IB SL Design Technology Revision Guide
IB SL Design Technology Revision Guide
IB Design Technology
CORE Topics 1-6
Click on topic below for direct access
Topic 1 Topic 5
1.1 Anthropometrics 5.1 Invention
1.2 Psychological Factors 5.2 Innovation
1.3 Physiological Factors 5.3 Strategies for innovation
5.4 Strategies for innovation
Topic 2 5.5 Product life cycle
2.1 Resource and reserves 5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
2.2 Waste mitigation strategies consumers
2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution 5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
Waste mitigation strategies specifications
2.4 Clean Technologies
2.5 Green Design Topic 6
2.6 Eco Design 6.1 Characteristics of classic design
6.2 Classic design, function and form
Topic 3
3.1 Conceptual modelling
3.2 Graphical modelling
3.3 Physical modelling
3.4 Computer-aided design (CAD)
3.5 Rapid prototyping
Topic 4
4.1 Properties of materials
4.2a Metals and metallic alloys
4.2b Timber
4.2c Glass
4.2d Plastics
4.2e Textiles
4.2f Composites
4.3 Scales of Production
4.4 Manufacturing processes
4.5 Production systems
4.6 Robots in automated production
Updated 11th May 2016- John Zobrist
IB Design Technology CORE T16
Topic 1
Human Factors and Ergonomics
1.1 Anthropometrics
Design is human centred and, therefore, designers need to ensure that the products they design are the right si e for the user
and therefore comfortable to use. Designers have access to data and dra ings, hich state measurements of human beings of
all ages and si es. Designers need to consider ho users ill interact ith the product or service. Use and misuse is an important
consideration. Anthropometric data sets can vary significantly bet een populations. Particularly in the fashion industry, the
variance in these data sets impacts the si e range of clothes for particular markets.
Define the term Human Factors’ The term Human Factors is used for the combination of ergonomics and
anthropometrics
What is Ergonomics The application of scientific information concerning the relationship of human beings to
the design of ob ects, systems and environments.
What do e mean by the term Physical ergonomics most often deals ith the ork related sub ects of posture
physical ergonomics Give an orksite development operating layout material handling repetitive stress and
example. movement repetitive stress in uries and musculoskeletal disorders and occupational
safety and health. The aspect of ergonomics that deals ith body measurements,
particularly those of si e, strength and physical capacity.
What do e mean by the term Organizational ergonomics sub ects include communication, ork design, shift ( ork
organisational ergonomics Give hours) management, cre resource management, team ork, virtual organi ations,
an example. tele ork, and uality management.
What is Anthropometric data Anthropometric Data is sub-classified as Static Data and Dynamic Data.
What is Structural Static Data (also kno n as Structural data) refers to measurements taken hile hile
Anthropometric data the sub ect is in a fixed or standard position, e.g. height, arm length.
Static data is much easier to gather, as people are asked to remain still hile
measurements are taken.
What is functional Dynamic Data (also kno n as Functional data) refers to measurements taken during
Anthropometric data physical activities, e.g. cra ling height, overhead reach and a range of upper body
movements.
Dynamic data involves people carrying out tasks. People carry out tasks in many
different ays. While static data is more reliable, dynamic data is often more useful.
What tools can be used to collect Sliding Callipers,Cloth Tape, Sitting height meters, Stadiometer
Anthropometric Data
Percentiles and percentile ranges Percentiles are sho n in anthropometry tables and they tell you hether the
measurement given in the tables relates to the average person, or someone ho is
above or belo average in a certain dimension.
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There is a great deal of anthropometric data available. ou are expected to be able to
-interpret percentile tables in order to calculate dimensions related to a product and
consider ho products can be adaptable for different markets or ad ustable to cater for
most
-consider the 5th, 5 th and 5th percentiles in particular, and percentile ranges such as
2.5th to 7.5th and 5th to 5th
-interpret percentile tables based on different national and international populations,
gender and age.
What do e mean hen e Clearance can be seen as the minimum distance re uired to, enable the user group into
discuss clearance in uman or through an area. This is especially important hen designing emergency exits and
Factors safety hatches
What do e mean hen e Reach is also kno n as the workspace envelope. A orkspace envelope is a
discuss reach in uman Factors 3-dimensional space ithin hich you carry out physical ork activities hen you are at
a fixed location. Workspace envelopes should be designed for the 5th percentile of the
user population, hich means that 5 of users ill be able to reach everything placed
ithin the envelope.
Why does a designer need to Certain products tend to be available in different sizes or ith adjustability built in as
consider adjustability hen there really is no one si e fits all’. E.g. Ironing tables can be ad usted to allo for people
designing seating of a different height to use comfortably. This has an effect on the design of the legs, as
this is ho the board is ad usted in height.
