WATERSHED MANAGEMENT CASE STUDY:

NEPAL
Review and assessment of watershed management
strategies and approaches

STUDY TEAM
Shashindra Lal Singh
Bhawani Prasad Kharel
Manmohan Dhoj Joshi
Prakash Mathema

Soil and Water Conservation Society (SOWCAS), Nepal

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

ROME, 2004
 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development
status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or
other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders
provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or
other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for
such permission should be addressed to the Chief, Publishing Management Service, Information Division, FAO,
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to [email protected]
© FAO 2004

ii
Preface
On the occasion of the International Year of Mountains, and in response to the clear consensus reached
by the international community regarding the need to ensure harmonious and sustainable development
of mountainous areas and watersheds, FAO and its partners in the subject, undertook a large-scale
assessment and global review of the current status and future trends of knowledge about and
techniques for integrated watershed management.

The objective was to promote the exchange and dissemination of experiences on integrated watershed
management techniques, identify constraints to the implementation and development of those
techniques during the decade 1990 to 2000 and capture relevant new paradigms and approaches. The
lessons learned from diverse experiences are being used to define a new generation of integrated
watershed management projects.

Experts from four continents contributed to the assessment, which yielded four main outputs: i) a
review of experiences in watershed management, based on questionnaires sent to active partners in the
field; ii) substantive reports of four regional workshops in Nairobi (Kenya), Kathmandu (Nepal),
Arequipa (Peru) and Megève (France); iii) four case studies from the Mediterranean basin, Nepal,
Bolivia and Burundi; and iv) an international conference in Sassari, Italy.

Watershed management concepts and approaches were reviewed and different experiences assessed.
The results of this exercise are presented in several documents, which include the proceedings of
workshops and reports on the four case studies.

The conservation, use and sustainable management of watershed resources in order to meet the
demands of growing populations have been a high priority for many countries over the past decades.
In this respect, integrated people’s participation in watershed management has become widely
accepted as the approach that ensures sound sustainable natural resources management and a better
economy for upland inhabitants, as well as people living in downstream areas.

Watersheds in Asia, particularly in Nepal, are characterized by diverse biophysical settings and socio-
economic situations. “Within one river basin, and over a short vertical interval, one can observe the
manifestation of alpine as well as tropical watersheds. Similarly, within one river basin there exist
arid, semi-arid and humid watersheds” (Upadhaya, 2003).

The 1980s decade could be considered to be the “warming up phase” for watershed management in the
Himalayas in general and Nepal in particular. It witnessed the launching of a series of global, regional
and national initiatives in the form of workshops, seminars, debates, etc. about watershed management
concepts and practices.

The 1990s witnessed the expansion phase of watershed management. Projects gained credibility by
focusing on the poor and marginalized groups and by being environmentally friendly, more science-
based and integrated. They encompassed many objectives, including conservation and sustainable
management of natural resources for enhanced rural livelihoods, and protection of downstream
infrastructures.

These developments in watershed management approaches and practices are important to Nepal. With
very limited resources the country is affected by strong natural and human-induced erosion and
sedimentation processes while agricultural production is marginal, and hardly meets particularly high
population demands. Although farmers have adapted their production systems in the past, they are
increasingly confronted by the need to further invest in the land and consider long-term sustainability,
particularly in upland areas.

iii
This case study provides an in-depth analysis of Nepal’s views, efforts and achievements in watershed
management. Its primary objective is, on the basis of the findings made from the analysis, to make
recommendations for the next generation of watershed management projects and programmes. It
contributes valuable information and inspirations from a country strongly marked by the mountain
ecosystems and processes that affect communities living in them.

El Hadji Sène
Director
Forest Resources Division
Forestry Department

iv
Contents
PREFACE iii

ACRONYMS vii

INTRODUCTION 1
Context 1
Purpose 1
Methodology and content 1

1. COUNTRY OVERVIEW 3
Country description 3
The land 3
The climate 7
Drainage and hydrology 7
Erosion and sediment transport 10

2. THE AGRICULTURE SECTOR 12

Production systems 12
Socio-economic setting 15

3. THE FORESTRY SECTOR 17

Forest cover 17
Legal/institutional framework for sustainable forest management and soil conservation
and watershed management 18

4. KEY RESOURCE ISSUES 20

Excessive pressure on natural resources 20
Erosion and erosion management 20
Soil fertility 20

5. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN NEPAL 22

Evolution and status 22
Policy and objectives 23
Institutions and legislation 24
Watershed management planning 25
Programme planning 27
Technical interventions and implementation 28
The participatory approach to watershed management 29
Monitoring and evaluation 31
Extension and education 31
Research and demonstration 32
Income-generating activities 33

6. MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS 35
Policy and objectives 35
Institutions and legislation 35
Watershed management planning 35
Programme planning 35
Technical interventions and implementation 36
The participatory approach to watershed management 36
Monitoring and evaluation 36

v
Extension and education 36
Research and demonstration 37
Income-generating activities 37

REFERENCES 38

TABLES

1. Climatic data 7
2 Assessment of district watershed conditions in Nepal 9
3. Basin statistics 10
4. Proportions of production systems in each physiographic region 13
5. Animal populations and distribution 14
6. Proportional fodder demands from crop waste and forest lands 14
7. Carrying capacities of different pasturelands 15
8. Distribution of Nepal’s natural forests (ha) 17

MAPS

1. Physiographic regions of Nepal 4

2. Drainage network of Nepal 8
3. Watershed conditions in the districts of Nepal 9

FIGURES

1. Physiographic profile of Nepal 5

BOXES

1. Terracing 13
2. Effective SCWM: including WM in other sectors 25
3. DSCWM programme activities 26
4. Upstream–downstream linkages 27
5. Evolution of participatory WM in Nepal 30
6. Empowering marginalized groups 34

PHOTOGRAPHS

1. Example of bed load transport 11

vi
Acronyms
asl above sea level
AusAID Australian Agency for International Development
CBO community-based organization
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
CDG Community Development Group
COFO Committee on Forestry (FAO)
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DCC District Coordination Committee
DF Department of Forests
DM dry matter
DNPWC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
DPR Department of Plant Resources
DPRS Department of Forest Research and Survey
DSCO District Soil Conservation Office
DSCWM Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management
DSWC Department of Soil and Water Conservation
EIA environmental impact assessment
ETP evapotranspiration
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency
GDP gross domestic product
GIS Geographic Information System
GLOF glacier lake outburst floods
GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
IRD integrated rural development
IUCN World Conservation Union
JICA Japanese International Cooperation Agency
LSGA Local Self-Governance Act
M&E monitoring and evaluation
MFSC Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation
MPFS Master Plan for the Forestry Sector
NGO non-governmental organization
NPC National Planning Commission

vii
NRCC National Resource Conservation Commission
OM organic matter
SDC Swiss Development Corporation
SWCA Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1982
SCWM soil conservation and watershed management
TDN total digestible nitrogen
UAKWMP Upper Andhi Khola Watershed Management Project
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VDC Village Development Committee
WM watershed management

viii
 Introduction

Introduction
CONTEXT

About 25 percent of the world’s population lives in the uplands of the Asia and the Pacific region.
Population pressure, compounded by improper use of land and other natural resources, has led to the
progressive degradation of upland areas throughout the region. This degradation is causing adverse
effects in the adjoining lowlands, where another 25 percent of the world’s people reside. In view of the
scarcity of land and the growing demand for goods and services for a growing population, the
countries of the region are increasingly concerned about the problems of watershed degradation. For
several decades, the conservation, use and sustainable management of watershed resources have been
high priorities in many countries of the world. Integrated watershed management (WM) is now
considered an appropriate approach to ensuring sound sustainable natural resources management,
improving the economic conditions of watershed inhabitants and reducing poverty among rural people.

At FAO’s Fifteenth Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific (held in March 1980 in New Delhi)
there was consensus that countries should take a collective approach to WM.

Over the years, several countries have developed different approaches and methodologies for
integrated WM, but these experiences have had mixed results. FAO has therefore been emphasizing
the need to refine integrated WM policies and programmes by introducing a more effective
intersectoral, multidisciplinary and participatory approach. This need has been expressed at many
international fora, including the Earth Summit in 2002 and FAO Committee on Forestry (COFO)
meetings.

In pursuit of this end, FAO decided to conduct an in-depth analysis of WM achievements, gaps and
lessons learned in order to improve future WM programmes. This paper presents a case study from
Nepal with the aim of sharing experiences of integrated WM from that country.

PURPOSE

The purposes of this study are to provide an in-depth analysis of aspects of Nepal’s WM endeavours,
based on the ideas, views and experiences of acknowledged authorities, and to present pragmatic
recommendations for the future. Its primary objective is to make recommendations for the next
generation of WM programmes and projects by assessing and identifying the nature and extent of
achievements and gaps in state-of-the-art WM programmes and concepts in Nepal. It also sets out to:

x share information and contribute to a better understanding of the current status of WM in Nepal;
x collect and present lessons learned and principal issues emerging from experiences in Nepal, with
particular focus on the 1990 to 2000 period;
x identify guidelines for the formulation and implementation of the next generation of WM
programmes in Nepal.

METHODOLOGY AND CONTENT

The methodology adopted for this case study consisted of collecting and reviewing available secondary
sources of data/information, such as project documents, evaluation reports and workshop proceedings.
A wide range of professionals, including policy-makers, planners, field practitioners and officials,
were consulted. A regional workshop was conducted to promote the sharing, dissemination and
exchange of information on WM achievements and existing gaps, to provide support for the
development of effective WM.

1
Watershed management case study: Nepal

This paper provides some background information on Nepal, outlines the evolution and status of WM
in that country, and discusses achievements, opportunities, lessons learned and gaps. It also suggests
how future WM endeavours should be directed in order to achieve successful results.

2
 Country overview

1. Country overview
COUNTRY DESCRIPTION

Nepal is a mountainous country of 147 181 km2 situated in the Central Himalayas of South Asia. It is
landlocked and lies between India (to the east, west and south) and China (to the north). It is one of the
least developed countries in the world, with an annual per capita income of less than US$236.

Nepal’s economic growth is hampered by the lack of economic opportunities and infrastructure. These
problems are further exacerbated by growing poverty and environmental deterioration, which are
caused by the country’s excessive dependence on the use of natural resources. About 91.4 percent of
the economically active population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities.

Administratively, Nepal is divided into five development regions, 14 zones and 75 districts. The
districts are further divided into Village Development Committees (VDCs) and a few municipalities.

THE LAND

Nepal has five main geographic zones (Map 1): high Himalaya, high mountain, middle mountain, the
Siwalik, and Terai. Terai areas are fertile, while the Siwaliks are very fragile and prone to landslides.
Middle mountain areas are semi-stable, but heavily populated and cultivated. High mountain areas consist
of very steep slopes and deep valleys. About 59 percent of the total land area is steep to very steep
slopes, 22 percent is moderate to steep, and 19 percent is plain (Terai).

The landscape of Nepal is the result of the ongoing collision between two massive continental plates –
India to the south and Asia to the north (ICIMOD, 1992). The basic physiographic structure of the
country is made up of a succession of east–west ranges that form an echelon from south to north,
punctuated by distinctive depressions (see Figure 1). Nepal is subdivided into five major
physiographic regions (see Map 1) with distinct bedrock, geological, climatic and hydrological
characteristics. Soils and land use within these regions are significantly dissimilar.

More than a third of the country’s land surface lies between 305 and 1 524 m above sea level (asl), and
another 22.6 percent lies between 1 524 and 3 048 m. Land of more than 3 048 m asl covers 27.5
percent, while lowlands of less than 305 m asl account for 11.3 percent of the total surface.

The Gangetic plain – the Terai – was formed as a result of the accumulation of alluvial deposits from
the Himalayas and constitutes a vast piedmont adjacent to and south of the Himalaya Range. These
fertile sediment soils cover 14 percent of the total land area (2 122 km2). The Terai constitutes a
disrupted northwest to southeast strip along the southern edge of Nepal, with elevations ranging from
60 to 330 m asl and slope gradients from 0.2 to 1.0 percent.

The Terai region is subdivided into the following three units:

x Active alluvial plains: Frequently flooded, these cover 1.3 percent of Nepal’s land area. Their
soils are generally coarse and lack significant weathering. Given the risks of monsoon floods,
these lands are not intensively managed (instead they are used for grazing and low-risk crops).
x Recent alluvial plains: Known as the “bread basket” of Nepal, the recent alluvial plains cover 7.9
percent of the country’s land area. Soils are fertile and stable, and water tables never far from the
surface.

