verse 11 (after all [other] gods ) are the translators’ guess-
work” (Janzen, 2000, p. 226). Nevertheless, Durham interprets the
verse this way:

Jethro’s confession of the superiority of Yahweh may be taken as justified

by Jethro by reference to what Yahweh has done to the gods of Egypt,
who have acted rebelliously in regard to Yahweh by working against his
people Israel (‫“ עליהם‬against them”). (Durham, 1998, p. 244)

And Cassuto states:

Perhaps the word gods, which occurs in the verse, is to be regarded as the
subject of the verb ‫ זדּו‬zādhū [‘act proudly’, ‘boast’], and the sense is:
precisely (this is the meaning of the word ‫ כִ ּי‬kī below, in 32:29: ‘precisely
[‫ ּכי‬kī ] because every man was against his son and against his brother’) in
respect of these things of which the gods of Egypt boasted, for example,
92    
S. W. Boyer

the divine power of the Nile, the divine light of the sun, the divine might
of the sea, He is greater than they [‫ ֲעלֵיהֶ ם‬ʿălēhem ], and His power exceeds
their power, and He executed judgements on all the gods of Egypt. [The
clause should be rendered: ‘excelling them in the very things to which
they laid claim’.] (Cassuto, 1997, p. 216)

Significantly, God preformed judgment and conquered all the gods of

Egypt (Ex. 7:4; 12:12; Ps. 78:42–53; 80:8; 105:26–38; 135:8–9) these
same gods are later called idols (Ez. 20:7–8; 30:13).
The final verse within this pericope (v. 12) represents the sharing of a
common meal including friendship and fellowship. Those attending the
meal include Moses, Jethro, and the elders of Israel. McKenzie (1959)
clarifies the elders are not just old men, but rather included men of a
“distinct social grade or collegiate body with certain political and reli-
gious functions” (McKenzie, 1959, p. 522). The pericope continues
toward aspects of social culture texture. This includes two of the three
aspects that Robbins (1996a) defines, common topics—values, patterns,
or codes dominant in a particular culture, and final topics—concerns
what Robbins (1996b) calls “culture location” which reveals the cus-
tom of the culture toward presenting and discussing propositions, argu-
ments, and ideals.
Interpretations diverge from this point. Cody (1968) sees this as the
acceptance of a covenant. Fensham (1964) understands the passage to
represent a treaty. Either way, cultural implications concerning agree-
ment, trust, meal format, and content exist. Cody refers to cultural
implications involving specific rites within the Ancient Near East—
Mesopotamian and Hittite, as well as simple nomadic covenant found
among the ancient Arabs. Mendenhall (1954) declares parallels between
the Hittite and biblical materials, noting suzerainty and parity treaties.
Enns states, “a meal was a typical way of ratifying a treaty or covenant
in the Old Testament” (e.g., Gen. 26:30; 31:54). Further, such a meal
seems to be in view between God and his people in Exodus 24:11, after
the giving of the law” (Enns, 2000, p. 370).
A significant interest within the pericope concerns the claims of
Jethro—salvific or not? Scholars provide a variety of reasons toward
Jethro’s salvation (Childs, 1976; Durham, 1998; Janzen, 2000; Kaiser,
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
93

1990; Stuart, 2006). Durham (1998) considers the proclamation of

Jethro sufficient toward a salvific confession. Janzen (2000) confirms
Jethro’s salvation through the confession and taking the led in offering
the sacrifice. “These leaders of Israel would hardly accept the leadership
of the priest of Midian (3:1; 18:1) if they would consider him a priest of
different gods, even if a convert of a few minutes ago” (Janzen, 2000,
p. 226). Kaiser believes Jethro is saved through the confession made,
“this confession formula—“Now I know”—is used by two other Gentile
believers: the widow at Zarephath (1 Kings 17:24), and Naaman, com-
mander of the Syrian army” (2 Kings 5:15) (Kaiser, 1990, p. 412).
Stuart provides two affirmations of Jethro’s salvation.

How would someone show that he had converted to faith in Yahweh? (a)
He would begin to worship Yahweh according to his best understanding
of how that was to be done, and (b) he would eat a covenant meal with
other worshipers of Yahweh in the presence of Yahweh. (Stuart, 2006,
p. 413)

Childs (1976) states that Jethro is never seen a heathen. “Jethro is

described praising the God of Israel in the language of faith and follow-
ing the pattern of Ps. 135” (Childs, 1976, p. 323). Nevertheless, other
scholars disagree with the salvation theory of Jethro (Cassuto, 1997;
Cole, 1973; Smith, 1993). Still others remain neutral (Enns, 2000;
Fretheim, 1991). To be sure, pressing a point within the sacred text
remains perilous. Even within neutral matters it remains better to con-
tinue silent when Scripture is silent. Yet, another consideration remains,
God is able to use any portion of creation to declare His desires (Num.
22:28; Ps. 19:1–4; Hab. 2:11; Luke 19:40).
The pericope (vv. 9–12) reveals Moses and Jethro repeatedly using
names of God including the Tetragrammaton YHWH, the Lord, or
Yahweh. This provides significance toward the closeness of relation-
ships. The covenant meal, or fellowship meal remains meaningful
toward the symbiotic trust within the family atmosphere. Jethro either
gains salvation, or a more intimate knowledge of God. Whatever the
case, God uses Jethro in establishing trust and peace toward Moses
and Israel.
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Exodus 18:13–16

This pericope begins the second major section within the chapter. This
segment reveals Moses performing duties as a judge toward the people
of Israel, and follows with Jethro’s advice as an “efficiency expert who
wisely suggests a modification in Israel’s leadership structure” (Kaiser,
1990, p. 412).
Within the context of Exodus it remains helpful to consider inner
texture repetitive—progressive—open-middle-closing texture. While,
repetitive texture looks at repetition, progressive seeks a progression
in the rhetoric, and open, middle, closing refers to the beginning and
end of a story within the context of time (Peterson, as cited in Robbins,
1996a). In consideration of the inner texture within the narrative, spe-
cifically, repetitive-open-middle-closing and progressive (see Table 4.1).

Table 4.1  Inner texture of Exodus 18:13–16

Verse Repetitive texture Opening-middle-closing Progressive texture
13 Judge Sat to judge Judge the people
people the people Morning to evening
14 All doing Saw all that he was doing-
doing all for the people,
why sit alone
15–16 The people come A dispute, Statues of God and His laws
I decide

The opening verse reveals a change in the day as well as the scenery.
The day following the shared meal, Moses sits and judges the people.
Cassuto (1997) cites a “parallelism between the beginning of the first
paragraph (1) and the commencement of the second paragraph (v. 14)”
(Cassuto, 1997, p. 221). Stuart (2006) suggests that Jethro’s “own expe-
rience as a Midianite leader may have involved him in regular judging
among the Midianites, and it was obvious to him that Moses had over-
committed his time to his judicial role (Stuart, 2006, p. 415).
In the middle section, Jethro asks the question to Moses, which seem
to provide a parallel between this account and that of God asking Adam
“where are you” (Genesis 3:9) in the garden after Adam had sinned.
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
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Both represent rhetorical statements, which point to a greater need. The

need of which in either case, the one being questioned remains with-
out power, wisdom, or insight to remedy. This particular tapestry reveals
the overarching concept of deliverance within Exodus. Deliverance and
salvation are related terms. The word salvation is the same word used
for God’s deliverance of the Israelites from Pharaoh and the Egyptians
(Ex. 14:13), and from danger or evil in general (Easton, 1893).

The principal Hebrew term translated ‘salvation’ is yēša‘ and its cognates.
Its basic meaning is ‘bring into a spacious environment’ (cf. Pss. 18:36;
66:12), but it carries from the beginning the metaphorical sense of ‘free-
dom from limitation’ and the means to that; i.e. deliverance from factors
which constrain and confine. It can be referred to deliverance from dis-
ease (Is. 38:20; cf. v. 9), from trouble (Je. 30:7) or enemies (2 Sa. 3:18;
Ps. 44:7). In the vast majority of references God is the author of salvation.
(Walters & Milne, 1996, pp. 1046–1047)

Within the closing section Moses communicates the details to Jethro

concerning the normal account of deliberations, both civil and judi-
cial. Additionally, Cassuto (1997) states that Moses would not perform
the duties daily. Through the lens of social culture texture, specifically
concerning values and codes—noteworthy that Moses and Israel had
received laws and decrees previously. Enns reports:

With respect to the “commands and decrees” of 15:26 and the Sabbath
law of 16:5, 23, 25–26, 29–30, which, as we argued, must have been
common knowledge at the time. The “giving” of the law at Sinai is not
the first time Israel hears of God’s laws, but is the codification and explicit
promulgation of those laws. (Enns, 2000, p. 371)

For Enns (2000) this event effectively provides perspective toward

the reason for collating the law in the next chapters; that the Israelites
would have the law before them, to know personally approved moral
behavior according to God. Stuart (2006) likewise declares that God
was providing the law for the people Israel up to this point through the
prophetic ministry of Moses. “In the ancient Near East as in many parts
of the world still today, the job of judging civil and criminal disputes
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goes along with a leadership position” (Stuart, 2006, p. 414). Stuart

(2006) adds that a “political or military leader was also to be a judicial
leader” ready an able to render decisions (Stuart, 2006, p. 415). Further,
Enns (2000) sees Jethro’s intervention and guidance as returning the
help Moses once gave to him (Ex. 2:16–20).

It is worth noting again that both incidents are accompanied by a meal

and both acts of kindness result in making “shepherding” more effec-
tive—for the former the shepherding of a flock, for the latter the shep-
herding of God’s people. (Enns, 2000, p. 371)

Through the lens of oral-scribal intertexture, or the incorporation of

recontextualization, the word ‫ שָ ׁפַט‬šāp̱aṭ, the Hebrew word for judge
first shows up in a condescending form in Exodus 2:14, when Moses
was asked who made him the judge over the Israelites. The next time
the term is used a progression takes place, as the Israelites suggest God
will look on Moses and judge, since Moses made the Israelites a stink in
the sight of Pharaoh (Ex. 5:21). Finally, the term is used of Moses and
those he appoints as new developing leaders who judge the smaller cases
between the Israelites (Ex. 18:13, 22). The word remains “much more
inclusive than the modern concept of judging and encompasses all the
facets and functions of government: executive, legislative, and judicial
(Baker & Carpenter, 2003, p. 1186). Cole states during this time,
“family justice was dispensed by the clan chieftain (Cole, 1973, p. 147).
Cassuto (1997) adds that Moses was both judge and teacher, and likely
there was a break in the midst of the day.
The statement within the OT “to inquire of God” (v. 15) through
the lens of inner texture—repetitive texture, this statement is used again
Judges 18:5; 1 Samuel 9:9; 2 Kings 1:3, 6, 16; 8:8; 22:18; 1 Chronicles
21:30 (see Table 4.2).
Viewing the layers of text through the lens of social and cultural tex-
ture provides insights toward cognitive and behavioral patterns. Stuart
(2006) regards Moses’ current dilemma due to waiting on God to reveal
“a proper, hierarchical judicial system and not trying to make one up on
his own authority” (Stuart, 2006, p. 415). Fretheim (1991) balances the
sovereignty and provision of God with the knowledge and ingenuity of
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Table 4.2  Biblical references for ‘to inquire of God’

Reference Passage
Exodus 18:15 And Moses said to his father-in-law, “Because the people come
to me to inquire of God;
Judges 18:5 And they said to him, “Inquire of God, please, that we may
know whether the journey on which we are setting out will
succeed.”
1 Samuel 9:9 (Formerly in Israel, when a man went to inquire of God, he
said, “Come, let us go to the seer,” for today’s “prophet” was
formerly called a seer)
2 Kings 1:3 But the angel of the Lord said to Elijah the Tishbite, “Arise, go
up to meet the messengers of the king of Samaria, and say
to them, ‘Is it because there is no God in Israel that you are
going to inquire of Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron?
2 Kings 1:6 And they said to him, “There came a man to meet us, and said
to us, ‘Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him,
Thus says the Lord, Is it because there is no God in Israel that
you are sending to inquire of Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron?
Therefore you shall not come down from the bed to which
you have gone up, but you shall surely die.’”
2 Kings 1:16 And said to him, “Thus says the Lord, ‘Because you have sent
messengers to inquire of Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron—is
it because there is no God in Israel to inquire of his word?—
therefore you shall not come down from the bed to which
you have gone up, but you shall surely die.’”
2 Kings 8:8 The king said to Hazael, “Take a present with you and go to
meet the man of God, and inquire of the Lord through him,
saying, ‘Shall I recover from this sickness?’
2 Kings 22:13 “Go, inquire of the Lord for me, and for the people, and for
all Judah, concerning the words of this book that has been
found. For great is the wrath of the Lord that is kindled
against us, because our fathers have not obeyed the words
of this book, to do according to all that is written concerning
us.”
2 Kings 22:18 But to the king of Judah, who sent you to inquire of the Lord,
thus shall you say to him, Thus says the Lord, the God of
Israel: Regarding the words that you have heard
1 Chronicles But David could not go before it to inquire of God, for he was
21:30 afraid of the sword of the angel of the Lord.

humanity. In other words, God requires man to do everything we can,

and God then accomplishes what humanity cannot (omitting works-
based salvation). Fretheim states “God’s redemptive activity does not
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respond to Israel’s every need. Those who have experienced the salva-
tion of God are not thereby given an answer to all the issues of prob-
lems faced by their community” (Fretheim, 1991, p. 197). Given this,
the pattern of serving God even unto slavery has been a long motif.
Looking forward toward the New Testament period, the body metaphor
in Romans 12:5 reveals the value of remaining selfless, even as Moses
counseling conduct proved. “So we, though many, are one body in
Christ, and individually members one of another.” Historical intertex-
ture focuses on a particular event or period of time (Robbins, 1996a).
Paul repeats often the selflessness of Jesus with reference or inference
(Rom. 1:17; 3:21–22; 24–26; 4:24–25; 5:1; 6–11; 15–21; 6:3–11;
8:1–2; 11; 28–30; 32; 10:9–13; 16–17). This connects with Jesus proc-
lamation of being a slave, a humble submissive slave for God, living for
the benefit of others (Phil. 2:5–11; John 6:38; 8; 29). Moses knew this
through the history of the Israelites, as slaves of Pharaoh.
Vincent (1887) reveals aspects of the word body in Romans 12:1
“In later Greek usage slaves were called σώματα bodies. A living sacri-
fice exhibits altruism in the highest fashion (John 15:13). Even before
Jesus’ substitutionary sacrifice, dedicating oneself as a living sacrifice
toward slavery to God or a god of a nation was common. Yamauchi
(1966) states nearly all Eastern nations peoples maintain the motif of
remaining a slave of God. The concept of being a slave of God remains
practiced many years before Jesus’ sacrifice. Barrett (1989) reports of
an inscription of 200–199 B.C. on a wall of the temple of Apollo at
Delphi which states the god is said to have bought the slave from her
owner, for the purpose of freedom. The apostle Paul calls the church
the body of Christ, which remains a group of individual members,
with specific gifts that able the body to function according to design
(Romans 12:3–8). Each member remains distinct, with past history,
personality, and culture nuances (Keener, 1993; Osborne, 2004).
Personality and culture nuances can work for betterment of the body,
rather than allowing subcultures and in-groupings to work toward
the destruction of the body (Barentsen, 2011; Louw & Nida, 1996;
Osborne, 2004). Moses would have experienced this through life in
Egypt. The leader, whose life reflects altruism, identifies with Jesus and
lives for the betterment of others.
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Furthering the view of the current text through the lens of sacred
textures, New Testament principles are revealed, particularly the plea in
Romans 12:1b “that you present your bodies a living sacrifice,” which
bears Old Testament (OT) roots. Moses reveals the motif of serving oth-
ers with great significance for the developing leaders—incorporating a
pattern of serving others.
The words living sacrifice are ζάω záō, (to live) θυσία thusía; (the
act of sacrificing or offering) (Zodhiates, 2000). These terms paint a pic-
ture of the unblemished living sacrifice laid on God’s altar (Zodhiates,
2000). In Genesis 22:1–14, Abraham demonstrated this by presenting
his one and only son on the altar in response to God’s command. Isaac
could have jumped off this altar, yet Isaac remained steadfast. However,
a much greater living sacrifice occurs for the benefit of humanity in
Jesus Christ. Through serving others the leader remains more concerned
about what he can offer God and humanity then personal gain or title
(Sanders, 2007). Jesus modeled this truth (John 1:13; 4:34; 5:30; 6:38;
Matthew 20:28; Luke 22:42).
The pericope (vv. 13–16) offers a new setting and day in which
Moses sits and judges the people all day, akin toward New Testament
discipleship in the OT fashion. Jethro provides a rhetorical question,
provoking Moses toward open-mindedness in receiving the forthcoming
advice. The term “to inquire of God” is first mentioned, which becomes
a centerpiece for later prophets. Additionally, the motif of remaining
a slave for God is revealed through Moses, as an example toward the
soon-to-be-appointed developing leaders.

Exodus 18:17–23

As previously mentioned, the majority of commentators divide Exodus

18 into two sections (Cassuto, 1997; Cole 1973; Durham, 1998; Enns,
2000; Fretheim, 1991; Stuart, 2006), while Smith (1993) provides an
additional breakdown and includes three sections. Kaiser (1990) postu-
lates five pericopes (1–5; 6–8; 9–12; 13–16; 17–23). The detail of this
study’s breakdown corresponds toward providing insights from Exodus
18 toward leaders, specifically the small group leadership selection and
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development. In this section inner texture within the narrative, specifi-

cally argumentative texture, intertexture and social and cultural texture are
present. “Argumentative texture appears when interpreters use rhetorical
resources of analysis in the context of repetitive-progressive, opening-mid-
dle-closing, and narrational texture” (Robbins, 1996a, pp. 58–59).
The first verse within the section (17) reveals repetitive-progressive,
opening-middle-closing (see Table 4.3). Importantly within this per-
icope, as formerly noted, there are 743 words present in the chapter,
297 belong to Jethro, Moses speaks some 65 words, (including former
words spoken in description of his sons names) and finally narration
involves 381. Interestingly, in this section (17–23) Jethro speaks 198
of his 297 words. This reveals the social and cultural textual aspect in
connection that “in Hebrew culture the esteem held for the aged was
related to the assumption that the old had received divine favor (e.g.,
Lev. 19:32; Ps. 128:5–6; Prov. 17:6; Zech. 8:4) and possessed wisdom
(Job 12:12; 32:7; Ps. 105:22),” which provides support toward the mul-
titude of Jethro’s word comparative to Moses’ (Mathews, 2005, p. 846).
Likewise and noteworthy, the name Jethro is listed in Exodus 18:1, 2,
5, 6, 9, 10, 12; while the term priest of Midian in 18:1; and the term
father-in-law in Exodus 18:1, 2, 5–8, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19, 27.

Table 4.3  Inner texture of Exodus 18:17–23

Verse Repetitive texture Opening-middle-closing Progressive texture
17 What you are doing Jethro, the priest Too heavy for you
of Midian, Moses’
father-in-law
18 Wear yourselves out
19 Obey my voice Advice God be with you, people
before God
20 Warn them Statutes and laws Make them know the
way, walk and do
21 Moreover Able men Fear God, trustworthy,
hate bribe, chiefs
22 Let then judge People all time, great
matter to you, small
they decide
23 Do this God will direct you Able to endure, people
go in peace
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Verse 17 reveals the shift toward Jethro as the main speaker. The
inner texture provides repetitive-progressive, opening-middle-clos-
ing. The opening section (v. 17) provides Jethro’s endeavor to offer
help toward Moses and the Israelites, just as Moses once did for Jethro
(Enns, 2000). The middle section (v. 19) contains the admonition
toward Moses to accept advice “and God be with you” (Ex. 18:19). The
closing section reveals the summation of the advice, Moses’ endurance,
and the people’s peace.
Within the opening verse Jethro states a rhetorical statement “what
you are doing is not good” (v. 17) which should not be interpreted as
Moses doing a bad thing. Rather, Jethro surely meant, “the method can’t
be right if it results in everyone’s frustration and exhaustion” (Stuart,
2006, p. 416). “Being older and more experienced than Moses in struc-
turing the life of a community, he [Jethro] makes some suggestions for
improvement” (Janzen, 2000, p. 228).
The middle section (vv. 19–20) of the inner texture exposes a tap-
estry involving culture. The cultural norm accepted that people of age
inherently obtained favor from God and wisdom, and should be heard
(Mathews, 2005). The ideal that the aged obtain divine favor may be at
the heart of the statement “and God be with you.”

The thought seems to be ‘so that God is with you’, i.e. ‘blesses you’. However,
the thought may correspond to the polite phrasing of verse 23 (‘and if God
so commands you’). Like any polite easterner, Jethro will not compel his son-
in-law to take his advice, wise though it is. (Cole, 1973, p. 148)

The respect of age remains layered through the passage, including word
appropriation and the mention of various personal pronouns for Jethro.
“In ancient times, the experience that comes with age was valued highly,
rather than rejected as interfering with younger persons’ independence”
(Janzen, 2000, p. 228). Jethro’s advice includes Moses representing the
people toward God (Cole, 1973) since the people themselves ought not
try to approach God on their own behalf (Ex. 19:24). Cassuto (1997)
links Moses’ representation of the people with the priest of Midian hea-
then practices, and suggests this:
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S. W. Boyer

Can well be explained in the light of the practice of the heathen priests,
who came before the idols to offer the petitions of the worshippers, such
as a request for healing from sickness or for deliverance from any trouble.
(Cassuto, 1997, p. 219)

The closing section (v. 23) states the goal and outcome of Jethro’s
advice. The implication being that Moses follows the advice, then
God’s blessing of direction, endurance and peace will happen. The end
of the matter will provide Moses with longevity and the people with
peace, delivering a sustainable and orderly way of life for Moses and the
Israelites (Janzen, 2000).
Through the lens of intertexture, specifically historical intertexture,
the historical biblical account of Midian is first found corresponding
to the time of Jacob. “Hadad king of Edom defeated the Midianites”
(Gen. 36:35; 1 Chr. 1:46); next the narrative reveals the “Midianite
traders (Gen. 37:28); sold Joseph to Potiphar” (Gen. 37:36); and finally
Jethro or “the priest of Midian, Reuel [Jethro] (Exod. 2:16; Exod. 18:1;
Num. 10:29) is revealed (Day, 2009, para 1). Jethro highlights the fact
that Moses’ process for civil intervention was wearing out both Moses
and the people (v. 18). “In effect, Jethro’s argument is an early version of
the now popular legal saying ‘Justice delayed is justice denied’” (Stuart,
2006, p. 416). Jethro may have had this judicial type of experience as
the priest of Midian (Enns 2000).
The text (vv. 20–23) also provides textures toward social and cultural
texture. Social and culture texture interchanges “the world of the text to
the world of the author and audience” (de Silva, 2004, p. 24). Through
the process the historical event is revealed accurately. Robbins (1996a)
defines three dimensions of social and cultural texture: (a) Specific
topics—opinions, concepts, and subjects that take center stage within
local social conversation. (b) Common topics—values, patterns, or
codes dominant in a particular culture. (c) Final topics—concerns what
Robbins (1996b) calls “culture location” which reveals the custom of
the culture toward presenting and discussing propositions, arguments,
and ideals. Through the lens of common topics—values, patterns, or
codes dominant in a particular culture, in combination with the current
text and the New Testament terms, ideals are revealed. Moses is advised
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103

to make decisions about choosing developing leadership and teaching

the people concerning the ways of God.
Scripture reveals God affords humanity with the capacity to decide,
and make choices (Gen. 2:17; 3:6; 4:7; Joshua 24:15; Isa. 55:6; Matt.
11:28–30; John 12:40; Rom. 10:13; 11:25; Rev. 22:12–17). The best
choices leaders make support biblical values. Leadership decisions and
values remain connected, and ought to correspond to Scripture. “Values
are guidelines and beliefs that a person uses when confronted with a
situation in which a choice must be made” (Ivancevich & Konopaske,
2010, p. 418). The decisions of ecclesial leaders ought to reflect bibli-
cal principles. Moreover, Scripture reveals decisions ought to bene-
fit toward the transformation into Christlikeness (Romans 12:1–2).
Moses’ leadership ought to practice decisions that glorify God. In the
New Testament, the book of Romans was in part written because of the
anti-biblical thinking of the Christian leadership in Rome. A significant
part of the cross-cultural leadership principle Paul exposed concerns the
transformation of the mind. Stoessel (1963) states the term for mind
not only refers to rational but “in these passages nous (mind) is virtually
equivalent to “theology,” that is, the ideas or principles which are the
springs of action” (p. 164). This ideal corresponds well with the process
Moses was undertaking.
Ideological texture concerns aspects of cognitive moral, and social
order (Robbins, 1996a). Ideology within text is defined as “an inte-
grated system of beliefs, assumptions, and values” (Davis, as cited in
Robbins, 1996b, p. 14), which takes place within a specific time, loca-
tion, and culture. Verses 20–23 reveal aspects of cognitive moral, and
social order as well as values and beliefs. As previously mentioned,
Fretheim (1991) understands the new administration order provided
through Jethro as not necessarily divine action, but through divine
providence wisdom, insight, and skills that are provided to the faithful
and faithless alike. To Frethiem, the culture of the priest and Midian,
and the Israelites remains forever integrated through the counsel and
family of Jethro. Moses relationship with Jethro doubtless provided sig-
nificant changes within Israel.
Durham (1998) discloses the through Moses’ intimate relationship
and knowledge of God; civil and lawful decisions are made. Similarly,
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Moses new focus concerns developing leaders that will follow Moses
pattern (Durham, 1998). Durham (1998) divulges that since God is
the source of Jethro’s advice, and Moses remains the most intimate
with God, Moses ought to remain the supreme judge and instructor.
Verses 19–22 reveals that Moses was to develop leadership and teach
the people statutes and laws within the context of small groups. Moses
provided toward the structuring of Israel, creating small groups within
the organization of the nation around tens, fifties, hundreds, and thou-
sands (Exo 18:13–27). The basic building block reveals a group of 10;
groups of 10 produced clusters of fifties. The next collection involves
hundreds (plural), revealing about 200–250 persons. Ultimately, these
groups of hundreds formed into assemblies of thousands, the final size
for structuring the people of Israel. With a moderate estimate of 1.5
million Israelites, this means there were 150,000 small groups. Viewing
the pericope through ideological texture unveils aspects of cognitive
moral, and social order (Robbins, 1996a), in connection with histor-
ical intertexture that provides insights toward future events (Robbins,
1996a). Moses’ development of small groups remains throughout the
history of Israel and the church. Given this, the development of small
groups provided the means for developing organizational leaders at
every level, from the time of Moses into the future. Small groups flour-
ished until the time of Constantine’s reign, but through Ambrose the
groups remained.
Ambrose of Milan (339–397) was a talented man who would
change the practice of religion, and the lives of those he influenced.
Ambrose, known as a theologian, powerful preacher, and able admin-
istrator, though his father “educated him in law of a political career”
(Cairns, 1996, p. 138). The father of Ambrose was the perfect of Gaul
and the families’ imperial influence remained significant (Cairns).
Demacopoulos (1997) claims the young Ambrose was an upcoming
imperial Magistrate visiting Milan. Cairns reports Ambrose “rose to
the position of Imperial governor of the area around the city of Milan”
(p. 138). Constantine’s rise to the throne in A.D. 312 remains with
great significance. Previous events prepare the context toward the eccle-
sia structure significantly.
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105

The Era of Jesus to Constantine

The primary aspects regarding the life and ministry of Jesus concerns
providing atonement for forgiveness, establishing the church (Matt.
16:18) and ushering in the kingdom of heaven (Cairns, 1996, p. 54).
Jesus formed a small group of followers (Peter, James and John) toward
instruction on kingdom purposes (Larkin, 1920) and starting other
small groups (Comiskey, 2014; Mayer, 1976). In fact, one of the most
intimate and impactful teachings recorded concerns the time with Jesus
and the apostles in a home together in the upper room (Luke 22:7–38;
John 13–16). Jesus taught with maximum effectiveness within small
group settings (Mayer, 1976). This pattern of intimate home church
gatherings continued with the apostles (Acts 2:46). Paul the apostle fol-
lowed the pattern of Jesus teaching doctrine in intimate, small group
settings (Acts 20:20). Small groups and house churches began, in part,
because of persecution (Acts 5:17–18, 8:3; 17:5).
Rome led ten strategic persecutions against the church before the
reign of Constantine. The leaders include Nero, Domitian, Trajan,
Marcus Aurelius, Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, and
Emperor Diocesain (Cairns, 1996; Comiskey, 2014; Foxe, n.d.; Shelley,
1995). Constantius Chlorus ruled over France, Spain, and Britain,
and had a son named Constantine (Cairns, 1996; Foxe, n.d.; Shelley,
1995). Constantius allowed the Christians some liberty, never allowing
much persecution (Cairns, 1996; Comiskey, 2014; Foxe, n.d.; Shelley,
1995), but in Rome, Maxentius continued persecution (Cairns, 1996;
Foxe, n.d.; Shelley, 1995). Constantine succeeded his father and came
to the rescuer to the citizens of Rome, and Maxentius died from fall-
ing through a broken bridge over the Tiber River, a trap Maxentius
had hoped might kill Constantine (Cairns, 1996; Comiskey, 2014;
Foxe, n.d.; Shelley, 1995). During the battle, Constantine is said to
have seen a vision of a cross in the sky, with salvific purposes (Cairns,
1996; Comiskey, 2014; Foxe, n.d.; Shelley, 1995). Having secured the
kingdom, Constantine provides tolerance and peace for the Christians
and the persecution ends (Cairns, 1996; Comiskey, 2014; Foxe, n.d.;
Shelley, 1995). The church grows massive.
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In fact, through previous years the church continues growing.