Explain hat is meant by the Clothing comes in a range of si es. For manufacturers to make clothing fit every
range of si es versus individual variance ould not be economically possible, thus it tends to come in a range
adjustability of si es based on percentile ranges. Children’s car seats are adjustable to allo for a
range of si es and a gro ing child.
What is an ergonome and hen A 2D scaled physical anthropometric model based on a specific percentile human forms
are they used What are the are called ergonomes. The ergonomes have been scaled from data taken from specific
advantages and disadvantages percentile ranges to form a standard human form. Ergonomes are used ith dra ings of
the same scale as the model to consider the relationship bet een the si e of an ob ect
and people. They are used ith 2D dra ings, mainly for orthographic dra ings and also
modelling to vie field of reach, field of vision, etc.
What is a manikin What are the A manikin is an anatomical 3D model of the human body. A ointed model of the human
advantages and disadvantages body used by artists, especially to demonstrate the arrangement of drapery. Also called
lay figure. They are useful for assessing the relationship of body parts to spatial
arrangements represented by a 3D model, for example, a chair to a desk. Full scale
manikins are generally more expensive than ergonomes and they give a better
representation of the overall ergonomics in the design context (such as crash test
dummies).
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1.2 Psychological Factors
uman beings vary psychologically in complex ays. Any attempt by designers to classify people into groups merely results in a
statement of broad principles that may or may not be relevant to the individual. Design permeates every aspect of human
experience and data pertaining to hat cannot be seen such as touch, taste, and smell are often expressions of opinion rather
than checkable fact. The analysis of the human information processing system re uires a designer to critically analyse a range of
causes and effects to identify here a potential breakdo n could occur and the effect it may have.
What is Cognitive psychology Cognitive ergonomics is concerned ith mental processes, such as perception, memory,
cognitive ergonomics concerned reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other
ith elements of a system.
● mental processes- such as perception, memory and reasoning
● motor response- as they affect interactions among humans and other elements
of a system.
What is a Nominal Data Scale ominal means by name’. Used in classification or division of ob ects into discrete
groups. Each of hich is identified ith a name. The scale does not provide any
measurement ithin or bet een the categories
What is an Ordinal Data Scale Deals ith the order or position of items. Words, letters, symbols or numbers arranged
in a hierarchical order. uantitative assessment can not be made
What is a Ratio data scale The difference bet een a ratio scale and an interval scale is that the ero point on an
interval scale is some arbitrarily agreed value, hereas on a ratio scale it is a true ero.
For example, C has been defined arbitrarily as the free ing temperature of ater,
hereas grams is a true ero, that is, no mass. A ratio scale allo s you to compare
differences bet een numbers.
What are examples of Smell: important in food, perfumes, candles, deodorants, chemicals. Unpleasant odors
Psychological factors are added to chemicals to arn people.
Light: the level of illumination should increase as the tasks becomes more precise for
example the illumination re uired for a surgeon is brighter than the illumination needed
for a corridor.
ighting in orkplaces, safety. For example effects of florescent lighting and rotating
parts on machinery. ighting effect on ambience and mood, e.g. lighting in restaurants
gentle, calming, stimulating.
Sound: can be used to
● Provide information such as arning signal (fire alarm or alarm).
● Sound for reassurance that the product is orking ex. Watches
● Feedback , histling kettles, reversing trucks
Sound can be positive in the environment such as playing music in an exhibition. oise
can also be negative in a orkspace, that’s hy open plan offices use screens to reduce
noise.
Taste: important in food, it must have a good taste to sell ell. Responses to taste are
also a factor of culture and experience.
Texture: shapes and textures improve products and make them easier to use, for
example bottle tops, handles fabrics and non-slip floors, smooth orktops in kitchen.
Temperature: Clothing is an important part of a comfortable ork environment but the
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environment must be controlled regardless of the outside climate. o the user
responds to different environmental factors, for example, ho arm or cold ork
environments can affect the performance of an individual. A range of comfort ones ill
exist based on body mass, manner of dress or even physiological changes that can be
developed from exposure to a particular temperature or environment over time.
Value: May be perceived as a function of cost, features, prestige, rarity etc. or a
combination of these factors.
What is the Human information uman information-processing systems, considering inputs, processes (sensory, central
processing systems and motor) and outputs. A simple representation of a human information-processing
system is belo .
What are examples of Environmental factors such as noise, lighting, temperature, humidity, vibration may
Environmental factors affect hearing, vision, general comfort and health.
What are examples of a Some examples of ho the flo process may break do n are dependent on the
breakdown ith the uman follo ing
information ● Age, skills level, disability, infirmity or frailty
processing systems ● oung children may not have the si e, strength, fine motor control or skill to
perform the tasks.
● lder people may not have the strength
● People ith disabilities, such as arthritis or Parkinson s disease, may also not
have the fine motor control re uired.