3
Watershed management case study: Nepal

x Older alluvium: The older alluvium (4.9 percent of the total land area) is made up of coarse-
textured soils on higher slope gradients. Areas of local uplifting, particularly in the western Terai,
have discouraged settlement.

Most of the lands of the Terai have already been settled. A year-round growing season, good soils,
water availability and a relatively well developed infrastructure with easy access to markets are
positive features for the future of agriculture.

The Siwaliks or Siwalik foothills are situated north of the Terai and form a continuous strip of
between 120 and 2 000 m asl along the Terai, running in the same northwest to southeast direction.
Covering 13 percent of Nepal’s total land area (1 879 km2), the Siwaliks are very fragile and prone to
landslides. Altitudes are mainly less than 300 m asl and rarely exceed 1 000 m asl.

Within the mountainous landscapes of the Siwaliks, slopes are too steep and/or unstable and soils too
shallow to support any type of agriculture. The most important agricultural lands are found in the Dun
valleys. The Siwalik ranges are made up of very rugged and sometimes broken terrain with deep
gullies. Bedrock types and extensive shale areas are not suitable for forest growth. However, the
north-facing, gently sloping sandstones support highly productive mixed tropical hardwood forests.

Geomorphic instability with frequent landslides, particularly in mudstone and shale areas within the
Siwalik mountains make road construction and maintenance extremely expensive.

Map 1: Physiographic regions of Nepal

4
 Country overview

Figure 1: Physiographic profile of Nepal

Source: CIDA and Canadian International Water and Energy Consultants, 2001.

The middle mountains, also called the southern mountain belt of the lesser Himalayas, lie between
200 and 3 000 m asl and are home to the Mahabarat range. They run along and north of the Siwalik
foothills and occupy 29.5 percent (4 350 km2) of the national territory. Altitude ranges of up to 1 000
m between valley bottom and hilltop are common, with ranges of up to 2 000 m occurring throughout
the southern boundary of the middle mountain region. However, slopes are gentler than they are in the
Siwaliks. A significant proportion of the moderately sloping hills are under sophisticated terrace
cultivation.

The middle mountains are heavily populated and cultivated.1 Except for those managed by user
groups, forests are generally not well managed and are heavily exploited for fodder, fuelwood, litter
and timber. There are also a few unexploited forests in the middle mountains. Pastures are overgrazed
and highly degraded.

The high mountains, which are sometimes called the midlands, constitute a very irregular strip
running north of the middle mountains, between 1 000 and 4 000 m asl and covering 19 percent (2
899 km2) of the county’s area. They consist of very steep slopes and deep valleys in which a wide
array of tropical to cool temperate conditions occur. Altitudes in the order of 2 000 m asl are common,
while areas of gently sloping land are less common than they are in the middle mountains.

The most intensively cultivated lands are those adjacent to valley bottoms or at higher elevations
where soils suitable for cultivation are found. The region is isolated, which explains why farmers are
very dependent on subsistence production. Forests are in better condition than they are in the middle
mountains, largely because of difficult access and less severe human and animal pressure, despite
some mismanagement.

The high Himalayas, which lie above 4 000 m asl cover 23 percent (3 447 km2) of Nepal’s total land
area. Most of the region below 4 300 m asl still bears natural forests. On the south side of the
Himalayas, forests may be lush because of the high rainfall conditions, whereas dry forests and
grassland steppes occur in the rain-shadow, behind the main mountain range.

1
The soils are suitable for terracing and the climate permits two crops per year.

5
Watershed management case study: Nepal

This area is underpopulated owing to a lack of cultivable land and to cold winters. Where conditions
permit cropping, small but very dense pockets of population are found. Monsoon grazing and
medicinal forest plant collection are the major activities in these areas.

Soils

The soils of Nepal are highly variable and derive mainly from young parent material. They are divided
into the following categories (FAO):

x Alluvial soils: These are found in the Terai valleys and the Dun valleys2 of the middle hills.
Alluvial soils are divided into three broad groups: i) new alluvial soils deposited in the floodplain
areas along river courses, which contain more sand and silt than clay; ii) less recent alluvial soils,
which cover the greater part of the Terai; and iii) older alluvial soils, which are deficient in
nutrients.
x Sandy and alluvial soils: Relatively fertile sandy and silty alluvial soils are found in the
Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys, together with some deposits of peat mare (diatomaceous clay).
The Kathmandu valley is also a source of dark clay/silt clay soil, which is rich in humus and
potash (with limited calcium) and is collected from deep underground pits and used to fertilize
vegetable crops.
x Gravely soils: A mixture of gravel and pebbles constitutes the coarse-textured gravely soils, which
retain little moisture and are not useful for agriculture. Deposited by the rivers that originate in the
Churia hills, these soils have high lime contents. Some coarse-textured soils are also found in the
high mountain area.
x Residual soils: These are found mostly on mountain ridges and slopes. Those of the Churia hills
are very young, coarse and dry for most of the year. Residual soils on the middle hills have
medium to low nutrient contents and are less productive owing to moisture and climatic
limitations.
x Glacial soils: These are found in the high Himalayas and are mainly rocky and covered with snow
and/or ice for most of year.

The nutrient status of soils differs from place to place, depending on slope and erosion. Large portions
of soil nutrients are washed away by erosion, mostly during heavy rains. Agricultural soils are
undergoing steady degradation and are not as fertile as they once were (ICIMOD, 1992).

Levels of organic matter (OM) on cultivated soils below 2 000 m asl range from 0.5 to 3.0 percent and
average slightly less than 1.0 percent. Forest soils here tend to have 1 to 2 percent higher OM contents.
Over 2 000 m asl, climatic and vegetation changes result in higher soil OM contents for both
cultivated and forest soils (2 to 3 percent higher). New forest clearings in the Terai may have 4 to 5
percent OM contents, but these drop to less than 2 percent after a few years of cultivation.

Biodiversity3

Nepal’s biodiversity is very rich and diverse, with:

x more than 5 400 species of vascular plants, of which 245 are endemic and 700 medicinal;
x 175 species of mammals;
x 850 species of birds;
x 170 species of fish;
x 600 species of butterflies, 50 species of moths and 180 species of dragonflies.

2
Wide, flat and fertile valleys.
3
Information from Nepal’s report to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 1992.

6
 Country overview

These species are protected in national parks, wildlife reserves and conservation areas that cover 12
percent of the country’s land area. Two national parks – the Sagarmatha and the Royal Chitwan – were
classified among the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO)
World Heritage Sites in 1979 and 1987, respectively (Government of Nepal, 2002).

Limited attempts have been made to conserve biodiversity outside parks, reserves and protected areas.
It is assumed that about 20 bird species have probably become extinct in Nepal. Some other bird
species are at risk and there is a great need for forest management. The destruction of vegetation and
the urbanization that have taken place in the Kathmandu valley may have accelerated the
disappearance, migration or extinction of 33 species of birds.

THE CLIMATE

Most of Nepal lies within the subtropical monsoon climatic region, but owing to its diverse
topography and elevations, the country experiences a wide range of climates. The orientation of
mountains, deep valleys and slopes is responsible for the existence a number of micro-climatic
regimes within short distances from south to north.

The climate of Nepal is strongly determined by its physiography (see Table 1). The lower altitudes of
the Terai and the Dun valleys are subtropical, whereas the Hills are warm, temperate. The Siwalik
ranges are mostly subtropical but warm temperate in the higher elevations. Similarly, the Hills,
generally warm temperate, are subtropical in the river valleys and cool temperate in the higher ridges.
The Mountains between 3 000 m and 4 000 m are alpine, and above 4 000 m, they are arctic.

Table 1: Climatic data

Temperatures (C0) Precipitation (mm)

Stations Mean annual ETP
Maximum Minimum Mean annual Minimum annual
Terai region/S. 705 (110 m) 42.4 + 2.0 1 673 701 1 612 mm
Inner Terai/S. 406 (720 m) 40.1 - 0.6 2 064 900? 1 153 mm
Hill (valley) region/S. 803 (918 m) 35.3 + 2.6 3 577 3 208 1 061 mm
Hill (slope) region/S. 809 (1 097 m) 36.0 + 0.9 1 750 900? 1 000 mm
Mountain region/ S. 601 (2 744 m) 30.5 -10.0 256 50? 676 mm
ETP = evapotranspiration. ? = Estimated values S. = Station
Source: Gyawali, 2001.

There are three main seasons: i) the wet season between June and September; ii) winter with some
precipitation between October and February; and iii) the dry season between March and May. Mean
annual precipitations range from 250 to 4 500 mm. Intense monsoon rainstorms occur from June to
September along the front of the Himalaya range that stretches from Bhutan to Pakistan, respectively
east and northwest of Nepal. Because the monsoon generally arrives from the south, the southern
flanks receive more rain than the northern ones. The heaviest precipitations occur along the Siwalik
foothills, with a dryer rain-shadow to the lee of these regions.

DRAINAGE AND HYDROLOGY4

Nepal is drained by some 6 000 rivers and tributaries (Map 2) that feed the Ganges River. Most of the
country’s four major river basins (Map 2) originate from the snow-capped Himalaya.5 These rivers
are, from west to east:

4
Information for this section from Gyawali, 2001; and AQUASTAT, FAO’s Information System on Water and Agriculture.
5
A large portion of the Arun basin extends into Tibet, as shown in Map 3.

7
Watershed management case study: Nepal

x the Mahakali river basin, which is shared with India and has an estimated average flow of 15
billion m3/year;
x the Karnali river basin, which has an estimated annual outflow of 43.9 billion m3;
x the Gandaki river basin, which has an average outflow of 50.7 billion m3/year;
x the Kosi river basins, which has an estimated average outflow estimated of 47.2 billion m3.

Six smaller southern river basins – the Babai, the West Rapti, the Bagmati, the Kamala, the Kankai
and the Mechi – originate in the middle hills and flow into India, where they meet the four main rivers
of Nepal before joining the Ganga. These produce some 65 billion m3 of water, which flows into India.
Many other basins, similar in character to the southern ones, originate in the middle hills, but meet the
main stems of the four major rivers within the territory of Nepal and are traditionally classified as part
of the major basins.

Nepal’s watersheds vary greatly in size, from large basins to micro-watersheds. They have different
characteristics owing to the fact that their rivers and streams originate from different physiographic
regions. The Siwaliks watersheds are geologically fragile, prone to erosion and subject to rapid
deterioration. High erosion rates, landslides and stream-bank cutting are aggravating sedimentation
and flood hazards on agricultural lands in the plains. In addition to suspended load, the rivers in the
Terai region transport high volumes of bed load, thereby degrading agricultural lands. Riverbeds in the
Terai region may rise at annual rates of 15 to 30 cm, and satellite imagery clearly shows that the Sapta
Koshi River in eastern Nepal has shifted about 125 km west of its original course in 250 years.6

Map 2: Drainage network of Nepal

Source: CIDA and Canadian International Water and Energy Consultants, 2001.

Watershed deterioration is further aggravated by improper land-use practices, particularly in fragile

landscapes. An assessment of Nepal’s districts’ watersheds is given in Table 2 and Map 3.

The high Himalayas provide a perennial source of water from melting ice and snow. The Mahabharat
Mountains are characterized by their springs and waterfalls. The Siwaliks watersheds are fed by
monsoon rains, and the many streams that drain the Terai, originate in the Siwalik foothills. These are
in spate during the monsoon season, but have very little or no flow during the rest of the year. Their
waters are harnessed more or less effectively to service the irrigation schemes of the rich Terai

6
Between 1729 and 1979 (Joshi, 1985).

8
 Country overview

agricultural lands. Almost all of the rivers in the plains are widening and changing their courses as a
result of excessive sedimentation.

Table 2: Assessment of district watershed conditions in Nepal

Watershed condition Number of Percentage of the

districts country
1. Very poor 07 10
2. Poor 05 03
3. Marginal 13 19
4. Good 25 35
5. Very Good 25 33
Total 75 100
Source: DSCWM, 1983.

Map 3: Watershed conditions in the districts of Nepal

Source: DSCWM, 1983.