The previous context provides the need for small groups and house
churches, namely avoiding persecution. Under the reign of Constantine,
the church no longer needs to hide, and small groups waned (Comiskey,
2014; Mayer, 1976). Former ecclesial leadership practices radically
depart. Ecclesial leaders became more of rulers of masses and doctrine
overseers then doctrine teachers of imitate small groups (Mayer, 1976).
This may represent the lacuna within the writings of Ambrose explic-
itly toward the small group; Ambrose position demanded communica-
tion toward the masses. Yet, Ambrose’s writing reveals the principle of
loving each member of the body, small and great. Ambrose practiced
values of apostle Paul, who said: “Even to this day I stand witnessing
both to great and small” (Schaff & Wace, 1896, p. 148). The role and
practice of pastoral care during the reign of Constantine reveals nothing
less then “another radical change” (Mayer, 1976). Ambrose the bishop
of Milan proved to bring more radical change.

Ambrose: The Ecclesial and Small Group Leader

Ambrose of Milan (339–397) was an extraordinary man who would

transform the custom of religion, and the lives of those he influenced.
Augustine was influenced positively due to the small groups Ambrose
led (Comiskey, 2014; Mayer, 1976). “St. Augustine speaks of him as “a
faithful teacher of the Church, and even at the risk of his life a most
strenuous defender of Catholic truth,” “whose skill, constancy, labours
(sic), and perils, both on account of what he did and what he wrote, the
Roman world unhesitatingly proclaims” (Schaff & Wace, 1896, p. xiv).
Ambrose, known as a theologian, powerful preacher, and able admin-
istrator, though his family “educated him in law of a political career”
(Cairns, 1996, p. 138). The father of Ambrose was the perfect of Gaul and
the families’ imperial influence remained significant (Cairns). Ambrose’s
father “died within a year or two of Ambrose’s birth” (Power, 1998, p. 16).
Demacopoulos (1997) claims Ambrose was a young and upcoming impe-
rial Magistrate visiting Milan. Cairns reports Ambrose “rose to the position
of Imperial governor of the area around the city of Milan” (p. 138).
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
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In the year 373 life changes dramatically for Ambrose. “Auxentius,

the dead Bishop, had been appointed by an Aryan Emperor who had
exiled the previous bishop” (Gonzalez, 1984, p. 189). During this time
two factions of religion dominated; Arian and orthodox. The scene
nearly escaped a riot. Within the tumultuous crowd the cry of a child
was heard “Ambrose, bishop” (Demacopoulos, 1997; Gonzalez, 1984).
Ambrose endeavored to escape the honor and flee the city (Gonzalez).
Nevertheless, it became clear to Ambrose that the Emperor desired
Ambrose to take the position as bishop (Gonzalez). At the time of
the events Ambrose remained a catechumen and was in need of bap-
tism (Demacopoulos, 1997; Gonzalez, 1984). Ambrose was then raised
through the various elements of ministerial orders (Gonzalez). After
eight days Ambrose became Bishop of Milan (Gonzalez). During the
era of Ambrose, “many of those in power, amongst others the empress
mother Justina, were Arians” (Schaff & Wace, 1896, p. xii). Ambrose
commitment toward this new office remains stalwart. Following these
circumstances, Ambrose actions toward Emperor Theodosius proved
the sanctified boldness Ambrose maintained (Gonzalez, 1984; Shelley,
1995). A charioteer in Thessalonica was accused of homosexual prac-
tices, and the governor of the area through him into prison but the
people of the city revolted, killing the governor (Cairns, 1996; Shelley,
1995). Emperor Theodosius in Milan, ordered that the citizens of the
city be punished, 7000 were killed (Cairns, 1996; Shelley, 1995). Other
priests of Amber’s time did not consider the Emperor actions “very
grave” (Bettenson & Maunder, 1999, p. 117). Ambrose wrote a letter of
response to Emperor Theodosius “I cannot deny that have a zeal for the
faith, and that you fear God, you have naturally passionate spirit which
becomes ungovernable when you are excited. I call on you to repent”
(Shelley, 1995, p. 97). Ambrose would not officiate Communion for
the Emperor until he repented (Cairns, 1996; Shelley, 1995). “The
influence of St. Ambrose, exercised even with severe strictness, was
all-powerful with Theodosius, known as the emperor who subdued the
Arian heresy and abolished the worship of idols in the Roman Empire”
(Schaff & Wace, 1896, p. xii). Ambrose’s stanch commitment toward
championing Christian doctrine remains extraordinary, even plac-
ing the position of bishop higher then any secular office, at least in his
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view (Bettenson & Maunder, 1999). Ambrose’s commitment and view

of ecclesial leadership continue to heighten, even stating that Priestly
dignity transcends the royal power (Bettenson & Maunder, 1999).
Ambrose pastoral letter states:

The honor and sublimity of bishops, and brethren, is beyond all compar-
ison. If one should compare them to resplendent Kings and diademed
princes it would be far less worthy than if one compared to the base metal
lead to gleaming gold. For indeed, one can see how the next of kings and
princes are bowed before the knees of priests; and how, having kissed
their right hands, they believe themselves strengthened by their prayers.
(Bettenson & Maunder, 1999, p. 117)

Ambrose’s made clear his position toward the saints and bishops.
Ambrose added in the letter, “you should know, brethren, that we have
mentioned all this to show that nothing can be found in this world
more lofty than priests or more sublime than bishops” (Bettenson &
Maunder, 1999, p. 117). Ambrose’s writings remain powerful.
Ambrose the bishop communicated his values through preaching,
teaching, books, treaties, and various writings. Ambrose is credited to
over 12 books, exegetical, and ethical writings including sermons and
treatises (Schaff & Wace, 1896, p. xxii). The values most often stated
within Ambrose writings include discipline, vision, wisdom, deci-
sion-making, love, courage, humility, integrity, and sincerity. Further,
Ambrose conveyed Scriptural values of courage, humility, integrity, and
sincerity. Ambrose also wrote of the four cardinal virtues prudence, jus-
tice, fortitude, and temperance.
“A large number of hymns have been attributed to St. Ambrose,
the number having by some editors been brought down to twelve, of
which, however, only four are certainly his compositions” (Schaff &
Wace, 1896, p. xxii). Ambrose was the “greatest pulpit orator of the
Western Church and a great champion of Catholicism against Arianism
(Qualben, 1948, p. 125). “In matters both of faith and morals by his
words and writings he greatly benefited the Church and was called by
St. Jerome ‘a pillar of the Church’” (Schaff & Wace, 1896, p. xiv). The
values represented by Ambrose remain aligned with values embraced
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
109

by Jesus and the apostles. The values Jesus and the apostle held were
largely translated through small groups (Mayer, 1976, p. 297), which
greatly reduced after the era of Constantine. “Ambrose, the bishop of
Milan (339– 397 AD) lived during the time of Constantine, and he
and his colleagues resorted to small groups to fill their own spiritual
needs” (Comiskey, 2014, Kindle Locations, pp. 365–366). Given this,
and Ambrose’s commitment and study of Scripture (Schaff & Wace,
1896), likely Ambrose patterned small group leadership after Jesus’
model. “Apparently, several early church fathers, like Ambrose, found
a tremendous amount of strength in small community interaction. St.
Augustine of Hippo, for example, was significantly influenced by these
small groups under Ambrose” (Comiskey, 2014, pp. 366–368).
The research reveals small groups, though reduced, still existed dur-
ing Ambrose era. Small groups somehow became part of the practice
of the official church structure. Ambrose was involved in these groups,
but apparently only with other clergy (Comiskey, 2014; Mayer, 1976).
Through Constantine the church came out the homes and into the
cathedrals (Comiskey, 1997–2015), which had a negative r­elationship
toward the house church or small group (Comiskey, 2014; Mayer,
1976). Small groups, from Moses to Ambrose provide toward develop-
ing leaders through precepts of God.
Teaching statutes and laws provides a major cultural shift for the
Israelites, having formerly followed the statutes and laws of Egypt.
Statutes are listed 179 times within the sacred text from Genesis
to Revelation. The first mention is Genesis 26:5 and the last in the
Pentateuch is Deuteronomy 30:16, as well as 80 other citing within the
Pentateuch. The term:

‫( קֹח‬ḥōq ). Statute, custom, law, decree The masculine noun ḥōq is from the
root ḥāqaq which means “to scratch” or “to engrave,” hence “to write.” It
occurs 128 times, and its feminine counterpart ḥūqqâ occurs 102 times.
It was a common practice among the ancients to engrave laws upon
slabs of stone or metal and to set them up in a public place (e.g. the code
of Hammurabi, engraved on diorite stone). But this root is not lim-
ited to the writing of laws on stone. The LXX chiefly used three words
to render ḥōq: prostagma “order” or “injunction,” dikaiōma “regulation”
110    
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or “requirement,” and nomimon “commandment.” The use of ḥōq in

Qumran is similar to that in the OT. (Lewis, 1999, p. 317)

The term law tôrâ is mention within the whole of Scripture 474
times, with 82 times within the Pentateuch. “The word tôrâ means
basically “teaching” whether it is the wise man instructing his son or
God instructing Israel” (Hartley, 1999, p. 404). The first appear-
ing is in Genesis 11:31 and the last mention within the Pentateuch is
Deuteronomy 33:10. The term law is:

‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ (tôrâ ). Law, teaching. ASV always “law,” RSV sometimes “teaching,”
“instruction” and “decisions.” The word is used some 221 times. Teaching
is the special task of the wisdom school as seen especially through the
book of Prov and of the priesthood. The latter accompanies a revealed
religion. The priests are to teach the law given by Moses (Lev 10:11; Deut
33:10); e.g. King Jehoash acted uprightly because he was instructed by
the high priest (II Kgs 12:2 [H 3]). Ezra the priest faithfully taught the
Law of Moses in the fall Feast of Tabernacles in accordance with the
Deuteronomic injunction (Deut 31:9–11; Ezr 8:1ff.). Unfortunately the
priests were not always true to God; they taught for money and became
teachers of lies (Isa 9:15 [H 14]; Mic 3:11). Similarly an idol is deemed “a
teacher of lies” (Hab 2:18f ). (Hartley, 1999, pp. 403–404)

Law was a normal segment of life for people within the Ancient Near
East (ANE), “in late third century Mesopotamia, as we discover from
the Sumerian law code from the reign of Ur-Nammu of Ur (c. 2112-
2095 B. C.); we find similar law codes associated with Lipt-Ishtar of Isin
(c. 1934-1924 B.C.),” as well as in Babylon and other nations (Provan,
Long, & Longman III, 2003, p. 134). In fact, the laws given are seen as
divinely originated and provided, and lack of obedience relates directly
toward disobedience to God or the gods (Durham, 1998). “The require-
ments and instructions Moses’ chosen helpers are to promulgate are
thus no more ‘secular’ and no less divinely drawn and monitored than
are those Moses himself promulgates” (Durham, 1998, p. 251). The law
encompassed apodictic, casuistic, criminal, family, moral, natural, and
social aspects (Drane, 2001). Given this, the law remained a central por-
tion of cognitive moral, and social order for Israel.
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
111

In the last portion of the Pentateuch Moses exhorted Israel that dis-
obedience to the law causes the affliction of curses (Duet. 27:9–26;
28:15–68), while obedience toward the law provides blessings (Deut.
28:1–14). Nevertheless, Israel remained obedient only through the life
of Joshua, Moses’ assistant and the elders who outlived Joshua, and
then Israel disobeyed the law (Joshua 2:11). After this, God allows
some of the curses to fall upon Israel. Yet God provided deliverance
through judges time and time again, after Israel cried out to God
(Judges 2:16, 18). Then God sent Samuel the seer or prophet and other
prophets as well as kings for Israel (and Judah), some good, most evil.
During the reign of the kings the Northern tribes of Israel separated
from the Southern tribe Judah (1 Kings 12:16–20). Due to further dis-
obedience the Northern tribes of Israel were taken captive and led off
by Assyria in 722 B.C. (2 Kings 17:6). In 587 B.C. Judah experienced
exile to Babylon (2 Kings 25). After years of captivity God brought
Judah back to the Promised Land and Ezra and the Levites read the
law to the people and gave the sense so the people could understand
(Nehemiah 8:7–8). Nevertheless, the nation fell once again into diso-
bedience, and a reformation effort happen through the Pharisees. The
Pharisees:

Were probably the successors of the Assideans (i.e., the “pious”), a party
that originated in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes in revolt against his
heathenizing policy. The first mention of them is in a description by
Josephus of the three sects or schools into which the Jews were divided
(B.C. 145). The other two sects were the Essenes and the Sadducees. In
the time of our Lord they were the popular party (John 7:48). They were
extremely accurate and minute in all matters appertaining to the law of
Moses (Matt. 9:14; 23:15; Luke 11:39; 18:12). (Easton, 1893, para 1)

The Pharisees were often in conflict with Jesus over the application of
the law, and therefore rebuked (Matt. 23). The New Testament or new
covenant provides the law encompassing not only material but also cog-
nitive and spiritual aspects (Jer. 31:31–34; Matt. 5–7; Heb. 8:8–13).
Therefore, the law remained a central portion of cognitive moral, and
social order for Israel.
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The phrase the way in which they must walk appears “quite frequently
(e.g., Dt. 5:33; 8:6; 11:22; 19:9; 26:17; 1 K. 2:3; 3:14; 8:58, 61; 2 Ch.
6:31; Isa. 30:21; Jer. 6:16; 7:23; Zec. 3:7). The term “way” (Heb. dereḵ ) in
this phrase refers to the conduct required by God (Knapp, 1988, p. 1004).
Viewing verse 21 through the lens of ideological texture, aspects
of cognitive moral, and social order are revealed. As noted previously,
Durham (1998) states the selection process of developing leader must
happen with “great care (almost with reliance upon a visionary percep-
tion, ‫ )חזה‬from the whole of Israel, and is to include only men who are
able, firm, and honest and ‘who have reverence for God’” (Durham,
1998, p. 250). The four criteria Jethro listed for Moses’ picks include
personal ability, the fear of God, trustworthiness, and hating a bribe.
The term for able includes aspects of “might, strength, power; able, val-
iant, virtuous, valor; army, host, forces; riches, substance, wealth” (Weber,
1999, p. 271). Kaiser (1990) refers to the term capable men as “men with
a native aptitude for judging” (p. 413). Cole reports, “the Hebrew may
have originally meant ‘soldierly’ men. It had however come to mean ‘good
men and true’, in the English sense. We may compare the use of a similar
phrase in Proverbs 12:4 of the ideal housewife” (Cole, 1973, pp. 148–149).
Cassuto provides the notion of “men of fine qualities of character” also
finding a link toward Prov. 31:10 (Cassuto, 1997, p. 220).
The term men who fear God may be understood as “a verb mean-
ing to fear, to respect, to reverence, to be afraid, to be awesome, to be
feared, to make afraid, to frighten. The most common translations are
to be afraid, to fear, to fear God” (Baker & Carpenter, 2003, p. 470).
Kaiser (1990) refers to the term “in reverence and belief in God”
(p. 413). Certainly, men who desire true judgment ought also remain
trustworthy.
Trustworthiness remains a primary aspect toward the people of God,
particularly leaders. The term trustworthy concerns:

Truth, faithfulness. It is frequently connected with lovingkindness (Prov.

3:3; Hos. 4:1) and occasionally with other terms such as peace (2 Kgs.
20:19); righteousness (Isa. 48:1); and justice (Ps. 111:7). To walk in truth
is to conduct oneself according to God’s holy standards (1 Kgs. 2:4; 3:6;
Ps. 86:11; Isa. 38:3). Truth was the barometer for measuring both one’s
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
113

word (1 Kgs. 22:16; Dan. 11:2) and actions (Gen. 24:49; Josh. 2:14).
Accordingly, God’s words (Ps. 119:160; Dan. 10:21) and actions (Neh.
9:33) are characterized by this Hebrew term also. (Baker & Carpenter,
2003, p. 74)

Additionally the term emphasizes:

Clear evidence of the biblical meaning of “faith” in contradistinction to

the many popular concepts of the term. At the heart of the meaning of
the root is the idea of certainty. And this is borne out by the nt definition
of faith found in Heb 11:1. The basic root idea is firmness or certainty.
In the Qal it expresses the basic concept of support and is used in the
sense of the strong arms of the parent supporting the helpless infant. The
constancy involved in the verbal idea is further seen in that it occurs in
the Qal only as a participle (expressing continuance). The idea of support
is also seen in II Kgs 18:16, where it refers to pillars of support. (Scott,
1999b, p. 51)

Kaiser (1990) simply related the term to remaining trustworthy.

Cassuto declares the term “such as fear God, men of truth—seekers of
truth, who realize that the task of the judge is none other than to give
true judgment” (Cassuto, 1997, p. 220). Childs (1976) enlists the term
with the definition of integrity. The lens of oral-scribal intertexture pro-
vides a view of a New Testament references.
1 Peter 1:16 “since it is written, “you shall be holy, for I am holy.”
Holiness hágios conveys perfection, but can mean being set apart for
God’s use (Zodhiates, 2000). Saint and sanctified also fit this descrip-
tion (Zodhiates, 2000). The word integrity corresponds to holiness.
The term holiness is defined “the quality of integrity as an expression
of moral soundness” (Louw & Nida, 1996, p. 746). The term integrity
found in the OT often defined perfect, yet not without fault (Zodhiates,
2000). Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, and House (2012)
found that integrity remains central toward desirable leadership practice
throughout sixty-two societies. Dorfman et al. report:

GLOBE found that 5 of our 21 primary leadership dimensions were

rated very highly. That is, the mean ratings on these scales were above a
114    
S. W. Boyer

5.5 and for these five dimensions, almost all of the countries (i.e., 95 per-
cent) rated them higher than a 5.0 on a 7- point scale. For instance, the
universally desired attributes mentioned in the previous paragraph (trust-
worthy, just, and honest) comprise the primary leadership dimension of
Integrity and was found to be one of the more highly rated dimensions.
(Dorfman et al., 2012, p. 4)

Leaders with integrity offer service to God, and therefore remain highly
desirable within multicultural environments. Only through Jesus can
leaders practice holiness. When the character of a leader remains holy,
the leader embodies integrity. Leadership ought to serve with integrity.
The aspect of integrity remains among highly desirable leadership attrib-
utes. Leaders with integrity ought to hate dishonest gain.
Kaiser (1990) refers to hate a bribe as “men who hated all ‘dishonest
gain’” (p. 413). Cassuto (1997) states the term “who hate unjust gain,
having not only the negative quality that they do not accept bribes, but
also the positive attribute that they hate bribery and all kinds of unjust
gain” (p. 220). The term includes:

Profit, gain, dishonest gain, covetousness. The word refers to illegal or

unjust gain or profit which God’s people were to avoid (Gen. 37:26;
Ex. 18:21; 1 Sam. 8:3; Ps. 119:36; Prov. 28:16). It is further qualified in
some contexts as gain obtained by violent means (Judg. 5:19; Mic. 4:13)
or profit gained with selfish goals in mind. (Baker & Carpenter, 2003,
p. 156)

Enns (2000) reports “the explicit reference to dishonest gain anticipates

a common temptation of leadership, namely, bribery—one that will
rear its head repeatedly throughout Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam. 8:3; Jer.
22:17)” (p. 372). Cole (1973) report “that moral, rather than intellec-
tual, qualities are demanded for such a position: this is proved by the
explanatory clauses that follow. Much the same qualities are demanded
of Christian workers in New Testament days (p. 149). The develop-
ing leaders that Moses selected are divided into various small groups
(vv. 21–23) comparative of the large masses in which Moses led. The
developing leaders decide on lesser matters, greater or difficult matters
remain with Moses.
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
115

Viewing verses 21–23, Kaiser (1990) states that the chiefs of the
groups of thousands, of hundreds, of fifties, and of tens, “were to be
arranged in a decimal system of a graduated series of groups in multi-
ples of ten, with Moses being the court of final appeal (Kaiser, 1990,
p. 413). Childs (1976) posits the number reflects military organizations
(1 Sam. 29:2; 2 Sam. 18:1).

The description of the civic structure (officers over thousands, hundreds, fif-
ties and tens, 18:21; cf. 18:25) has surprised and baffled interpreters by
its military nature (cf. 2 Sam. 18:1). Throughout much of Israel’s history,
justice lay in the hands of the elders of the clan, who dispensed justice in
the town gates. (Janzen, 2000, pp. 228–229)

Cassuto (1997) declares, “these numbers are not to be interpreted with

mathematical exactitude, but as various ranks of rulers, one senior to
the other” (p. 220). Stuart (2006) expresses with clarity:

These terms are used elsewhere to denote military units, but here they
delineate civilian groupings of various sizes. It is not any more likely that
the terms are to be taken literally in this context than in a military con-
text. The expression seems to have the sense of “all the various societal
levels” rather than literally indicating that every ten people would have a
judge; every fifty (five groups of ten), an appellate judge for that group;
and every two appellate groups (“hundreds”), a higher appellate judge,
and so on. (Stuart, 2006, p. 418)

Stuart (2006) states the division “seems to be essentially a figure of

speech by which is meant “all the various population groupings” (Stuart,
2006, p. 418). Thus through the process all of Israel were provided civil
and judicial justice, as well as counsel from God.
The lens of sacred texture (vv. 17–23) provides aspects toward the
human and the divine. This texture includes particular character-
istics regarding deity, holy persons, divine history, human redemp-
tion, human commitment, religious community, and ethics (Robbins,
1996b). The specific purpose within the communication between
God and man revolves around humanities salvation, or deliverance.
Specifically insightful, is how God delivers Moses from exhaustion and
116    
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the Israelites from lack of knowledge, order, and civil and legal unrest.
Concerning Moses obeying Jethro’s advice, Childs (1976) states “that
it is God’s command that he do so” (p. 331). This meaningful action
through Moses provides support not only toward Moses’ humility,
but that Moses remains concerned with developing as a leader him-
self. Perhaps the most significant element within the pericope concerns
the OT aspect of discipleship. As previously mentioned, due to the
OT use of the term, “the rabbis sometimes use lmd in a secular sense,
e.g., for learning a trade, or getting information about something, or
drawing knowledge from a book, “the OT relates the group lmd to the
revealed will of God; other terms are used for human instruction (Gk.
paideía ) (Kittel, Friedrich, & Bromiley, 1985, p. 553). The root of the
term paideia encompasses a Hellenistic understanding of education
and training. For Jaeger (1939) paideia connects the community with
behavior and the formation of values. Kittel et al., provides greater clar-
ity toward the terms:

The religion of Israel is a religion of revelation. Human speakers are the

agents by which God proclaims himself and his will. They do not speak
for themselves or champion their own causes. They are stewards passing
on God’s word to God’s people. The commitment they seek is commit-
ment to God. No place remains for the authority of a great personality or
for the resultant master/ disciple relation. (Kittel et al., 1985, p. 553)

Again, the Hebrew equivalent focuses on the instruction from God, not
the human counterpart (Kittel et al., 1985). The human counterparts
were considered stewards. Given this, the relational aspect still existed,
with a different perspective; nevertheless, the function of OT leadership
concerns instructing “God’s word to God’s people” (Kittel et al., 1985,
p. 553). Given this, the pericopes reveals the first biblical account of New
Testament command for discipleship taking place within OT context.
The section (vv. 17–23) reveals Jethro’s offer of advice toward Moses
and the restructuring of Israel, as from God. Moses accepting advice
supports his desire for leadership development. The ideal of the OT
form of discipleship remains and expands. Jethro’s advice includes
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
117

Moses appointing developing leaders to judge the people on small mat-

ters, leaving the larger matters to Moses. The preeminence of God’s law
is established. The law remained a central portion of cognitive moral,
and social order for Israel. Moses as the supreme judge provides support
that intimacy with God affords greater knowledge toward God’s stat-
ues and laws. Moses was to carefully, prayerfully, choose the developing
leaders. The four criteria Jethro listed for Moses’ picks include personal
ability, the fear of God, trustworthiness, and hating a bribe. Further,
developing leaders ought to remain with integrity, possessing ethical and
moral behavior above all. Finally, the newly instituted small group lead-
ers provide civil and judicial services toward each person within Israel
through an OT form of discipleship.

Exodus 18:24–27

In view of inner texture, this section (vv. 24–27) reveals repetitive-pro-

gressive, opening-middle-closing (see Table 4.4). The opening verse
acknowledges Moses accepts Jethro’s advice. The middle section reveals
how the advice was followed. The closing verse sums up Jethro’s visit.
The opening verse within this section emphasizes that Moses listened
and applied all the advice that Jethro suggested. Stuart suggests all of
the civil/judicial change came from God.

Although it is not stated overtly, it may be assumed that Moses learned

from God that Jethro’s advice was either acceptable or even what God had
intended all along and Moses had misunderstood. Thus already at Sinai/
Horeb, three months after leaving Egypt, Israel had a hierarchical court
system using chosen, not inherited, leaders as judges, with Moses as the
supreme court. (Stuart, 2006, p. 419)

Verse 24 states that Moses completed all Jethro said. Yet, this is not
agreeable to some. “Moses accepted the wise counsel of Jethro, but the
plan was not implemented immediately. According to Deuteronomy
1:9–15 judges were selected after the law was given on Sinai a few weeks
later” (Smith, 1993, p. 298).
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S. W. Boyer

Table 4.4  Inner texture of Exodus 18:24–27

Verse Repetitive texture Opening-middle-closing Progressive texture
24 Moses 18:24 The voice of his Listened
father-in-law
25–26 Chose able men-they Heads over people Made chiefs
judged Judged people
27 Moses let father-in-law Hard cases Moses
depart small cases judges

The middle section supports the conduct Jethro initiated. Developing

leaders were assigned toward a specific small group, relative toward the
mass. Cole (1973) states that text includes Moses obeyed his father-in-
law. “Moses was humble enough (and wise enough) to learn from his
father-in-law (Cole, 1973, p. 149).
The closing section provides the last portion with Jethro present.
Moses allows Jethro to depart. Cassuto (1997) states it this way “he
[Moses] gave him [Jethro] permission to go, and accompanied him on
the first part of the journey” (Cassuto, 1997, p. 221). Cassuto (1997)
then provides a comparison with Gen. 18:16: “and Abraham went with
them to set them on their way.”
Through intertexture, specifically oral-scribal intertexture, the text
incorporates the recontextualization, as found through the first per-
icope within Exodus 18. Cassuto (1997) find recontextualization
throughout.