● A physical condition hich can include A S Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, MS
Multiple Sclerosis, Arthritis, Partial paralysis, Parkinson’s disease, Repetitive
Strain in ury, lindness, earing, Reduced sense of feeling
Social and psychological Social group norms, morale
environment
What is Alertness? Alertness is the key term and means being a are of hat is happening in the vicinity, in
order to understand ho information, events, and one s o n actions ill impact goals
and ob ectives, both immediately and in the near future.
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What is a Human error? Human error come in several forms but t o fundamental categories are slips and
mistakes. Slips result from automatic behaviour, hen subconscious actions that are
intended to satisfy our goals get aylaid en route. Mistakes result from conscious
deliberations.
What are some perception effects This principle maintains that the human mind considers ob ects in their entirety before
in products the perception of their individual parts suggesting the whole is seen rather than the
sum of its parts.
Notes:
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1.3 Physiological Factors
Designers study physical characteristics to optimi e the user’s safety, health, comfort and performance. Understanding complex
biomechanics and designing products to enable full functionality of body parts can return independence and personal and social
ell being to an individual.
What is Physiological factors Physiological factors have more to do ith bodily tolerances (ho much can the body
concerned ith ithstand) such as comfort and fatigue. When users interact ith products, they may
put stress on their bodies.
What is Physical ergonomics Physical ergonomics is concerned ith human anatomy, and some of the
concerned ith anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to
physical activity. Physical ergonomic principles have been idely used in the design of
both consumer and industrial products.
What are some human values It also considers hich activities can be carried out and ho human values (for example,
ith types of physiological uality of life, improved safety, reduced fatigue and stress, increased comfort levels and
factors ob satisfaction) are enhanced.
What is Fatigue When people get tired they react in different ays. Fatigue is the temporary
diminishment of performance. Fatigue can be physical and or mental. Fatigue can inform
design decisions and can affect users.
What is Comfort Comfort is a ualitative consideration and differs massively bet een different people.
Comfort is a physiological factors that inform design decisions and can affect users.
o can designing ergonomically Healthy Workforce: Instead of orkers ad usting to standard tools and e uipment,
enhanced ork environments and ergonomics promotes product designing based on human body structure and
products have advantages for the re uirements. Therefore, these products drastically reduce the strain orkers experience
employer and employee due to repetitive use of machines, computers, scanners, industrial apparatus and related
instruments. ess strain e uates to reduced instance of occupational illnesses and
therefore healthier employees.
Enhanced Productivity A healthy orkforce translates to enhanced productivity. Easy to
use e uipment keeps the ork momentum going on for longer durations. Workers
experience less fatigue and are happy to use tools designed especially for them.
Reduced Number of Sick Days Reported: People ith reduced instance of ork
associated ailments implies they take fe er days off due to sickness and ork more
number of days in a year. This means lesser number of orkdays is lost.
Savings y using ergonomic orkstations, employers save huge amounts of money
other ise spent in compensation claims, treatments and litigation.
What is biomechanics in human iomechanics in human factors includes the research and analysis of the mechanics
factors concerned ith (operation of our muscles, oints, tendons, etc.) of our human body.
With biomechanics, measuring the amount of force put on the muscles and oints of
people hen orking in different positions can be tested by determining hich positions
make use of an individual’s muscular strength. iomechanics in human factor design
deals ith four key criteria
● Force
● Repetition
● Duration
● Posture
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To ic
Resource management & sustainable production
2.1 Resource and reserves
Resource management and sustainable production carefully consider three key issues consumption of ra materials,
consumption of energy, and production of aste in relation to managing resources and reserves effectively and making
production more sustainable. As non-rene able resources run out, designers need to develop innovative solutions to meet basic
human needs for energy, food and ra materials. The development of rene able and sustainable resources is one of the ma or
challenges of the 21st century for designers.
Resources Resources are the stock or supply of materials that are available in a given context.
Renewable resources A natural source hich can replenish ith time they make take place as energy or
commodities, some ill re uire careful management i.e. plantation of timber others are
deemed inexhaustible i.e. ind and solar.
Non-Renewable A non-rene able resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not
rene (replenish) itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction, for
example, coal, petroleum, natural gas, fossil fuels, minerals and ores.
Comparison of rene able and
1.) Are inexhaustible 1.) Resources are present in fixed and
2.) Are not affected by human activities limited uantities.
3.) Release less carbon emissions 2.) Are exhaustible.
4.) More expensive to implement. 3.) Release more carbon emissions.
eg. hydroelectric, geothermal, solar, 4.) ess expensive to implement.
wind, tidal eg. coal, timber, natural gas, oil, nuclear
Renewability Rene ability relates to a resource that can be replenished over time or is inexhaustible,
for example ood from trees, and fresh drinking ater Conserving resources and
technologies that improve energy efficiency.
The development of rene able The economic and political importance of material and land resources and reserves
and sustainable resources is one considering set-up cost, efficiency of conversion, sustainable and constant supply, social
of the ma or challenges of the impact, environmental impact and decommissioning
21st century for designers.