Very few hydrology gauging stations exist, and only 156 of the country’s 6 000 rivers and streams are
gauged (Sharma, 1977). Owing to this lack of data, and the uncertainties it generates, the total annual
flow of Nepal’s rivers is roughly estimated at between 150 billion and 200 billion m3 (Gyawali, 2001;
and AQUASTAT), 70 percent of which occur from June to September.

About 90 percent of the surface outflow runs through the four major river basins (Mahakali, Karnali,
Gandaki and Kosi). As indicated in Table 3, maximum instantaneous flows for each river can be much
larger than mean monthly flows.

Although seasonal variation in flow is important throughout the country, the largest rivers show the
least variation in flow owing to the seasonal buffering provided by snow and glacial storage.
Snowmelt is a particularly critical element for stream flows during the pre-monsoon dry season, and
has been estimated at 10 percent of the total annual stream flow for Nepal (Sharma 1977).

It is estimated that 10 to 20 percent of the total annual precipitation is retained as deep and shallow
groundwater (Sharma). The northern mountain area with its impervious granitic rock formations

9
Watershed management case study: Nepal

retains less water. The highest recharge occurs in the unique “Bhabar” zone in the foothills of the
Siwaliks, and feeds the aquifers of the Terai.

In spite of its valleys and mountains, the Nepal Himalaya has a remarkable lack of lakes, the largest of
which do not exceed 500 ha in surface area and 25 m in depth.
Table 3: Basin statistics

Basin area Elevation range % basin Station MMF

Basin MIF m3/s
km2 Min. Max. > 5 000 m No. m3/s
Surnagad (Mahakali) 188 1 110 m 2 650 m 0 170 7.03 373
Karnali – Chisapani 42 890 330 m 7 000 m 16 280 1 400 21 702
Karnali – Upper 19 260 630 m 6 700 m 54 240 499 4 270
Rapti 5 150 218 m 3 560 m 0 360 123 5 730
Kali Gandaki – Seti Beri 6 630 546 m 8 125 m 21 410 263 3 520
Kali Gandaki – Trisuli 4 110 475 m 7 300 m 33 447 186 2 280
Bagmati 585 1 280 m 2 715 m 0 550 15.66 856
Sapta Kosi – Sun Kosi 4 917 580 m 7 000 m 6 680 797 7 360
Sapta Kosi – Arun 28 200 415 m 8 500 m 88 604 415 3 050
Sapta Kosi – Tamur 5 640 280 m 8590 m 21 690 337 6 700
MMF = mean monthly flow. MIF = maximum intensity flow
Source: Alford 1992. – arranged by S. Rouchiche 2004.

EROSION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT7

The land surface of Nepal is very dynamic, and landslides, debris torrents and floods are frequent
erosion features. Erosion and sediment load are associated with the presence of low-strength rock
formations, together with extremely active natural, geological forces, which characterize the country.
Bedrock incision in the upper Himalayas is exceptionally high, with geologic material crumbling
under high river down-cutting, which results in extreme mass wasting.

Erosion is also caused by poor land and resource management, and is correlated to deforestation and
rangeland degradation. It has been suggested that the primary causes of erosion are the increased
marginalization of rainfed agricultural lands (Gilmour, 1991; and Wymann; 1991).

Surface erosion is high, especially at lower elevations where it is closely linked to rainfall duration and
intensity, both of which are high during the monsoon period. Together with rill and gully erosion,
surface erosion has worsened in cultivated areas, especially on the steeper slopes of the Siwaliks.

Exceptionally high flows and the massive destruction of slopes and floodplains are caused by
cloudbursts or glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs). Temporary landslides can block entire valleys
and result in catastrophic flooding events that are similar to GLOFs.

The drainage corridors of the Himalayas transport large volumes of water, which carry large quantities
of soil material. Sediment load in rivers is exceptionally high owing to the presence of low-strength
rock formations, wide ranges of altitude and high monsoon rainfall. The Karnali watershed (Map 3),
for instance, produces more sediment per square kilometre than most of the larger sediment producing
watersheds in the world.

Usually, a combination of processes is responsible for making sediments available to transport. The
main sources of sediment are:

x soil surface, rill and gully erosion over the whole watershed;
7
Information for this section from Gyawali, 2001; and CIDA and Canadian International Water and Energy
Consultants, 2001.

10
 Country overview

x slope instability (landslides) and mass wasting (mass movement) in headwater streams;
x stream bank erosion and the remobilization of channel deposits in the lower segments of rivers;
x special features, such as GLOF and cloudburst, generating slope and bank instabilities, which are
followed by channel sediment storage and subsequent mobilization for many years;
x road and other infrastructure construction.

Two types of mass are transported down the drainage corridors: suspended load (silt) and bed load.
Data on either are very hard to come by, and their importance has only recently been realized when it
was found that the inflow of silt into reservoirs in the Indian Himalaya averages four times the
designed inflow (Tejwani, 1986). A study by Carson (1985) showed that these rivers transport six
times more matter as bed load than as silt load. As a result, Nepalese rivers debouch into the Gangetic
plains in alluvial fans formations, creating inland deltas with channels that shift as the riverbed rises.
Similar but less dramatic movements have been traced for the Gandaki and the Karnali rivers (Singh,
1973; and Zollinger, 1979).

Photograph 1: Example of bed load transport

11
Watershed management case study: Nepal

2. The agriculture sector

Agriculture accounted for 52 percent of Nepal’s gross domestic product (GDP) during 1984/85 and
1993/94 (FAO, 1997). The population density in cultivable land is among the world’s highest (seven
people per hectare). Agricultural lands are highly fragmented, and it is estimated that more than 93
percent of Nepal’s population make their living from the land.

Only 18 percent of Nepal’s geographical area is cultivated, and the potential for expansion is very
limited given the country’s topography, climatic conditions and modest soil fertility. The Terai region
has the largest share of total cultivable land (59 percent), followed by the hills (23 percent) and the
mountains (4 percent). Most food and cash crops cultivation takes place in the Terai plains and the rich
valleys of the middle hills. The Terai produces about 75 percent of the country’s rice, 65 percent of its
wheat, 82 percent of its oil seeds and almost all of its cash crops, including tobacco, sugar cane and
jute (FAO/WFP, 1987). Nepal produces 85 to 90 percent of its foodgrain requirements. The total
animal population increased from 15 712 400 units in 1992 to 17 651 900 in 2000 (FAO Database,
2002).

Agriculture, forestry and related sectors have to absorb much of the growing labour force every year,
and account for 82.2 percent of rural and 34.4 percent of urban employment. While 42.5 percent of the
population lives below the poverty line in terms of minimum calorific requirements, about 97 percent
of the absolute poor live in rural areas. The rate of poverty in the hill and mountain areas is nearly
double that in the Terai.

Since the mid-1970s emphasis has been on land-use specialization according to regional and
ecological differentiations: i) subsistence farming, horticulture and livestock production in the
mountains; ii) horticulture in the hills; and iii) cereals and cash crops in the Terai. However, in spite of
the agrarian nature of the country, and the Government’s commitment to support this, there is
increasing concern that agricultural production is declining. Some terraces are being abandoned
following substantial losses of fertility. Marginal farmers are being forced to rely increasingly on
livestock, which they maintain by exploiting forest resources.

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS8

Nepal is a managed landscape, with most of the land being used for cropping, livestock rearing and
forestry. Farmers are active in five main interdependent production systems: irrigated rice, rainfed
agriculture, home garden cultivation, livestock production, and forestry. These are found in all of the
tropical, subtropical, warm temperate and cool temperate agro-ecological zones. The main production
systems and their relative importance in each physiographic region are detailed in Table 4, together
with an additional category (other), which corresponds to non-productive lands (ice, snow, rock).

Irrigated rice (Khet)

According to the Irrigation Master Plan (Government of Nepal, 1989), more than 923 000 ha (i.e. 35
percent) of Nepal’s cultivated land is irrigated, at least on a supplementary basis. The most prestigious
grain crop in the country, rice, is grown wherever arable lands below 1 800 m asl can be irrigated. The
main patterns of rice cropping are rice-fallow, rice-cereal,9 rice-winter crop, and maize-rice.

8
Information for this section comes from ICIMOD, 1992.
9
Mostly winter wheat (after LRMP, 1986).

12
 The agriculture sector

Nepalese farmers have learned over the years to live and cope with the periodic catastrophic debris
torrents that destroy Khet near rivers and steams. They have developed effective land reclamation
methods in response to this.

Irrigated cropping systems that are intensive and use mineral fertilizers and compost are being adopted
increasingly for higher-yielding wheat and rice varieties. This results in deficits of compost for other
traditional cropping systems.

Table 4: Proportions of production systems in each physiographic region

Physiographic Irrigated Rainfed Home Grazing/browsing Closed Total area**

Other
region rice cultivation garden* and degraded forest forest ha
Terai 50% 6% - 6% 26% 12% 2 110 000
Siwaliks 7% 5% - 16% 68% 4% 1 886 000
Middle mountains 7% 15% - 54% 22% 2% 4 443 000
High mountains 1% 6% - 45% 40% 8% 2 959 000
High Himalaya - 0.2% - 31% 2% 67% 3 349 000
* There are 3.5 million households in Nepal with average home gardens covering 25 m2. Nationwide,
this amounts to 9 000 ha of productive gardens. **The totals are gross areas taken from LRMP, 1986.
Actual total areas are somewhat less.
Source: ICIMOD, 1992.

Rainfed agriculture

Rainfed cultivated land (bari) accounts for 64 percent of the total cultivated land (Government of
Nepal, 1989). Of this, 61 percent is in the hills, where agriculture is terraced on slopes ranging from 15
to 24 degrees. Terrace plots (see Box 1) are small. Each farmer owns four or five such plots, which are
generally unconnected in order to reduce the risks deriving from potential catastrophic destruction of
land and/or crops. Maize, the dominant crop, is usually followed by a cereal crop, pulse or mustard.

Box 1: Terracing

Terraces, with their ability to reduce erosion and facilitate cultivation, are a critical aspect of upland management
in Nepal. Different production systems within various climatic zones support distinct terrace forms. Irrigated rice
terraces are flat and bunded, rainfed terraces tend to be gently sloping outwards or sideways to join other
terraces at different levels.

Regardless of their surface, terraces are an accurate reflection of local soil and regional climatic conditions,
cropping preferences, local productivity and the profitability of the farming system they support. In the middle
mountains, terracing is essential for any cultivation on slopes of more than 2 degrees. Higher in the mountains,
rainfall intensity drops and the terrace system becomes less sophisticated on ever-steeper sloping terrain. In
these areas, soil conservation techniques on rudimentary terraces are sufficient, while in areas of high-intensity
rainfall and low soil infiltration, such as the Siwaliks, terracing is virtually impossible. Ditching and draining are
critical parts of any terrace system, and more than any other single feature influences the overall stability of
mountain slopes.

The construction of new terrace systems is a major undertaking that is rarely seen. Some new terracing does
occur, however on rare occasions, but it is not the norm for Nepal. Rather, thousands of hectares of abandoned
terraces can be seen throughout the country, as a direct result of declined soil fertility. The prospect for
maintaining terrace systems is directly linked to the farmer’s ability to sustain soil fertility. Consequently, the lack
of terrace management that is apparent in many areas of Nepal reflects the overall decline in productivity of the
marginalized areas of most farms.

Source: ICIMOD, 1992.

13
Watershed management case study: Nepal

The traditional fertility management system for rainfed fields10 is under considerable stress. Farmers
are diverting more and more fertility resources, particularly compost, to rice and wheat at the expense
of barley, millet and maize on rainfed land. The decline of land fertility is most strongly felt on
marginal rainfed fields owned by poorer farmers.

The severe shortage of compost that has resulted from changes in cropping patterns and priorities,
together with forest land degradation, has led to between 10 and 20 percent of rainfed cultivated land
in Nepal being temporarily fallowed or even abandoned.

Home garden cultivation

Many Nepalese farmers cultivate highly productive small gardens around their homesteads where they
grow vegetables and perennial horticultural and agroforestry tree species. Kitchen gardens have also
expanded around major urban centres to supply high-value goods to local markets. Although small in
area, these gardens are an important element of the country’s overall production system Table 4).
However, farmers and other people in Nepal do not consume large quantities of vegetables and fruits,
so horticultural markets are poorly developed.

Livestock production

Livestock breeding is an integral part of Nepalese farming systems, as most nutrient movements
between these systems are facilitated by livestock. Virtually all lands are grazed to some degree, and
the existence of many overgrazed areas is leading to environmental degradation.