The parallelism between the beginning of the first paragraph (v. 1) and
the commencement of the second paragraph (v. 14) was indicated above.
It may further be noted that an expression of ‘sending away’ occurs at
the beginning and the end of the section (v. 2: ‘after he had sent her
away’; v. 27: ‘let … depart [literally, ‘sent away’]’); the verb took is found
at the commencement and conclusion of the first paragraph (v. 2 and v.
12); reference is made to ‫ שָ ׁלֹום‬šālōm [‘peace’, ‘welfare’] in the middle of
the first paragraph (v. 7) and also in the middle of the second (v. 23);
‫ וַיִ ְּשׁמַ ע יִ ְתרֹו‬wayyišmaʿ Yithrō [‘Now Jethro heard’] (v. 1) corresponds to
‫ וַיִ ְּשׁמַ ע מֹ שֶ ה‬wayyišmaʿ Mōše [‘So Moses listened’] (v. 24); the recurrence
of expressions of deliverance we have mentioned before. (Cassuto, 1997,
pp. 221–222)
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
119

Additionally Cassuto (1997) finds numerical links with the numeral 10.
The social and cultural texture within the pericope supports the for-
mer implications concerning the respect, divine favor, and wisdom
upon the aged. In fact, Jethro seems to implement the cultural norm
powerfully. “This assertion shows Jethro to be far more than simply the
respected patriarch he is ordinarily made out to be. He is functioning
toward Moses much as he is telling Moses he should function toward
the people of Israel” (Durham, 1998, p. 252).
Again, the ideological texture supports former statements. That
is, aspects of cognitive moral, and social order are revealed. This cur-
rent pericope (vv. 24–27) supports the findings of the last section
(vv. 17–23). Specifically, Moses’ burden of counseling the entire
population of Israel is relieved through delegation, albeit the hard
cases remain with Moses, and the able, God fearing men whom are
trustworthy and hate covetousness are appointed to small group
leadership.
The sacred texture provides insight toward the human and the divine.
In this pericope a significant model is revealed, a model of discipleship
within the OT. The advice of Jethro, which is God ordained—Moses
then implements this model of teaching, training, and discipleship,
which remains worthy of repetition. Important principles are repeated
throughout the sacred text (Deut. 17:6, 19:15; Matt. 18:16; 2 Cor.
13:1; Phil. 3:1; 1 Tim. 5:19; Heb. 10:28).
This pericope (24–27) reveals or rather reinforces principals and ele-
ments through the chapter. Some of these include, the trusting family
relationship, obedience to God, delegation and discipleship, and inti-
macy with God provides greater insight and ability.

Summary of Data—Principles
of Leadership from Exodus 18
The mining and examination of Exodus 18, using sociorhetorical anal-
ysis, provides a variety of data toward leadership principles. The deep
dive into the text included ancient Hebrew, Midian, and Egyptian
120    
S. W. Boyer

aspects involving rhetoric and customs within early fifteenth-century

B.C. cultures. Through the analysis several themes emerged including
relational, cognitive, and moral aspects of leadership, and leadership
development.
The first pericope (vv. 1–5) reveals juxtaposition from the former
chapter concerning the battle of Israel and the Amalekites, moving for-
ward into the family reunion. The textures provide apparent themes,
(a) the deliverance of Israel from Egypt to the deliverance from the
Amalekites toward, (b) trusting, and (c) peaceful family. Therefore, the
theme concerning the salvation of God provides an environment with
trusting relationships and peace.
The next section (vv. 6–8) continues the theme of the unity family
including Jethro, Zipporah, Gershom, and Eliezer, and importantly
the speculative salvation of Jethro as well as the deliverance of Moses
and Israel. The importance of family, trust, and peace remains a pres-
ent theme. Moses declares the goodness of God and evangelizes Jethro,
affirming all the great things God has done for Israel. The themes
within this pericope include (a) family unity, (b) trust, (c) relational, (d)
personal development, and (e) intimacy with God.
The next pericope (vv. 9–12) reveals Moses and Jethro repetitively
using names of God including the Tetragrammaton YHWH, the Lord,
or Yahweh. This provides meaning toward the intimate relationships.
The personal development of Jethro likewise exits through this sec-
tion—growing in knowledge and intimacy with God. The treaty meal,
or fellowship meal remains meaningful concerning the reciprocal trust
within the family atmosphere. Given this, developing themes within
this section includes, (a) the deliverance of Israel (b) family unity, (c)
trust, (d) relational, (e) personal development, and (f ) intimacy with
God.
The pericope (vv. 13–16) provides details concerning Moses prac-
tice of sitting and judging the people all day, which also is analogous
toward New Testament discipleship, yet within OT fashion. The phrase
“to inquire of God” is first mentioned, which becomes a lynchpin for
future prophets. Additionally, the theme of remaining a slave for God,
and selflessness is revealed through Moses, as an example toward the
soon-to-be-chosen developing leaders. Further, the theme of remaining
 4  Leadership Principles in Exodus 18    
121

teachable appears through the people receiving Moses’ counsel.

Therefore, the principle of leader personal development occurs and var-
ious themes appear which include (a) slave toward God, (b) selflessness,
(c) relational, (d) humility, and (e) remaining teachable.
The following pericope (vv. 17–23) reveals Jethro’s offer of advice
toward Moses and the theme of delegation and developing leaders
occurs. Importantly, Moses willingness to follow advice supports the
theme of Moses’ desire toward personal leadership development. The
model of the OT form of discipleship continues and magnifies, through
Jethro’s advice that includes Moses appointing developing leaders to
judge the people on lesser difficulties, leaving the greater difficulties
to Moses. The idea of Moses handling the more difficult issues reveals
principles concerning leader develop and maintain growing intimacy
with God. Maintaining growing intimacy with God also corresponds
toward the developing leaders. Another principle derived includes the
developing leaders providing toward growing authentic family through
personal discipleship, or spiritual formation. The importance and prom-
inence of God’s law is established. The law ought to remain a domi-
nant portion of cognitive, moral, and social order for all believers (Rom.
8:1–8). The example of Moses as the highest judge provides a theme
that intimacy with God offers superior knowledge toward God’s stat-
ues and laws. An additionally theme concerns the careful, prayer-
ful selection of developing leaders. The characteristics of developing
leader individual traits include: (a) personal ability, (b) the fear of God,
(c) trustworthiness, (d) hating a bribe, (e) delegation, and (f ) disciple-
ship. Further, a significant theme reveals that developing leaders ought
to remain with integrity, possessing ethical and moral behavior above
all. Finally, and again the theme continues that leaders ought to pro-
vide leadership development, to the end that all persons within a group
maintain access toward discipleship. Further, the principles of selec-
tion, development, which involve trusting relationships with develop-
ing leaders, occur. Additionally, due to the counsel, discipleship and
spiritual formation provided through Moses and the developing lead-
ers, a more intimate family atmosphere is produced which reduces con-
flict and supports peace within the community. Given this, the themes
within this pericope include (a) humility, (b) remaining teachable,
122    
S. W. Boyer

(c) personal development, (d) intimacy with God, (e) deliverance

(f ) relational, (g) delegation, (h) selection, (i) personal ability, (j) the
fear of God, (k) trustworthiness, (l) cognitive, (m) moral, (n) hating a
bribe, or covetousness, (o) leader development, (p) obedience to God,
and (q) discipleship.
The last pericope (vv. 24–27) reinforces themes and elements through
the chapter. The trusting family relationship, obedience to God, delega-
tion and discipleship, and intimacy with God provide greater insight and
ability. The themes include, (a) humility, (b) remaining teachable, (c) per-
sonal development, (d) intimacy with God, (e) deliverance (f ) relational,
(g) delegation, (h) selection, (i) personal ability, (j) the fear of God, (k)
trustworthiness, (l) cognitive, (m) moral, (n) hating a bribe, or covetous-
ness, (o) leader development, (p) obedience to God, and (q) discipleship.

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 5
Small Groups and Leader Personal
Development

Moses and Leadership Values and Practices

The research questions examined at the beginning of this book con-
cerned what cognitive and ethical standards Moses required concerning
developing leaders, and whether Moses instilled leadership values and
practices within the developing leaders and finally, seeking potential
impact toward principles for small group leadership. In Exodus 18 the
author provides a historical, theological, narrative account concerning
the salvation and deliverance God performed for Moses and Israel by
great signs and wonders removing them from the harsh bondage and
slavery of Egypt. The account reveals the family reunion of Moses,
including Jethro, Moses’ wife and sons. The theological discussions
within provide reinforcement toward elements including the greatness
of God, God’s salvation and deliverance, trust, family unity, selfless ser-
vice, peace, God’s statues and laws, delegation, discipleship, trustwor-
thiness, and integrity. The themes within become principles toward
leadership, and small group leadership, drawn from this text.
The historical, theological, narrative Moses provides in Exodus
18 immediately contrasts the animosity, distrust, and battle with

© The Author(s) 2019 127

S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_5
128    
S. W. Boyer

the Amalekites in the former chapter. The contrast emphasizes

God’s salvation from the battle as well as the difference provided
through family unity and trust. The declaration of the greatness of
God toward Jethro, prompting Jethro’s praise and confessional pro-
vides reason to celebrate with a sacrifice and covenant meal stimu-
lating cohesiveness within the family and Israel. Moses’ endeavor
toward nation building includes selfless ministry toward each per-
son with need of God’s counsel throughout Israel—as an arrange-
ment Moses likely witnessed in Egypt and Midian (Stuart, 2006).
The God-prompted advice of Jethro forms a new era within the civil,
judicial, and discipleship factors throughout Israel’s history. Moses’
willingness to learn provides support toward Moses’ concern for per-
sonal leadership development. Moses maintaining the highest judi-
cial and teaching position supports the theme that intimacy with
God provides greater comprehension toward God’s statues and laws.
The careful, prayerful selection of developing leaders with individual
traits include personal ability, the fear of God, trustworthiness, and
hating a bribe. Additionally, an important theme reveals that devel-
oping leaders ought to remain with integrity, possessing ethical and
moral behavior over and above all. Lastly, leaders ought to provide
leadership development, so that all persons within a group maintain
access toward discipleship.

Leadership Principles in Exodus 18

The entirety of Exodus 18, through sociorhetorical analysis, was mined
and examined toward understanding leadership principles as advanced
through the text. The textural interpretation generated 22 themes,
which remain significant toward leadership. The 22 themes can be
organized into five leadership principles drawn from Exodus 18. The
five principles are (a) small groups and leader personal development,
(b) the development and proliferation of trust in small groups, (c) con-
nection with god and the small group leader, (d) small group leaders
and the betterment of the family, and (e) conflict reduction and peace
multiplication.
 5  Small Groups and Leader Personal Development    
129

Leader Personal Development

The text within Exodus 18 focuses on the development and disciple-
ship of leaders and the community in the context of cohesive trusting
relationships. A central theme throughout the text concerns personal,
intimate, familial relationships. Durham (1998) cites the main theme of
the chapter is the reunion of Abraham’s family with Keturah’s decedents.
The first section stands against the former chapter and the battle of
Israel and the Amalekites, while moving forward into the family reun-
ion, including the reuniting of Jethro, Zipporah, Gershom, and Eliezer.
It is through the family reunion that Jethro has the opportunity to
advise Moses toward a holistic form of civil, judicial counsel, as well as
discipleship. Significantly, Moses’ willingness to follow advice supports
the theme of Moses’ desire toward personal leadership development.
In connection with Moses, effective personal development requires
unction by the individual, in cooperation with God. Personal leader-
ship development—discipleship—includes the process of unifying the
will, desires, and behaviors with God (Exo. 19:8; 24:3, 7; Duet. 5:27–
29; 2 Chron. 30:12; Neh. 10:29; Jer. 31:33–34; Eze. 36:26–28; John
3:12; Phil. 3:13; Heb. 13:21; James 1:17–18). Personal growth remains
a unique experience and each individual is best suited toward evaluat-
ing the effectiveness of his or her own developmental and skill poten-
tial (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010). One example within Scripture
reveals Moses was a murderer (Ex. 2:11–14), just prior to coming in
contact with the holiness of God (Ex. 3:5). The Exodus 2:11–14 per-
icope clearly points to the need toward developing morals of Moses.
Something must have caused Moses to desire change and personal
development. The command from God for Moses to take the sandals
off his feet (Ex. 3:5), not only represents the holiness of God but the
requirement and reverence of Moses both in attitude and behavior.
Contact with God, likely motivated Moses toward holiness and per-
sonal development.
It seems clear that Moses was not motivated due to jealousy or envy,
either in the event in Exodus 18 or Numbers 11—since Moses was
willing and desiring God to provide more leadership depth. The afore-
mentioned passages also negate selfish ambition as the cause. “Ambition
130    
S. W. Boyer

comes from the Latin word meaning campaigning for promotion,”

whereas “ambition that centers on self is wrong” (Sanders, 2007, p.
15). The leader that views motivation based on self-interest, focuses
only on the goal, whereas the leader that views motivation through the
lens of self-sacrifice toward the betterment of self and others, focuses
on the person, process, and goal (Avolio, 2005). Moses was called
and appointed by God to leadership. Moses’ service in both pericopes
focuses on the glory of God and the betterment of others. “Ambition
that centers on the glory of God…is a might force for good” (Sanders,
2007, p. 15). Given this, Moses need not focus or concern himself with
jealousy, envy, selfish ambition, or promotion—rather wholly on the
glory of God and the betterment of others. Consider some motivating
factors for organizational leaders and subordinates.
“More authentic leaders primary motivation” derives from “self-im-
provement goals” whereas less authentic leaders ego defense motives
include pursuing “self-protection” (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May,
& Walumbwa, 2005, p. 354). Pay, time off, schedule, promotion, rec-
ognition, and security remain among the various explanations toward
employee motivating factors (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010).
Interestingly, most organizations do not assign tasks for the benefit of
employee personal development—in part due to selection and place-
ment, and risk of failure (Yukl, 2013). Placement may occur due to a
supervisor initiating a new role allowing the subordinate a platform
toward personal development. Nevertheless the reciprocal trust remains
necessary—supervisors’ trust in subordinates’’ potential ability, and sub-
ordinates’ trust in the expert power/ability in the supervisor (Leach,
1995). The trait approach, through personality assessment, links indi-
viduals with right job fit (Northouse, 2013). Correspondingly, the Skills
Approach toward leadership focuses on technical, human, and concep-
tual skills (Katz, 1955), including knowledge, problem-solving, and
social judgment skills (Mumford, Marks, Connelly, Zaccari, & Reiter-
Palmon, 2000). Additionally, the trait approach provides analysis of
strength and weakness, for personal awareness and development, includ-
ing mobility and promotion within an organization (Northouse, 2013).
Behavior research focuses on a combination of task-oriented and rela-
tion-oriented behaviors (Yukl, 2013), the best practices implementing
 5  Small Groups and Leader Personal Development    
131

a proportionate aspect of each. Scripture reveals God provides skills—

technical, human, conceptual skills, knowledge, problem-solving, and
social judgment skills, including wisdom, unction, and ability (Col.
2:3; Ex. 36:1; Phil. 2:13). Motivation and personal development merely
respond to the initiative of God.
Authentic leaders desire positive change within themselves and oth-
ers, motivated by seeing the possible selves (Gardner et al., 2005).
Personal development remains a dominant aspect of the AL model of
leadership, which includes motivation (Klenke, 2007). Klenke (2007)
offered additional aspects toward the AL model through theorizing four
antecedents: cognitive (knowing self, including moral capacity), affec-
tive (emotional intelligence, including optimism and hope), cognitive
(self-motivation, including motivation to lead), and spiritual (self-tran-
scendence, meaning, purpose and self-sacrifice). Spiritual Leadership
model includes aspects of motivation.
As mentioned previously, Fry (2003) defines SL “as comprising the
values, attitudes, and behaviors that are necessary to intrinsically moti-
vate one’s self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival
through calling and membership” (p. 694). Additionally, SL enhances
follower motivation by connecting work with spiritual meaning (Fry,
2003). Therefore, SL includes a sense of calling which then provides
motivation toward the betterment of self and other through love, care,
and concern. Personal development brings rewards (1 Cor. 9:24–27), in
fact “all Christians are called to develop God-given talents, to make the
most of their lives, to develop to the fullest their God-given powers and
capacities” (Sanders, 2007, p. 15).
Yukl cites three elements toward leadership training programs, for-
mal training, self-help activities, and developmental activities—yet con-
cludes that “little research has been done on the relative advantage of
training, development, and self-help activities for different types of lead-
ership skills” (Yukl, 2013, p. 399). Ivancevich and Konopaske (2010)
list three ways for administering rewards within organizations, positive
reinforcement, expectancy, and modeling and social imitation. Positive
reinforcement, involves a stimulus which enhances or alters desired
behavior, while expectancy theory includes the manager’s awareness and
ability to reward good and proper conduct (Ivancevich & Konopaske,
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2010). Modeling and social imitation involves personal responses

through observation (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010).

Observational learning equips a person to duplicate a response, but

whether the response actually is imitated depends on whether the model
person was rewarded or punished for particular behaviors. If a person is
to be motivated, he or she must observe models receiving reinforcements
that are valued. (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010, p. 195)

Scripture states significant warning concerning connection and contact

with people displaying negative behavior (1 Cor. 15:33) whereas imitat-
ing Jesus’ values remains encouraged (1 Cor. 11:1). As previously noted,
a disciple’s decisions and values remain connected, and ought to corre-
spond to Scripture. “Values are guidelines and beliefs that a person uses
when confronted with a situation in which a choice must be made”
(Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010, p. 418). Yukl (2013) states values
concern internalized attitudes, which direct between right and wrong,
moral and immoral. Yukl (2013) emphasizes the significance of values
stating that values guide the “person’s preferences, perception of prob-
lems, and choice of behavior” (p. 136). The bible reveals God provides
humanity with the ability to choose, and make decisions (Gen. 2:17; 3:6;
4:7; Joshua 24:15; Isa. 55:6; Matt. 11:28–30; John 12:40; Rom. 10:13;
11:25; Rev. 22:12–17). It is beyond the scope of this book to detail ele-
ments concerning major aspects of life and salvation—explicitly humani-
ties ability to choose, and the sovereignty of God. Nevertheless, Scripture
clearly supports that both factors remain vital aspects of life and salva-
tion. Nonetheless, the best decisions leaders make align with Scriptural
values. God desires disciples to increasingly adapt Scriptural values,
decisions, and behaviors (Rom. 12:1–2). Scriptural values supporting a
leader’s personal development include confidence in God, serving others,
integrity, remaining teachable, humility, empowerment, and altruism.

Confidence in God

The first of the seven values remains of great importance. This concerns
the irreplaceable perception and attitude of remaining confident in God
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and His equipping ability. Confidence in God remains within Exodus

3:7–22—God calls Moses to lead and deliver Israel from the bondage
of the Egyptians. Over and over God stresses his presence, power, and
person will remain with Moses, thus bringing confidence. Moses then
urges God’s people to greater confidence, through God’s empower-
ment toward them (Ex. 4:28–31). Confidence in God’s empowerment
begins with the acceptance of the call. Similarly, the value remains latent
within Romans 12:1a “I appeal to you therefore, brothers, by the mer-
cies of God.” The beginning phase in Romans 12:1a “I appeal to you
therefore,” begins with the word commonly translated urge. Zodhiates
(2000) states the word “beseech,” or appeal παρακαλέω parakaléō;
can mean to come alongside of and help, or perhaps better rendered
here exhort, desire, call for. Paul calls the church in Rome toward a
greater step toward faith in Christ.
The use of the word “therefore, declares Osborne (2004) signals
a previously stated principle. This points the reader back, all the way
through the tremendous truths taught through the Epistle thus far, spe-
cifically 1:18–11:36 (Osborne, 2004). The doctrine in brief summary:
Paul’s clear presentation of the Gospel began in 1:17 “the just shall live
by faith.” Next Paul declares the subject of human depravity and ina-
bility to save themselves (1:18–3:20). He continues with the topic of
justification (3:21–5:21). Additionally, Paul delivers the topic of sanc-
tification and glorification (6–8). Paul moves forward with the truth of
God’s sovereignty in election (9–11). Because of the great and wonder-
ful mercies of God revealed within the first eleven chapters, now the
reader faces a decision to respond to God’s mercy, benefits, and bless-
ings, which include equipping and empowering the believer. Paul uses
the term “brethren” adelphós, which refers to spiritual brotherhood,
and denotes unity (Kittel, Friedrich, & Bromiley, 1985). The church
in Rome lacked unity. This term in connection with the opening verses
substantiates the fact that believers were the authors’ audience.
Whatever God commands the leader, God sustains (Ex. 3:20; John
14:21; 15:5, 16; Romans 6:14; 12:4–8; 13:14 Eph. 1:19; 4:1; 5:1). A
leader confident in God remains able to work with all diligence through
the grace and power of the Spirit (Exodus 18:1; Numbers 11:25;
Rom. 1:5; 1 Cor. 15:10). Confidence in God provides the leader with
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the encouragement of knowing divine ability remains working in and

through the leader. Confidence in God does not promote optimization
theory (i.e., the leader makes perfect decisions) but provides sanctified
boldness in the decision-making process. Organizational leaders contin-
ually make decisions regarding the betterment of subordinates.

Serving Others

The call of God for Moses to begin serving others through leader-
ship happened while shepherding a flock (Ex. 3:1). This second value
reveals great significance for the leader—incorporating a pattern of
serving others. Serving others remains a foundational aspect of bible
leaders. Abraham and Isaac demonstrated self-sacrifice through plac-
ing Isaac on the “altar” in response to God’s command (Gen. 22:1–
14). Although Isaac could have jumped off His altar, he remained
steadfast. Yet a much greater living sacrifice occurred for the benefit
of humanity through Jesus Christ. Serving others provides evi-
dence toward the concept, the leader remains more concerned about
what he can offer God and humanity than personal gain or title
(Sanders, 2007). Jesus modeled the truth that serving others remains
supremely important (John 1:13; 4:34 34; 5:30; 6:38; Matthew
20:28; Luke 22:42). Jesus remains the greatest servant of all (Matt.
23:11; Luke 22:27). Jesus’ attitude and action represent humility and
self-abnegation.

Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, who,
though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing
to be grasped, but emptied himself, by taking the form of a servant, being
born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form, he humbled
himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross.
(Phil. 2:5–8 ESV)

Given the example and complete sacrifice of Jesus the disciple ought
to commit toward a reciprocal sacrifice. Zodhiates (2000) declares that
in Jesus’ incarnation, Jesus took upon Himself the form (morphḗ ) of
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a servant (doúlos ) by taking upon Himself the shape (schḗma ) of

man. Philippians 2:5–11 declares that although Jesus is Lord (κύριος
kúrios;) and Master (δεσπότης despótēs ) he became a slave for the
glory of God and for humanities sake. Disciples and Christian leaders
do well to model this type of slavery for God’s purposes. The basis of
this follows from deductions reached through Jesus’ titles and authority.
These titles include Lord (κύριος kúrios;) and Master (δεσπότης
despótēs ) meaning the person in charge because of ownership, accord-
ing to Arndt, Danker, and Bauer (2000). The New Testament translates
kúrios in 748 occurrences; AV translates as “Lord” 667 times (Acts 5:14;
9:10f, 42; 11:23f; 22:10b; Rom. 12:11; 14:8; 1 Cor. 6:13f, 17; 7:10, 12;
2 Cor. 5:6, 8; Gal. 1:19; Col. 1:10; 1 Thess. 4:15b; 2 Thess. 3:1; Heb.
2:3; James 5:7f; to list a few). The word despótēs has ten occurrences,
Lord five and master five times (example: 2 Pet. 2:1; Jude 1:4; Rev. 6:10;
Sept.: Gen. 15:2, 8; Job 5:8; Prov. 29:26; Is. 1:24). The bible inter-
changes Jesus, Lord, and master. Jesus proved a slave for God. Given
this, leaders ought to imitate Jesus, embracing sanctification, through
serving others—being a slave to God, as depicted in Fig. 5.1.
Slavery connected to God or the gods has existed for millennia. In
fact, an inscription in 200–199 BC on a wall of the temple of Apollo at
Delphi states the god is said to have bought the slave from her owner,
for the purpose of liberty (Barrett, 1989). Nearly every Eastern nation
peoples maintain the motif of remaining a slave of God (Yamauchi,
1966). In the beginning of the letter to the Romans, the apostle Paul
identifies himself with the title slave (doulos) of Jesus Christ.

In the New Testament, of the 127 times that the word doulos occurs, it is
translated 120 times as “servant,” 6 times as “bond,” and once as “bond-
man.” the verb douleuw occurs 25 times and is translated with the word
“serve” 21 times and with the word “bondage” 4 times. The feminine
doule occurs 3 times and is translated as “handmaid” or “handmaiden.”
The substantive douleia occurs 5 times and is always translated “bondage.”
The verb doulow occurs 8 times and is translated 4 times with the idea
of bringing into “bondage,” 3 times with that of becoming a “servant,”
and once “given” to much wine in Titus 2:3. The word doulagwgew occurs
at I Corinthians 9:27 with the rendering “bring into subjection”; doulon
occurs twice as “servant.” (Yamauchi, 1966, p. 43)
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Fig. 5.1  On target transformation

A problem has occurred in translations. Due to the cultural/his-

torical use of the term slave it has often been translated servant.
Yamauchi noted this through John Locke in his essay Concerning Civil
Government, (1690), Chapter 7. Locke notes the difference between the
slave and servant. The slave cannot negotiate, but does what his mas-
ter requests. The servant remains with negotiating power (Yamauchi,
1966). Correspondingly, the translators of the King James Version may
have had negative considerations toward the term slave (Yamauchi,
1966). Consequently, doulos, to the translators becomes servant. This
concept of meaning continues today.
The represented axiom proves disciples and leaders ought to live sub-
missive transformational lives as (doulos) slaves of Jesus Christ. Jesus
Christ became a slave to the glory of God. Lawrence interprets the word
servant seemingly synonymous with the word slave. “True, a servant is
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limited by the will of his master, a servant is dependent on his mas-

ter for all his life needs, and he has no freedom to do anything except
what his master desires” (Lawrence, 1987, p. 326). Again Lawrence
provides synonymous usage. “A servant is someone under the authority
of another who voluntarily serves for that one’s benefit with a spirit of
humble dependence and who finds his freedom, fulfillment, and signifi-
cance in the limits of his service” (Lawrence, 1987, p. 327).
Likewise also, leadership ought to seek to glorify God through sub-
missive others focused service. Jesus lived to glorify God (John 17:4).
Leadership succeeds by glorifying God (Matt. 5:16; 9:8; 15:31; Mark
2:12; Luke 2:20; 5:25, 26; 7:16; 13:13; 17:15; 18:43; 23:47; John
13:31, 32; 14:13; 15:8; 17:4; 21:19; Acts 4:21; 11:18; 21:20; Rom.
1:21; 15:6, 9; 1 Cor. 6:20; 2 Cor. 9:13; Gal. 1:24; 1 Pet. 2:12; 4:11,
16). Conversely the disobedient do not glorify God (Rom. 1:21).
Serving others for Jesus’ sake represents the sensible act of leadership.

Integrity

Moses’ leadership and example reveals that integrity remains of

importance to God. Further, Exodus 18:20–25 demands integrity
from the developing leaders. The pericope highlights various themes
representative of integrity, including the fear of God, trustworthi-
ness, moral development, hating a bribe or covetousness, leader
development, and obedience to God. The theme of integrity remains
throughout Scripture and exists in Romans and illuminates sacrifice,
with the expectation that it remain, “holy and acceptable to God,
which is your spiritual worship” (Romans 12:1c). The appeal Paul
sounded urges leaders to maintain attitudes and actions resembling
Jesus. Given this, thoughts, words, and deeds must align with holi-
ness. The third value for leadership concerns integrity. A person of
integrity remains reliable, trustworthy, dependable, and honest. The
aspect of integrity is included among highly desirable leadership
attributes. Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, and House
(2012) found that integrity remains central toward desirable leader-
ship practice throughout sixty-two societies.
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GLOBE found that 5 of our 21 primary leadership dimensions were

rated very highly. That is, the mean ratings on these scales were above a
5.5 and for these five dimensions, almost all of the countries (i.e., 95 per-
cent) rated them higher than a 5.0 on a 7- point scale. For instance, the
universally desired attributes mentioned in the previous paragraph (trust-
worthy, just, and honest) comprise the primary leadership dimension of
Integrity and was found to be one of the more highly rated dimensions.
(Dorfman et al., 2012, p. 4)

“Since it is written, “You shall be holy, for I am holy” (1 Peter 1:16).