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2.2 Waste mitigation strategies
Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate the volume of material disposed to landfill. The abundance of resources and
ra materials in the industrial age led to the development of a thro a ay society, and as resources run out, the many facets of
sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the thro a ay society is large amounts of materials
found in landfill, hich can be considered as a ne source to mine resources from.
Waste mitigation strategies The abundance of resources and ra materials in the industrial age led to the
development of a thro a ay society, and as resources run out, the many facets of
sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the thro a ay
society is large amounts of materials found in landfill, hich can be considered as a ne
source to mine resources from.
Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate materials directed to landfill. The
prevention, monitoring and handling of aste, coming up ith solutions to deal ith
pollution and aste
Re-use Reuse of the same product in same context or a different context
Examples include Water ottles, Plastic ags, Glass ottles, Toothbrush, Clothes
Repair The reconstruction or rene al of any part of an existing structure or device. To
mend restore service faulty e uipment, the life-cycle of many products
is designed so that they or parts deteriorate over time.
Examples Washing machine belt, Shoe soles, ightbulb, Cars - bumpers, lights, Fix an
inner tube on a bicycle
Re-engineer To redesign components or products to improve their characteristics or performance.
(speed, energy consumption). Examples include F1 cars - here aerodynamics is
changed (shape) or lighter ne materials used
Recondition Rebuilding a product so that it is in an as ne condition, and is generally used in the
context of car engines and tyres. Examples include car engines, tyres, bearings, etc
Dematerialisation Reducing the uantities of materials trying to do more ith less . ooking at the
constraints of the materials e use, through reduction and reuse of materials. Examples
include the changes made to the ne Mac Pro vs the old Mac Pro version.
Demateriali ation improves product efficiency by saving, reusing or recycling materials
and products. It impacts on every stage of the product life cycle in material extraction
eco-design cleaner production environmentally conscious consumption patterns
recycling of aste. It may mean smaller, lighter products and packaging the replacement
of physical products by virtual products (email instead of paper, eb pages instead of
brochures) home orking, and so on.
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Methodologies for designing out -The prevention, monitoring and handling of aste, coming up ith solutions to deal
waste ith pollution and aste.
-Product recovery strategies at end-of-life disposal
-Energy from aste, reuse of parts of products, recycling from parts of products.
-Circular economy-the use of aste as a resource ithin a closed loop system
-Environmentalists have a large influence on product marketability, designers and
manufactures often ork together to design products hich are deemed as
Green Environmentally friendly.
Product recovery strategies Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products to create other products.
Recycling
Product recovery strategies The processes of separating the component parts of a product to recover the parts and
Raw material recovery materials.
Product recovery strategies WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components from electrical products that
WEEE Recovery because of their ha ardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause ma or
environmental and health problems.
Product recovery strategies Reduction of total material and energy throughput of a product or service, and the
Standard parts at the end of limitation of its environmental impact through reduction of ra materials at the
product life production stage energy and material inputs at the user stage aste at the disposal
stage
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) ife-cycle assessment ( CA, also kno n as life-cycle analysis) is a techni ue to assess
environmental impacts associated ith all the stages of a product s life from cradle to
grave (i.e., from ra material extraction through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling).
Circular economy the use of An economy model in hich resources remain in use for as long as possible, from hich
aste as a resource ithin a maximum value is extracted hile in use, and the products and materials are recovered
closed loop system and regenerated at the end of the product life cycle.
External drivers and ● Increasing supply chain pressure
social change ● Public opinion
● Energy costs
● Waste charges
● Take-back legislation
● The obligation to provide environment-related information
● orms and standards
● Eco-labelling schemes
● Subsidies
● Environmental competition
● Environmental re uirements in consumer tests
● Environmental re uirements for design a ards
● Increasing cooperation ith suppliers
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2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution Waste mitigation
strategies
There are several factors to be considered ith respect to energy and design. Efficient energy use is an important consideration
for designers in today’s society. Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the environment. A
designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy re uired to provide products or services using ne er technologies or creative
implementation of systems to reduce usage. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation, hile driving the
same amount but ith a higher mileage car is energy efficient.
Energy utili ation, storage and Efficient energy use is an important consideration for designers in today’s society.
distribution Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the
environment. A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy re uired to provide
products or services using ne er technologies or creative implementation of systems to
reduce usage. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation, hile
driving the same amount but ith a higher mileage car is energy efficient.
Distributing energy national and The ay in hich electricity is distributed along the grid and the energy loss involved
international grid systems from small source collection and delivery, to large scale and the effect on the
environment.