The livestock population exceeded 17 million units in 2000, having increased substantially since 1992
(see Table 5). Livestock is concentrated in the hills, where 48.8, 57.1, 44.8 and 57.2 percent,
respectively, of the cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat populations are distributed.

Table 5: Animal populations and distribution

Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goats Total

Livestock population*
1992 population (units) 6 300 000 3 100 000 912 000 5 400 000 15 712 400
2 000 population (units) 7 000 000 3 500 000 851 900 6 300 000 17 939 500
Difference 2000–1992 (units) + 700 000 + 400 000 - 60 500 + 900 000 1 939 500
Livestock distribution by geological zones**
Mountain (16 districts) 11.8% 9.1% 40.1% 14.1% -
Hills (39 districts) 48.8% 57.1% 44.8% 57.2% -
Terai (20 districts) 39.4% 33.8% 15.1% 28.7% -
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% -
Sources: * = FAO Database, 2002; ** = Agricultural Statistic Division, Government of Nepal,
1996/97.

Table 6: Proportional fodder demands from crop waste and forest lands

Livestock Total TDN TDN from TDN from forest DM from forest
(units/ha) (tonnes/ha) farm (tonnes/ha) (tonnes/ha)
(tonnes/ha)
High mountain 6.1 6.7 1.7 5.0 20.0
Middle mountain 4.5 5.0 2.4 2.6 12.9
Terai 3.4 3.8 3.2 0.6 1.5

TDN = total digestible nitrogen. DM = dry matter.

10
Farmers traditionally applied 10 to 20 tonnes of compost per hectare for rainfed cultivation.

14
 The agriculture sector

Source: LRMP, 1986.

Table 6 shows that the demand on forests to meet fodder needs increases at higher elevations. The
proportions of livestock feed provided by forests are 18.75 percent for the Terai, 52 percent for the
middle mountains and 74.6 percent for the high mountains. Forest-based fodder resources therefore
supply the bulk of nutrients for agricultural production.

Pasturelands vary from subtropical grasslands at lower elevations to alpine meadows on ridge tops in
the middle hills and high mountain valleys of the inner Himalayan range. Owing to enormous grazing
pressure and an increase in livestock population, pasturelands have undergone a tremendous change,
and their carrying capacity is unable to meet the demands of the livestock population, as indicated in
Table 7.

Table 7: Carrying capacities of different pasturelands

Type of pastureland Area Productivity Carrying capacity Stocking rate

(km2) TDN (tonnes/ha) (livestock units/ha) (livestock units/ha)
Subtropical and temperate 6 293 0.58 0.54 7.07
Alpine 10 141 1.54 1.42 0.64
Steppe 1 875 0.06 0.09 1.19
Sources: Miller, 1987; Rajbhandari and Shah, 1981.

In the subtropical and temperate pastureland, the livestock stocking rate is 13 times higher than the
carrying capacity, meaning that these pastures support 13 times more livestock than they can feed. In
the steppe area, the stocking rate is almost 20 times higher than the carrying capacity. In the alpine
zone, however, because of difficult access the stocking rate is 45 percent of the carrying capacity.

Most villagers, particularly the poor, are totally dependent on grazing and browsing lands, which they
tend to exploit heavily. Erosion rates of more than 200 tonnes/ha/year are common on grazing lands
below 1 000 m asl. The selective elimination of highly palatable species by livestock alters, sometimes
irreversibly, the plant community. Fire is a common tool used extensively throughout most forests in
Nepal to boost a flush of green forage after the dry season.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING

Population and human development11

Nepal has a population of 23.2 million people (2001 census), which is growing at an alarming rate of
2.2 percent. Its distribution is: 48.5 percent in the Terai; ii) 44.2 percent in the hills; and iii) 7.3 percent
in the mountains. The average population density is high (157.73/km2) and ranges from 330.78/km2 in
the Terai, to 167.44/km2 in the hills and 32.62/km2 in the mountains. The 2001 census indicates that
the highest population growth occurs in the Terai, and the lowest in the mountains. About 53.7 percent
of the population is literate.

The rate of urbanization is low compared with other developing countries, and some 85 percent of the
population lives in rural areas with limited access to health and education services.

The human development index for Nepal (0.463) is still very low, even by South Asian standards. The
deprivation in access to employment is much higher than the deprivations in health and education.
Residents in the hills and the Terai have higher levels of human development than residents in the
mountains.

11
Information for this section comes from Government of Nepal, 2002.

15
Watershed management case study: Nepal

Difficulties facing Nepalese farmers

Land degradation is a symptom of the poor socio-economic conditions. Attempts at rehabilitation have
often failed in the long term, because the underlying causes of degradation have not been properly
addressed.

As in other countries, particularly mountain areas, one major underlying cause of degradation in Nepal
is poverty. Most Nepalese farmers have become poorer and agree on one point: their farms do not
provide enough cash to improve their livelihoods and farming systems. Over recent decades there has
been an ever-increasing need for more productive systems to support increasing populations. At the
same time, more marginal lands have become impoverished and have been abandoned as farmers run
out of fertilizing material, labour and capital to service them (Jodha, 1992).

There is a critical point when the combination of increased inputs and labour requirements mean that
farms cannot compete with alternative employment outside agricultural production. In the most
marginal agricultural areas, off-farm investments become more lucrative than on-farm ones. Out-
migration and off-farm jobs have become significant options that influence some farmers’ decisions
and strategies. Unless their farms become more profitable, and returns from their hard labour increase
(rather than decreasing as has been the case in the last decades), farmers will be strongly motivated to
quit their farms. Communal rangelands and marginal rainfed lands are the domain of the poor, whose
needs must therefore be met by alternative development plans, not only on compassionate grounds, but
also because most serious environmental degradation is a direct result of their activities.

16
 The forestry sector

3. The forestry sector

Forest resources play a crucial role in the livelihoods of rural populations. The share of forestry in
Nepal’s GDP is about 15 percent. As natural forests are not evenly distributed with population density,
accessible forests tend to be overused. Linkages between forestry and agriculture are very strong, and
can make agriculture more productive and sustainable; 75 percent of the country’s energy
requirements are met by fuelwood, and 42 percent of the total digestible nitrogen (TDN) required by
Nepal’s livestock is supplied by forests, which are under heavy pressure, particularly in the hills.
Owing to excessive pressure on forests to meet households’ energy, construction and fodder needs and
to generate household income from forest product commercialization, a number of forests are
decreasing in both quantity and quality.

Nepal’s biodiversity can be found in the dense tropical monsoon forests of the Terai, the deciduous
and coniferous forests of the subtropical and temperate regions, and the sub-alpine and alpine pastures
and snow-covered peaks of the Himalayan mountain range. The mid-hills (1 000 to 3 000 m asl) have
the greatest diversity of ecosystems and species in Nepal. This is because of the vast variety of terrain
types and the occurrence of subtropical to temperate climatic zones, which support e a rich flora and
fauna. Nearly 32 percent of the country’s forests occur in the middle hills.

FOREST COVER12

Natural forest and shrub formations cover 5.5 million ha, representing 37.4 percent of the country’s
land area (see Table 8). An additional 15.7 percent of the national territory is shrublands, grasslands
and uncultivated areas that are considered to have good potential for development into forest or
pasture. More than a quarter of the forest area is degraded to highly degraded, while 15 percent is in
good condition. Almost two-thirds of the natural forest stands are predominantly small-sized timber.
Natural forests suffer a lack of regeneration.

Table 8: Distribution of Nepal’s natural forests (ha)

Distribution by
Conifer Hardwood Mixed Total Percent
crown cover
10–40% 230 000 876 000 311 000 1 417 000 26%
40–70% 511 000 1 903 000 772 000 3 186 000 59%
70–100% 186 000 428 000 207 000 821 000 15%
Total 927 000 3 207 000 1 290 000 5 424 000 100%
Source: Adapted from Government of Nepal, ADB and FINNIDA, 1988.

Natural forests are generally distributed according to the following altitudinal zones:

x Below 1 000 m asl: tropical forests, predominantly of Shorea robusta, or Acacia catechu and
Dalbergia sisoo along rivers. In the foothills of western Nepal, Shorea is replaced by
Terminalia/Anogeissus forest formations.
x Between 1 000 and 2 000 m asl: subtropical forests that include Pinus roxurghii, Alnus nepalensis,
Schima wallichii and Castanopsis sp.
x Between 2 000 and 2 700 m asl: lower temperate forests consisting of Pinus wallichiana and
several oak species.
x Between 2 700 and 3 000 m asl: upper temperate forests composed of Quercus semicarpifolia
forests along with Rhododendron arboreum, Acer spp., Pinus wallichiana, etc.

12
Information for this section comes from FAO, 1997.

17
Watershed management case study: Nepal

x Between 3 000 and 4 200 m asl: sub-alpine forests composed of Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis,
Juniperus indica and Rhododendron spp.
x Up to 4 500 m asl (the alpine zone): no tree formations, but rather shrub formations of juniper–
rhododendron associations, which include Juniperus recurva, J. indica, J. communis,
Rhododendron anthopogon and R. lepidotum.

Nepal has been striving to improve its degraded forests and grasslands in the Terai and the middle hills
with plantations. As a result, a number of districts now have substantial human-made forests
comprising both indigenous and exotic species. The average rate of government and community
planting was 5 260 ha per year in the period 1992 to 1996 period, but reliable figures for private
plantations are not available. The most planted species in the Terai are, in order of importance,
Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Acacia catechu, Tectona grandis and Albizia sp. In the
mountains, Pinius roxburghii is the most planted species, but in recent years a growing number of
species are being used, including Alnus nepalensis, Ficus sp. and Prunus cerasoides.

Trees are often planted (with limited success for rehabilitation) on very marginal dry-prone (shale)
sites with low to very low fertility, which have little potential for the production of wood and non-
wood forest products. Forests are still degrading more quickly than they are expanding through
planting. Moreover, it is recognized that the majority of plantings are pine stands that have little or no
value in terms of fodder production and that acidify forest soils.

Forest degradation and deforestation

The total forest area was estimated to have declined from 6.4 million ha in 1964 to 5.5 million ha in
1985. An estimated 103 968 ha of forests in the Terai and the Siwaliks were cleared between the 1950s
and the 1980s under the government’s settlement programme (Government of Nepal, ADB and
FINNIDA, 1988). Illegal felling also contributed to deforestation in the Terai. Forest cover in the Terai
and hill areas is reported to have decreased at annual rates of 1.3 and 2.3 percent, respectively,
between 1978/79 and 1990/91 (Government of Nepal, 1999). On average, the forest area nationwide
has decreased at an annual rate of 1.7 percent.

Besides forest conversion to agricultural land, other major causes of deforestation and degradation are
fire, overlogging (for fuelwood and timber), heavy lopping of trees for fodder, overgrazing and litter
collection. The intensive removal of forest litter13 can seriously alter the forest floor hydrology,
resulting in higher runoff and erosion, and seriously disrupting the chemistry of forest soils.

However, in spite of their significantly reduced area, forest lands are still among the most important
and valuable natural resources in Nepal. Protected areas cover 18.33 percent of the land area
(Government of Nepal, 2002).

LEGAL/INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST

MANAGEMENT AND SOIL CONSERVATION AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

The Nepalese Government’s forestry agency is the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC),
which is responsible for policy formulation and planning for sustainable forest management, wildlife,
soil conservation and watershed management (SCWM), and biodiversity and plant resources
management. The Ministry has five departments, each with specific management responsibilities that
affect forests:

x Department of Forests (DF);

x Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM);

13
Mainly for bedding and compost.

18
 The forestry sector

x Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC);

x Department of Plant Resources (DPR)
x Department of Forest Research and Survey (DPRS).

DF is in charge of the management, demarcation, control and conservation of national forests, as well
as the conservation and utilization of private and community-managed forests.

Forests in Nepal can play an important role in mitigating erosion, which justifies the merging of
forestry and soil conservation functions into a single government ministry. DSCWM is entrusted with
encouraging rehabilitative activities in degraded forests, as well as developing and disseminating
SCWM techniques.

A strategy for protecting Nepal’s forests from degradation and encroachment was formulated in the
Master Plan for the Forestry Sector (MPFS) in 1988 (Government of Nepal, ADB and FINNIDA,
1988). Nepal approved a National Forest Policy (NFP) in 1989, which provides guidelines for legal,
institutional, and operational movements and the development of the forestry sector to meet new
challenges.