Zodhiates (2000) states holiness hágios conveys perfection, but can
mean being set apart for God’s use. Saint and sanctified also fit this
description (Zodhiates, 2000). The word integrity corresponds to holi-
ness. Integrity links with moral soundness (Louw & Nida, 1996). The
term integrity found in the Old Testament often defined perfect, yet
not without fault (Zodhiates, 2000). Only through Jesus can leaders
live holy lives. When the character of a leader remains holy, the leader
embodies integrity. Jesus fulfilled the Law and died a substitution-
ary death for humanity. The believers’ union with Jesus completes the
law (Matt. 5:17; Rom. 8:4). God gave new life in Jesus so that disci-
ples/leaders would produce the fruits of holiness for the glory of God
(Gal. 2:19–20; Eph. 2:10). Leadership ought to serve with integrity.
Leaders with integrity offer service to God, and therefore remain highly
desirable among multicultural organizations.

Remaining Teachable

Moses, the leader of God’s people, remained teachable. The per-

icope (vv. 17–23) reveals Jethro’s offer of advice to Moses and the
theme of delegation and developing leaders occurs. More impor-
tantly, Moses’ willingness to follow advice supports the theme of
Moses’ desire toward personal leadership development. The fourth
value asserts the effective leader remains teachable. Romans 12:2
commands “Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed
by the renewal of your mind, that by testing you may discern what
is the will of God, what is good and acceptable and perfect” (ESV).
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Leader personal development likewise involves life long learning

or remaining teachable. Romans 12:2 commands “Do not be con-
formed to this world, but be transformed by the renewal of your
mind, that by testing you may discern what is the will of God, what
is good and acceptable and perfect.” Lopez (2005) defines the word
“conform” as a squeezing pressure. Witherington and Hyatt (2004)
declare, “Paul will contrast the way ‘this age’ tries to mold a person
and the way the eschatological situation now present in the midst
of this age seeks to change a person” (p. 286). Zodhiates offers an
expanded rendering, “Stop being molded by the external and fleet-
ing fashions of this age, but undergo a deep inner change by the
qualitative renewing of your mind” (Zodhiates, 2000, p. 1350).
This can only be accomplished through the power of the Holy Spirit
working within a person life (Zodhiates, 2000) Witherington and
Hyatt declare instead, “there is to be a metamorphosis of the believ-
er’s mind” (Witherington & Hyatt, 2004, p. 286).
Robbins (1996a, b) uses an adaptation of Bryan Wilson’s sociological
definitions to sociorhetorical descriptions of religious rhetoric, which
include seven major divisions. The seven major responses to the world
brought through the religious discourse involve, according to Robbins
(1996b) the: Conversionist, Revolutionist, Introversionist, Gnostic
Manipulationist, Thaumaturgic, Reformist, and the Utopian. Robbins
(1996b) states concerning the Conversionist “the world is corrupt
because people are corrupt. If people can be changed, the world will be
changed. The world itself will not change, but the presence of a new
subjective orientation to it will itself be salvation” (Robbins, 1996b,
para 1). This conversionist response maintains the view that the world
remains corrupt because people are corrupt. This supports the theme
concerning leader personal development—the need to remain teacha-
ble, particularly toward God.
The Apostle Paul admonishes against allowing the world to con-
form the believer. Instead, Stoessel (1963) declares that change for the
believer should come by way of transformation through the power of
the Spirit according to the will of God. This charge from Paul corre-
sponds to the intent of the letter to the Romans—to declare a clearly
defined Gospel. Paul’s clear presentation of the Gospel began in 1:17
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“the just shall live by faith.” Next Paul declares the subject of human
depravity and inability to save themselves (1:18–3:20). This supports
the need for the change of the mind and remaining teachable. Stoessel
states the term for mind not only refers to rational but “in these pas-
sages nous (mind) is virtually equivalent to ‘theology,’ that is, the ideas
or principles which are the springs of action” (Stoessel, 1963, p. 164).
A leader that remains teachable readily incorporates information, ideas,
and principles from others. The effective leader recognizes the need
and benefit of remaining a lifelong learner; therefore the leader remains
teachable.

Humility

Continuing in the pericope (vv. 17–23), which reveals Jethro’s offer of

advice to Moses, delegation, developing leaders, Moses’ willingness to fol-
low advice, desire toward personal leadership development, and remaining
teachable harmoniously support humility. Moses’ behavior and char-
acter reveal he was the most humble man upon the earth (Num. 12:3).
Scripture supports the attitude of meekness and humility (Num. 12:3; Ps.
45:4; Prov. 15:33; 18:12; 22:4; Zeph. 2:3; Acts 20:19; Col. 3:12; 2 Tim.
2:25; Titus 3:2; 1 Peter 5:5). In view of New Testament Scripture, Romans
12:3 states “for by the grace given to me I say to everyone who is among
you not to think of himself more highly than he ought to think, but to
think with sober judgment, each according to the measure of faith God
has assigned.” The emphatic personal pronoun I, indicates Paul applying
his apostolic authority. Osborne (2004) links the term the “grace given to
me,” with the Damascus Road experience (Acts 9) thereby proclaiming a
commanding requirement with the force of apostolic authority. The term
used for think supplies extra insight toward Paul’s intent. Louw and Nida
(1996) define the word this way. ὑπερϕρονέω: “to have an unwarranted
pride in oneself or in one’s accomplishments, to be conceited, to be arro-
gant, to be proud, to think highly of oneself” (p. 764). Osborne (2004)
states thinking highly of oneself refers to an overly inflated view of our
own importance, whereas the humble remain with the divine perspective,
we are slaves to God and toward one another.
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Again in the New Testament Paul exhorts the leaders in Philippi to

maintain an attitude of submissive behavior, even as Jesus humbled
Himself. Philippians 2:3 “Do nothing from selfish ambition or con-
ceit, but in humility count others more significant than yourselves.”
Peter likewise encourages constant submission shown through humil-
ity for spiritual health. 1 Peter 5:5 “Likewise, you who are younger,
be subject to the elders. Clothe yourselves, all of you, with humility
toward one another, for God opposes the proud but gives grace to the
humble.” Being clothed with humility indicates a submissive attitude
toward God. Leaders ought to remain humble. Bekker comments on
the benefit of humility within leadership.

Leaders can transform their leadership style and mode from narcissistic
self-interest to humble and empowering participative leadership if the
quest for formation starts with God and it follows the natural progression
that authentic devotion to His will and purposes brings. (Bekker, 2009,
p. 9)

Caner also declares the importance of meekness or humility for spiritual

leaders.

A spiritually meek person is not self-willed - not continually con-

cerned with his own ways, ideas and wishes. They are willing to put
themselves in second place and submit themselves to achieve what is
good for others. Meekness is therefore the antithesis of self-will, self-in-
terest, and self-assertiveness. This is a sign, not of weakness of charac-
ter, but of strength. It’ll require great self-control to submit to others.
Consequently, it’s a servant-like leadership quality that’s absent from
most modern day organizations. (Caner, 2010, p. 3)

The ecclesial leadership pinnacle happens with humble and submissive

attitudes toward transformation into the likeness of Jesus, which glori-
fies God. This attitude and humble behavior exists in Moses.
Jesus lived to glorify God (John 17:4). Ecclesial leadership succeeds
by glorifying God (Matt. 5:16; 9:8; 15:31; Mark 2:12; Luke 2:20;
5:25, 26; 7:16; 13:13; 17:15; 18:43; 23:47; John 13:31, 32; 14:13;
15:8; 17:4; 21:19; Acts 4:21; 11:18; 21:20; Rom. 1:21; 15:6, 9; 1 Cor.
142    
S. W. Boyer

6:20; 2 Cor. 9:13; Gal. 1:24; 1 Pet. 2:12; 4:11, 16). The effective leader
remains resolute toward personal development and practices strength
of character and humble submission to the purposes of God, bringing
glory to God.

Empowerment

The leadership and example of Moses reveal commitment toward personal

development, including; confidence in God, serving others, integrity,
remaining teachable, humility, and empowerment—all of which remain
significant to God. Additionally, Exodus 18:20–26 delegates authority
and empowers the developing leaders. The pericope highlights various
themes characteristic of empowerment, including selection, personal abil-
ity, and fear of God, trustworthiness, leader development, and obedience
to God, discipleship, and delegation. The theme of empowerment remains
throughout Scripture and the sixth standard concerning personal leader
development involves the willingness to empower others. Romans 12:4
admonishes to provide for others out of personal giftedness. “For as in
one body we have many members, and the members do not all have the
same function” (Romans 12:4). The expression members concerns a body
made up of parts and partners. The term refers to the metaphor of the
body of Christ, the church, of which Jesus remains the head (Zodhiates,
2000). Osborne (2004) emphasizes the need of the body working in
unison. “If all the body parts tried to function other than the way they
were intended, the body would be crippled. And also if any one mem-
ber failed to function properly, the body would be crippled” (Osborne,
2004, p. 324). The body ought to serve with divine giftedness. Leading
is among the gifts in Romans 12 “the one who exhorts, in his exhorta-
tion; the one who contributes, in generosity; the one who leads, with
zeal; the one who does acts of mercy, with cheerfulness” (Romans 12:8).
Romans 12:6–8 lists a portion of divine gifts. Romans 12:8 introduces
the term lead concerning divine gifts. Winston states the term rule rather
than lead because contemporary theories of leadership concern leader/
follower relations, which then did not exist. The term lead, according to
Osborne (2004), links with “someone who ‘comes to the aid’ of others
 5  Small Groups and Leader Personal Development    
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(as do Michel 1966; Cranfield 1979; Dunn 1988b, based on its place-
ment between the one who gives to the needy and the one who shows
mercy)” (p. 328). The definitions reveal leadership that empowers others.
Leadership that empowers fulfills a psychological contract (Ivancevich
& Konopaske, 2010). The effective leader remains ready to help others
toward achieving the fullness of the Lord’s calling in their lives.

Altruism

Moses’ leadership and dedication to God and the people of Israel reveal
not only a commitment toward the glory of God but the betterment
of the people. Additionally, the pericope (vv. 13–16) provides particu-
lars concerning Moses’ practice of sitting and judging the people all day,
which also is comparable toward NT discipleship, however within OT
fashion. Furthermore, the theme of remaining a slave for God and selfless-
ness is revealed through Moses, as an example to the soon-to-be-chosen
developing leaders. Given this, the principle of leader personal develop-
ment occurs, and various themes appear, which include (a) slave to God,
(b) selflessness, (c) relational development, (d) humility, and (e) remaining
teachable. These themes support Moses’ altruistic leadership.
The seventh value within the pericope concerns the leader living in a
pattern of altruism. The body metaphor in Romans 12:5 reveals the value
of remaining selfless. “so we, though many, are one body in Christ, and
individually members one of another.” Historical intertexture focuses on
a particular event or period of time (Robbins, 1996a). Paul repeats often
the selflessness of Jesus with reference or inference (Rom. 1:17; 3:21–
22; 24–26; 4:24–25; 5:1; 6–11; 15–21; 6:3–11; 8:1–2; 11; 28–30; 32;
10:9–1316–17). This connects with Jesus’ proclamation of being a slave,
a humble submissive slave for God, living for the benefit of others (Phil.
2:5–11; John 6:38; 8; 29). Hebrews 10:5 declares, “Consequently, when
Christ came into the world, he said, ‘Sacrifices and offerings you have not
desired, but a body have you prepared for me.’” Vincent (1887) reveals
aspects of the word body in Romans 12:1 “In later Greek usage slaves
were called σώματα bodies” (Vincent, 1887, p. 153). A living sacrifice
exhibits altruism in the highest fashion (John 15:13).
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The apostle Paul calls the church the body of Christ, which remains
a group of individual members, with specific gifts that able the body to
function according to design (Romans 12:3–8). Each member remains
distinct, with past history, personality, and culture nuances (Keener,
1993; Osborne, 2004). Personality and culture nuances can work for
betterment of the body, rather than allowing sub-cultures and in-group-
ings to work toward the destruction of the body (Barentsen, 2011;
Louw & Nida, 1996; Osborne, 2004). The leader, whose life reflects
altruism, identifies with Jesus and lives for the betterment of others.
Serving others, integrity, remaining teachable, humility, empowerment
and, altruism corresponds with SL and AL theories. SL theory incorpo-
rates a variety of values, according to Fry. Fry (2003) connects SL theory
elements of transcendence and fellowship with altruistic love and faith.
Altruistic love is linked with: humility, trust, kindness, compassion, grat-
itude, understanding, forgiveness, patience, honesty, and loyalty (Fry,
2003). Whereas, faith and hope links to: optimism, confidence, courage,
endurance, persistence, resilience, and serenity (Fry, 2003). Yet, AL the-
ory maintains a greater connection toward humility, remaining teachable,
and leader personal development given that the focus of AL concerns the
growth and betterment of the leader and developing leader. Leadership
development incorporates training leaders to effectively deal with unpre-
dictable issues, as well as multifaceted intellectual and developmental
adaptability toward wide range problems (Day, 2000). As previously
mentioned, leadership development is defined as “a measure of a lead-
er’s changing capacity to influence, in terms of various factors, over time”
(Clinton, 1988, p. 245). The Scriptural perspective incorporates leader-
ship development with the term disciple. The Great Commission requires
all believers in Jesus Christ to make disciples (Matt. 28:19–20). Given
this, leader personal development requires a humble attitude with a reso-
lution toward lifelong learning and development.

References
Arndt, W., Danker, F. W., Bauer, W., & Gingrich, F. W. (2000). A Greek-
English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature
(3rd ed., p. 576). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Avolio, B. J. (2005). Leadership Development in Balance: Made/Born. Retrieved

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Barentsen, J. (2011). Emerging Leadership in the Pauline Mission: A Social
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Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications.
Barrett, C. K. (1989). The New Testament Background: Writings from Ancient
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Leaders. Inner Resources for Leaders, 2(3), 1–9.
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Stages of Leadership Development. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress.
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science/article/pii/S1048984300000618).
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Durham, J. I. (1998). Exodus. Dallas: Word, Incorporated.
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Quarterly, 14(6), 693–727.
Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. (2005,
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 6
The Development and Proliferation
of Trust in Small Groups

A main theme within Exodus 18 concerns the selection and

­development of leaders. The selection of developing leaders ought to
remain a careful and prayerful responsibility not performed flippantly
(1 Tim. 5:22). The four criteria Jethro listed for Moses’ picks include
personal ability, the fear of God, trustworthiness, and hating a bribe.
Within the qualifications remains an aspect of relational, cognitive and
moral components. The term able men as can be translated “men with a
native aptitude for judging” (Kaiser, 1990, p. 413). As for the term men
fear God, Cassuto declares the term “such as fear God, men of truth—
seekers of truth, who realize that the task of the judge is none other
than to give true judgment” (Cassuto, 1997, p. 220). Childs (1976)
procures the expression with the description of integrity. The phrase
“hate a bribe” remains complex and includes:

Profit, gain, dishonest gain, covetousness. The word refers to illegal or

unjust gain or profit which God’s people were to avoid (Gen. 37:26; Ex.
18:21; 1 Sam. 8:3; Ps. 119:36; Prov. 28:16). It is further qualified in some
contexts as gain obtained by violent means (Judg. 5:19; Mic. 4:13) or
profit gained with selfish goals in mind. (Baker & Carpenter, 2003, p. 156)

© The Author(s) 2019 147

S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_6
148    
S. W. Boyer

Enns (2000) rightly declares the importance of the selection

c­ haracteristic stating “the explicit reference to dishonest gain anticipates
a common temptation of leadership, namely, bribery—one that will
rear its head repeatedly throughout Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam. 8:3; Jer.
22:17).” Moreover, a significant aspect of selection reveals that devel-
oping leaders ought to exhibit and remain with integrity, possessing
­ethical and moral behavior foremost. As previously mentioned, leader-
ship development remains a multifaceted phenomenon, which involves
complex contextual elements including the social, cultural, and organi-
zational environment (Barentsen, 2011; Day, Fleenor, Atwater, Sturm,
& McKee, 2013).
The development of leaders connects biblically with discipleship and
spiritual formation. Discipleship concerns:

The life long process that involve opening ourselves to the work of the
Holy Spirit, via the medium of the spiritual disciplines, in the context of
a Christian community so as to be able to love God and love others as our
Lord calls us to do. (Peace, 2011, p. 407)

Eims (1978) clarifies that the indispensable feature of leadership devel-

opment concerns a relational discipleship, consistent with Ogden
(2003). Therefore, leadership development successfully transpires
through the prayerful selection, constant association, and comprehensive
teaching toward developing leaders. Leadership development concerns
abundantly more than selecting the acceptable leadership theory (Day
et al., 2013). Day et al. (2013) report “leader development focuses on
developing individual leaders whereas leadership development focuses
on a process of development that inherently involves multiple indi-
viduals (e.g., leaders and followers or among peers in a self-managed
work team)” (p. 64). Furthermore, leadership development occurs “in
the context of adult development” which then highlights the impor-
tance of focusing on “development as much as leadership” (Day et al.,
2013, p. 64). Leadership development involves intrapersonal factors
and interpersonal factors (Day et al., 2013). Given this, leader devel-
opment and leadership development successfully occur simultane-
ously. This notion remains supported through the text in Exodus 18.
 6  The Development and Proliferation of Trust in Small Groups    
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As previously noted, Exodus 18:1–5 provides clear support for the battle
between Israel and the Amalekites (Ex. 17:8–16), juxtaposing with the
family reunion (Cassuto, 1997; Edersheim, 1975; Enns, 2000; Fretheim,
1991; Janzen, 2000; Stuart, 2006). The predisposition between the pas-
sages represents a tension within collectivistic culture (distrust with out-
group persons is typical). The battle of Israel and the Amalekites (Ex. 17)
just prior to the family reunion of Jethro and Moses’ family supports
a theory toward a lack of trust between Israel and the Amalekites and
a trusting relationship between Jethro and Moses’ family. The primary
purpose of Scripture concerns the gospel; Christ died for our sins and
rose from the dead. The gospel declares the love of God, the forgive-
ness God offers, revealing God remains loving, merciful, and trustwor-
thy. Trust is a dominant element throughout the Scriptures. Synonyms
for trust include faith, belief, hope, conviction, confidence, expectation,
reliance, and dependence. A search for the word faith reveals the word
is found in the Scriptures 13,118 times in 11,530 verses. A description
of faith in the Scriptures includes believe, or belief and “has primarily
the sense of faithfulness or trustworthiness, and normally refers to the
faithfulness of God, though it can be used of man’s response (Hab. 2:4)”
(Bromiley, 1988, p. 270).

“The [Septuagint] translation and NT equivalent, Gk. pístis, is very com-

mon in the NT, and bears the sense not of faithfulness alone, but of the
reliance or trust that is the basis of man’s faithfulness, i.e., the faithful-
ness that expresses confidence in the faithfulness of God (p. 270).” God
remains faithful; therefore humanity ought to put trust in God. (Bromiley,
1988, p. 270)

Furthermore, the English usage of the word closely relates to the words
“unite,” “bind” (Bromiley, 1988, p. 270). Faith in both Testaments
remains synonymous with faithfulness (Elwell & Beitzel, 1988). Sacks
(1988) comments on God’s faithfulness, in spite of “Israel’s faithlessness
(Dt. 32:20; Rom. 3:3), God showed himself to be absolutely reliable”
(p. 164). When used of God in the OT, the word “faithfulness” fre-
quently refers to his unwavering commitment to his promises (Elwell &
Beitzel, 1988, p. 765). “This indicates that faith is more than momentary
150    
S. W. Boyer

assent to the truth of God. It is commitment to that truth, and it mani-

fests itself in continued obedience” (Elwell & Beitzel, 1988, p. 765). “An
interesting feature of the NT usage is that Paul regularly has the noun
whereas John prefers the verb, though with no essential difference of
meaning. ‘Faith’ properly signifies ‘hope’ as found in Hebrews 10:23”
(Bromiley, 1988, p. 270). Perhaps more importantly, the main aspect of
faith within the Scriptures involves trust or reliance (Bromiley, 1988).
“The pinnacle of faithfulness in the Bible is seen in the work of Jesus
Christ, who showed himself faithful to his Father (Heb. 3:2) and in his
witness (Rev. 1:5)” (Sacks, 1988, p. 164). Scripture reveals God ought to
be trusted and those who trust Him ought to become increasingly trust-
worthy. The Scripture “God is faithful, by whom you were called into the
fellowship of His Son, Jesus Christ our Lord” (1 Corinthians 1:9), pro-
vides an excellent basis toward a study on faithfulness.
What is faithfulness? “Faithfulness concerns maintaining faith or alle-
giance; showing a strong sense of duty or conscientiousness. In biblical
Hebrew, ‘faith’ and ‘faithfulness’ are grammatically related” (Elwell &
Beitzel, 1988, p. 764). “Trustworthiness, or steadfastness of character, is
ascribed to the object of one’s trust. To be unfaithful is to be unworthy
of confidence or belief. In the OT a synonym for faithfulness is truth”
(Elwell & Beitzel, 1988, p. 765).
Faithfulness is part of the character of God (Isa. 49:7; 1 Cor. 1:9).
The faithfulness of God remains great (Lam. 3:23), established
(Ps. 89:2), incomparable (Ps. 89:8) unfailing (Ps. 89:33; 2 Tim. 2:13),
infinite (Ps. 36:5), everlasting (Ps. 119:90; 146:6) ought to occur in
prayer (Ps. 143:1), and must be proclaimed (Ps. 40:10; 89:1). God is
faithful and therefore God’s people ought to remain faithful to Him,
granting full trust toward Him. Since God is consistently true he is the
logical object of human trust (Ps. 71:22; Is 61:8). “God calls men and
women to be faithful (Hab. 2:4; Rom. 1:17) by following Christ, rely-
ing on him for all things” (Sacks, 1988, p. 164).
In the arena of human faithfulness, Elwell and Beitzel (1988) state
“faith and faithfulness are logically and linguistically one in the OT and
NT (New Testament)” (p. 765). This definition provokes the appropri-
ate statement; I have faith—therefore I am faithful. Faithfulness looks
to God, not the physical, or material. Peters walk on water proves
 6  The Development and Proliferation of Trust in Small Groups    
151

faith looks to God, or falters looking at the physical (Matt. 14:28–31).

The exercising of establishing and growing trust or faith positively
supports both development and proliferation. Faithfulness ought to
remain consistent, rather than an isolated act (Elwell & Beitzel, 1988).
Faithfulness concerns an attitude that exemplifies the life of those trust-
ing God (Elwell & Beitzel, 1988, p. 765). “Although by definition all
unbelievers are characterized by unfaithfulness, God’s children are called
to manifest faithfulness as a fruit of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:22; Eph.
2:8)” (Elwell & Beitzel, 1988, p. 765). The aspect of trust within groups
or organizations remains an essential part of the effectiveness, success,
and betterment of small groups and organizations at every level. An
essential aspect of leader development concerns reciprocal trust with
leadership.
The implication of trust within leadership/organizations remains a
topic involving much research (Barentsen, 2011; Ben-Yoav, Hollander,
& Carnevale, 1983; Brenkert, 1998; Burke, 1965; Chuh et al., 2012;
Hansbrough, 2012; Park & Kim, 2012; Simpson, 2006; Van Dick,
Hirst, Grojean, & Wieseke, 2007). There remains support for the the-
ory that a relationship involving trust between leader(s)/subordinate(s)
maintains a positive correlation toward and Organization Citizen
Behavior (OCB) and subordinate organizational trust (Liu, Siu, & Shi,
2010; Park & Kim, 2012; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996;
Rubin, Bommer, & Bachrach, 2010; Van Dick et al., 2007; Wong
& Law, 2002; Yang & Mossholder, 2010; Zhu, Newman, Miao, &
Hooke, 2013). OCB includes job attitudes, job satisfaction, and other
attitudinal measures including perceived fairness, organizational com-
mitment, and leader supportiveness (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Moorman
(1991) reports OCB is defined, “as work-related behaviors that are
discretionary, not related to the formal organizational reward system,
and, in the aggregate, promote the effective functioning of the organ-
ization” (p. 845). Chun-Hsi Vivian, Shih-Jon, Wei-Chieh, and Chin-
Shin (2008) declare “managerial support from the supervisor can have
a reciprocal effect on subordinates,” leading toward “more OCB from
subordinates. Furthermore, when mutual trust is cultivated between
subordinates and supervisors, subordinates are more likely to per-
form OCB” (p. 322). The aspect of trust within organizations remains
152    
S. W. Boyer

an essential part of the effectiveness, success, and betterment of an

organization, perhaps even more so with ecclesiastical organizations.
Research supports the reciprocity factors encompassing the leader’s trust
toward the subordinate(s), and the subordinates’ trust in the leadership
(Brenkert, 1998; Larzelere, 1984; Park & Kim, 2012). Many of the
aforementioned studies concerning trust, particularly those dedicated
on secular organizations, focus toward the betterment of the produc-
tion, personnel, and organization. Burke (1965) considered in an exper-
iment the physiological attributes of the leader, the needs, attitudes, and
problems of the follower and the current situation. The findings reveal,
according to Burke, leadership remains an interactive function. This
continues to reveal the need for trust within leader/follower relations.
Yang and Mossholder (2010) report the definition of trust includes
“a psychological state comprising a willingness to accept vulnerabil-
ity based on positive expectations about the intentions or behavior of
another (p. 50).” Chun-Hsi Vivian et al., (2008) state that existing
and growing trust includes a good exchange relationship. Hinkin and
Schriesheim (2008) agree that transaction remains the basis for trust.
Gao, Janssen, and Shi (2011) state interpersonal trust includes allow-
ing vulnerability toward others, thus promote risk-taking behavior.
Brenkert (1998) includes that trust may involve judgments about oth-
ers trustworthiness and discretion on the part of the person trusted
(p. 299). Neufeld, Zeying, and Yulin (2010) state that Transformational
leaders form trust through careful speech and are open to f­ollowers’
input, communicate candidly, and appeal to followers’ aspirations
(p. 232) Conviser reports “axiomatic theory of the determinants and
consequences of trust,” involving three characteristics of trust (Conviser,
1975, p. 429).
Aspects of trust involve personal desire including “the person’s per-
ception of whether the other desires the same outcome as he in the
same situation,” and trust includes aspects of ability, “his perception of
the other’s ability to bring about a desired outcome,” finally the notion
or certainty of future engagements relating to “his belief about the like-
lihood of future interaction with the other” (Conviser, 1975, p. 429).
“Results of empirical tests of the derivations are in support of the the-
ory” (Conviser, 1975, p. 429).
 6  The Development and Proliferation of Trust in Small Groups    
153

Brenkert (1998) reports three characterizations of trust, Attitudinal,

Predictability, and Voluntarist (p. 295). Brenkert (1998) claims Attitudinal
“trust is the mutual confidence that no party to an exchange will exploit
another’s vulnerabilities” (p. 295). Brenkert (1998) continues to describe
Attitudinal trust as an “attitude, inclination, and disposition” that counts
the risk of vulnerability to harm worth the prospect of good (p. 295).
The Predictability View involves “the extent to which one person can
expect predictability in the other’s behavior in terms of what is ‘normally’
expected of a person acting in good faith” (Brenkert, 1998, p. 295). The
Volunarist sense of trust “is to voluntarily make oneself vulnerable with
respect to some good, having been led to believe by the other’s actions
toward one that no loss or harm will come to one as a result” (Brenkert,
1998, p. 295). Brenkert continues to expound upon trust stating that
“when people trust, in light of shared values, their trust involves a mutual
affirmation or identification with the agent trusted through these common
values or aims” (Brenkert, 1998, p. 299). Brenkert (1998) states a simi-
lar appraisal making the distinctions between trust and trustworthiness.
Brenkert (1998) declares that trust remains an attitude, inclination, and
disposition that good will prevail and the risk remains worthy. Whereas,
Brenkert (1998) announces trustworthiness, on the other hand, remains
an “evaluated appraisal that the person is worthy of trust” (p. 300).
Neufeld, Zeying, and Yulin (2010) posit leaders form trust through
careful speech and are open to followers’ input, communicate candidly,
and appeal to followers’ aspirations. Zhu et al. (2013) analyze the differ-
ence between affective trust and cognitive trust. Affective trust, reports
Zhu et al. (2013) “refers to the trust that is based on emotional ties
between two parties in a relationship that results from the mutual exhibi-
tion of care and concern” (p. 94). Cognitive trust resembles what Brenkert
(1998) views trustworthiness. Cognitive trust, according to Zhu et al.
(2013) concerns the thoughts, evaluation of one agent toward the trust-
worthiness of the other. Cognitive trust is therefore an “instrumental eval-
uation by the follower of the salient personal characteristics of the leader
such as their integrity, competence, reliability and dependability” (Zhu
et al., 2013, p. 95). Furthermore, cognitive trust “influences employee atti-
tudes by making them feel more confident in their supervisor’s ability and
qualification to guide their task performance” (Zhu et al., 2013, p. 95).
154    
S. W. Boyer

Trust and Elected Verses Appointed Leaders

Ben-Yoav et al. (1983) contributed to leadership studies through an
experiment concerning leader–follower relations. Ben-Yoav et al. found
support for the theory that followers see leaders who are elected as more
responsive, interested, and connected rather than appointed leaders.
This corresponds to an organization, ecclesiastical or secular which hires
a leader or pastor through a search committee, and elects to hire the
leader rather than leader appointment from a distant corporate office
without direct involvement within the local culture.