Systems for individual energy Systems for individual energy generation such as microgeneration includes the
generation small-scale generation of heat and electric po er by individuals, small businesses and
communities to meet their o n needs, as alternatives or supplements to traditional
centrali ed grid-connected po er. E.g. solar po er, ind turbines or biogas rain ater
harvesting, compost toilets and grey ater treatments among others.
uantification of carbon ● record carbon emissions
emissions Measuring ● discover ho much is being produced
● discover ho here it is produced
● track your carbon footprint
Mitigation of carbon emissions ● umans intervention in the reduction of carbon emissions
Reducing ● These contribute to global arming
● Resulting in melting polar caps, rising seas, desertification,
● provide Sinks’ that can reabsorb carbon emissions
● A Sink’ are forests, vegetation or soils.
atteries, capacitors and An electric battery is a device consisting of t o or more electrochemical cells that
capacities considering relative convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. atteries and other electronic
cost, efficiency, environmental components (capacitors, chips, etc) have had a great impact on the portability of
impact and reliability. electronic products and, as ne technologies are developed, they can become more
efficient and smaller. atteries are made from important resources and chemicals,
including lead, cadmium, inc, lithium and mercury. It’s important to understand the
effects of your decisions as batteries are categorised into igh, Medium and o
through the use of a sustainable lens (charging, impact on eco-system, etc).
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2.4 Clean Technologies
Clean technology seeks to reduce aste pollution from production processes through radical or incremental development of a
production system. Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries, including ater, energy, manufacturing, advanced
materials and transportation. As our Earth’s resources are slo ly depleted, demand for energy orld ide should be on every
designer’s mind hen generating products, systems and services. The convergence of environmental, technological, economic
and social factors ill produce more energy-efficient technologies that ill be less reliant on obsolete, polluting technologies.
Clean Technology Products, services or processes that reduce aste and re uire the minimum amount of
non-rene able resources. Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries,
including ater, energy, manufacturing, advanced materials and transportation. As our
Earth s resources are slo ly depleted, demand for energy orld ide should be on every
designer’s minds hen generating products, systems and services. The convergence of
environmental, technological, economic and social factors ill produce more energy
efficient technologies that ill be less reliant on obsolete, polluting technologies.
Drivers for cleaning up Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by
manufacturing the local community and media. The reasons for cleaning up manufacturing include
● promoting positive impacts
● ensuring neutral impact or minimi ing negative impacts through conserving
natural resources
● reducing pollution and use of energy
● reducing aste of energy and resources
reakdo n of environmental
problems products can cause and
their geographical scale Geographical scale Types of environmental problem
oise, smell, air pollution, soil and ater
Local
pollution
Pollution of rivers, regional aters and
Fluvial
atersheds
one levels, acidification, inter smog,
Continental
heavy metals
Climatic change, sea level rise, impact on
Global
the o one layer
Legislation The role and scale of legislation are dependent upon the type of manufacturing and the
varied perspectives in different countries. Consider ho legislation provides an impetus
to manufacturers to clean up manufacturing processes and also ho manufacturers
react to legislation. Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or
pressure created by the local community and media.
Governments, politicians and businesses have to consider the effects of manufacturing
on the environment. In recent years raised a areness of environmental issues is
increasing pressure on governments to introduce or comply ith legislation regarding
environmental issues. These re uirements bind companies to legislation and if these
re uirements are not met then financial penalties can be imposed.
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International targets for reducing Sometimes, agreements are made at an international or continental level to create
pollution and aste targets for reducing pollution and aste. These agreements are usually discussed and
agreed upon at international summits and meetings. ften conflicts and disagreements
arise bet een countries trying to decide caps or limits on pollution or aste making
agreements or settlements difficult to achieve. Some countries may be more affected by
such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits of companies ill
suffer as a result.Some recent agreements include yoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol and
the Carbon Trading Scheme.
System level solutions A System level solution embraces the idea of a solution to the problem of pollution and
aste as a hole and is concerned ith the interrelationship rather than individual
elements. It helps policymakers and energy planners understand the impacts of existing
and proposed legislation, policy, and plans on rene able energy development and
deployment at the local, state, regional, and national levels.
Agreements are made at an international or continental level to create targets for
reducing pollution and aste. These agreements are usually discussed and agreed upon
at international summits and meetings. ften conflicts and disagreements arise
bet een countries trying to decide caps or limits on pollution or aste making
agreements or settlements difficult to achieve. Some countries may be more affected by
such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits of companies ill
suffer as a result.
Notes:
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2.5 Green Design
Green design integrates environmental considerations into the design of a product ithout compromising its integrity. The
starting point for many green products is to improve an existing product by redesigning aspects of it to address environmental
ob ectives. The iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on ho effectively ne
technologies can address the environmental ob ectives. When ne er technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the
development phase for further improvement.
Green Design The product- role of designer The starting point for many green products is to improve
an existing product by redesigning aspects of it to address environmental ob ectives. The
iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on ho
effectively ne technologies can address the environmental ob ectives. When ne er
technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the development phase for further
improvement.
Green legislation a s and regulations that are based on conservation and sustainability principles,
follo ed by designers and manufacturers hen creating green products.