The Forest Act 1993 and the Forest Regulations 1995 provide the legislative and regulatory basis for
implementing the policies formulated in the NFP and the MPFS. The latter outlines broad strategies
for the sustainable management of the country’s forest resources, in line with its economic, social and
environmental goals. The user group concept was incorporated and promoted in the MPFS.

The current community forestry programme emphasizes the formation of user groups as new
community social organizations. This concept was developed further by the Decentralization Act
(1992), which strengthened the role of user groups as local development organizations. The Forest Act
1993 enshrined the concept of user group or community forestry. More than 10 000 forest user groups
have been recognized and more than 600 000 ha been placed under user group management. It is
estimated that as much as 3.5 million ha of Nepal’s forests could eventually be placed under
community management.

Strategies for sustainable forest management have been incorporated in successive five-year plans,
including the ninth plan (for 1997 to 2002). The highest priority is to increase forest production and
productivity while meeting goals for the conservation of forests, soil, water, flora, fauna and scenic
beauty. Principles of decentralization are applied in the forestry sector through the adoption of
participatory forestry as the priority forest management approach.

The MPFS spells out the following long-term objectives for the development of the forestry sector:

x to meet the basic needs of the people for fuelwood, timber and other forest products, and
contribute to food production through effective interaction between forestry and farming practices;
x to protect the land against degradation by soil erosion, floods, landslides, desertification and other
effects of ecological imbalance;
x to conserve ecosystems and genetic resources;
x to contribute to the growth of local and national economies by developing forest management and
forest-based industries and creating opportunities for income generation and employment.

The medium-term objective of the MPFS is to support decentralization and promote people’s
participation in forest resource development, management and conservation. It also aims to develop
the legal framework needed to enhance the contributions of individuals, communities and local and
national institutions to forest resource development.

19
Watershed management case study: Nepal

4. Key resource issues14

EXCESSIVE PRESSURE ON NATURAL RESOURCES

Agricultural intensification and marginalization

As already mentioned, agriculture is becoming more intensive and, at the same time, undergoing
continual marginalization – as illustrated by the expansion of “bari” land on to steeper slopes. The
main issues facing marginal rainfed agricultural lands are soil erosion, loss of fertility and, ultimately,
land abandonment.

Obstacles to forest management

As with grazing land, the greatest obstacle to better forest management is the absence of any form of
secure tenure for villagers. Community forestry and leasehold forestry provide two options that are
conducive to the improvement of fodder production and the upgrading of agricultural soil fertility.

Although community forestry appears to be able to manage tree production, successful fodder tree and
grass pasture management processes are still lacking.

Forest expansion appears to be mainly pine plantations, while existing information suggests that the
quality and diversity of the forest has declined.

Forests play an integral part in agriculture (particularly in terms of soil fertility) and the livelihoods of
local people. As forests are not receiving adequate inputs, the long-term sustainability of current
production capacities is in question.

EROSION AND EROSION MANAGEMENT

Deforestation, pastureland degradation, and poor agricultural practices, together with natural
phenomena such as floods, landslides, cloudbursts and GLOFs, are thought to lead to annual soil
losses of 20 to 25 tonnes/ha.

Loss of topsoil through surface erosion is recognized as one of the most serious problems facing
agriculture, particularly on poor farmers’ marginal lands in the hills region. The increased degradation
of already exhausted upland soils results in further loss of nutrients; farmers are now concerned about
soil erosion because it washes away the compost and fertilizer that they apply to their fields. Adequate
management of surface drainage and storm runoff above and within terrace systems is therefore
critical for the management of soil erosion, and subsequently for soil fertility.

SOIL FERTILITY

There is growing awareness that soil fertility is becoming one of the major issues governing poverty
and future production capacity, particularly in the middle mountains. The management of soil fertility
is particularly critical because input availability is limited and the demand for biomass production
continues to increase. Livestock plays an important role in nutrient management, but feed shortages
limit the production of manure.

14
Information for this chapter comes from ICIMOD, 1995.

20
 Key resource issues

As manure supplies are insufficient, forest litter is used extensively to supplement organic matter in
agriculture. This depletes forest soil nutrient contents, without providing enough inputs to sustain
agricultural crop rotations. Moreover, as pine becomes the most common tree species in forest
plantations in the hills, pine needle litter, which is nutrient-poor, is gradually becoming dominant. This
is resulting in soil acidification, which is the most serious threat to soil fertility. The inherited parent
materials in the middle mountains are frequently acidic, and the addition of acid-producing organic
matter is simply compounding the problem.

The problem of soil fertility is widespread, with the poorest conditions being found in forests and
grazing lands. Only irrigated areas have adequate fertility conditions, thanks to the nutrient inputs
provided by sediments in irrigation water. Soil fertility declines, and the impacts of these on all
production systems, are a widespread and major concern.

21
Watershed management case study: Nepal

5. Watershed management in Nepal

EVOLUTION AND STATUS

A systematic approach to WM was first adopted in Nepal in 1966, when the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), FAO and the Government of Nepal jointly initiated a pilot project
called Survey and Demonstration for the Development and Management of the Trishuli Watershed,
which was implemented through the Department of Forests. This project lasted for four year, and
carried out diversified activities related to WM. Its aim was to serve as a demonstration scheme for
identifying the most suitable approach to mountain area development (Bajracharya and Aung, 1966).

In 1974, following the recommendations of a high-level Nepalese team that had visited various soil
conservation projects in India, the Government of Nepal established the Department of Soil and Water
Conservation (DSWC) under the Ministry of Forests. It was responsible for the effective implementation
of soil and water conservation in Nepal. The soil conservation functions of the Department of Forests,
those of river training of the Department of Irrigation, and of farm and water management of the
Department of Agriculture were transferred to DSWC (Government of Nepal, 1974). DSWC initiated
the field testing of various technical methodologies and institutional set-ups at priority sites in selected
watersheds and at river training projects. Within five years it had:

x gathered the technical expertise necessary for combating watershed degradation;

x established an institutional mechanism to address resource management issues through increased
inter-agency cooperation; and
x developed a procedure for involving local communities in the planning and implementation of
watershed programmes (Upadhaya, 1985).

After the inception of integrated rural development (IRD) projects in 1982, soil and water conservation
activities were implemented under a two-pronged strategy of dispersion and concentration. In IRD
projects, a wide range of soil and water conservation activities were dispersed simultaneously
throughout the project districts, while watershed project activities were planned and implemented in a
more concentrated manner. However, activities were not properly integrated, and project results were
disappointing. This led the government to recognize the need to adopt an integrated and holistic
approach to WM. In 1980, it transferred DSWC’s responsibility for flood control to the Department of
Irrigation, which was renamed the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management
(DSCWM) in order to emphasize its roles and responsibilities in integrated WM, particularly in upland
areas.

In the meantime, some donor-assisted projects,15 were working in relatively large watersheds to
develop participatory and integrated WM models. However, these projects tended to ignore the users
of watershed resources, and many line agencies sidetracked project activities. One of the lessons
learned from this experience was that the impacts of WM are not made visible by spreading activities
over a wide area.

In the mid-1980s, sub-watersheds were considered the appropriate unit for WM interventions, and it
was recognized that local people must be involved in the planning and management of watershed
resources (TDR, 1988). The 1988 Master Plan for the Forestry Sector (MPFS) also emphasized the
importance of people’s participation and integrated approaches in WM. Thus, local people started to
be actively involved in sub-watershed activities.

15
Such as the Swiss- and German-assisted Tinau Watershed Management Project and the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID)-funded Resource Conservation and Utilization Project.

22
 Watershed management in Nepal

At present, DSCWM (of MFSC) operates WM programmes in 55 of Nepal’s 75 districts. A number of

bilateral and multilateral donors16 support SCWM activities in different parts of the country.

POLICY AND OBJECTIVES

The main policy and objectives of DSCWM are to: i) maintain linkages and networks for WM; ii)
develop appropriate technology; iii) ensure stakeholder participation; iv) carry out watershed
interventions at the sub-watershed level; v) minimize ecological disturbances; vi) plan and protect
watershed resources; vii) disseminate and institutionalize the WM approach through extension
activities; and viii) give priority to Siwaliks and marginal lands.

Achievements

x Nepal’s MPFS of 1988 recognizes SCWM as a primary programme for the forestry sector.
x The eighth, ninth and tenth five-year plans included SCWM policies and interventions, and
allocated budgets for their implementation.
x Such domains as roads, irrigation and hydropower now include WM in their respective
programmes.

Opportunities

x The government’s hydropower development policy allocates 1 percent of funds at the construction
phase to community development activities in affected areas, as indirect compensation. Part of
these funds can be utilized for WM.
x During the power production phase, the government transfers 10 percent of the revenue generated
from electricity sales to District Development Committees (DDCs) to carry out development
activities at the local level. DDCs can be persuaded to allocate a percentage of these funds to
managing the watersheds of the hydropower system.

Lessons learned

x When given low priority at the policy level, SCWM is not granted sufficient resources, and this
impedes the formulation and implementation of sound programme plans on the wide scale.
x Policies that are developed without the involvement of all stakeholders do not obtain the wide
acceptance and participation of those stakeholders.

Gaps

x There is no comprehensive, WM policy. Instead, WM issues are dealt with sporadically under
broad-based forestry, agriculture, irrigation, and hydropower development policies.
x Policy-makers often lack knowledge on the need and importance of WM, and this is reflected in
policies that lack broad-based vision. This constitutes a hindrance to the incorporation of people’s
needs and aspirations in the formulation of SCWM policies and programmes.
x There is no institutionalized effort to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of SCWM policy as a
way of predicting outcomes.
x There is no mechanism for regular dialogue and policy review and evaluation.

16
Such as the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), the Japanese International Cooperation Agency
(JICA), the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), the Australian Agency for International Development
(AusAID), CARE International in Nepal, SNV and the Swiss Development Corporation (SDC).

23
Watershed management case study: Nepal

INSTITUTIONS AND LEGISLATION

The institutional development of WM in Nepal started with the inception of the DSCWM as the
principal authority for WM functions. It gradually expanded with the establishment of District Soil
Conservation Offices (DSCOs), which mobilize user groups to take the initiative in planning and
implementing WM interventions.

The 1982 Soil and Watershed Conservation Act (SWCA) and its 1985 Regulations were promulgated
specifically for the conservation and management of watershed resources. Other legal tools that
contribute to the systematic institutionalization of WM in Nepal include the Forest Act (1993), the
Water Resources Act (1992), the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973), the
Environmental Protection Act (1996), and the Local Self-Governance Act (LSGA) (1999), and their
respective regulations.

Achievements

x DSCWM has developed an organizational structure that accommodates multidisciplinary staff

from forestry, agriculture, agro-engineering, civil engineering, ecology, geology, etc.
x Numerous WM user and community development groups have been trained in community-level
WM activity planning and implementation.
x Partnerships have been built with local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community-
based organizations (CBOs), and SCWM activities are implemented jointly in some districts.
x After it was enacted, the SWCA declared the Shivapuri Watershed Area17 a protected watershed.

Opportunities

x The SWCA provides a legal mandate for declaring critical watersheds protected watershed areas.
x In 1984, under the SWCA, a National Resource Conservation Commission (NRCC) was
constituted to coordinate WM concerns at the central level. The act also provides for District
Coordination Committees (DCCs) to coordinate activities at the district level.
x The LSGA has paved the way for decentralized governance and implementation processes, which
means that SCWM activities can now be implemented through local government bodies.
x Natural resource management agencies, such as the forests, agriculture and livestock services,
have established field offices throughout the country. These offices can be used for disseminating
SCWM information, and their field-level technicians can conduct training and implement
activities.
x Additional technical staff can be employed in DSCOs for specific projects, when project funding
allows.
x The environmental impact assessment (EIA) guidelines for the forestry sector (2003) stipulate that
a certain percentage of funds for development works should be dedicated to mitigation measures.
x The National Wetland Policy (2003) recommends that watershed conservation measures be
implemented in the upper areas of wetlands in order to minimize the exploitation of watershed
resources.

Lessons learned

x It is difficult to establish effective coordination when staff transfers break the personal
relationships on which it depends, and the local district leadership tends to assign priority to the
interests of the DDC chairperson (Bogati and Hartmann, 2001).