Organizational Identification Leadership

and Trust Through Social Identity
Van Dick et al. (2007) analyze the effect of a leader’s influence toward
the follower. Specifically, Van Dick et al. (2007) consider the organiza-
tional identification of the leader and the trust through social identity
with the follower. Van Dick et al. (2007) found support for the theory
that the leader, which remains part of the in-group has a positive effect
on the followers’ organizational identification, which increases organi-
zation citizen behavior (OCB). Van Dick et al. (2007) report the lead-
er’s social identity has a positive effect toward producing greater efforts
of the followers, and successful vision casting. The vision casting results
concern less “self-interest and more collective interest” of the follow-
ers, reports Van Dick et al. (2007) (p. 135). The basis of trust remains
apparent. Organizations with in-grouping exhibit parallel elements.

Social Identity Model of Leadership

Barentsen (2011) offers insights into first-century leadership meth-
odology and praxis through the application of the Social Identity
Model Of Leadership (SIMOL), applying toward the Scriptures, 1–2
Corinthians, Ephesians, and 1–2 Timothy. The “SIMOL describes the
 6  The Development and Proliferation of Trust in Small Groups    
155

social position of group members relative to one another, and thus

of the leader(s) relative to other group members,” (Barentsen, 2011,
p. 6). A person belonging to the group remains an essential aspect of
SIMOL, which also indicates by default some people remain in-group
due to likenesses, while others remain out-group because of differences
(Barentsen, 2011). Trust remains the essential factor. The link with
social identity and leader–follower or pastoral–parishioner relationships
remains historically evident through Barentsen, which maintain present
application.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior

and the Leader’s Trustworthiness
Rubin et al. (2010) report findings concerning leader–follower trust,
with regard to leadership consistency toward punishment and rewards.
The leader who remains attached and concerned for the people will
provide the proper accolades or rebuke, which organizationally applies,
within or outside the church. Rubin et al. found a positive relation-
ship between the followers’ organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)
and the leader’s trustworthiness. Rubin et al. relate the positive change
toward the leader’s consistency, reliability, integrity, and dependability.
The implication toward an organization, ecclesiastical or secular remains
appropriate. Leaders of an organization or church that remain trustwor-
thy, positively relate toward follower behavior.

Collectivistic and Individualistic Cultures

The current globalization of the marketplace remains with economic
consequence toward virtually every nation. The success and better-
ment of organizations within the international sphere must attend with
socio-cultural norms of the various people groups. The implication of
cultural dominant values and behavior remains a phenomenon within
the study concerning organizational leadership (Chun-Hsi Vivian et al.,
156    
S. W. Boyer

2008; Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, & House, 2012;

Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006; House, Quigley, & de Luque, 2010; Javidan
& House, 2001; Morgan, 2006; Northouse, 2013; Yukl, 2013). Global
Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Study
for cultures (House et al., 2010; Javidan & House, 2001) support the
theory that comparative and contrasting elements exist among collectiv-
istic and individualistic cultures.
Javidan and House (2001) declare the major thrust of project
GLOBE concerns the study of nine cultural attributes. Javidan and
House (2001) quantified these attributes and refer to them as cultural
dimensions. The nine dimensions, report Javidan and House (2001),
involve assertiveness, future orientation, gender egalitarianism, uncer-
tainty avoidance, power distance, institutional collectivism, in-group
collectivism, performance orientation, and humane orientation (pp.
293–301). Numerous research studies involve organizational trust
within a collectivistic (Park & Kim, 2012; Zhu et al., 2013) or indi-
vidualistic culture (Neufeld et al., 2010; Rubin et al., 2010; Simpson,
2006; Van Dick et al., 2007; Van Dick, Wagner, Stellmacher, & Christ,
2004). The problem remains concerning the difference(s) of organiza-
tional trust among collective and individualist cultures.
Collectivistic cultures maintain close associations with in-group activ-
ity toward those with shared blood, values, distribution of resources,
loyalty, and cohesiveness within organizations and families (House,
Javidan, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002; Malina, 2001). Respectively, those
outside the in-group receive less general trust and assurance (Simpson,
2006). Collectivistic cultures, which represent in-grouping directly,
affect the ability and level of trust. The in-grouping within collectivistic
cultures maintains a negative relationship with risk toward the improve-
ment of trust.
Individualistic cultures focus more on the betterment, achievement,
and performance of the individual, without a group focus and there-
fore remain with a lower standard of general trust (House et al., 2002;
Simpson, 2006). The focus within individualistic cultures remains
toward individual accomplishments, rather than the organizational
achievements. Performance orientation remains a key toward the general
and growing trust of individuals (House et al., 2002; Simpson, 2006).
 6  The Development and Proliferation of Trust in Small Groups    
157

Simpson (2006) research concerns collectivist and individualist cul-

tures; with specific focus toward social relations rather than the col-
lectivistic and individualistic worldview. Simpson (2006) delineates
two forms of trust, general trust, and assurance. General trust, reports
Simpson (2006), concerns expectation of good or benign intent,
“whereas assurance concerns benign behavior for reasons other than
goodwill” (p. 1627). Assurance remains multiplied within a collectivist’s
in-group due to the monitoring and expectation of behavior (Simpson,
2006). Outside of the in-group, the behavior of outsiders remains
unpredictable, therefore assurance fails and general trust remains low,
according to Simpson (2006). In-group collectivism focuses on the
pride and loyalty of individuals toward small groups, organizations,
and families (Javidan & House, 2001; Northouse, 2013). The differ-
ent trust element among collectivism and individualism remains dis-
played through the assurance trust of the collectivist and the general
trust with the individualist.
Park and Kim (2012) support the theory concerning reciprocal
dyadic trust within the leader/subordinate relationship. Park and Kim
(2012) quantitative study concerns all pilots with Korean Air in May
2006. A total of 1600 questionnaires were sent to the individual mail-
boxes of the pilots, of whom 233 responded providing final response
rate of 11.4%. Park and Kim (2012) reveal support toward the theory
that when the leader and follower maintain reciprocal dyadic trust,
trust flourishes within the relationship. Park and Kim (2012) report
that trust grows through each party’s trust toward the other. The sam-
ple which Park and Kim (2012) focus on for research was within South
Korea. Javidan and House (2001) declare South Korea ranks high on
collectivism. The research of Park and Kim (2012) “has shown that sub-
ordinates who perceive greater trust from their leader display greater
trust in their leader, and that subordinates who have greater trust in
their leader also have greater trust in their organization” (p. 113). The
research reveals that trust concerns a transmittable aspect.
Collectivism remains the focus within a culture toward in-group
activity including distribution of resources, loyalty, and cohesive-
ness within organizations and families, stated by House et al. (2002),
whereas individualistic cultures embrace behaviors which enhance
158    
S. W. Boyer

personal ability, advancement, and reward. Malina (2001) describes col-

lectivistic culture as a “collective personality due to common and shared
elements such as blood, mutual acquaintances, and ethnic heritage”
(p. 63). This relates to in-group and out-group orientation. Malina
(2001) records, “value standards differ greatly for in-group and
out-group members” (p. 78). Simpson (2006) declares that collectivist
social relations tend toward the reduction of general trust concerning
out-group persons. This cycle continues as distrusters continue toward
assurance rather than risk, according to Simpson (2006). Simpson
reports social structures in the US South remain more collectivistic
than other US regions. Simpson (2006) also states that collectivist social
relations generate lower levels of trust than do individualist cultures.
In-grouping due to blood, values, mutual acquaintances, and heritage
reveals the differences between collectivist and individualistic cultures.
Van Dick et al. (2007) establishes support for the theory that a leader
within the in-group maintains a positive effect on the subordinates’
organizational identification, which increases Organization Citizen
Behavior (OCB). The key element concerns mutual trust. The essen-
tial factors of trust correspond to including or excluding members. Van
Dick et al. (2007) report a leader’s social identity maintains a positive
relationship toward the efforts and production of followers, and effec-
tive vision forming. Van Dick et al. (2007) state vision-casting links
with a positive relationship of more collective interest of subordinates,
while lowering follower self-interest.
Van Dick et al. (2007) research the consequence of a leader’s effect
toward the follower. Particularly, Van Dick et al. (2007) study the
organizational identification of the leader and trust through social iden-
tity in connection with the follower. Van Dick et al.’s (2007) research
concerns a sample within Germany. Javidan and House (2001) declare
Germany ranks high on individualism. Javidan and House (2001) state
individualistic cultures focus on the achievement, production, and bet-
terment of the individual rather than the production and accomplish-
ments of the group. Javidan and House (2001) state the US remains
among the highest ranked countries on assertiveness and performance
orientation. Interestingly, Javidan and House (2001) report that coun-
tries highest on performance orientation (except Singapore) remain
 6  The Development and Proliferation of Trust in Small Groups    
159

individualistic cultures. Malina (2001) links the United States with

individualism. Simpson (2006) reports social structures within the
United States reveal non-Southerners remain individualistic, while
Southerners collectivistic. Individualist cultures tend toward a low
expectation or lax social relations and increase general trust, records
Simpson (2006).

Reciprocal Dyadic Trust

Park and Kim (2012) posit the theory that leader and follower main-
tain reciprocal dyadic trust, and as each agent trusts the other, trust
flourishes within the relationship. Park and Kim (2012) declare the
research “has shown that subordinates who perceive greater trust from
their leader display greater trust in their leader, and that subordinates
who have greater trust in their leader also have greater trust in their
organization” (Park & Kim, 2012, p. 113). The implications of the
research reveal that trust maintains a contagious aspect. This might
have far-reaching propositions for organizations, ecclesiastical or secular
involving leader–follower relationships. Reciprocal dyadic trust provides
positive effects, particularly toward pastoral-parishioners who remain
willfully vulnerable and engage in risk-taking.

Leadership and Follower Outcomes

Liu et al. (2010) research the notion that “positive leadership, which
comprises positive attitudes of passion, skills, and confidence to inspire
followers, has the potential to elevate followers in the long term in areas
such as trust, commitment, and well-being” (p. 456). Liu et al. declares
that trust within the leader–follower relations maintains a positive
effect toward the betterment of the leader, follower, and the organiza-
tion. The high regard for trust within the leader–follower relationship
remains congruent with the current research and supports the theory
that as leader–follower trust and influence improve; the follower and
organization reveal positive effects. Given this, the relational aspect and
160    
S. W. Boyer

geographical groupings of Moses and the developing leaders, including

the entire nation of Israel, provided toward a productive environment
for cultivating trust. The themes developed concern vulnerability, shar-
ing time together, and honesty, which remain congruent with previous
research. The aspect of sharing time together remains absent from the
former research. While sharing time together, not formerly mentioned,
remains an expected aspect of intimate relationships (this element is fur-
ther supported in a subsequent chapter). Therefore, successful selection
of leaders includes prayerful, meticulous selection. While the compre-
hensive development of leaders include growing reciprocal trust.

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 7
Connection with God and the Small
Group Leader

Through the advice of Jethro, Moses appointed developing leaders

to judge the multitudes on smaller difficulties, leaving the superior
­difficulties to Moses. Due to the fact that Moses was the supreme judge,
a theme appears that intimacy with God offers superior knowledge
toward God’s statues and laws. The premise concerning the people of
God behaving in corresponding manner with God existed long before
Moses (Gen. 17:1; Lev. 11:44). Moses understood that remaining in
the presence of God includes acting and dwelling in holiness (Ex. 3:5).
Holiness requires a transformation from the inside out—which religion
itself cannot attain. Moses doubtless understood transformation hap-
pens only from the inside out—since all the education and learning in
Egypt did not result in personal holiness (Acts 7:22). In fact, during the
origin of Moses’ leadership, the sacred text reveals Moses was murderer
(Ex. 2:11–14), which was also the beginning of Moses’ leadership expe-
rience. Moses’ leadership began during a crisis. A greater leader than
Moses, Jesus Christ, encountered and learned through crisis (Heb. 2:10,
17–18).
The greatest and most influential leader, at minimum within a
Christian context, is Jesus Christ the Son of God. Jesus began to lead

© The Author(s) 2019 165

S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
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166    
S. W. Boyer

through a precipitating event that humanly speaking resembles a cri-

sis. The temporary loss of the perfection of heaven and divine glory,
traded for human limits and frailty (John 1:1–3; 6:38; Phil. 2:5–11).
The Psalmist records that trouble, affliction, and crisis remain the foun-
dations of his leadership (Ps. 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 9; 10; 11; 16; 17; 18; 20;
21; 22). Scripture records the apostle Paul’s leadership began through
crisis (Acts 9; 2 Cor. 2; 11–12). Crisis touches leaders through history
and into the twentieth century. Bonhoeffer’s spirituality reached the
moment of death-resurrection on a Nazi gallows as he experienced in
his own life what he had written in discipleship: “whenever Christ calls
us, his call leads us to death” (Kelly & Nelson, 2002, p. xv). Bonhoeffer
did not begin his life in crises, as a suffering servant who experienced
martyrdom. Bonhoeffer heritage involves that of “goldsmiths, doctors,
clergy, lawyers, and burgomasters evidence the solid middle-class char-
acter of the seventeenth and eighteenth century generations” (Kelly &
Nelson, 2002, p. 3). Kelly and Nelson reveal that Bonhoeffer’s father
was a distinguished university professor, psychiatrist, and neurologists
in Breslau (p. 3) Bonhoeffer’s father evidently had in mind a future for
Bonhoeffer comparable to his own. Kelly and Nelson (2002) recall that
when Bonhoeffer mentioned that he wanted to become a minister and
theologian his family was disappointed. This would be a very small por-
tion of the disappointments he and his family would face.
Kelly and Nelson record the importance of the decade of the 1930s
for Bonhoeffer. Kelly and Nelson state:

Not only did it prove to be the scenario for his pastoral ministry and his
university lecturing; the events in Germany during this time also brought
him into considerable ecumenical involvement, catapulting him into a
key role in the church struggle and the resistance against Nazism, and cast
him as the director of one of the Confessing Churches illegal seminar-
ies, and as a staunch defender of the Jews against the escalation of their
repression in Germany. (pp. 18–19)

Just as a crisis provides an opportunity toward transformation, so trans-

formation benefits the life of those enduring crisis. Wright (2011) states
that a crisis involves an “internal reaction to an external event” that
 7  Connection with God and the Small Group Leader    
167

includes an “upset in a person’s baseline level of functioning” (p. 128).

Wright (2011) reveals that a crisis involves “a temporary loss of coping
ability, with the assumption that the emotional dysfunction is reversi-
ble” and adds to the definition stating that “the Chinese character for
“crisis” is made up of two symbols: one for despair and the other for
opportunity” (p. 128). Cenac (2011) recites the biblical account in the
book of Acts, revealing leader development through the phenomenon
of the Holy Spirit. Cenac sums up this provoking ideal asking, “How
many great, but undiscovered, emergent leaders have been overlooked
or presumptively ignored (in research and practice) because they did
not resemble society’s subjective outward credentials” (Cenac, 2011, p.
134). Implied, if not foundational within leadership remains the fun-
damental notion of sanctification, holiness, and Jesus living through the
leader. The benefits of sanctification for the individual are measureless
and innumerable. The greater sanctification toward the believer, the
more the Father and Jesus Christ manifest to them (John 14:21), the
greater the ability, and capability for the leader. Knowing Jesus more
intimately brings greater ability, wisdom, light, love, liberty, passion,
purity, and purpose (John, 8:12, Gal. 5:1, 22–23; Phil. 2:13, Col. 2:3).
Scripture states that God uses everything that comes into the life of the
believer for the progression of sanctification, even trouble and tribula-
tion (Rom. 5:3). This is what Simpson (1890, 1991) considered the cri-
sis of sanctification. A crisis happens in the life of the Christian each
time self is forsaken for the purpose of sanctification. The hope is that
through the progression the believers will permit more of themselves to
die, so that Christ might live through them (2 Cor. 4:11). One major
step toward this victory concerns the reckoning of sin as indeed dead
toward the believer (Rom. 6:11). This helps and prospers the progres-
sion of sanctification in all areas of the believer’s life, particularly lead-
ership. Yet, inherent perpetual lure of sin with humanity, resistance
toward sanctification is constantly present. Thus, the progression of
sanctification is hindered, slowed or all together stopped. It is the mercy
and grace of God that allows events to come that cause correction,
reproof, instruction, and even chastening when needed (Heb. 12:6).
Since the beginning of creation humanity remains religious to the core
(Gen. 3:7). Yet, true religion concerns keeping oneself unspotted from
168    
S. W. Boyer

the world (James 1:27), which can only be attained through the power
of the Spirit (Num. 11:17; Rom. 8:1–4). The ecclesial leader leads the
people of God toward spiritual/ethical transformation into holiness or
Christ likeness. Moral decision-making includes at least three aspects:

There are three major components in this task: character, conduct, and
moral vision or integrity. Sometimes ethicists use the terms virtues, values,
and vision to define these three dynamics in the moral life. Being a good
minister is obviously a matter of being; however it is also a matter of doing
in a matter of living. As with each leg of the three-legged stool, each of
these ethical supporters is needed to keep us from falling and failing in
our moral choices. (Trull & Carter, 2004, p. 47)

Scripture states all are born into sin, and need transformation (Rom.
3:23; 12:1–2). Trull and Carter ask whether moral choices are endowed
or acquired? Scripture clearly teaches that moral choices are not endowed
but rather acquired (Ex. 3:5; Num. 11:17). “The prophet of God must
grow in faith and morals as do all believers” (Trull & Carter, 2004,
p. 63). The spiritual and ethical transformation of leaders ought to remain
paramount. Just as shoes are important to the cobbler, and clothes to the
tailor, spiritual formation ought to remain highly important with ecclesial
and organizational leaders. Given this, Moses and the developing leaders
would have strived toward intimacy with God and growing in godliness.
Spiritual formation is a contemporary term encompassing both factors.

Spiritual Formation
Spiritual formation concerns the process of transformation into
Christlikeness (Rom. 12:1–2). Spiritual formation happens only
through “Christ in you” (Col. 1:27)—as in Moses’ case, by the power
of the Holy Spirit (Num. 11:17; Rom. 8:11). Spiritual formation
remains in integral portion of Christianity since the first Century (Gal.
4:19), and before (Num. 11:17). Willard (2008) defines spiritual for-
mation. “Spiritual formation in Christ is the process through which
disciples or apprentices of Jesus take on the qualities or characteristics
 7  Connection with God and the Small Group Leader    
169

of Christ himself, in every essential dimension of human personality”

(Willard, 2008, p. 79). “Spiritual formation originates in the training
of Roman Catholic priests, whose enrolment began to fall drastically in
the post-war cultural revolutionary changes” (Houston, 2011, p. 134).
According to Houston, “the critical need of recruits for the priesthood
then became the issue of ‘priestly formation,’ to maintain priests loyal to
the Magisterium” (Houston, 2011, p. 134).
Gangel (1998) links spiritual formation with sanctification. Gangel
reports sanctification concerns “being set apart by God and for God”
(p. 348). Gangel notes this happens to all believers during the new birth
(1 Cor. 1:30; 6:11). “It also describes a continuous process of spiritual
formation (John 17:17; 2 Cor. 7:1) and the ultimate placement with
Christ at the time of his second coming” (1 Thess. 3:12–13) (Gangel,
1998, p. 348). Spiritual formation ought to remain a present, active,
and increasing portion of the ecclesial leader (John 14:21; Heb. 5:12).
Lack of transformation of the ecclesial leader remains a danger toward
falling backward (Heb. 2:1). “The initiative for ecclesial order does not
come first from the congregation itself autonomously, but organically
from the grace of Christ forming the body (Gal. 4:19), this is spiritual
formation” (Oden, 1992, p. 290). The church and the “organization
is an inevitable expression of its life” (John 6:32–35; Rom. 6) (Oden,
1992, p. 290). Additionally, Oden (1992) posits the local church hap-
pens “where Christ is being formed” and “faith is being received,
embodied, and practiced” (p. 290). In essence, where discipleship hap-
pens—particularly within small groups—leadership development occurs
for leaders at every level.
Left alone, humanity is unable to connect with God; it is not about
bloodline, nor strong desire, nor strength of person, but all of God
(John 1:13). Spiritual transformation concerns connectedness with
God. Bloomquist (2014) reports on the connectedness of ecclesia for-
mation. “Connectedness begins with God, not with what we do. It is
God in Jesus Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit who restores
us to right relationship with God, ourselves, others, the rest of creation”
(Bloomquist, 2014, p. 240). The spiritual formation of the ecclesial
leader depends upon connectedness with God through obedience (John
14:21). Obedience to Jesus concerns far more than moral perfection.
170    
S. W. Boyer

Paul the apostle warned the Galatians concerning the danger and
futility of striving toward moral perfection (Gal. 3:3). Coe (2008) alerts
ecclesial leaders concerning the peril of spiritual formation through
the power of self. Coe explores theologically and psychologically why
humanity remains “tempted to be moralists due to original sin and early
parenting” (p. 54). Coe reviews moralism in light of theology, guilt, and
conscience. Coe reports on avoiding moralism through right under-
standing of divine justification and the power of the Spirit. Coe’s focus
concerns “the implications of the cross and the Spirit for daily Christian
living in resisting moralism and moving from moral to spiritual forma-
tion” (Coe, 2008, p. 54). Preston (2010) provides a rejoinder on Coe’s
theories. The premise of Preston concerns the link between moral for-
mation and spiritual formation. Preston argues that moral formation
and spiritual formation remain connected; therefore spiritual forma-
tion happens in the context of moral formation. Nevertheless it may be
argued that moral formation may occur without true spiritual forma-
tion, without connectedness to Jesus Christ.

The popular term spiritual formation properly signals the importance of

soul crafting and positive change in individual believers. It is through dis-
ciplined, attentive dependence on the impulses of the indwelling Holy
Spirit that believers are privileged to participate in the renewing work of
God within them. (Scorgie, Chan, Smith, & Smith, 2011, p. 28)

Scorgie et al. (2011) also states “formation should probably not be treated
as a synonym for the totality of Christian spirituality, because the latter
is a broader reality” (p. 28), namely, Christian spirituality encompasses
“all of life, not just a portion of it (p. 27). Scorgie warns that spiritual
formation remains integrated within the relational context; otherwise it
proves to be another grinding self-improvement project. Yet the need for
­transformation remains.
TenElshof (1999) makes claim toward the need for moral instruction
and transformation with leadership. TenElshof posits ecclesial leadership
enters seminaries without a working knowledge of Biblical principles
and the need for moral character. According to TenElshof moral educa-
tion is a must relating to spiritual transformation. TenElshof relates the
 7  Connection with God and the Small Group Leader    
171

need for elevating consciousness, moral decision-making, and character.

This type of spiritual formation must focus on a continual connection
with Christ involving every aspect of human behavior.
Willard (1998a) states “consumer Christianity is now normative. The
consumer Christian is one who utilizes the grace of God for forgiveness
and the services of the church for special occasions,” yet uncommitted
toward the Kingdom of Christ (Willard, 1998a, p. 342). This remains a
problem with contemporary culture. “Such Christians are not inwardly
transformed and not committed to it” (Willard, 1998a, p. 342). True
spiritual formation concerns the interworking concerning the entire life
of the believer. Biblical doctrine aids transformation.
Spiritual, devotional disciplines, and doctrines remain exceedingly
important toward spiritual transformation, which may include: The
doctrine of the Trinity; Chan (2011) lists this important doctrine as
vital toward spiritual formation (Matt. 28:19–20). Divine Guidance,
(Pinnock and Scorgie, 2011) includes this discipline; encouraging
keeping in step with the spirit (Ps. 139:6). Suffering, (Willard, 2011)
provides focus on the discipline of suffering and dying to self (1 Peter
3:17–18).

Prayer

Prayer, “the impulse to pray is universal” (Nienkirchen, 2011, p. 166).

“The current widespread appreciation of prayer as a total experience,
engaging body, mind, and spirit in an age of globalization, has birthed
postmodern, nonparochial prayer culture that is overtaking segments of
evangelicalism” (Nienkirchen, 2011, p. 171). Perhaps one of the most
unique challenges concerning spiritual formation within the twenty-first
century concerns that of prayer.
Many scholars provide a theoretical link between personal prayer
and ministerial leadership formation (Boa, 2001; Foster, 1998; Hughes,
1991; Wicks, 2000; Whitney, 1991). Boa (2001) states, “prayer is per-
sonal communion and dialogue with the living God” (p. 83). Boa refers
to prayer as more of the privilege and opportunity than a burden or
duty. Boa states that prayer is a “meeting place where we draw near to
172    
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God to receive his grace, to release our burdens and fears, and to be hon-
est with the Lord” (p. 83). Prayer remains the vehicle by which the min-
ister may involve the Trinity (John 14:13–14; Rom. 8:26; Heb. 7:25).
Foster (1998) maintains the highest regard for prayer toward all
spiritual disciplines. Foster reports, “prayer catapults us onto the fron-
tier of the spiritual life” (p. 33). Perhaps prayer is the most fundamental
element God uses to transform the leader.
Prayer requires faith and discipline. Hughes (1991) reports on
in-spirited prayer, continual prayer, varied prayer, persistent prayer,
and intercessory prayer. Referring to in-spirited prayer, “the indwelling
Holy Spirit, through his superior intimate knowledge, both praise for
us and joins us in our praying, infusing his prayers into ours so that
we “pray in the spirit” (Hughes, 1991, p. 96). Hughes reveals that con-
tinual prayer conversation with God, while varied prayer includes the
conversation flowing out of the events happening presently. Persistent
prayer concerns a matter of individual commitment, or persistence
(Hughes, 1991). An intercessory prayer seeks God’s best for oth-
ers (Hughes, 1991). Prayer is communing with the ever-present God
(Matt. 28:19–20).
Whitney (1991) states “of all the spiritual disciplines, prayer is sec-
ond only to the intake of God’s word in importance” (p. 66). Whitney
reminds the leader “it is a person, the Lord Jesus Christ, with all
authority and all love who expects us to pray” (p. 67). “Martin Luther
expressed the importance of prayer this way: as it is the business of tai-
lors to make clothes and of cobblers to mend shoes, so it is the business
of Christians to pray” (Whitney, 1991, p. 68). Whitney includes “the
expectation to pray not only as a divine summons, but also as a royal
invitation” (p. 68). Prayer grants the believer access to heaven’s glory.
Wicks (2000) cite the necessity of prayer for the spiritual leader. Wicks
incudes teaching others to pray, various emphases of Lectio Divina,
contemplation, meditation, and centering prayer. Prayer provides pro-
spective that God hears and attends to our cries (1 John 5:14–15). With
today’s fast-paced culture, the need for private and community prayer
remains of utmost importance. The effective leader will continue to
make time to connect with God in prayer. Psalm 50:15 “And call upon
Me in the day of trouble; I will deliver you, and you shall glorify Me.”
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Spiritual Disciplines

Inerrancy of the Scriptures, Scorgie (2011), Coe (2011), and Boda

(2011) each includes the vital aspect of the importance of Scripture
(2 Peter 1:20–21). Other important, fundamental spiritual disci-
plines include worship (Ps. 29:2), evangelism (Mark 16:15), serving
(John 13:12–16), stewardship (Matt. 25:2; 1 Cor. 4:2), fasting (Matt.
6:16–18), learning and continual growth (Heb. 5:11–14), and remain-
ing steadfast in the disciplines (1 Corinthians 15:58). Fasting is regu-
larly included within traditional spiritual disciplines (Boa, 2001; Foster,
1998; Willard, 1998a; Whitney, 1991).