Green legislation often encourages incremental, rather than radical approaches to green
design. Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits hile protecting
public health, elfare and the environment throughout their life cycle from the
extraction of ra materials to final disposal.
Incremental innovation is sometimes referred to as continuous improvement, and the
business attitude associated ith it is inside-the-box’ thinking. A simple product may be
improved (in terms of better performance or lo er costs) through the use of higher
performance components or materials. A complex product that consists of integrated
technical subsystems can be improved by partial changes to one level of a sub-system.
Incremental innovations do not involve ma or investments or risks. User experience and
feedback is important and may dominate as a source for innovation ideas
Radical innovation involves the development of ne key design elements such as
change in a product component combined ith a ne architecture for linking
components. The result is a distinctively ne product, product-service, or product
system that is markedly different from the company’s existing product line. A high level
of uncertainty is associated ith radical innovation pro ects, especially at early stages.
Timescale to implement green ften, legislation re uires governments and manufacturers to comply over many years.
design This can be beneficial to companies and manufacturers as they can adopt incremental
approaches to green design therefore minimising the cost, ho ever some environmental
concerns, for example carbon dioxide reduction and climate change re uire immediate
action.
Legislation Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle
specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or
energy efficiency.
Incremental changes to a design and as such is relatively easy to implement, for
example, legislation relating to the use of catalytic converters for cars. The timescale for
implementing green design is relatively short (typically 2 5 years) and therefore
cost-effective.
Consumer Pressure The public have become a are of environmental issues through media focus on issues
such as the destructive effect of chlorofluorocarbons on the o one layer acid rain in
orthern European forests and the nuclear accident at Chernobyl. Increased public
a areness has put pressure on corporations and governments.
CFCs ere the ideal refrigerants during their time. They ere nonflammable, non
corrosive, nontoxic, and odorless. Used consumer products during the 7 s and s, such
as refrigerators, cleansing products, and propellants. CFC’s ere found to be destructive
to the one layer.
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Drivers for green design Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others.
(consumer pressure and Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle
legislation) specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or
energy efficiency. Unfortunately, many companies value short term profit and value for
shareholders over the impact of their activities on the environment. Some companies
lobby governments so that they can be exempt from legislation, or to try and persuade
them to ater do n’ legislation. Sometimes consumer pressure can be ust as effective
as legislation. Through social media, the bad behaviour of companies can be exposed
uickly, reach a ider audience and consumers can decide as a large group to boycott a
company. Social media has allo ed the influence of consumers to gro exponentially.
This can hurt a company s profits greatly, persuading them to clean up their act.
Design objectives for green Design ob ectives for green products ill often address three broad environmental
products categories.
● Materials
● Energy
● Pollution Waste
These objectives include
1. increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and other resources
2. minimi ing damage or pollution from the chosen materials
3. reducing to a minimum any long-term harm caused by use of the product
4. ensuring that the planned life of the product is most appropriate in
environmental terms and that the product functions efficiently for its full life
5. taking full account of the effects of the end disposal of the product
6. ensuring that the packaging and instructions encourage efficient and
environmentally friendly use
7. minimi ing nuisances such as noise or smell
. analysing and minimi ing potential safety ha ards
. minimi ing the number of different materials used in a product
1 . labelling of materials so they can be identified for recycling.
When evaluating product sustainability, students need to consider
1. ra materials used
2. packaging
3. incorporation of toxic chemicals
4. energy in production and use
5. end-of-life disposal issues
6. production methods
7. atmospheric pollutants.
Strategies for designing Green The environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product can be
Products modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage. When
designing Green product consideration must be made for
● ra materials used
● packaging
● incorporation of toxic chemicals
● energy in production and use
● end-of-life disposal issues
● production methods
● atmospheric pollutants.
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The prevention principle The avoidance or minimization of ha ards and aste. It aims to address the
occupational health and safety concerns through each stage of the product life cycle.
A number of risk assessment tools can be used by companies to assess their operations
for risk and introduce management systems to protect the health and safety of
employees and minimise waste.
● no ledge based
● Actual risk of causing harm can be assessed
● ccurrence of damage is probable if no measure is taken
● Regulation emission frame ork defines substantial criteria (eg. emissions
thresholds)
● Definition of acceptable risk is primarily science based
The precautionary principle The anticipation of potential problems in relation to the environmental impact of the
production, use and disposal of a product. The precautionary principle permits a lo er
level of proof of harm to be used in policy-making henever the conse uences of
aiting for higher levels of proof may be very costly and or irreversible.
● Uncertainty
● Risk cannot be calculated and is only a suspected risk of causing harm
● ccurrence of damage is uncertain and cannot be predicted clearly
● Regulation through procedural re uirements
● Social acceptance of the risk is considered
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2.6 Eco Design
Eco-design considers the design of a product throughout its life cycle (from cradle to grave) using lifecycle analysis. Efficient
energy use is an important consideration for designers in today’s society. Energy conservation and efficient energy use are
pivotal in our impact on the environment. A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy re uired to provide products or
services using ne er technologies or creative implementation of systems to reduce usage. For example, driving less is an
example of energy conservation, hile driving the same amount but ith a higher mileage car is energy efficient.