17
Now known as Shivapuri National Park.

24
 Watershed management in Nepal

x A lack of integration and coordination leads to frustration and loss of interest among qualified and
experienced professionals. This is aggravated by frequent transfers of technical staff, which have a
negative effect on the implementation of SCWM programmes.
x Local CBOs and NGOs can be promoted as partner institutions in implementing, extending and
replicating SCWM activities. The Upper Andhi Khola Watershed Management Project
(UAKWMP) has worked successfully and cost-effectively with local NGO partners.
x The implementation of acts and regulations related to WM has been inefficient owing to
overlapping responsibilities, lack of resources and poor coordination.

Gaps

x The DSCWM is not sufficiently organized to tackle the ever-increasing problems of soil erosion
and watershed degradation. The department faces an acute shortage of the qualified personnel
required to plan, manage and implement programme activities that are based on dynamic
approaches to WM (Singh, 1999).
x Increased investment in planning, extension, training, and monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is
needed in order to support the expansion of DSCOs.
x At present, the NRCC and DCCs constituted under SWCA are not functioning, and both central-
and local-level coordination are difficult to achieve.
x SWCA focuses heavily on protected watershed management by granting regulatory prerogatives to
the implementing agency, which are often in conflict with the needs and requirements of user
groups. This is not an effective way of implementing the participatory approach to WM activities.
x There is no legal framework for institutionalizing WM user groups. As a result, such groups are
unable to guarantee continuity.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLANNING

The government has followed the sub-watersheds approach to integrated WM since the ninth five-year
plan (1997/98 to 2001/02). Each district is divided into a number of functional sub-watersheds of 15 to
25 km², which are prioritized according to the following system: first, the erosion potential of each sub-
watershed is assessed on the basis of land-use and land system characteristics, and the sub-watersheds
are ranked according to erosion severity; then they are ranked according to population density; the most
critical sub-watersheds are selected on the basis of a composite ranking of erosion severity and
population pressure; and the SCWM programme is then implemented in the most critical sub-
watersheds. Box 2 gives examples of WM concerns that other sectors are taking up.

Box 2: Effective SCWM: including WM in other sectors

Some donor-funded forestry projects include a WM component, e.g. the-AusAID-funded Community Resource
Management and Livelihood Project. In addition, government sectors, particularly those for hydropower,
irrigation and roads, have started to incorporate WM as a component in their regular programmes. Namsiling
Community Development Centre, a local NGO in Ilam district of eastern Nepal, now implements its activities
according to a sub-watershed approach. And the World Conservation Union (IUCN) has formulated a sub-
watershed management programme in the Churia region of Ilam.

Achievements

x Systematic guidelines for prioritizing and planning sub-watersheds have been developed.
x A number of sub-watershed plans have been prepared and implemented.
x The concept of sub-watershed management planning has been adopted in other sectors.

25
Watershed management case study: Nepal

Opportunities

x A core group of planning experts at the central level has the capacity to coach and train district-
and project-level staff in preparing sub-watershed management plans.
x NPD and UNDP have recently prepared the poverty index maps of several districts. This
information is valuable for prioritizing sub-watersheds and preparing specific area-focused soil
and watershed management plans.

Lessons learned

x Given the difficulty of delineating sub-watersheds of 15 to 25 km2 in the field, projects and
DSCOs have been forced to work in much larger watershed areas.
x Working in sub-watersheds has resulted in SCWM treatments covering only very small areas (2 to
3 percent of the districts concerned).
x Many of the sub-watershed management plans that have been prepared require expensive technical
measures, and cannot be implemented when there is a lack of adequate resources.
x Sub-watershed management plans that do not include social parameters such as poverty
information fail to address poorer people’s needs and problems. This is one of the stumbling
blocks for replicating SCWM interventions.
x Sub-watershed management plans will not achieve the necessary level of coordination unless
development organizations implement their activities according to watershed boundaries.
x Owing to a lack of resources, sub-watersheds are rarely treated comprehensively, i.e. according to
a coherent upstream–downstream approach.

Box 3: DSCWM programme activities

Land-use planning: WM plans, sub-watershed management plans, and technical services for land-use
development.

Land productivity conservation: on-farm conservation, grass plantations, fodder/fuelwood/fruit tree plantations,
agroforestry, and greenbelt/shelterbelt establishment.

Natural hazard prevention: gully treatment, landslide treatment, torrent control, riverbank protection, and
degraded land rehabilitation through bioengineering methods.

Infrastructure protection: slope stabilization, roadside erosion control, trail improvement, canal protection, and
water source conservation.

Community soil conservation: extension education, demonstration plots, training, study tours, local-level
workshops, and exhibitions.

Source: Adapted from DSCWM, 1998.

Gaps

x No comprehensive sub-watershed management planning approach that includes erosion, land

degradation, land potential and other relevant elements has been formulated.
x The base maps used for land-use and land system information are out of date.
x The technical approach to sub-watershed management is based entirely on a desk methodology,
which has not been verified in the field.
x Other than population density, very few socio-economic data (such as poverty and gender aspects)
are used. Furthermore, the data collected may be analysed but are not reflected in activity plans.
Thus, participation is limited to formulating “wish lists” that take little account of the WM
concept.

26
 Watershed management in Nepal

x Watershed prioritization methods place too much emphasis on the biophysical elements, which
results in marginalized and poor people receiving inadequate attention. This also hampers the
replication of WM activities.

PROGRAMME PLANNING

A programme approach to SCWM has been followed since the MPFS was adopted in 1989. At
present, programme activities are broadly grouped into five categories (see Box 3). A budget-controlled
decentralized planning method is practised. After consulting with users and village leaders, DSCOs
prepare annual programmes that are based on the budget ceilings provided by NPC.

DSCWM compiles and adjusts the programmes and budgets of all district offices and projects, and
submits them to MFSC. MFSC, the Ministry of Finance and NPC discuss and finalize plans and
budgets for the succeeding year.

Achievements

x Technical programme activities that adhere to SCWM guidelines have been embedded in the
annual planning process.
x More than 90 percent of the planned targets are accomplished each year.
x The annual programme planning process reflects local needs through bottom-up planning, as
envisaged by the LSGA.

Opportunities

x The LSGA has provided the opportunity for planning SCWM activities with the participation of
DDCs, VDCs and users. This makes it possible to share knowledge and skills, as well as materials
and human and financial resources for WM.
x The government’s three-year rolling budget system provides the opportunity for planning SCWM
activities on a multi-year basis.

Box 4: Upstream–downstream linkages

Some 15 years ago, farmland on the banks of a gully in Rangoli Khola (Rakhi VDC, Kaski district) was being
eroded and silt was being deposited downstream. The farmers concerned owned land both on the hillside and in
the valley. Local people approached the Begnas Tal Rupa Tal Watershed Management project for technical and
financial support to rehabilitate the gully. They reached an agreement with the project for gully protection
activities. In addition to technical assistance, the project agreed to cover 60 percent of the costs, while users
contributed the remaining 40 percent. Sixteen check dams were constructed across the gully, and grass and
trees were planted. Grazing was strictly prohibited. Users cut and carried the grass for their livestock, and
generated cash income from selling grass slips and cuttings to other farmers. It took about four years to achieve
complete rehabilitation. Springs in the lower section of the gully were rejuvenated, and downstream siltation
ceased completely. Meanwhile, users were able to collect fuelwood from the growing vegetation. Both short- and
long-term benefits were therefore derived from a single activity. The reasons for this success are related to
upstream–downstream linkages: the farmers concerned owned land on the hillsides and in the valley, and a
single activity provided both short- and long-term benefits

Source: DSCWM, 1995.

27
Watershed management case study: Nepal

Lessons learned

x WM activities are increasingly popular because they address a wide range of issues that help to
fulfil people’s basic needs for food, fodder and fuelwood.
x Because the foreign assistance expected for the MPFS (71 percent of the total budget) was over-
ambitious and was not acquired (Government of Nepal, ADB and FINNIDA, 1988), the
government was not able to fulfil its commitment to implement the MPFS and the periodic plans.
x A one-year programme cycle is too short, and fails to integrate civil structures and plant cover
interventions for the effective implementation of SCWM activities.

Gaps

x Sub-watershed management plans are seldom referred to during the annual planning process or
when community development plans are drawn up. This results in a mismatch between annual
plans and sub-watershed plans.
x The planning process does not encompass such important tasks as site selection, choice of SCWM
measures and tentative cost estimates. During implementation, technicians look for sites that might
match the allocated budget.
x SCWM activities are launched on a co-financing basis, but there is no cost-sharing mechanism for
activities other than terrace improvement. In addition, users’ contributions are not reflected in
annual plans, even though they are quite significant.
x Programme planning does not explicitly provide for impact assessment. This constrains the
selection of activities that are suitable for different ecological zones.

TECHNICAL INTERVENTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION

Achievements

x Technical guidelines and selected measures for the SCWM programme have been prepared.
x Innovative interventions to conserve and utilize water have been successfully implemented. These
include harvesting runoff water to feed a dam in the Churia region.
x On-farm conservation activities have enabled many farm households to cultivate a wide range of
improved varieties of cereals, fruits, vegetables and cash crops.
x A bioengineering technology package has been developed and implemented.
x Degraded lands have been reclaimed through low-cost rehabilitation measures in a variety of
ecological zones. Most of these rehabilitated lands have been converted to community forestry.
x The rehabilitation of burrow pits in Kulekhani has considerably reduced sedimentation in the nearby
hydroelectric reservoir.
x The most important achievement is the successful use of SCWM technical interventions to
conserve and rehabilitate the nationally important Shivapuri watershed as a municipal water
supply for Kathmandu.

Lessons learned

x The most successful SCWM activities, now and for the future, are the use of plants to control
landslides and gullies, community forestry, conservation farming, and irrigation rehabilitation.
x SCWM activities that involve check dams and changes to river courses are unlikely to succeed
unless they are implemented alongside appropriate bioengineering measures.
x The inclusion of community forestry in WM programmes has had a positive effect on the overall
development of communities in the Siwaliks. Upstream areas are being managed as community
forests, and runoff harvesting ponds have been constructed in the foothills. As a result,

28
 Watershed management in Nepal

downstream flooding and sedimentation at the micro-watershed level have been reduced, and
water retention capacity and duration have increased.
x Intensive SCWM activities over a long period (ten to 12 years) have brought about fundamental land-
use changes, which have significantly increased the productivity of forests and agricultural land
(Buffum et al., 2000).
x In terms of both sustainability and affordability, SCWM techniques that are based on plant cover are
more effective than those that involve civil structures. The effectiveness of plant cover as a
conservation measure to rehabilitate degraded land has been reported in review and evaluation
studies (e.g. DANIDA, 1998; Government of Nepal and European Commission, 2002; Pariyar et
al., 2002).
x It is possible to keep a balance between short- and long-term benefits, and doing so is
advantageous to local people.

Opportunities

x Bioengineering training modules have been developed, and professionals and technicians are being
trained to apply bioengineering measures in SCWM.
x Indigenous technology and knowledge on SCWM have been documented.

Gaps

x SCWM in Nepal demands specific technologies that suit the country’s geological conditions,
topographic variations, climatic features and available resources. The technologies that are being
developed for the Middle Mountains do not suit the rest of the country. Some of those developed
for the Siwaliks and Terai regions have not yet been tested and evaluated.
x SCWM interventions have not been as effective as expected because of a lack of integration
(Sthapit and Bendtsen, 2000).
x Many of the SCWM measures prescribed involve high levels of technical inputs, which result in
significant expense and, therefore, limited replication by the people.
x Because SCWM activities are scattered over large areas without proper integration their desired
benefits are diluted.
x Although some indigenous technology and knowledge have been documented, there are still gaps
in the identification and application of such technologies.

THE PARTICIPATORY APPROACH TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

The importance of people’s participation has been recognized since the DSCWM was established in
1974. The department adopted a consultative planning approach during its initial period. Since then,
active people’s participation has been emphasized, and local people are encouraged to participate in all
stages of planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and benefit sharing. The trend of
involving people in SCWM activities has evolved over a long period and over five stages (see Box 5).

Achievements

x People’s participation in WM has been encouraging. Local people now contribute about 80 percent
of inputs and labour (King et al., 2001).
x Guidelines for people’s participation in SCWM were prepared in 1992 and have been
institutionalized at the programme implementation level.