Fasting

Fasting is an intentional self-denial from sustenance for spiritual rea-

sons (Whitney, 1991). Richard Foster, as cited in Whitney states “the
voluntary denial of a normal function for the sake of intense spiritual
activity” (Whitney, 1991, p. 160). Whitney offers different kinds of
fasts. “Normal fast” (Matt. 4:2), requires abstaining all food (Whitney,
1991, p. 161). A “partial fast” (Dan. 1:12) involves a “limited diet”
(Whitney, 1991, p. 161). An “absolute fast” (Ester 4:16), concerns
a complete avoidance of food and water” (Whitney, 1991, p. 161). A
“Supernatural Fast” (Deut. 9:9) requires “supernatural intervention”
(Whitney, 1991, p. 161). A “private fast” (Matt. 6:16–18) refers to “not
involving or announcing the fast to others” (Whitney, 1991, p. 162).
“Congregational fasts” (Joel 2:15–16) invites the local congregation to
fast together (Whitney, 1991, p. 162). “National fasts” (2 Chron. 20:3;
Nem. 9:1; Ester 4:16; Jonah 3:5–8) include an entire nation (Whitney,
1991, p. 162). “Regular fasts” (Lev. 16:29–31) were practice in OT
times in Israel (Whitney, 1991, p. 162). “Occasional fasts” (Matt. 9:15)
occur according to the need or moment (Whitney, 1991, p. 162).
Whitney (1991) reports fasts are expected (Matt. 6:16–17), and
Foster (1998) includes fasts are not commanded. Just as there are dif-
ferent kinds of fasts, there are different purposes for fasts (Whitney,
1991). A person may desire to fast for the purpose of strengthening
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their prayer life (Ezra 8:23), which enhances intimacy with God
(Whitney, 1991). Fasting may also occur for “breaking the bondage
of sin” (Deut. 9:18–19) for the betterment of others (Whitney, 1991).
“Guidance” (Acts 14:3) in decision-making (Whitney, 1991). Fasting
occurs as a means of dealing with grief (2 Sam. 1:11) and loss of life
(Whitney, 1991). Protection and deliverance (2 Chron. 20:3) from peo-
ple or circumstances is another reason to fast (Whitney, 1991). Fasting
may also occur for the purpose of repentance (Joel 2:12) and intimacy
with God (Whitney, 1991). Personal humility (Ps 35:13) may prompt
fasting (Whitney, 1991). Whitney (1991) incorporates another purpose
concerns prospering God’s work (Daniel 9:3) and for the betterment
of others (Isa. 58:6–7). Finally Whitney (1991) includes fasting due to
temptation and sanctification (Matt. 4:1–11) and to express love and
worship (Luke 2:37). An expression of love and worship are the founda-
tional reasons for spiritual formation and spiritual disciplines.
Holm (2008) derives aspects of spiritual formation from the life
of Bonhoeffer. Holm reveals aspects of spiritual formation con-
cerning dispersion and community, reading Scripture, prayer, sol-
itude, discernment, service, and confession. Houston (2011) links
contrition, confession, repentance, discipleship, soul care, with spiritual
transformation.
Willard (1998b) relates spiritual formation in connection with
spiritual disciplines involving relationships with “the human soul, the
deepest dimension of human personality” (p. 101). Willard makes a
great point concerning spiritual disciplines. “The aim of disciplines”
according to Willard, “is the transformation of the total state of the
soul. It is the renewal of the whole person from the inside” (Willard,
1998a, p. 107). Transformation and spiritual formation requires inten-
tion and discipline.

Spirituality Formation Terms

Spiritual formation remains a spiritual task, not a natural or fleshy one.

Boa (2001) has chosen different terms for the spiritual disciplines. Boa
provides 12 facets toward development, or being “conformed to His
 7  Connection with God and the Small Group Leader    
175

image” (Boa, 2001, p. 21). Boa recounts his spiritual journey, not-
ing the exposure through the years to “a wide variety of approaches to
spiritual formation and discipleship,” each of the various approaches
provide “another set of useful tools” for his spiritual toolbox, but none
of them seem to have filled that toolbox (Boa, 2001, p. 15). “Relational
spirituality” concerns us loving God and loving others, “paradigm spirit-
uality” focuses on eternal rather than temporal perspective (Boa, 2001,
p. 21). “Discipline spirituality” has to do with the traditional spiritual
disciplines which include, solitude and silence, prayer, journaling,
studying and meditation, fasting and chastity, secrecy, confession, fel-
lowship, submission and guidance, simplicity, stewardship, and sacri-
fice, worshiping and celebration, service, and witness (Boa, 2001, pp.
82–86). “Exchanged life” spirituality focuses on our identity in Christ
(Boa, 2001, p. 21). “Motivated spirituality” provides biblical incentives
(Boa, 2001, p. 22). “Devotional spirituality” concerns falling in love
with God (Boa, 2001, p. 22). “Holistic spirituality” links with Lordship
of Jesus Christ (Boa, 2001, p. 22). “Process spirituality” incorporates
the concept of being rather than doing (Boa, 2001, p. 22). “Spirit-
filled spirituality” focuses on living in the power of the Holy Spirit
(Boa, 2001, p. 22). “Warfare spirituality” emphasizes the reality of the
world the flesh and the devil (Boa, 2001, p. 22). “Nurturing spiritual-
ity” deals with evangelism and discipleship and “corporate spirituality”
links with encouragement accountability and worship (Boa, 2001, p.
22). A change in the terms and expressions is evident between Boa and
Whitney, the result is that both writers desire to enhance and develop
spiritual growth, or being conformed in the image of Jesus. Others have
written with the same intent in mind, likewise using different terms.
Foster (1998) declared that spiritual disciplines included inward
disciplines, outward disciplines, and corporate disciplines. The inward
disciplines include meditation, prayer, fasting, and study. The outward
disciplines include simplicity, solitude, submission, and service. Foster
(1998) posits the corporate disciplines encompass confession, worship,
guidance, and celebration. Foster (1998) finds commonality with both
Boa and Whitney’s practices toward spiritual growth. Foster records
that his writings were written “as an instrument for human transfor-
mation” (Foster, 1998, p. xx). He continued by emphasizing “spiritual
176    
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disciplines are intended of our good” and “to bring the abundance of
God into our lives” (Foster, 1998, p. 9). This statement compares well
with Boa and Whitney.
Whitney (1991) reports “Godliness is the goal of the disciplines”
(Whitney, 1991, p. 17). Hearing God’s word, reading the word of God,
studying the word of God and memorizing God’s word—bible intake
remains the supreme spiritual discipline (Whitney, 1991). Other nec-
essary Spiritual disciplines include prayer, worship, evangelism, ser-
vice, stewardship, fasting, silence and solitude, journaling, and learning
(Whitney, 1991).
Hughes boldly states, “no discipline no discipleship, no sweat no
sainthood” (Hughes, 1991, p. 15). Hughes believes the spiritual disci-
plines “allow us to soar with saints and angles” (Hughes, 1991, p. 17).
Hughes purpose concerns helping those who desire to live ever increas-
ing godly live, being conformed to the image and likeness of Jesus. Yet
the description is different than that of Boa, Foster, or Whitney. Hughes
(1991) lists relationships, soul, character, ministry—organizing into
disciplines of purity, marriage, fatherhood, friendship, mind, devotion,
prayer, worship, integrity, tongue, work, s, and witness. Although the
language differs, the intent is the same, helping others grow more and
more in the likeness of Jesus.
Behavior and outward character remain significant in the Christian
life. Jesus said “you will know them by their fruits” (Matt. 7:16).
Nevertheless the God’s law within humanity will never be perfectly
worked out in outward behavior. Spiritual formation consists of
thinking and behaving. Ecclesial leaders remain with a need toward a
transformed mind and life (Rom. 12:1–2; Eph. 4:23). Therefore, the
effective small group leader maintains growing the intimacy with God.

References
Bloomquist, K. L. (2014). The Connectedness of Ecclesial Formation. Currents
in Theology And Mission, 41(4), 240–246.
Boa, K. (2001). Conformed to His Image: Biblical and Practical Approaches to
Spiritual Formation. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
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Boda, M. J. (2011). Old Testament Foundations of Christian Spirituality. In

G. G. Scorgie, S. Chan, G. T. Smith, & J. D. Smith (Eds.), Dictionary of
Christian Spirituality. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
Cenac, J. R. (2011). Leader Emergence and the Phenomenological Work of
the Holy Spirit in Acts 2. Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership, 3(1),
123–125.
Chan S. (2011). Spiritual Theology. In G. G. Scorgie, S. Chan, G. T. Smith, &
J. D. Smith (Eds.), Dictionary of Christian Spirituality. Grand Rapids, MI:
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Coe, J. H. (2008). Resisting the Temptation of Moral Formation: Opening to
Spiritual Formation in the Cross of the Spirit. Journal of Spiritual Formation
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Coe, J. H. (2011). Approaches to the Study of Christian Spirituality. In G. G.
Scorgie, S. Chan, G. T. Smith, & J. D. Smith (Eds.), Dictionary of Christian
Spirituality. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
Foster, R. J. (1998). Celebration of Discipline: The Path to Spiritual Growth.
New York: HarperCollins.
Gangel, K. O. (1998). Acts (Vol. 5, p. 348). Nashville, TN: Broadman &
Holman Publishers.
Holm, N. (2008). Classroom Formation & Spiritual Awareness Pedagogy
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12(2), 159–175.
Houston, J. M. (2011). The Future of Spiritual Formation. Journal of Spiritual
Formation & Soul Care, 4(2), 131–139.
Hughes, R. K. (1991). Disciplines of a Godly Man. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books.
Kelly, G. B., Nelson, F. B., & Bethge, R. (2002). The Cost of Moral Leadership:
The Spirituality of Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing.
Nienkirchen, C. W. (2011). Prayer. In G. G Scorgie, S. Chan, G. T. Smith, &
J. D. Smith (Eds.), Dictionary of Christian Spirituality. Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan.
Oden, T. C. (1992). Life in the Spirit: Systematic Theology, Vol. III (p. 290). San
Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco.
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S. Chan, G. T. Smith, & J. D. Smith (Eds.), Dictionary of Christian
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Preston, A. (2010). Redeeming Moral Formation: The Unity of Spiritual and
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Scorgie, G. G. (2011). Overview of Christian Spirituality. In G. G Scorgie,

S. Chan, G. T. Smith, & J. D. Smith (Eds.), Dictionary of Christian
Spirituality. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
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Christian Spirituality. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
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Wicks, R. J. (2000). Handbook of Spirituality for Ministers, Volume 2:
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Willard, D. (1998a). Spiritual Disciplines, Spiritual Formation, and the
Restoration of the Soul. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 26(1), 101–109.
Willard, D. (1998b). The Divine Conspiracy: Rediscovering Our Hidden Life in
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 8
Small Group Leaders and the Betterment
of the Family

One of the main themes within Exodus 18 concerns that of a t­rusting

family environment. Additionally, Moses is represented as a selfless
leader who reveals humility and resolute toward remaining teach-
able, while focusing on the empowerment and betterment of oth-
ers. These attitudes closely link with authenticity and AL theory. It is
also true that, “areas of overlap between the authentic and spiritual
leadership theories include their focus on integrity, trust, cour-
age, hope, and perseverance (resilience)” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005,
p. 331). Similarities exist among various leadership theories. According
to Avolio and Gardner (2005), there is a theoretical relationship
between Transformational Leadership (TL), Behavioral Theory
of Charismatic Leadership (CLB), Self-Concept Based Theory of
Charismatic Leadership (CLSC), Servant Leadership Theory (SVT),
and Spiritual Leadership Theory (SP) (p. 323). As formerly stated,
AL assimilates concepts of effective leadership with ethical leader-
ship, and accentuates the prominence of consistency in leader’s words,
actions, and values (Yukl, 2013). Effective leadership consists of help-
ing others understand the purpose of events, unity of purpose, positiv-
ity and cohesiveness, trust and cooperation, collective identity, activity

© The Author(s) 2019 179

S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_8
180    
S. W. Boyer

performance, organizational learning, support and resources, develop-

ment and empowerment, and justice and morality (Yukl, 2013). Ethical
leadership theories include “transforming leadership, servant leadership,
authentic leadership, and spiritual leadership” (Yukl, 2013, p. 347).
Ethical leadership includes a “leader’s efforts to influence the ethical
behavior of others” (Yukl, 2013, p. 341). Ethical leadership involves
respecting others, serving others, implementing justice, embracing
honesty and cohesive community (Northouse, 2013). Other values
embraced within ethical leadership theories include “integrity, altruism,
humility, empathy and healing, personal growth, fairness and justice,
and empowerment” (Yukl, 2013, p. 348).
Given this, the need for truth, honesty, altruism, and cohesiveness
within a community remain a fundamental factor. One of the par-
amount ideologies of AL concerns self-awareness, pulling from Greek
philosophy, or the concept of “know thyself ” and “to thine own self
be true” (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May et al., 2004,
p. 802). Authentic leader’s hope, trust, and the leader’s optimistic senti-
ments influence followers’ attitudes and behaviors (Avolio et al., 2004).
Authentic leaders are:

Those individuals who are deeply aware of how they think and behave
and are perceived by others as being aware of their own and others’ val-
ues/moral perspective, knowledge, and strengths; aware of the context in
which they operate; and who are confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient,
and high on moral character. (Avolio et al., 2004, pp. 803–804)

Authentic leaders remain “guided by the qualities of the heart, pas-

sion, and compassion as they are by qualities of the mind” with the
major focus on empowerment and betterment of others (Avolio et al.,
2004, p. 806). Therefore, authentic leaders preserve a current emphasis
and cognizance of individual values and morals, while pursuing posi-
tive development in their own lives, and the lives of others. Likewise
previously noted, SL positively promotes health, productivity, lowered
stress, security, turnover, ethicality, satisfaction, significance, and organ-
izational citizenship behavior (OCB; Benefiel, 2005; Dent, Higgins, &
Wharff, 2005; Fry, 2003; Howard, 2002; Kriger & Seng, 2005; Mitroff
 8  Small Group Leaders and the Betterment of the Family    
181

& Denton, 1999). SL encompasses “values, attitudes, and behav-

iors that are necessary to intrinsically motivate one’s self and others so
that they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and mem-
bership” (Fry, 2003, p. 694). Moses embraces a slave-like attitude due
to the theme of altruism—and empowering others. God sent Moses as
the leader of Israel to lead them out of the bondage of the slavery of
Egypt. Moses reveals the motif of serving others with great significance
for the developing leaders—incorporating a pattern of serving others.
Within the OT culture, serving God in slave-like fashion existed as
well as the notion of serving family. Ancient Israelites culture remained
vastly different comparative toward modern Western culture (Raccah,
2016). Additionally, the OT customarily features the purpose of family
groups—serving other family members in need (Deut. 15:7–11) or in
hardship—and increases the responsibilities to the community at large
(Raccah, 2016). Western culture focuses on individuals—thus an indi-
vidualistic culture—whereas Israelites consider the connection toward
the community of individuals involving a mutual heritage (Raccah,
2016). Given this, the betterment of the community remained a central
focus, for all and particularly for leadership. Moses practiced this pat-
tern as an example for the developing small group leaders.

Cohesiveness and Unity
The altruistic notion of serving others corresponds with cohesive-
ness and unity. Mutual trust, cohesiveness, and cooperation remain
determinants toward team performance (Yukl, 2013). Cohesiveness
concerns “a closeness or commonness of attitude, behavior and perfor-
mance” (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010, p. 289). Cohesiveness ought
to exist while embracing “mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral
judgment” (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010, p. 291), avoiding group-
think. Yet, the conflict that arises due to groups interfering with other
group outcomes (intermediate level conflict) actually works toward the
enhancing group performance and cohesiveness (Hatch & Cunliffe,
2006). Cohesiveness concerns attitude, behavior, and performance,
unity concerns single-mindedness.
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The NT uses the word heis, which rightly translates, one (Taylor,
1992). While unity is not the same as uniformity, but “rather solidar-
ity,” or a “someone without any theological significance” (Taylor, 1992,
p. 746). In the Gospel of John 17:20–23 Jesus calls for and mod-
els the unity within the church (Erickson, 1998). Likewise, the apos-
tle Paul calls for unity within the church (Eph. 4:1–16; Phil. 2:1–11).
The image of the church as the bride of Christ illustrates both unity
(Gen. 2:24; Matt. 19:5; Eph. 5:31) and the family atmosphere expected
within the organization. The apostle Paul calls the church the body of
Christ, which remains a group of individual members, with specific gifts
that able the body to function according to design (1 Cor. 12:12–13).
Each member remains distinct, with past history, personality and cul-
ture nuances (Osborne, 2004; Keener, 1993). The apostle Paul states
that each person needs to embrace the body of Christ rather then sub-
cultures within the church (1 Cor. 1:10–13). Personality and culture
nuances can work for betterment of the body, rather than allowing sub-
cultures and in-groupings to work toward the destruction of the body
(Barentsen, 2011; Louw & Nida, 1996; Osborne, 2004). Unity within
groups may cause purposefulness toward destruction, and the detriment
of the glory of God (Gen. 9:1; 11:1–4), or conversely the betterment
of humanity and the glory of God (Acts 2:1 NKJV). Finally, unity
within the collective gathering of the people of God exists throughout
Scripture (Gen. 2:24; Deut. 6:4; 12; Matt. 19:5; John 13:34; 17:21–23;
Rom. 14:17–19; 1 Cor. 1:10; 12:12, 13; 2 Cor. 13:11; Col. 3:13–15;
1 Thess. 5:13; Heb. 12:14; James 3:17, 18). Therefore, members of the
organization use the whole of their person toward the success of the
organization to the glory of God.
In view of New Testament doctrine, Romans 12:4 admonishes to
provide for others out of personal giftedness. “For as in one body we
have many members, and the members do not all have the same func-
tion” (Romans 12:4). The phrase one body, many members concerns a
body made up of parts and members. The term refers to the metaphor
of the body of Christ, the church, of which Jesus remains the head
(Zodhiates, 2000). Osborne (2004) emphasizes the need of the body
working in unison. “If all the body parts tried to function other than
the way they were intended, the body would be crippled. And also if
 8  Small Group Leaders and the Betterment of the Family    
183

any one member failed to function properly, the body would be crip-
pled” (p. 324). The body, in this case the community of Israel, ought
to serve with divine giftedness, even as Moses exampled. The effective
small group leader remains ready to empower others toward achieving
the fullness of the Lord’s calling on their lives.

Organizational Diagnosis
A recent consultation and organizational diagnosis of an ecclesial organ-
ization experiencing challenges in cross-cultural communication and
leadership provides examples of the betterment of the church and indi-
vidual embracing cohesiveness and unity. This likewise provides insights
from a theological perspective on leadership toward the proposal for the
leader of the organization. The organizational diagnostic report follows.
This report concerns the ecclesial leadership diagnosis and change ini-
tiative toward the underlying cause of the ecclesial leadership problem
at (pseudonym) Peoples Conscientious Church (PCC) within leader-
ship and subordinates. The intent and hope of the research concerns the
ecclesial leadership of PCC’s practical application and implementation
of this change initiative. The long interviews with employees of PCC
revealed evidence that the problem within PCC concerns motivation,
trust, and therefore disunity that disrupt family atmosphere. Evidence
follows which supports the problem concerning motivation and trust
and disruption of family ambiance. Workplace motivational problems
remain a focus of organizational behavior. Ivancevich and Konopaske
(2010) report motivation and trust remain important factors within
organizational behavior. This diagnostic reports the proposal toward a
successful change initiative at PCC toward the betterment of PCC and
any global organizations negatively effected with organizational behav-
ior. Specifically, leader’s and subordinate’s distrust has been removed and
reciprocal trust has been established and maintained. This report and
change initiative provides necessary data and principles toward positive
transformation at PCC.
Through the extensive interviews with PCC emic employees, the
discussions reveal of other personnel, including insider employees,
184    
S. W. Boyer

maintained proficient work performances for years within PCC, until

the removal of trust from the leader(s) due to the leader’s selfish and
manipulating behavior. The following concerns former leader’s his-
torical display of distrust, lack of support for employees, according to
the emic employees. This in turn, resulted in the emic employees, and
other employees, attitude, productivity, motivation, and Organizational
Citizenship Behavior (OCB) maintaining a negative effect, according
to the insider employees. Trust, attitude, OCB, and motivation remain
integral factors toward the success of organizations. Walumbwa, Avolio,
Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) link attitudes and OCB.
Hunter, Neubert, Perry, Witt, Penney, and Weinberger (2013) related
OCB with helping behavior. Trust remains a high value toward leaders,
persons, and organizations.
The aspect of trust within organizations remains an essential part of
the effectiveness, success, and betterment of an organization. Trust con-
cerns factors encompassing the leaders trust toward the subordinate(s),
and the subordinates’ trust in the leadership. The evidence supporting
this organizational diagnosis reveals that the greatest organizational
behavior challenge concerns reciprocal ecclesial leader–subordinate trust.
Compiling the various interviews and documents, the forthcoming
narrative reveals how the pattern of distrust originated. The organ-
ization was founded with a great start, a leader (pseudonyms), pas-
tor Happyheart, who practiced servant leadership with a humble
attitude that promoted unity and trust. Up until the last leader (pastor
Gooddeed), the two (pseudonyms) leaders (pastor Cranky and pastor
Venal) following moved the church into a place of disunity and distrust,
ending up in a church split. The third (pseudonym) leader (pastor Ego)
following the split continued in this pattern of harsh and manipulat-
ing leadership. Finally, the last (pseudonym) leader (pastor Gooddeed)
provided an environment that promoted honesty and trust. Additional
details follow.
The organization had a small but healthy start; the leader maintained
behavior representative of love, unity, forgiveness, and trust. The church
had a great beginning with a nourishing foundation. Pastor Happyheart
was then called away to another location and organization. The next
leader did not resemble the character of the past leader.
 8  Small Group Leaders and the Betterment of the Family    
185

The new leader (pseudonym), pastor Cranky, served the church for
approximately 10 years. Pastor Cranky had a stern, and unhealthy view
of Scripture and God. The pastor cast aside the grace and mercy of God
and inserted strict and demanding behavior. Pastor Cranky taught and
practiced legalism that resulted in an organization of in grouping while
maintaining a critical view of others. Pastor Cranky would often use
his teaching and decision-making toward selfish outcomes. An effort
to strengthen his authority, and to dismiss any rebuttal, Pastor Cranky
would pronounce his decisions stating it from the mouth of God, like
the practice of the popes in ancient times. This prevented any discus-
sion or debate. Before leaving the church, two of Pastor Cranky’s final
“thus says the Lord” included the introduction of their new pastor (pas-
tor Venal) and stating the church leadership/elders would now be elders
for life. This, in turn, created greater difficulty for the following pastor.
The following leader (pastor Venal) maintained a more accurate dis-
play and teaching of God. The congregation grew to about 480 people,
who appreciated the character of this man, and the great illustrations
and stories he told. The new leader was more conscientious to accu-
rately reveal God. Pastor Venal also maintained greater concern for
fulfilling the polity and practice of the denomination. The method the
leader chose to realign the government of the church, according to dis-
trict policy, revealed detrimental to the church. According to the polity
of the denomination, the elders were to have a rotation of service, not
elders for life. Pastor Venal had a conversation with the elders indicating
they are no longer the elders in the church. The elders understood this
to mean their ministry within the church had ended. After, the elders
had a congregational meeting without the presence of the pastor Venal.
The elders told the congregation they were leaving the church and the
assembly could either follow or stay. Soon thereafter the church split,
the majority of the people leaving the church. Subsequently afterward
pastor Venal was dismissed from his position. The next pastor (pastor
Ego) proved behaved unproductively toward establishing cohesiveness,
unity, and trust.
The next leader came into the office with the church having a bank
account of hundreds of thousands of dollars and approximately 80 peo-
ple within the church. Pastor Ego would leave the church three years
186    
S. W. Boyer

later with less than half the money and half the people present. This
leader endeavored to begin a small group ministry, appointing people as
a host home, leader, and even the people who would participate. Much
of the leaders’ decision-making resembled this authoritative process.
The leaders’ practice of behavior fostered disunity and distrust through
deceitful communication and practices. The following leader (pastor
Gooddeed) entered the organization with the followers maintaining in
grouping, with strong distrust toward any outsider.
A new leader (pastor Gooddeed) was joined to the organization,
with a governing board revealing great distrust and suspicion toward
pastor Gooddeed. The governing board members would often endeav-
ored to assign work, or create an extremely difficult situation for pas-
tor Gooddeed as a power play. The board was intent on proclaiming
the board maintains the power, not pastor Gooddeed. Throughout the
next three years, pastor Gooddeed endured much affliction stemming
from the governing board. Pastor Gooddeed maintained the practice of
ethical leadership behavior. The pastor maintained an honest, loving,
self-sacrificial conduct. Pastor Gooddeed promoted an environment of
unity and trust. Pastor Gooddeed modeled transparency and a willing-
ness to remain vulnerable. After three years this behavior began to affect
the congregation. The congregation revealed a more unified and trusting
behavior. The theology and implications of trust toward the betterment
and success of organizations cannot be understated. The need of trust
within an organism/organization as the church remains crucial for the
global church community. Therefore, this diagnosis and change initi-
ative remains with great significance for PCC and other organizations
with similar problems.