Eco Design Eco-design is a more comprehensive approach than green design because it attempts
to focus on all three broad environmental categories materials, energy and
pollution aste. This makes eco-design more complex and difficult to do.
Impact of internal and external
drivers for eco-design from an
economic perspective Internal drivers for eco-design External drivers for eco-design
Manager s sense of responsibility Government
The need for a better product and
Social environment
company image
The need to reduce costs Competitors
The need to increase personnel
Supplies
motivation
Cradle to grave Cradle to grave design considers the environmental effects of a product all of the ay
from manufacture to use to disposal
Cradle to the Gate Cradle to the Gate (Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from
resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the
consumer).
Life Cycle stages: Make sure you are able to assess the environmental impact of a given product over its
life cycle through LCA ( ife Cycle Assessment)-Pre-production, Production, Distribution
including packaging, Utilization and Disposal. The complex nature of CA means that it
is not possible for a lone designer to undertake it and a team ith different specialism is
re uired. CA is complex, time-consuming and expensive, so the ma ority of eco-designs
are based on less detailed ualitative assessments of likely impacts of a product over its
life cycle. The simplest example is the use of a checklist to guide the design team during
a product’s design development stages.
UNEP Ecodesign Manual In 1 6 the United nations released an Eco-design manual also kno n as Design for
Sustainability (D4S). The ma or concerns outlined in the U EP Ecodesign Manual ere
to
● increase recyclability
● reduce energy re uirements
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● maximise use of rene able resources
● reduce creation and use of toxic materials
● reduce material re uirements of goods and services
● increase product durability and reduced planned obsolescence
Environmental impact Environmental considerations include water, soil pollution and degradation, air
assessment matrix contamination, noise, energy consumption, consumption of natural resources,
pollution and effect on ecosystems
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Topic 3
Modelling
3.1 Conceptual modelling
A conceptual model originates in the mind and its primary purpose is to outline the principles, processes and basic functions of a
design or system. Designers use conceptual modelling to assist their understanding by simulating the sub ect matter they
represent. Designers should consider systems, services and products in relation to hat they should do, ho they should
behave, hat they look like and hether they ill be understood by the users in the manner intended.
What is the role of conceptual A conceptual model originates in the mind and its primary purpose is to outline the
modelling in design principles, processes and basic functions of a design or system. Conceptual models are
used to help us kno and understand ideas. Concept models are useful for
communicating ne ideas that are unfamiliar to people.
o do conceptual models vary in Conceptual models may vary in range from the more concrete , such as mental image
relation to the context that appears in mind, to the abstract mathematical models that do not appear directly in
What are some of the conceptual mind as an image. Conceptual models also range from scope of the sub ect they are
modelling tools and skills needed representing. For example, they can represent either a single model (Statue of iberty),
hole classes of things ( f.e. electron) or even a vast domains of sub ect matter , such as
physical universe. Conceptual models are used to help us kno and understand, design
thinking, ideas, casual relationships, principles, data, systems, algorithms or processes.
● Graphical Modelling
Sketches
Dra ings
Flo charts
● Physical Modelling
Card
Clay
Rapid prototype (3D printing)
alsa ood
lue styrofoam
● irtual Modelling
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Surface or Solid modelling, FEA, Data
modeling
What is service design Service design is the activity of planning and organi ing people, infrastructure,
communication and material components of a service in order to improve its uality and
the interaction bet een service provider and customers. The purpose to design
according to the needs of the customers so the product is user-friendly, competitive
and relevant.
o are conceptual models used Concept models are used to communicate ideas that might be difficult to imagine
to communicate ith oneself and other ise. Designers use conceptual modelling to visualise and communicate ideas by
others simulating hat they ant to design.
What are the advantages and
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3.2 Graphical modelling
Graphical models are used to communicate design ideas. Graphical models can take many forms, but their prime function is
al ays the same to simplify the data and present it in such a ay that understanding of hat is being presented aids further
development or discussion. Designers utili e graphical modelling as a tool to explore creative solutions and refine ideas from the
technically impossible to the technically possible, idening the constraints of hat is feasible.
What What they are used for What they look like
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Part drawings A part drawing provides the information to
assembly a product in a similar ay that an
assembly dra ing does ith additional benefit
of having a list of parts P or ill of
Materials M . A dra ing of individual parts
to help kno hich part is broken and ho to
repair it.
An exploded assembly drawing that sho s the
parts separated, but in the correct relationship
for fitting together. Exploded vie s are usually
dra n in 3D.
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Algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an
algorithm is a self-contained step-by-step set
of operations to be performed.