29
Watershed management case study: Nepal

Lessons learned

x The participatory approach is suitable for collective WM activities because it builds rapport
between agencies and local people.
x Although the participatory approach is successful, there is still scope for improvement, particularly
in innovative farming systems, increased soil fertility, food security at the household level and
market outlets for farm products (FAO, 2001).
x Technicians and local people tend to lose patience with the time-consuming participatory
integrated WM process.
x The participatory approach has helped engender local ownership, mobilize local resources and
strengthen local institutions.
x Since SCWM adopted the participatory approach it has become detached from mainstream
development, and more attention is now paid to the rural development programme.
x Participatory programmes that take little account of poverty and gender aspects do not address the
needs of marginalized groups, women and the resource-poor.
x Public auditing has increased people’s confidence in SCWM by enhancing financial transparency
and aiding decentralization and bottom-up planning (Government of Nepal and DANIDA, 2003). It
has also been effective in building trust and ownership among beneficiaries (Winrock, 2002).

Box 5: Evolution of participatory WM in Nepal

Stage I (1974–1980): Awareness of soil conservation was first raised. The government implemented small-scale
activities in pocket areas, with little involvement of local people.

Stage II (1981–1985): People became involved in assessing needs and discussing the implementation of field
activities.

Stage III (1986–1990): Information on SCWM activities was shared with local elected bodies – VDCs and DDCs.
CBOs received assistance for implementing activities.

Stage IV (1991–1994): Guidelines for people’s participation were developed, and almost all SCWM activities
were implemented through user groups. Sub-watershed management planning was institutionalized.

Stage V (1995–2000): User groups became the focal point for implementing SCWM activities. Efforts were made
to institutionalize the groups through formal registration and their development into cooperatives.

Source: Wagley and Bogati, 1999.

Opportunities

x The LSGA and the current (tenth) five-year plan provide opportunities for institutionalizing and
strengthening the participatory approach.
x Based on the guidelines for people’s participation, projects have developed different participatory
models to suit local conditions. These models provide opportunities for selecting the most
adequate options for different environmental and socio-economic situations.

Gaps

x Most professionals and technicians lack knowledge of the fundamentals of the participatory
approach.

30
 Watershed management in Nepal

x No comprehensive study has been carried out to find the best mechanism for involving local
people in SCWM activities that are appropriate for their specific environmental and socio-
economic conditions.
x The participatory mechanism does not address issues related to legitimacy, resources, attitudes and
withdrawal from programme activities.

MONITORING AND EVALUATION

Initially, M&E of SCWM involved comparing accomplishments with targets. SCWM programme
activities have now been reoriented to produce quantitative and qualitative results, and this change is
expected to be cost-effective and time-efficient. Input and output indicators have been developed to
show results and impacts in relation to objectives.

Achievements

x An M&E system for SCWM, which focuses on assessing the performance of implementing
personnel, has been developed.
x M&E guidelines have been prepared for the district level.
x Indicators for selected SCWM activities have been developed and documented, in collaboration
with NPC.

Lessons learned

x The M&E system fails to indicate fully the achievements, the suitability and the value of SCWM,
as it is limited to measuring physical endeavours in terms of the work plan, budget and targets.
x The M&E systems that projects have developed are complicated and not compatible with the
government system. Diversification of M&E systems among projects and the government has
added to field staff’s workload.

Opportunities

x There is a full M&E system for SCWM.

x Professional and technical staff have, been trained to carry out systematic M&E.

Gaps

x Guidelines for monitoring social and cultural factors are lacking.

x M&E concentrates on managerial and financial aspects, but not technical ones.
x Technical indicators for selecting programme activities that are suitable for local conditions have
not been adequately identified and updated.
x The contribution made be people’s participation is not recorded.
x Dissemination of M&E information is lacking at all levels.
x M&E does not determine the effectiveness or relevance of activities. It provides neither
information on past efforts, nor suggestions for future improvements.

EXTENSION AND EDUCATION

Conservation extension and education aim to create community awareness. Activities are categorized
into demonstrations, production of conservation extension material, study tools and training,
audiovisual sources and exhibitions.

31
Watershed management case study: Nepal

Achievements

x SCWM extension and education have been institutionalized in all districts.

x A wide range of extension and education materials, such as pamphlets, leaflets, booklets, comics
and posters, have been produced and distributed.
x Audiovisual materials, such as documentary films and videos, have been produced and publicized.
x School programmes have been successfully conducted, even in remote parts of Nepal. A
conservation education curriculum for grades 7 and 8 has been developed and is being taught as an
extra-curricular class.
x Farmer field schools have been set up in some districts.

Lesson learned

x The farmer field school is an effective extension approach.

Opportunities

x There is capacity for training all district staff, including those at the mid-level, in order to involve
them in extension programmes designed to improve people’s knowledge, skills and practices in
conservation.
x Many individual farmers have adopted improved and innovative land-use practices. Their plots can
be utilized for effective extension and demonstration.
x Other green sector line agencies have also developed effective SCWM-related extension materials
and training.

Gaps

x SCWM encompasses multidisciplinary and multisectoral approaches, messages and themes.

However, professionals and technicians are unable to disseminate them effectively.
x The SCWM extension section is too small; it lacks the necessary staff to deal with the wide range
of extension activities needed in order to reach large numbers of widely spread target groups.
x Extension activities are carried out on an ad hoc basis.
x Extension materials are developed to meet general needs, rather than real needs.
x The extension programme has focused only on generating awareness, and has made no effort to
promote the adoption of technology.

RESEARCH AND DEMONSTRATION

SCWM research information is important for sustainable WM. The government has institutionalized
research and demonstration as an integral part of SCWM.

Achievements

x The SCWM research and demonstration section has established site-specific soil erosion and soil
loss demonstration plots in the middle hills.
x Soil losses from different land uses have been documented, and suitable prescriptions made to
minimize them.
x The research and demonstration section has developed a simple methodology for assessing
sedimentation rates in lakes and reservoirs.

32
 Watershed management in Nepal

Lessons learned

x Much useful research information can be compiled from regular SCWM field activities.
x Lake sedimentation research conducted by the research and demonstration section has not been
properly utilized by the agencies concerned.
Opportunities

x There is a full research and demonstration section for SCWM.

x Guidelines on participatory action research have been developed.
x The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and other agencies
have established research and demonstration plots in many parts of Nepal. These can be utilized
for SCWM.

Gaps

x Research information and experiences from the field are neither documented nor disseminated.
x WM activities are increasing, but appropriate research and demonstration efforts are not keeping
pace.
x Demonstration plots are not properly maintained, making it difficult to express the quantitative and
qualitative impacts of SCWM activities.
x There is only limited knowledge about: i) the technical relationship between SCWM practices and
their effects; and ii) improved ways to identify and quantify social values and benefits.
x The research and demonstration section is understaffed and underequipped, which reduces its
ability to carry out research.
x Linkages among appropriate research, demonstration, extension and education services are very
weak.
x Professionals lack adequate knowledge of how to carry out systematic research.
x There is virtually no global- or regional-level networking of existing research and knowledge.
x Research and demonstration are a low priority and receive inadequate resources.
x No systematic plan for research and demonstration has been developed.

INCOME-GENERATING ACTIVITIES

SCWM in Nepal has promoted income-generating activities as a way of achieving sustainability and
supporting the government’s poverty reduction strategy.

Achievements

x Income-generating activities provide immediate benefits to the people, and are therefore
increasingly popular.
x The incomes of the poor, women and marginalized groups have increased considerably as a result
of income-generating activities, saving and credit schemes, and supportive skills training and
literacy classes (Pariyar et al., 2002).

Lessons learned

x SCWM activities are oriented more to integrated rural development (IRD) than to SCWM itself.
x Training in the skills required for income-generating activities has been effective in specific areas.
The activities provide both income generation and services to local communities (CARE Nepal,
2001).

33
Watershed management case study: Nepal

x The inclusion of diversified income-generating activities to support livelihoods has increased the
number of stakeholders and created a need for additional coordination work.

Box 6: Empowering marginalized groups

Geeta and Jamuna are two sisters from the marginalized community of Putali Bazar, Ward No. 3 in Syangja
district. They decided to raise awareness about social ills and traditions in their community.

Jamuna was not able to attend school, but her sister Geeta studied up to class 8. Both sisters eked out a living by
working on farms for Rs. 30 per day during the busy agricultural season.

One day they heard that UAKWMP, a project in Syangja district, was providing small grants to marginalized
communities that successfully took part in its informal education programme, so they organized marginalized
women’s groups to join this programme. In addition, they also participated in a six-month education class on
savings and credit, which was also run by the project. This encouraged them to form a savings and credit group
for 32 women, which collected Rs. 70 000 from monthly savings and interest.

Three months after this group was formed, the project provided a grant for implementing income-generating
activities based on the group’s performance. The women invested this money in rearing pigs and goats and
farming off-season vegetables. According to Pariyar et al. (2002), these activities increased the group members’
incomes significantly.

Opportunity

x Government policy regarding development programmes is favourable to the incorporation of

income-generating activities.

Gaps

x A large number of income-generating activities have been implemented without field testing or
consideration of their cost–benefit ratios.
x Some of the income-generating activities that have been introduced are detrimental to the WM
programme.
x Income-generating activity programmes have not reached the poor, marginalized groups and
women.

34
 Main recommendations

6. Main recommendations
POLICY AND OBJECTIVES

x Develop a long-term comprehensive policy that is specific to WM and involves the participation of
all stakeholders. Such a policy should include a vision, mission and strategic directions for the next
generation of WM programmes. It should also clearly define the scopes and mandates for WM.
x Develop a policy that strengthens coordination among relevant sectors and upstream–downstream
linkages, so that benefits can be shared.
x Develop a mechanism for investing a proportion of the revenue generated from the sale of water
resources and services (drinking-water, hydropower, irrigation) in WM.

INSTITUTIONS AND LEGISLATION

x Redefine and harmonize the roles of national-level government agencies in SCWM, in order to
reflect the requirements of the LSGA and to focus planning, technical and monitoring capacity
wherever appropriate.
x Develop a local government support unit in DSCWM and establish linkages with DDCs,
municipalities and VDCs to share knowledge, skills and technology, as well as WM functions at
the local level. Budgetary provision would be required at both the central and local government
levels.
x Develop partnership strategies to involve NGOs, particularly in social mobilization and local
capacity development, and explore opportunities for involving private enterprises in delivering
SCWM services. This will help to extend SCWM endeavours to wider areas.
x Develop networking and alliance building among user groups, with district-level federations to
help them institutionalize their efforts.
x Revamp NRCC and DCCs in order to establish effective coordination among different line
agencies, local governments and locally based organizations, and to avoid possible conflicts and
duplication of activities.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLANNING

x Reconsider and evaluate the sub-watershed planning process in its entirety, i.e. consider whether a
focus on specific sub-watersheds is the most appropriate approach. Alternatives that support the
SCWM approach of bottom-up planning should be investigated further (i.e. micro-watershed
planning).
x Incorporate additional, updated maps, a procedure based on Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) and relevant national data (i.e. on livestock, soil types, geology, morphology and potential or
actual productivity).
x Incorporate sociological data, such as poverty and gender indices and aspects. Ensure that a
sufficiently flexible approach can be followed (according to local conditions and the availability of
data).
x Apply interactive processes in developing sub-watershed plans with users, local governments,
local NGOs and line agencies.

PROGRAMME PLANNING

x Use the integrated sub-watershed management plan to guide the formulation of SCWM annual
plans in order to ensure upstream–downstream linkages.

35
Watershed management case study: Nepal

x Prepare site-specific annual plans that contain basic technical and socio-economic information.
Primary stakeholders should agree to plans prior to their finalization.
x Apply a multi-year programme cycle that is in line with the rolling budget system, in order to
achieve the effective integration of civil structures and plant cover interventions.
x Prepare and enforce pragmatic cost-sharing models for all SCWM activities. NPC should
acknowledge the estimated contributions of users in its annual plans.
x Broaden programme planning to incorporate impact assessment.

TECHNICAL INTERVENTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION

x Develop a mechanism for testing and evaluating pilot technologies that could benefit various
regions of the country, and support the development of appropriate technologies.
x Implement SCWM activities through suitable programme packages consisting of interlinked
activities, such as gully control, water source protection and on-farm conservation.
x Develop regenerative technological packages that provide tangible benefits. Promote simple, low-
cost measures, preferably through bioengineering, that ensure the replication of SCWM measures
by people with no or only very limited external inputs.
x Incorporate indigenous knowledge, technology and skills in WM interventions, and optimize the
use of locally available resources.
x Emphasize modern SCWM technology whenever and wherever appropriate.
x Integrate community forestry into WM programmes in order to build on synergic effects and
enhance the livelihoods of poor and marginalized groups.
x Emphasize the balance between short- and long-term benefits, as well as that between production
and conservation objectives.