References
Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005, June). Authentic Leadership Development:
Getting to the Root of Positive Forms of Leadership. The Leadership Quarterly,
16(3), 315–338. ISSN 1048-9843. http://0-dx.doi.org.library.regent.
edu/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001 (http://0-www.sciencedirect.com.library.
regent.edu/science/article/pii/S1048984305000263).
 8  Small Group Leaders and the Betterment of the Family    
187

Avolio, B., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004).
Unlocking the Mask: A Look at the Process by Which Authentic Leaders
Impact Follower Attitudes and Behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(6),
801–823.
Barentsen, J. (2011). Emerging Leadership in the Pauline Mission: A Social
Identity Perspective on Local Leadership Development in Corinth and Ephesus.
Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications.
Benefiel, M. (2005). The Second Half of the Journey: Spiritual Leadership for
Organizational Transformation. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(5), 723–747.
Dent, E., Higgins, M., & Wharff, D. (2005). Spirituality and Leadership:
An Empirical Review of Definitions, Distinctions, and Embedded
Assumptions.The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 625–653.
Erickson, M. J. (1998). Christian Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Academic.
Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a Theory of Spiritual Leadership. The Leadership
Quarterly, 14(6), 693–727.
Hatch, M. J., & Cunliffe, A. L. (2006). Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic,
and Postmodern Perspectives (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Howard, S. (2002). A Spiritual Perspective on Learning in the Workplace.
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), 230–242.
Hunter, Emily M., Neubert, Mitchell J., Perry, Sara Jansen, Witt, L. A.,
Penney, Lisa M., & Weinberger, Evan. (2013, April). Servant Leaders
Inspire Servant Followers: Antecedents and Outcomes for Employees and
the Organization. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(2), 316–331. ISSN 1048-
9843. http://0-dx.doi.org.library.regent.edu/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.12.001
(http://0-www.sciencedirect.com.library.regent.edu/science/article/pii/
S1048984312001270).
Ivancevich, J., & Konopaske, R. (2010). Organizational Behavior (9th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Keener, C. S. (1993). The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament.
Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Kriger, M., & Seng, Y. (2005). Leadership with Inner Meaning: A
Contingency Theory of Leadership based on the Worldviews of Five
Religions. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(5), 771–806. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.07.007.
Louw, J. P., & Nida, E. A. (1996). Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament:
Based on Semantic Domains (Electronic ed. of the 2nd ed., Vol. 1). New
York: United Bible Societies.
188    
S. W. Boyer

Mitroff, I., & Denton, E. (1999). A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Northouse, P. G. (2013). Leadership: Theory and Practice (6th ed.). Los
Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.
Osborne, G. R. (2004). Romans: The IVP New Testament Commentary Series.
Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Raccah, W. (2016). Sociology and the Old Testament. In J. D. Barry,
D. Bomar, D. R. Brown, R. Klippenstein, D. Mangum, C. Sinclair
Wolcott, …, W. Widder (Eds.), The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Bellingham,
WA: Lexham Press.
Taylor, W. F. J. (1992). Unity/Unity of Humanity. In D. N. Freedman (Ed.),
The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 6). New York: Doubleday.
Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson,
S. J. (2008). Authentic Leadership: Development and Validation of a
Theory-Based Measure. Journal of Management, 34(1), 89–126.
Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in Organizations (8th ed.).  Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Zodhiates, S. (2000). The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament
(Electronic ed.). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
 9
Conflict Reduction and Peace
Multiplication

The text within Exodus 18 emphasizes the development and

­discipleship of leaders and the society in the context of interconnected
trusting relationships. A dominant theme throughout the text concerns
personal, intimate, familial relationships. Due to this, the aspect of trust
remains fundamental. Reciprocal trust between leaders and the group or
small group remains beneficial.
Park and Kim (2012) posit the theory that the leader and follower
maintains reciprocal dyadic trust, and as each agent trusts the other,
trust flourishes within the relationship. Park and Kim (2012) declare
the research “has shown that subordinates who perceive greater trust
from their leader display greater trust in their leader, and that subor-
dinates who have greater trust in their leader also have greater trust in
their organization” (p. 113). The implications of the research reveal that
trust maintains a contagious aspect. This could have far-reaching prop-
ositions for leadership–parishioner relationships. Reciprocal dyadic trust
provides positive effects, particularly toward leadership and congregant
who remain willfully vulnerable and honest. The personal decisions
of each individual remain central to the practice of conflict reduction,

© The Author(s) 2019 189

S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_9
190    
S. W. Boyer

forgiveness, and peace multiplication. Nevertheless, community and

group life remain complex.
Complexities of group life for the leader, according to Klein, involve
“boundary identification, maintenance, and most important regu-
lation” (Klein, 1995, p. 237). Klein goes on to say that “the group is
affected by the environment (that is society) in terms of values, norms,
roles, and other social characteristics including age, gender, and race”
(Klein, 1995, p. 237). Klein states that four-group analyses are needed
toward group life: “intrapersonal, interpersonal, group as a whole and
intra-group” (Klein, 1995, p. 237). Klein also disgusts the differences
of being an outsider with the student/participants to the various discus-
sions and social characteristics, than being an insider to the same dis-
cussions. Klein points out that various discussions were enhanced while
others were inhibited.
Alderfer (1995) reports of the complexities of the group life of the
leader including that the leader must have “the capacity to accept and
to engage in a wide range of emotions in themselves and in others”
(Alderfer, 1995, p. 254). Alderfer (1995) notes the leader must also
have “the capacity to appreciate one’s own strength and emotional vul-
nerability” as well as the importance of appropriately anticipating events
(Alderfer, 1995, p. 255). Alderfer (1995) states that “experiential learn-
ing involves intellectual as well as emotional understanding” (Alderfer,
1995, p. 256).
Boal and Schultz (2007) state that many organizations are now con-
sidered complex adaptive systems. Boal and Schultz (2007) state that
leaders perform a multiplicity of activities including “making strategic
decisions, creating in communicating the vision, developing compe-
tencies and capabilities, organizational structures, processes, controls
and multiple constituencies management, and selecting and developing
leaders” (Boal & Schultz, 2007, p. 211). Boal and Schultz (2007) state
that “strategic leaders channel knowledge (by altering interaction pat-
terns) about organizational identity and vision” through various forms
of communication (Boal & Schultz, 2007, p. 412).
Alderfer (1995) states that leaders “inevitably bring their identity
group memberships (gender, race, ethnicity, age, and family) to events”
(Alderfer, 1995, p. 263). For this reason, Alderfer (1995) reports,
 9  Conflict Reduction and Peace Multiplication    
191

“the group and intergroup relations between staff members or leaders

and participants, therefore, cannot be reduced to the personal charac-
teristics and interpersonal styles of the individuals” (Alderfer, 1995, p.
263). Alderfer (1995) cites three conditions for leadership, “individual
capacity, diverse composition, and in an active commitment to rela-
tionship development among staff members,” which prevent harm and
enhance learning among the participants (Alderfer, 1995, p. 264). The
paramount implications of communication concern staff working in
“parallel processes, to provide adequate time to discuss with one another
their own experiences that pertain or might pertain to the course”
(Alderfer, 1995, p. 264). Group conflict is certain, but may also provide
a good outcome (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006).
Edmund (2010) considers three intensities of group conflict.
Edmund (2010) focuses on event-based conflict, communicative-af-
fective conflict, and identity-based conflict. “Event-based conflicts
are short conflicts without deep roots” (Edmund, 2010, p. 36).
Communicative-affective conflict concerns “a longer shared history
between the parties and involves emotions, and goals which the par-
ties must process together” (Edmund, 2010, p. 37). Edmund (2010)
states that “Communicative-Affective Conflicts occur because issues
are ­significantly meaningful and have personal or whole-group impact,
but miscommunication and/or heated affect have developed in the con-
flict episode or period” (Edmund, 2010, p. 37). Identity-based con-
flict, according to Edmund, “involves the primary group memberships
that underlie personal, stable identity: family, belief system, self-con-
cept” (Edmund, 2010, p. 39). “Identity-Based Conflict occurs when
one or more of the four pillars of identity is threatened” (Edmund,
2010, p. 39). Helpful keys in solving these conflicts involve courage,
patience and perhaps a mediator, according to Edmund. Fortunately
the Israelites culture support decisions beneficial toward the entire com-
munity, rather than the individual, or individualistic culture. Given
the continual certainty of group conflict, an analysis providing factors,
including positive mediating aspects of trust within relationships, and
establishing and promoting trust remains advantageous. A qualitative
phenomenological analysis provides beneficial insights.
192    
S. W. Boyer

The single-shot case study includes a review of leadership/follower

findings, specifically that of ethical leader/follower relations. This case
study employed a qualitative phenomenological approach toward
­ethical leader followership to explain insider perspective and practice
concerning trust the outcome including conflict reduction and peace
multiplication. Due to the nature of trust within various cultures, as
multiple research supports (Barentsen, 2011; Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006;
Javidan & House, 2001; Morgan, 2006; Northouse, 2013; Yukl, 2013),
specific consideration was given toward the element of trust within
individualistic and collectivistic cultures. The proposition that a rela-
tionship involving trust between group members, leader/subordinates,
maintains a positive correlation toward group leader/subordinate organ-
izational trust and organization citizen behavior (OCB) remains sup-
ported. Finally, the theoretical coding reveals three important aspects of
trust (vulnerability, sharing time together, and honesty), which remain
a value toward achieving, honoring, maintaining, and prospering trust.
Padgett (2008) declares statistical research favors a closed or con-
trolled system in which much effort is made to eliminate or minimize
the effect of observational context, as well as the observer. Padgett
(2008) states that qualitative research remains an open system that seeks
to represent the world and all its complexities, particularly and holis-
tically with detail concerning insiders’ stories. Patton (2002) states
qualitative methods typically produce a wealth of exhaustive informa-
tion with a much smaller number of people and cases then quantitative
research. Yin (2009) states that case studies allow researchers to obtain
holistic and meaningful evidence of real-life events including phenom-
ena. Yin (2009) states exploratory case studies provide empirical evi-
dence to “what” questions. Patton (2002) states case studies are used
for the purpose of gathering comprehensive, systematic, and in-depth
information about the particular phenomena. Moustakas (1994) states
phenomenology is the first method of knowledge. Moustakas declares
phenomenological research includes application and core facets to
human science research. Yin reveals five components of a case study,
(a) “the studies question,” (b) “any propositions,” (c) “unit or units of
analysis,” (d) “logic linking data for two propositions,” and (e) “crite-
ria for interpreting the findings” (Yin, 2009, p. 27). The methods of
 9  Conflict Reduction and Peace Multiplication    
193

qualitative research particularly that of single-shot case studies, remain

the best fit toward studying the phenomenon of ethical leadership. The
phenomenological single-shot case study investigation will incorporate
purposeful sampling, and hold a long interview with an insider person
(follower) within a selected protestant church of 10,000 plus people,
whose leader practices ethical leadership. The significance of this study
concerns reporting accurately with trustworthiness and authenticity the
ability toward analyzing, with neutrality, the effect of ethical leadership
from follower perspective and practice.
The single-shot case study/phenomenological research involved an
open-ended interview, selected through purposeful sampling. The focus
of the interview concerns one construct of ethical leadership, the con-
cept of trusting. The participant is a 60-year-old white male, who lives
geographically and culturally within Southern California. The partici-
pant remains the husband of one wife and has three daughters and one
son. He and his wife have four grandchildren.
The interviewee’s experience and history within Christianity and the
church include 40 years of ministry. The first 35 years the participant
served in the executive pastor capacity. The participants’ pastoral func-
tion was second to the senior pastor of a megachurch including over
6000 people. The church expanded with 100 church plants and over
150 ministries within the main church. The participant has served
within a different church for the last five years. This church includes
over 10,000 people, involving over 150 ministries, with worldwide
influence. The participant has had a working knowledge of ethical lead-
ership for over 27 years, with commitment toward growing and mode-
ling, as a leader and a follower.
Qualitative inquiry, according to Patton (2002), happens through
open-ended interviews, which may be structured with three main
approaches. (a) “The informal conversational interview, relies entirely
on spontaneous questions and interactions,” (b) “the general interview
guide approach” outlines the issues to be explored but leaves room for
extemporaneous conversation, and (c) “the standardized open-ended
interview” concerns “a set of carefully” formatted questions which must
be asked exactly and in the same order, according to Patton (Patton,
2002, p. 342). Patton advocates using combined approaches. Patton
194    
S. W. Boyer

suggests employing the standardized interview format early, then follow-

ing through with informal conversational interview, pursuing particular
subject of interest.
Patton (2002) states that qualitative open-ended interviews focus on
six types of questions. Patton lists (a) behavior/experiences, (b) opin-
ions/values, (c) feelings/emotions, (d) knowledge, (e) sensory, and (f )
background. Patton suggests beginning interviews with present behav-
ior and activities, while leaving demographic questions for the end
of the interview. The questionnaire implemented concerns an open-
ended general interview guide, and then follows through with a semi-
structured protocol. The structure of the 46 open-ended questions
within the questionnaire generally involves behavior/experiences ques-
tions first, then opinions/values, feelings/emotions, knowledge, sensory
and finally personal background. The structure and intent of the ques-
tions concern the change in the follower of the ethical leader, specifi-
cally concerning trust. The interview intent concerns past and present
perspective and practice of the interviewee. Therefore, the entire set of
open-ended questions concern answers that reflect the interviewees past
and present behavior/experiences, opinions/values, feelings/emotions,
knowledge, and sensory experiences.
Moustakas (1994) declares phenomenological research includes
application and core facets to human science research. Saldana (2013)
states “a code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short phrase
that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, evoc-
ative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data” (p. 3).
“A code is a researcher-generated construct that provides meaning to
individual data toward categorization, theory building, and other ana-
lytic processes” (Saldana, 2013, p. 4). Saldana includes the data can
consist of analytical notes, interview notes, observational field notes,
documents, journals, transcripts, and the like. Saldana states that when
data is deciphered to discover its “core meaning, we are decoding, when
determining an appropriate code and label it we are encoding” (p. 5).
“Coding is the transitional process between data collection and more
extensive data analysis” (Saldana, 2013, p. 5). In fact, Saldana states
that In Vivo coding has also been labeled “inductive coding” (p. 91).
Saldana declares these types of coding strive toward word for word, as
 9  Conflict Reduction and Peace Multiplication    
195

the participant stated (p. 91). The former study employed the first step
In Vivo coding. One reason toward the choice of In Vivo coding con-
cerns the comment from Saldana (2013). “In Vivo is appropriate for
virtually all qualitative studies” and remains applicable toward studies
that seek to “honor the participants’ voice” (Saldana, 2013, p. 91).
In Second Cycle coding processes can use the exact same data, or recon-
figured codes (Saldana, 2013). Second Cycle methods are more challeng-
ing since analytic skills of classifying, prioritizing, and conceptualizing and
theory building are used (Saldana, 2013). The choice of Second Cycle is
theoretical coding. Saldana (2013) states “Theoretical Code functions like
an umbrella that covers and accounts for all other codes and categories
formulated thus far in grounded theory analysis” (p. 223). Saldana adds,
most importantly during this cycle concerns answering the “how and why
questions to explain the phenomena in terms of how they work, how they
develop, how they compare with others, or why they happen under cer-
tain conditions” (Saldana, 2013, p. 224).
The Theoretical Coding revealed three important aspects of trust
(vulnerability, sharing time together, and honesty), which remain a
value toward achieving, honoring, maintaining, and prospering trust.
Given this, decisions that include a commitment toward vulnerability,
sharing time together, and honesty remains appropriate response toward
conflict reduction and peace multiplication.
Decision-making remains integral toward the reduction of con-
flict and establishing peace within a family. Leadership decisions—
and doubtless all others—are made through many forces, according to
Ivancevich and Konopaske (2010). A powerful New Testament doctrine
includes each person predetermining and pursuing peace with others
(Rom. 12:18; Eph. 4:1–3) “Knowledge is considered by some experts
to be more powerful than any part or structure of an organization”
(Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2010, p. 345). Ivancevich and Konopaske
define knowledge “as a conclusion or analysis derived from data and
information” (p. 345). Scripture reveals God affords humanity with
the capacity to decide, and make choices (Gen. 2:17; 3:6; 4:7; Joshua
24:15; Isa. 55:6; Matt. 11:28–30; John 12:40; Rom. 10:13; 11:25;
Rev. 22:12–17). The best choices leaders and congregants make support
biblical values. This knowledge incorporates the ideal that Christian
196    
S. W. Boyer

doctrine supports peace for all. Forgiveness remains God empowered

ability toward believers as well as a command (Matt. 5:23; 6:14; 18;
15–17). Importantly, issues ought never come before relationship—
except after trust.
Endeavoring to solve conflict ought to include first recognizing the
importance of the relationship over and above the issue. Sande (2004)
summarizes a four-point approach to solving the conflict. “Glorify God
(1 Cor. 10:31)” includes focusing on the main purpose for a believ-
ers life, before tackling conflict (Sande, 2004, p. 12). “Get the log out
of your eye” (Matt. 7:5) refers to recognizing your own faults (Sande,
2004, p. 12). “Gently restore” (Gal. 6:1) concerns applying gentle-
ness toward reproving another person (Sande, 2004, p. 12). “Go and
be reconciled” (Matt. 5:24) “involves a commitment to restoring dam-
aged relationships and negotiation just agreements” (Sande, 2004,
p. 13). Additionally, predetermining peace (Eph. 4:1–3) involves a con-
scientious decision. Sande (2004) suggest a PAUSE—“prepare, affirm
relationships, understand interests, search for creative solutions, and
evaluate options objectively and reasonably” (Sande, 2004, pp. 227–
228). Given this, a commitment toward conflict reduction and peace
multiplication through biblical principles including a biblical under-
standing of forgiveness.
Forgiveness is choosing not to hurt back, turning the matter
over to God, and blessing the one who has hurt you. In other terms,
when someone hurts me wrongly, the offender incurs a debt to me.
Forgiveness is choosing not to collect the debt, turning the debt over to
God to pay or collect and blessing the one who owes you. Forgiveness
means totally and completely letting go of every ounce of anger, bitter-
ness, and resentment we have against our offender (Eph. 4:31–32). An
unforgiving attitude is the starting point of all anger, bitterness, wrath,
and hatred (Heb. 12:14–15).
Forgiveness releases the offender from our desire to see them pun-
ished. It is willfully clearing our heart of even the remembrance of the
deed. Importantly, “forgiveness is not a feeling. It is an act of the will”
(Sande, 2004, p. 206). It is not forgetting; it is choosing not to remem-
ber (Isa 43:25). Additionally, forgiveness is not excusing (Sande, 2004)
it concerns choosing not to hold someone to a debt—because God has
 9  Conflict Reduction and Peace Multiplication    
197

forgiven you (Ps. 103:12; Micah 7:19; Heb. 8:12). Conversely, unfor-
giveness is the poison we drink. Therefore, a familylike environment
encourages trust, which promotes decisions toward forgiveness, thus
maintaining peace with subordinates and organizational leaders at every
level.

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 10
Conclusion

Authentic Small Group Leadership Implications

The complete text throughout Exodus 18 was mined and examined
through sociorhetorical analysis, toward understanding leadership prin-
ciples as revealed through the text. The study produced 22 themes,
which remain noteworthy toward leadership. The 22 themes were then
classified into five leadership principles. The five principles include (a)
small groups and leader personal development, (b) the development and
proliferation of trust in small groups, (c) connection with God and the
small group leader, (d) small group leaders and the betterment of the
family, and (e) conflict reduction and peace multiplication.
The first principles reveal that leader personal development requires a
humble attitude with a resolution toward lifelong learning, and devel-
opment. If the leader allows pride to infiltrate, humility will vanquish,
pride abounds along with bounded rationality, not having all the nec-
essary information to make perfect decisions (Ivancevich & Konopaske,
2010, p. 416), will still exist, except in the mind of the proud. Therefore,
humility and resolution toward remaining teachable remain necessary.

© The Author(s) 2019 199

S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3_10
200    
S. W. Boyer

The characteristics of humility and lifelong learning enhance the selec-

tion, development and growing trust within leadership.
Successful selection of leaders includes prayerful, meticulous selec-
tion. Additionally, the comprehensive development of leaders includes
growing reciprocal trust. Without remaining optimistic toward others,
trust remains hindered. Likewise if honesty is lacking, trust will surely
evaporate. Finally, if people and leaders do not spend time together
­regularly, trust remains obstructed.
An essential characteristic of the effective small group leadership
concerns maintaining growing intimacy with God—spiritual transfor-
mation. This happens primarily through the Holy Spirit’s interworking
concerning the whole life of the believer. Houston (2011) links contri-
tion, confession, repentance, discipleship, soul care, and spiritual trans-
formation. Holm (2008) reveals traits of spiritual formation concerning
dispersion and community, reading Scripture, prayer, solitude, discern-
ment, service, and confession. Given this, the leader is better equipped
to empower others.
The effective small group leader remains ready to empower others
toward achieving the fullness of the Lord’s calling in their lives. This
remains a primary function of ecclesial leadership—doing for others
what God has done within you. The empowerment ought also incorpo-
rate producing a trusting, peaceful family environment.
A family-like environment encourages trust, which promotes deci-
sions toward forgiveness, thus maintaining peace with the brethren.
Due to the enablement of God toward forgiveness, based on God’s for-
giveness of each individual, each person ought to predetermine unity
and forgiveness with others, in as much as it is in their own power to
do so. Therefore, an appropriate environment is established toward to
­betterment of the group.

Limitations of the Study

Rather than the overabundance of scholarly research available toward
many New Testament studies, OT research remains much more in
dearth. Further, there remains even less scholarly research on leadership
 10 Conclusion    
201

within Exodus 18. Even still, there are fewer studies on small group
leadership involving Exodus 18. Additionally, the study was confined to
an exegetical exploratory research involving a sociorhetorical analysis of
Exodus 18. In Exodus 18 topics in the text concern the marriage and
possible divorce of Moses and his wife Zipporah, and considerations
behind the text—authorship, date, and audience. The issues stated,
though individually the aforementioned subjects remain commendable
of research, theses remained beyond the scope of detailed analysis.
Specifically, the study remained confined toward the Christian bib-
lical perspective of leadership selection, and leadership development as
represented in Exodus 18. The study engaged a sociorhetorical analy-
sis of Exodus 18, for the purpose of developing leadership principles.
More precisely, the focus of the leadership principles concerns small
group leadership. The leadership principles mined through this study
correspond to contemporary leadership theories. The research remained
confined toward a Western Christianity biblical perspective of leader-
ship selection, and leadership development as represented in Exodus
18. Finally, the main emphasis concerns principles relating toward cog-
nitive and moral implications of leadership selection, and leadership
development.

Future Research
Considering the limitations and scope of this study, there remains much
opportunity toward future research. There remains a scholarly lacuna
toward leadership studies within the OT. This dearth remains through-
out each OT book. Furthermore, a limited amount of leadership studies
exist on the OT leader Moses. Whereas, what is true concerning Moses
is similarly true of the majority of OT leadership figures.
Further, this study incorporated Robbins (1996) methodology of
sociorhetorical criticism involving a five-arena approach to interpret-
ing Scripture; “inner texture, intertexture, social and cultural texture,
ideological texture, sacred texture analysis in exegetical interpretation”
(p. 3). Given the depth and wealth of data available throughout the
sacred text, books, chapters, and pericopes of Scripture exist that might
202    
S. W. Boyer

be mined and examined toward providing contemporary leadership

principles. This study reveals the wealth of data, which may be com-
plied toward contemporary leadership principles. This study focused
only within SL and AL theories, within the confinement of Exodus 18,
whereas a multitude of Scriptures within OT as well as theories may be
studied.
There remains an increasingly abundant amount of leadership com-
ponents and theories, some religious, many secular. This study provides
five principles, which enhance leadership, personal leadership develop-
ment, and leadership development, specifically small group leadership.
With the waning of biblical discipleship, and the proliferating of secu-
larism, there remains a need toward robust discipleship, which adheres
toward biblical decision-making, implementing the values, morals, and
behaviors, which glorify God.

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 Index

A 88, 90, 92, 98, 100, 103–105,

Ability 9, 15, 29, 36, 53, 65, 112, 111, 112, 114–116, 119, 120,
119, 122, 130–134, 142, 147, 131, 132, 134, 137, 143, 147,
152, 153, 156, 167, 193, 196 148, 150–152, 155, 159, 160,
Achievement 156, 158 168, 171, 173, 174, 184, 189,
Adaptive 43, 190 191, 192, 195
Agreement 37, 81, 196 Atonement 40
Alderfer, C.P. 190, 191 Attentive 12, 170
Algera, P.M. 34 Attitude(s) 1, 3, 7–9, 16, 17, 28, 29,
Altruism 16, 33, 98, 143, 144, 180 32, 33, 36, 37, 40, 129, 131,
Altruistic 40, 143, 144 132, 134, 137, 140, 141, 144,
Ambrose of Milan 104, 106 151–153, 159, 179–181, 184,
America 7, 29, 30 196, 199
Appointed 49, 107, 130, 154 Atwater, L.E. 2, 26, 31, 54, 148
Approach 63, 65, 67, 68, 75, 76, 81, Authentic 2, 15, 17, 25, 32–36, 54,
101, 130, 175, 192, 193, 196 121, 130, 131, 141, 179, 180
Aspects 3–5, 7, 10–13, 25, 26, 28, Authentic leadership (AL) 2, 17, 18,
30, 38, 40, 41, 44, 45, 47, 48, 20, 28, 31–35, 45, 61, 62,
65, 67, 68, 70, 72, 75, 83, 75–77, 131, 144, 179, 180, 202

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive 221
licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
S. W. Boyer, Biblical Leadership Development,
Christian Faith Perspectives in Leadership and Business,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00078-3
222    
Index

Authority 4, 51, 116, 137, 140, 172 Blessing 15, 102, 111, 133, 196
Avoiding 63, 170 Bloomquist, K.L. 169
Avolio, B.J. 1, 2, 10, 15, 17, 18, 28, Boa, K. 171, 173–176
32–35, 54, 130, 179, 180 Boal, K.B. 43, 190
Awareness 15, 18, 34, 39, 70, 130 Body 19, 79, 98, 99, 142–144, 169,
182, 183
Bommer, W.H. 151, 155
B Bond, S. 84
Bachrach, D.G. 151, 155 Boundaries 12, 43, 65, 75, 190
Baker, W. 89, 90, 96, 112, 114, 147 Bounded rationality 199
Barentsen, J. 1–3, 13, 26, 27, 54, 98, Brand, C. 84
144, 148, 151, 154, 182, 192 Brand, C.O. 80
Barrett, C.K. 98, 135 Brenkert, G.G. 28, 152, 153
Barton, S.C. 67 Bromiley, G.W. 4, 47, 48, 116, 133,
Bates, S. 25 149, 150
Bayes, J.D. 71 Brother 91, 133
Beckham, B. 7, 46 Brotherhood 133
Behavior 1, 3, 7, 8, 11, 12, 16–18, Burke, W. 151, 152
27–29, 32, 33, 35–37, 40, Business 172
41, 44, 84, 116, 121, 129, Butler, T.C. 84, 85
131, 132, 140, 141, 151–153,
155–158, 176, 180, 181,
183–186, 192, 194, 202 C
Bekker, C.J. 141 Cabal, T. 80
Belief 7, 44, 89, 112, 149, 152 Cairns, E.E. 40, 104–107
Believe 8, 15, 28, 39, 93, 108, 149, Capacity 2, 18, 103, 131, 144, 190,
153, 176 193
Believer 4, 5, 9, 18, 19, 30, 46, Carnevale, P.D. 151, 154
47, 93, 121, 133, 139, 144, Carpenter, E.E. 89, 90, 96, 112,
167–171, 196, 200 114, 147
Benefiel, M. 16, 17, 36–38, 180 Carter, J.E. 168
Ben-Yoav, O. 151, 154 Cassuto, U. 79, 82–91, 93–96,
Bergler, T. 8, 29 99, 101, 112–115, 118, 147,
Bethge, R. 166 149
Bettenson, H. 107 Cause 13, 48, 111, 116, 129, 167,
Bible 7, 8, 80, 134, 150 182
Biblical 2, 4, 9, 10, 18, 37, 45, 68, Cenac, J.R. 1, 29, 167
76, 79, 92, 102, 103, 113, Central 5, 51, 110, 113, 129, 181
150, 170, 175, 196, 201, 202 Certain 27, 73, 92, 191, 195
 Index    
223