THE PARTICIPATORY APPROACH TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

x Train professionals and technicians on conceptual aspects of the participatory approach, and work
to change attitudes in favour of people’s participation.
x Carry out studies to evaluate the participatory models that have been adopted by different projects,
and develop an adequate mechanism for involving local people in different environmental and
socio-economic conditions.
x Develop a mechanism to address issues related to legitimacy, resources, attitudes and withdrawal
from programme activities, and incorporate it into people’s participation guidelines for implementation.

MONITORING AND EVALUATION

x Incorporate M&E into programme plans, and allocate resources for it.
x Develop and update technical indicators that help the selection of appropriate programme activities
for different localities.
x Develop a participatory M&E system.
x Incorporate gender and social equity monitoring into WM objectives.
x Develop a uniform reporting system to provide feedback.

EXTENSION AND EDUCATION

x Capitalize on the opportunity for enhancing extension staff’s capability to disseminate messages.
x Strengthen the SCWM extension section to cover larger target groups and cater to their real needs.

36
 Main recommendations

x Develop a systematic extension plan and programmes that focus on the adoption of SCWM
technology.
x Promote farmer field schools and farmer-to-farmer visits.

RESEARCH AND DEMONSTRATION

x Emphasize appropriate research that contributes to the development of WM technology.

x Use participatory action research techniques to improve the programme.
x Strengthen the research and demonstration section so that it can undertake systematic research and
link up with extension and education.
x Persuade the concerned agencies to consider the results of sedimentation research for appropriate
restorative programmes.
x Cooperate to establish global and regional networks for the dissemination of research and
knowledge. FAO could play a lead role in this aspect.
x Develop a systematic research and demonstration plan for SCWM.

INCOME-GENERATING ACTIVITIES

x Place more emphasis on rapid-return production-oriented activities, such as on-farm conservation,

fruit tree planting, grass plantations, cash crops, mushroom growing, etc.
x Adopt a positive discriminatory policy in favour of the very poor, marginalized groups and
women.
x Focus on a few proven income-generating activities instead of implementing large numbers on a
trial and error basis.
x Emphasize income-generating activities in gender mainstreaming and the empowerment of poor
and marginalized groups, and select activities that support SCWM.

37
Watershed management case study: Nepal

References
Alford, D. 1992. Hydrological aspects of the Himalayan region.International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development, Kathmandu. ICIMOD Occasional papers No. 18.68 pp.
Aquastat. FAO country-level profiles on rural water use. Water Resources, Development and
Management Service (AGLW), FAO.
Bajracharya, K. & Aung, D. 1966. Trisuli Watershed Development Project: general plan for work
1966–1970. Kathmandu.
Bogati, R. & Hartmann, P. 2001. Project completion report. Nepal–Denmark Watershed
Management Project (July 1996–July 2001). Kathmandu.
Buffum B., Ram, B.C., Ram, N.S. & Balaram, T. 2000. Post-project impact evaluation: Begnas Tal
Rupa Tal Watershed Management Project. Kathmandu, CARE-Nepal.
CARE-Nepal. 2001. Recent lessons learned: a compilation of findings from evaluations and studies,
1999–2001. Kathmandu.
Carson, B., 1985: “Erosion and Sedimentation Processes in the Nepalese Himalaya”, Occasional
Paper no 1, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal.
CBS. 2002. Statistical pocket book of Nepal. Kathmandu, Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS).
CIDA & Canadian International Water and Energy Consultants. 2001. Himalayan sediments:
issues and guidelines. CD-ROM prepared by V. Galay, H. Schreir and BR. Bestbier. Canada.
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).
DANIDA. 1998. Annual Sector Review Agreement – NARMSAP and Nepal–Denmark Watershed
Management Project. Issue Paper on Integrated Watershed Development and Soil Conservation.
Kathmandu, Government of Nepal and DANIDA, NARMSAP.
DSCWM. 1983. Watershed condition of the districts of Nepal. Kathmandu.
DSCWM. 1995. People, participation and success of soil conservation. Kathmandu. (information
brochure)
DSCWM. 1998. An introduction to soil conservation and watershed management in Nepal.
Kathmandu. (information brochure)
FAO. 1997. Asia-Pacific forestry sector outlook study: country report, Nepal. Working Papers Series,
Working Paper No. APFSOS/WP/32, December 1997. FAO, via delle Terme di Caracalla 0100 Rome,
Italy.
FAO. 1998. Nutrition country profiles – Nepal. 20 June 1998. Rome.
FAO. 2000. Participatory integrated watershed management in Nepal. Manual 1 of a training package
on participatory integrated watershed management, prepared by F.M.J. Ohler, B.K. Rimal and
P.Waya. GCP/INT/542/ITA, Kathmandu, June 2000.
FAO. 2001. Project findings and recommendation, Inter-Regional Project for Participatory Upland
Conservation and Development. Rome.
FAO. 2002 Concept outline for National Forest Programme Facility: Kingdom of Nepal. Ministry of
Forests and Soil Conservation.
FAO. 2002. Grassland and pasture crops: country pasture/forage resource profiles – Nepal, by D.
Pariyar. This profile was prepared in 1998 and periodic updating will be undertaken by Mr. Dinesh
Pariyar. The profile was edited by H.M. Shelton in 1999 and livestock number and production
statistics were updated in November 2002 by S.G. Reynolds.
FAO. 2003. Livestock sector brief: Nepal. April 2003.
Government of Nepal & DANIDA. 2003. Joint technical review of the soil conservation and
watershed management component. Draft Technical Review Report (Ref. No. 104/Nepal/807).
Kathmandu.
Government of Nepal and European Commission. 2002. Mid-term review, Bagmati Integrated
Watershed Management Programme. Kathmandu.
Government of Nepal, ADB & FINNIDA. 1988. Master Plan for Forestry Sector Nepal, Soil
Conservation and Watershed Management Plan. Kathmandu.
Government of Nepal. 1974. Proposal for the establishment of Department of Soil and Water
Conservation. Kathmandu, Official Records, DSCWM.

38
 References

Government of Nepal. 1989. Irrigation Master Plan. Kathmandu.

Government of Nepal. 2002. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy 2002. Kathmandu, Ministry of Forests and
Soil Conservation.
Guilmour, D.A. and Fischer, R.J. 1999: Villages, Forests and Foresters: The Philosophy, Process
and Practice of Community Forestry in Nepal, Sahayogi Press, Kathmandu.
Gyawali, D. 2001. Water in Nepal. Published by Himal Books and Panos South Asia with Nepal
Water Conservation Foundation, Nepal.
H. Schreier, P.B. Shah and S. Brown (eds). 1995, Challenges in mountain resource management in
Nepal: processes, trends and dynamics in Middle Mountain watersheds. Proceedings of a workshop
held in Kathmandu, 10 to 12 April 1995. ICIMOD Kathmandu.
ICIMOD. Occasional Paper No. 21, by B. Carson, Kathmandu, Nepal: International Centre for
Integrated Mountain Development, 1985-Regional planning Himalaya Mountains Region.
ICIMOD. 1992. The land, the farmer, and the future: A soil fertility management strategy for Nepal.
ICIMOD. 1995. Challenges in mountain resource management in Nepal: processes, trends and
dynamics in Middle Mountain watersheds. Proceedings of a workshop held in Kathmandu, 10 to 12
April 1995, edited by H. Schreier, P.B. Brown. Kathmandu.
Jodha, N.S. “Mountain Perspective and Sustainability: A Framework doe Development Strategies”. In
Sustainable Mountain Agriculture, Vol I, Jodha et al. (eds) op. cit., 1992.
Joshi, M.D. 1985. Environment of Nepal, edited by Majupuria. Kathmandu, TU Natures Paradise.
King, W., Rimal, B., Mathema, P., Neupane, R.C. & Paudel, K. 2001. Mid-term evaluation report,
Upper Andhi Khola Watershed Management Project (UAKWMP). Syangja, Nepal, UAKWMP.
LRMP, 1986: Land Utilisation Report, 3 Appendices, Land Resources Mapping Project (LRMP) of
HMG/Nepal aided by the government of Canada and executed by Kenting Earthe Sciences Ltd.,
Kathmandu.
Mathema, P. & Karmacharya, Y.L. 2000. Participatory action research for soil conservation and
watershed management. Kathmandu, DSCWM.
Miller, D. J. 1987. Yaks and grasses, pastoralism in the Himalayan countries of Nepal and Bhutan and
strategies for sustained development. University of Montana, USA.
Mountain Voices. Oral testimonies from Sindhulpalchok, Nepal. Oral Testimony Programme
Panos Institute, 9 White Lion Street, London N1 9PD United Kingdom. Mountain Voices Website.
Pariyar, M.P., Thacker, P., Shrestha, K., Bastakoti, K.N. & Khadka, B. 2002. Final evaluation
report, Upper Andhikhola Watershed Management Project, Syangja, Nepal. Kathmandu, CARE-
Nepal.
Rajbhandari, H.B. and Shah, S.G. 1981. trends and projections of livestock production in the Hills
of Nepal. Paper presented at a seminar on Nepal’s experience in Hill Agricultural Development,
MOA/ADC, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Sharma, C.K., 1977: River Systems of Nepal. Published by Mrs. Sangeeta Sharma and printed by
Navana Printing Works Pvt Ltd, Calcutta.
Singh, S.C., 1973: Changes in the Course of Rivers and their Effects on Urban Settlements in the
Midddle Ganga Plain, National Geographic Society of India, Varanasi.
Singh, S.L. & Kharel, B.P. 2002. Process documentation of Partnership Programme in Andhikhola
Watershed Management Project – a study report. Kathmandu, CARE-Nepal.
Singh, S.L. & Sthapit, K.M. 2002. Guiding principles for watershed management, a discussion paper.
(unpublished document)
Singh, S.L. 1999. An introduction to the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed
Management: conceptual orientation training manual. Kathmandu, Nepal–Denmark Watershed
Management Project.
Sthapit, K.M. & Bendtsen, K.S. 2000. Pitfalls in participatory watershed management – a case study
from Nepal. In K.M. Sthapit and K. Bendsen, eds. Proceedings of the Third DANIDA International
Workshop on Watershed Management, 26 October–4 November 1999. Kathmandu.
TDR. 1988. Final evaluation report. Resource Conservation and Utilisation Project. Kathmandu,
Tropical Research and Development Inc. (TDR).
Tejwani, KG., 1986: Reservoir Sedimentation in India: Its Causes, Control and Future Course of
Action, Land Use Consultants (International), 25/31 Old Rajendra Nagar, New Delhi.

39
Watershed management case study: Nepal

Tejwani, KG., 1987: “Sedimentation of Reservoirs in the Himalayan Region, India” in The
Himalaya-Ganges Problem, pp. 323-27, proceedings of a conference, Mohonk Mountain House, New
Paltz, 6-11 April 1986, New York, Mountain Research and Development (MRD) 7 (3), International
Mountain Society and United Nations University.
Upadhaya, K.P. 1985. Status of watershed management research and identification of needed
research. Workshop on Integrated Watershed Management, 7 to 11 January 1985, East West Centre,
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.
Upadhaya, K.P. 2003. Reflection of two decades of watershed management experience in Asia
(1983–2003). Paper presented at the International Conference on Integrated Watershed Management,
Sassari, Italy.
Wagley, M.P. & Bogati, R. 1999. State of art and status of watershed management in Nepal. In K.M.
Sthapit and K. Bendsen, eds. Proceedings of the Third DANIDA International Workshop on
Watershed Management, 26 October to 4 November 1999. Kathmandu.
Winrock. 2002. Policy analysis of Nepal’s Community Forestry Programme: a compendium of
research papers. Kathmandu, Winrock International in Nepal.
Wymann, S. Contribution to Dhulikhel Soil Fertility Workshop, 1991.
Zollinger, F., 1979: Sapta Kosi in the Tarai: Unsolved Problems of Flood Control, IWM/WP (e),
UNDP/74/020, Kathmandu.

40