Change 8, 13, 30, 38, 43, 51, 69, Comiskey, J. 1, 3, 6, 19, 45, 46, 49,
72, 94, 103, 104, 106, 107, 105, 106, 109
117, 131, 139, 140, 155, 169, Command 5, 10, 61, 86, 95, 99,
170, 175, 183, 194 101, 116, 129, 133, 134, 138,
Chief 33, 84, 88, 100, 115, 118 139, 196
Childs, B.S. 82, 85, 88, 92, 93, 113, Commitment 1, 4, 18, 30, 31, 48,
115, 147 85, 107, 109, 116, 142, 149,
Chin-Shin, H. 151, 155, 156 151, 172, 193, 196
Choice 8, 16, 103, 132, 168, 195 Communicate 32, 66, 69, 75, 81,
Choose 117, 132 95, 152
Christ 4, 5, 9, 17, 30, 31, 47, 98, Communication 46, 73, 106, 183,
99, 133–136, 143, 144, 149, 190
150, 165, 167–172, 175, Conflict 11, 43, 44, 75, 83, 111,
182 128, 181, 189, 191, 195, 196,
Christian 6, 8–10, 18, 29, 46, 103, 199
105, 107, 131, 135, 165, Connelly, M.S. 130
170–172, 176, 195 Conscience 170
Christianity 8, 29, 38, 168, 193 Consistency 17, 155, 179
Christlikeness 31, 168 Constantly 167
Christ, O. 156 Consultation 183
Chuh, S.C. 151 Content 67, 92
Chun-Hsi Vivian, C. 151, 155, 156 Continuous 43
Circumstance 5, 14, 107, 174 Control 141, 190
Clendenen, E.R. 80, 84, 85 Conviser, R.H. 152
Club 11 Copan, P. 80
Coach 10 Core 11, 32, 192, 194
Cody, A. 92 Cozby, P. 25
Coe, J.H. 170, 173 Creativity 9, 39
Cognitive 11, 15, 16, 18, 26, 41, 47, Crisis 165–167
64, 72, 76, 90, 96, 103, 104, Cross 40, 105, 170
110–112, 117, 119–122, 127, Culture 2, 3, 7, 8, 13, 20, 26, 27,
131, 147, 153, 201 43, 44, 54, 71, 75, 83, 84,
Cohesiveness 45, 156, 179, 181, 87, 88, 92, 98, 100, 102,
185 103, 144, 149, 156–159,
Cole, R.A. 79, 82, 84, 85, 87, 88, 171, 172, 181, 182, 191,
93, 96, 101, 112, 114, 118 192
Coleman, R.E. 6, 10, 14, 19, 20 Cunliffe, A.L. 181, 191
Collective 72, 154, 158, 179 Customs 3, 71, 88, 92, 102, 106,
Collectivism 3, 27, 156, 157 109, 120
224    
Index

D Direct 8, 63, 132

Daily 40, 71, 170 Disciple 4–7, 9–11, 18, 30, 31, 46,
Dastmalchian, A. 3, 27, 113, 137, 47, 116, 132, 134–136, 138,
156 144, 168
Day, A.C. 102 Discipleship 3–8, 10, 13, 18, 30, 31,
Day, D.V. 2, 18, 19, 26, 31, 54, 144, 46, 99, 116, 117, 119–122,
148 128, 129, 143, 148, 166, 174,
Decide 94, 103, 195 175, 189, 202
Decision 7, 8, 13, 16, 40, 73, 96, Dishonest 49, 114, 148
103, 108, 110, 132–134, 168, Distant 154
174, 185, 186, 189–191, Division 53, 71, 89, 139
195–197, 200, 202 Dorfman, P.W. 3, 27, 54, 113, 114,
Dedication 143 137, 138, 155–157
Delegation 53, 119, 121, 122, 127, Drane, J. 110
140 Draper, C. 84
Delitzsch, F. 80 Dumville, J.C. 13
Demacopoulos, G.E. 104, 106, 107 Durham, J.I. 48, 53, 54, 73, 76,
Demands 14, 34, 43, 75, 137 82–84, 87, 91, 93, 103, 112,
Demographics 194 119, 129
de Silva, D.A. 65, 66, 69, 71, 73, 75, Dvorak, J.D. 67
87, 88, 102 Dyadic 157, 159, 189
Develop 4, 10, 15, 18, 27, 29, 30,
32, 34, 35, 41, 45, 50, 52–55,
64, 73, 76, 81, 89, 99, 103, E
104, 112, 114, 117, 120, 121, Earley, D. 45
127, 128, 131, 137, 140, 143, Easley, K.H. 80
147, 148, 160, 168, 175, 181, Easton, M.G. 95, 111
190, 195 Edersheim, A. 83, 149
Development 2–4, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, Edmund, L. 44, 191
18–20, 25, 27–32, 34, 36, 37, Education 45, 47, 165
42, 48, 55, 65, 67, 76, 82, 90, Efficiency 94
104, 120–122, 128–131, 137, Effort 11, 17, 36, 37, 50, 63, 111,
139, 140, 142–144, 148, 151, 154, 158, 180, 185
160, 169, 180, 189, 199–202 Egold, N.W. 151
Diagnosis 183, 184, 186 Egypt 7, 52, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 98,
Dickerson. J.S. 8 117, 120, 128, 165
Different 3, 13, 48, 67, 93, 131, Eims, L. 4, 6, 9, 10, 30, 148
173, 175, 181 Elliott, J.H. 67
Diligence 133 Emotions 15, 44, 68, 81, 191, 194
 Index    
225

Employee 2, 4, 130, 153, 183, 184 Fleenor, J.W. 2, 26, 31, 54, 148
Empowerment 17, 36, 37, 54, 133, Follow 1, 5, 15, 31, 37, 46, 53, 71,
142, 144, 180 73, 82, 88, 94, 102, 104, 114,
Enablement 200 121, 135, 138, 141, 183–185,
Endeavor 69, 101, 128 194
Endure 100 Follower 1, 2, 18, 28, 31–34, 40, 44,
Energy 16, 51 64, 105, 131, 148, 152–155,
England, A. 84, 85 158, 159, 180, 186, 189, 192,
Enns, P. 48, 51, 52, 70, 75, 76, 79, 193
80, 82–84, 86, 87, 92, 93, 95, Following 49, 50
96, 101, 102, 114, 148, 149 Foreign 86
Environmental 12, 43 Forever 103
Equality 16 Forgetting 196
Erickson, M.J. 182 Forgive 197
Ethical 1, 3, 10, 31, 36, 64, 117, Forgiveness 40, 105, 149, 184, 196,
127, 148, 168, 179, 180, 186, 197, 200
192–194 Formal 11, 131
Ethics 20, 62, 81, 85 Foster, R.J. 171–173, 175, 176
Examine 65, 128, 199, 202 Foxe, J. 105
Exchange 12, 28, 153 Friedrich, G. 4, 47, 48, 116, 133
Exhortation 142 Friendship 92
Experience 10, 81, 101, 129, 165, Fry, L.W. 17, 36, 37, 131, 181
171, 191, 193, 194 Future 3, 25, 45, 104, 152, 156
Expert 94, 195
External 139
G
Galvan, J.L. 25
F Gangel, K.O. 169
Facilitate 18, 64 Gao 152
Failure 1, 13, 36, 50, 66, 130 Gardner, W.L. 1, 2, 10, 17, 18, 28,
Fair 16, 18, 180 32–34, 36, 130, 131, 179
Faith 8, 38, 40, 48, 50, 64, 93, 107, Gender 3, 156, 190
113, 133, 140, 144, 149–151, Generation 14, 166
153, 169 Gillette, J. 11, 12, 41
Faithful 50, 103, 149, 150 Giving 31, 92, 95, 176
Faithfulness 81, 112, 149–151 Global 6, 27, 40, 156, 183
Fellowship 37, 40, 46, 92, 120, 150 Globalization 155
Fensham, F.C. 92 GLOBE project 3, 27, 156
Field 68, 194 Glorify 103, 137, 172, 202
226    
Index

Goal 6, 11, 18, 34, 36, 44, 73, 114, Helping–ful 35, 44, 45, 47, 79, 87,
130, 147, 176, 191 94, 176, 179, 184, 191
God 4, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 17, 19, Henson, J.D. 67
34, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, Hinkin 152
46–55, 61–64, 70–73, 80, Hirst, G. 1, 28, 44, 151, 154, 156,
81, 85–101, 103, 104, 107, 158
110–117, 119–122, 127–143, Hollander, E.P. 151, 154
147, 149–151, 165, 167–169, Holm, N. 174, 200
171, 172, 174–176, 181, 182, Honesty 16, 18, 33, 53, 160, 180,
185, 196, 200, 202 192, 195
Godliness 168 Hooke, A. 151, 153, 156
Gonzalez, J.L. 107 House, R.J. 3, 27, 28, 113, 137,
Goodness 50, 120 156–158, 192
Grace 31, 133, 140, 167, 171, 185 Houston, J.M. 169, 174, 200
Graf, M.M. 151 Howard, S. 16, 17, 36, 37, 39, 181
Graham, B. 6, 10, 14, 18, 20 Hughes, R.K. 171, 172, 176
Grant, K. 17, 37 Human 3, 4, 42, 43, 47, 48, 55, 68,
Grojean, M.W. 1, 28, 44, 151, 154, 73, 85, 115, 116, 119, 131,
156, 158 133, 134, 140, 150, 166, 169,
Group 6, 7, 10–14, 18–20, 25–28, 171, 174, 192
40–47, 49, 55, 62, 65, 70, 73, Humanity 3, 64, 73, 75, 85, 97, 99,
77, 83, 98, 99, 104–106, 109, 103, 115, 132, 134, 135, 138,
115, 116, 118, 121, 127, 128, 156, 167, 169, 176, 195
144, 149, 151, 155–158, 169, Hyatt, Darlene 139
176, 181–183, 186, 189–192,
199–201
Growth 45, 46, 144, 175, 180 I
Icenogle, G.W. 6, 19, 42, 43, 45
Ideal 18, 101, 103, 116, 195
H Ideological 65, 66, 73, 81, 90, 104,
Hanges 3, 27, 113, 137, 156, 157, 119
169 Ilies, R. 2
Hansbrough, T. 151 Impact 9, 40, 44, 66, 127
Hartley, J.E. 110 Implementation 14, 183
Harvey, J. 13 Importance 8, 17, 33, 84, 89, 121,
Hatch, M.J. 63, 156, 181, 191, 192 137, 141, 148, 170, 172, 173,
Health 2, 35, 141 196
Help 10, 16, 43, 51, 52, 70, 86, 96, Individual 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16,
131, 133, 167 18, 31, 33, 39, 42, 43, 45, 47,
 Index    
227

49, 50, 62, 66, 71, 73, 98, Janzen, W. 50, 51, 74, 76, 80, 83,
128–130, 144, 148, 156–158, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, 101, 102,
167, 172, 180–182, 189, 191, 115, 149
194 Javidan, M. 3, 27, 28, 113, 137,
Individualism 10, 157, 159 156–158, 192
Influence 1, 12, 18, 32, 34, 40, 66, Jealousy 129
104, 106, 144, 154, 180, 193 Jesus 1, 5–7, 9, 10, 16, 17, 30, 40,
Informal 193 41, 46, 47, 98, 99, 105, 109,
Information 2, 7, 12, 43, 64, 70, 114, 134–138, 141, 143, 144,
116, 192, 195 150, 165, 167–169, 172, 175,
In-group 3, 13, 26, 27, 44, 176, 182
154–158 Jewish 111, 166
Inner 6, 65, 67–69, 75, 83, 94, 96, Job 13, 49, 83, 100, 135, 151
100, 101, 118, 201 Joy 30, 86
Instruction 4, 30, 47–49, 53, 105, Judgment 19, 28, 52–55, 92, 113,
110, 116, 167 131, 147, 152, 181
Integration 6 Justification 133
Intellectual 66, 144
Intelligence 131
Interactive 6, 66, 84 K
Intercession 172 Katz, J.A. 12, 130
Intergroup 191 Keener, C.S. 98, 144, 182
Internal 79, 166 Keil, C.F. 79
Interpersonal 31, 148, 190 Kelly, G.B. 166
Interpretation 61, 63, 65–68, 74–76, Kennedy, D. 7, 14, 42
91, 128 Kim, S. 151, 152, 156, 157, 159,
Intertexture 65, 66, 70, 71, 75, 83, 189
86, 88, 96, 100, 102, 113, Kindness 18, 38, 96, 144
118, 201 Kittel, G. 4, 47, 48, 116, 133
Interview 183, 184, 193, 194 Klein, E.B. 190
Ivancevich, J. 2–4, 8–11, 16, 18, Knapp, G.L. 112
103, 129–132, 143, 181, 183, Knowledge 5, 6, 32, 37, 41, 53, 54,
195, 199 66, 85, 89, 93, 96, 116, 117,
120, 130, 131, 165, 167, 172,
190, 193–195
J Konopaske, R. 2–4, 10, 16, 18, 129,
Jaeger, W. 47, 116 132, 143, 181, 183, 195, 199
Janssen, Shi 152 Koptak, P.E. 65, 75
228    
Index

L Learning 19, 46, 47, 132, 144, 173,

Labor 63 180, 191, 200
Lacked 133 Length 12
Language 93, 194 Lewis, J.P. 110
Large 46, 108, 114, 181 Liberty 105, 167
Larkin, C. 40, 105 Life 3, 6, 7, 16, 17, 29, 34, 38, 45,
Larzelere, R.E. 152 46, 50, 63, 71, 98, 101, 105,
Law 16, 48, 49, 53, 55, 71, 80, 81, 107, 111, 132, 137, 139, 144,
88, 94, 95, 100, 101, 104, 148, 151, 166, 167, 169, 171,
109–111, 117, 118, 121, 127, 174, 176, 185, 190, 192, 200
128, 138, 165, 176 Light 28, 67, 92, 153, 170
Law, K.S. 151 Like 14, 90, 101, 109, 141, 181,
Leach, M. 130 185, 195
Leader 1–3, 5, 6, 10, 13–18, 20, Likewise 1, 15, 48, 54, 91, 100, 137,
26–35, 38, 40, 42–47, 49, 50, 141, 175, 182, 200
52–55, 65, 66, 71, 73, 76, 82, Lips-Wiersma, M. 34
84, 93, 94, 96, 98, 99, 103– Listen 117, 118
106, 109, 112, 114, 116–118, Little 131
120–122, 127, 128, 130, Liu, J. 151, 159
132–144, 147, 148, 151–155, Long 32
157–160, 165–169, 172, 176, Long, I. 110
179–181, 183–186, 189, 190, Longman III, T. 110
192, 193, 195, 199–201 Lopez, R.A. 139
Leadership 1–4, 7, 9, 10, 13, 15–20, Lord 46, 70, 80, 88, 89, 91, 97, 120,
25–33, 36–42, 45–48, 50, 51, 135, 143, 150, 172, 183, 200
53–55, 62, 64, 66, 76, 77, 82, Louw, J.P. 98, 113, 138, 140, 144,
93, 96, 103, 106, 109, 113, 182
114, 119–121, 127–131, 134, Love 5, 6, 17, 30, 31, 36, 37, 40,
137, 138, 140–144, 148, 151, 131, 144, 148, 167, 174, 175
152, 154, 155, 165–167, 170, Loyalty 16, 144, 157
171, 179–181, 183–185, 189, Luke 5, 62, 80, 99, 111, 134, 141
191, 193, 199–202 Luthans, Fred 1, 10, 28, 32
Leadership development 2, 4, 7,
9–11, 14, 15, 18, 20, 25–27,
29–31, 36, 37, 42, 47, 54, 76, M
116, 121, 128, 129, 138, 144, MacDonald, W. 80
148, 201, 202 Manage 43
Learn 4, 53, 118 Manifest 46, 47, 150, 151
 Index    
229

Mark 5, 67, 80, 137, 173 Most 7, 29, 41, 46, 69, 76, 90, 105,
Marks, M.A. 130 108, 112, 116, 131, 140, 165,
Mathews, K.A. 83, 100, 101 172, 190, 195
Matthew 99 Motivation 37, 38, 130, 131, 183,
Maunder, C. 107, 108 184
May, Douglas R. 1, 10, 18, 28, 32 Motyer, J.A. 15, 46, 48
Mayer, H.T. 6, 10, 14, 18, 20, 40, Moustakas, C. 81, 192, 194
41, 105, 106, 109 Multicultural 114
McCollom, M. 11, 12, 41 Multiply 54, 68
McKee, R.A. 2, 26, 31, 54, 148 Mumford, M.D. 130
McKenzie, J.L. 92
Meaning 14, 18, 37, 38, 51,
62–64, 69, 75, 76, 81, 86, N
91, 95, 113, 120, 130, 131, Nahrgang, J.D. 2
136, 194 Nässelqvist, D. 47
Means 4, 64, 90, 104, 109, 114, 174 Nation 3, 19, 42, 49, 98, 104, 111,
Measure 2, 140 128, 135, 155, 160, 173
Mediator 44, 191 Needs 3, 6, 10–12, 19, 27, 29, 30,
Meekness 140, 141 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 41, 61, 72,
Mendenhall, G.E. 92 95, 106, 128, 137, 168, 170,
Mentor 30 176, 180, 182, 202
Message 63, 87 Negative 1, 13, 109, 132, 156, 184
Miao, Q. 151, 153, 156 Negotiation 196
Milne, B.A. 95 Neighbour, R.W. (Jr.) 7, 14, 46
Modeling 34, 132 Nelson, F.B. 166
Money 110 Neufeld, D.J. 152, 153, 156
Moorman, R.H. 151 Newman, A. 151, 153, 156
Moreland, J.P. 80 Nida, E.A. 98, 113, 138, 140, 144,
Morgan, G.C. 5, 7, 156, 192 182
Morgeson, F.P. 2
Moses 7, 15, 25, 46, 48–55, 64,
70, 71, 73–75, 79, 80, O
82–89, 91–96, 98–104, 110, Obedience 5, 7, 53, 110, 111, 119,
111, 114–121, 127–130, 122, 137, 150, 169
133, 134, 138, 140, 142, Obey-ed 53, 97, 118
143, 149, 160, 165, 168, Objectives 34, 46, 67
179, 181, 201 Observational 64, 192
Mossholder, K.W. 84 Oden, T.C. 169
230    
Index

Offered 39, 63 Perceive 12, 151, 157, 159, 189

Ogden, G. 4–6, 9, 10, 30, 31, 148 Perception 1, 8, 16, 64, 73, 89, 112,
Open 2, 15, 33, 45, 75, 94, 99, 152, 132, 152
192–194 Performance 1, 3, 16, 39, 153, 156,
Opportunity 129, 167, 201 158, 180, 181, 184
Optimism 18, 32, 33, 131 Person-s-al-el-ality 2–10, 12–17,
Organization-s-al 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 19, 26, 28, 31, 33, 34, 36, 38,
14, 26, 28, 35, 37, 39, 41–43, 39, 41, 43–45, 47–49, 64, 73,
49, 54, 72, 83, 104, 115, 130, 85, 90, 91, 98, 99, 101, 103,
131, 134, 138, 141, 148, 151, 104, 112, 115–117, 120–122,
152, 154–159, 168, 180, 128–133, 135, 137–144, 147,
182–184, 186, 190, 192, 197 149, 152, 153, 155, 158, 165,
Osborne, G.R. 14, 62, 63, 98, 133, 169, 171–174, 180, 182–184,
140, 142, 182 189, 191, 194–196, 200, 202
Outgroup 13 Peterson, S.J. 2, 75, 94
Outsiders 44 Phelps, M.A. 84
Pink, A.W. 48, 50, 82
Powell, D. 80
P Power 3, 17, 18, 36, 38, 40, 46, 52,
Padgett, D. 64, 192 69, 90, 92, 106, 108, 112,
Painstaking 46 130, 131, 133, 139, 156, 168,
Paint 26 170, 175, 186, 200
Pandey, D. 151 Pressure 139
Park, W. 151, 152, 156, 157, 159, Preston, A. 170
189 Primary 33, 44, 63, 73, 112, 114,
Passion 33, 45, 54, 63, 159, 180 138, 149, 200
Patience 38, 44, 191 Problems 3, 8, 11, 13, 16, 18, 38,
Patton, M. 25, 64, 192–194 63, 72, 98, 132, 136, 152,
Payne, J.B. 90 171, 183, 186
Peace, R.V. 148 Productivity 9, 17, 37, 184
Peace 51, 84, 87, 93, 101, 102, 112, Promise 48
120, 121, 128, 192, 195, 196, Promotion 130
199, 200 Propp, W.H.C. 79
Pentecost, J.D. 4, 5, 7, 46 Provan, I. 110
Peoples 3, 4, 6, 7, 11–13, 16, 19, 26, Prove 14, 85, 136, 150, 166, 170
30, 32, 34, 42, 48–52, 63, 70, Provide 2, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15–20,
98, 183 25–27, 29, 30, 36–38, 40, 42,
 Index    
231

43, 45, 47, 49, 52, 55, 62, 63, Reciprocal 1, 28, 31, 32, 130, 151,
66, 67, 71–76, 80–83, 85–87, 157, 159, 183, 189
89–94, 99, 100, 102, 104, Recognition 130
105, 109, 111–113, 115–122, Reformation 111
127, 128, 131–134, 142, 143, Reiter-Palmon, R. 130
155, 159, 166, 171, 172, 175, Relation-s-al-ship 1–7, 9, 10, 18, 25,
182, 183, 189, 191, 192, 194, 27–33, 36, 37, 39, 43, 45–49,
202 54, 55, 67, 69, 72, 80, 81, 83,
Providence 50, 73, 103 84, 87, 93, 103, 109, 116,
Psychological 2–4, 32, 33, 84, 152 119–122, 129, 142, 147, 149,
Public 8, 19, 109 151–160, 169, 170, 174, 176,
Punishment 155 179, 189, 191, 192, 196
Purpose 7, 10–12, 14, 16–19, 25, Remain 1, 3–8, 11–20, 25–28, 32–34,
36, 42, 43, 51, 55, 62, 63, 66, 36–39, 41–45, 47, 48, 50, 52–
68, 69, 73, 76, 79–82, 85, 98, 55, 62, 63, 66, 67, 69, 73, 75, 79,
115, 135, 149, 167, 173, 174, 80, 83, 86, 87, 89, 94, 98, 101,
176, 179, 181, 192, 196, 201 103, 104, 107, 108, 112–114,
116, 117, 120, 121, 128–134,
137–140, 142–144, 147, 148,
Q 150, 151, 153, 155–160, 166–
Qualben, L.P. 108 172, 176, 180–184, 186, 189,
Qualitative 63–65, 139, 192–194 190, 192, 193, 195, 199–202
Quality 33, 34, 37, 40, 54, 64, 114, Remember 196
141, 180 Renew-al-ing 138, 139, 170, 174
Quantitative 64, 192 Repent-ance 107, 174, 200
Questions 29, 38, 64, 67, 69, 94, 99, Resistance 166
127, 192–195 Resource 2, 7, 11, 12, 41, 45, 65,
Quite 112 67, 69, 75, 100, 156, 157, 180
Respecting 180
Responsibility 13, 147
R Resurrection 166
Raccah, W. 181 Reverence 53, 73, 112, 129
Race 190 Risk 11, 13, 28, 130, 153, 156, 159
Ramm, B. 62, 63 Robbins, V.K. 61, 65–73, 75, 81–83,
Reason 6, 11, 51, 84, 95, 174, 190 85, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 98,
Receive-d 46, 83, 85, 95, 100, 156, 100, 102–104, 115, 139, 143,
169, 172 201
232    
Index

Roles 4, 18, 72, 86, 94, 106, 130, Smith, J.E. 80, 82, 93, 99, 117
166 Social 2, 12, 13, 26, 27, 44, 47, 61,
Rubin, R.S. 151, 155 65–67, 69–73, 83, 86–90, 92,
95, 100, 102–104, 110, 112,
119, 121, 131, 132, 154, 155,
S 158, 159, 190
Sabbath 95 Society 1, 8, 27, 29, 113, 137, 189
Safety 85 Socio-cultural 3, 27
Saint 108, 113, 176 Solutions 63
Sanctification 133, 167, 169 Source 9, 17, 53–55, 63, 70, 79, 104
Sande, K. 196 Spitzer, R. 16
Sanders, J.O. 4, 5, 17, 20, 28, 36, Steadfast 99, 173
40, 54, 99, 130, 131, 134 Stein, R.H. 62
Satisfaction 1, 35, 42, 180 Stellmacher, J. 156
Schaff, P. 106–108 Stoessel, Horace E. 103, 139, 140
Schriesheim 152 Strategic 105, 190
Schultz, P.L. 43, 190 Strategies 63, 67, 73
Science 14, 62, 63, 192 Strength 33, 50, 109, 130, 142, 180,
Scott, J.B. 90, 113 190
Selection 9, 19, 30, 53, 55, 65, 73, Stress 17, 37, 180
76, 82, 112, 121, 122, 130, Structure 42, 51, 88, 94, 109, 158,
147, 148, 160, 200, 201 159, 190, 194, 195
Self-awareness 2, 16, 33, 34, 180 Study 3, 15, 17–19, 27, 28, 38, 44,
Shelley, B.L. 105, 107 61, 62, 64–66, 68, 69, 72, 75,
Shi, K. 151, 152, 159 77, 82, 99, 150, 152, 154,
Shih-Jon, W. 151, 155, 156 156, 157, 175, 192, 193, 195,
Simpson, A.B. 167 199, 201, 202
Simpson, B. 151, 156–159 Sturm, R.E. 2, 26, 31, 54, 148
Situation 2, 7, 63, 66, 73, 103, 139, Subordinate 1, 28, 44, 84, 130, 134,
152 151, 152, 157–159, 183, 184,
Siu, O. 151, 159 189, 192, 197
Skill 9, 11, 32, 50, 62, 73, 103, 106, Suffering 166, 171
130, 131, 159, 195 Support 1, 8, 16, 27, 28, 38, 44, 48,
Small 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 19, 20, 52, 79, 80, 82–85, 88, 100,
25, 40–43, 45, 46, 49, 55, 62, 113, 116–119, 121, 128, 129,
65, 77, 99, 104–106, 109, 114, 138–140, 143, 149, 151, 152,
117, 118, 127, 128, 151, 166, 154, 157, 158, 180, 183, 184,
176, 181, 184, 189, 199–201 191, 195, 196
 Index    
233

Systems 39, 42–44, 50, 52, 64, 72, 73, 103, 108, 116, 127, 132–134,
96, 103, 115, 117, 151, 190–192 137, 138, 143, 144, 153, 156,
158, 168, 180, 184, 190, 192,
194, 195
T Van Dick, R. 1, 28, 44, 151, 154,
Target 136 156, 158
Task 11, 42, 47, 51, 70, 113, 130, Victory 167
153, 174 Vision-aries 6, 26, 27, 30, 40, 46,
Taylor, W.F.J. 182 105, 108, 154, 158, 168, 190
Teach 30, 61, 104, 110
Team 11, 31, 181
Temporal 175 W
Testimony 49 Wace, H. 106–108
Towner, W.S. 91 Wagner, U. 156
Transform 6, 15, 72, 138, 171 Walters, G. 95
Transformation-al 6, 11, 15, 17, 31, 34, Walumbwa, F.O. 1, 2, 10, 18, 28, 32
37–41, 103, 136, 139, 141, 152, 165, Weakness 130
166, 168–171, 174, 175, 183, 200 Weber, C.P. 112
Transformed 15 Wei-Chieh, C. 151, 155, 156
Transparent 2, 15, 45 Wernsing, T.S. 2
Trull, J.E. 168 Whitney, D.S. 171–176
Trust 1, 3, 12, 17, 18, 26–29, 31, 33, Wicks, R.J. 171, 172
40, 44, 83, 84, 87, 89, 93, 120, Wieseke, J. 1, 28, 44, 151, 154, 156, 158
127, 128, 130, 144, 149–160, Willard, D. 168, 171, 173, 174
179, 180, 183–186, 189, 191, Willmington, H.L. 80
192, 194, 195, 197, 200 Witherington, B. III 139
Women 30
Wong, C.S. 151
U Work 3, 9, 12, 17, 18, 31, 37, 39,
Uncertain 3, 27, 156 40, 42, 50, 74, 98, 131, 144,
Unction 129 148, 150, 170, 174, 181, 182,
United States 2, 7, 8, 29, 159 184, 195
World 6, 16, 37, 39, 54, 65, 66, 68,
70–72, 86, 87, 91, 102, 106,
V 138, 139, 143, 168, 192
Values 3, 6–8, 15–18, 20, 27–29, Worship 46, 51, 53, 80, 93, 107,
32–34, 36, 39, 47, 62, 64, 68, 173–176
72, 73, 79, 85, 92, 98, 102, Wright, H. Norman 167
234    
Index

Y Zeying, W. 152, 153, 156

Yamauchi, Edwin M. 98, 135, 136 Zhang, X. 12, 151
Yang, J. 84 Zhu, W. 151, 153, 156
Yukl, G. 3, 8, 10, 15–18, 31, 33, 40, Zodhiates, S. 4, 5, 61, 99, 113, 133,
130–132, 179, 180, 192 134, 138, 139, 142, 182
Yulin, F. 152, 153, 156

Z
Zaccari, S.J. 130
Zeal 107, 142