Seen here ith a flo chart.
Notes:
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3.3 Physical modelling
A physical model is a three-dimensional, tangible representation of a design or system. Designers use physical models to
visuali e information about the context that the model represents. It is very common for physical models of large ob ects to be
scaled do n and smaller ob ects scaled up for ease of visuali ation. The primary goal of physical modelling is to test aspects of a
product against user re uirements. Thorough testing at the design development stage ensures that an appropriate product is
developed.
Term Definition Example/advantages & disadvantages
What is Physical A physical model is a
modelling? three-dimensional, tangible
representation of a design or a system.
Appearance Model’
Advantages:
-They allo the user to visuali e the product and identifying
any problems ith the product easily.
-The user can understand ho the product ould look in a real
environment.
Disadvantages
-It can be a time consuming process to create the physical
model.
-It can’t be manipulated the same ay a digital model can be.
Scale A scale model is a smaller or larger
models physical copy of an ob ect. Scale
models allo visuali ation, from
examining the model, of information
about hat the model represents. A
scale is usually represented e.g. 1 1
A good example of scale models is seen
in architecture, hereby a full-si e
building is modelled at a greatly
reduced scale. This enables designers
to visuali e the structure of the
building, but also the exterior and
interior aesthetics and lines. Advantages:
-The model can be overvie ed easily, especially if the original
design is exceptionally large.
-As it is scaled, it gives an idea of ho large the model ill be
hen it is actually produced built.
Disadvantages:
-Can be time consuming to create a perfectly scale model.
-Apart from providing the user ith visual information about
the product, it is hard to manipulate it to sho ho it orks.
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Aesthetic Aesthetic models are developed to
models look and feel like the final product. They
are used for many purposes including
ergonomic testing and evaluating
visual appeal. Aesthetic models look
like but do not ork like the final
product. Aesthetic models can be
relatively simple, consisting of solid
chunks of foam finished and painted to
look like the real thing, or they can be
more sophisticated, simulating eight,
balance and material properties.
Usually, aesthetic models are for
sho and are not designed to be
Advantages:
handled excessively. They give
-They can be used instead of digital models to give the user an
non-designers a good representation
idea of ho the product ould look like in a real environment.
of the feel and look of an ob ect. For
-They can be used to give production engineers data to assess
example, production engineers can
the feasibility of producing the product.
take data to assess feasibility for
Disadvantages:
matching manufacturing systems.
-They are non- orking models and they only provide a visual
model of the product.
-They are fairly expensive to produce as the surface finish can
be difficult to recreate.
Functional A functional prototype is a sample or
Prototypes model built to test a concept or process
or to act as an ob ect to be replicated or
learned from. A prototype is used to
test and validate ideas and can be used
throughout design development.
Prototyping can be used to provide
specifications for a real, orking
product rather than a theoretical one.
Prototypes are developed to ork from
t o perspectives the point of vie of
the development team, hich can learn
by creating the product, and the point
of vie of the user, from hom the Advantages:
development team can learn through -Is a semi to fully functioning model of a product and thus it
user interaction and feedback. A can be used to test the functions of the final product out.
prototype can be developed at different -It can provide specifications for the parts involved in a real
fidelities ithin a range of user and product and ho they ould function together.
environment contexts. Disadvantages:
-Can be slightly expensive to make as the prototype needs to
be able to function.
-Does not take aesthetics into account as it primarily tests the
function of the product.
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Instrumented Instrumented physical models are
models e uipped ith the ability to take
measurements to provide accurate
uantitative feedback for analysis.
They can be used effectively to
investigate many phenomena such as
fluid flo s in hydraulic systems or
ithin ind tunnels, stress ithin
structures and user interaction ith a
product. For example, an instrumented
model of a keyboard can record the Advantages:
actions of the user and provide data on -Can be used to take accurate measurements related to the
ho often keys are used and the performance of the product, and can be used to improve the
number of errors a user makes (that is, product further.
the number of times the backspace or -Can be used to record the dynamic behaviour of an ob ect, in
delete key is used). These models can other ords, data can be taken on ho the product functions
be scaled in terms of both geometry in a controlled environment.
and important forces. Disadvantages:
-Can take time and be very expensive to set up.
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3.4 Computer-aided design (CAD)
A computer-aided design is the generation, creation, development and analysis of a design or system using computer soft are.
As technologies improve and the soft are becomes more po erful, so do the opportunities for designers to create ne and
exciting products, services and systems. Greater freedom in customi ation and personali ation of products has a significant
impact on the end user. The ability to virtually prototype, visuali e and share designs enhances the hole design cycle from data
analysis through to final designs.
Term Definition Example/advantages & disadvantages
Surface modelling Surface models are photo-realistic
images of a product, offering some
machining data but no data about the
interior of the product.
-photo-realistic images of a product, offering some
machining data
- o data about the interior of the product.
Solid modelling Solid models are clear representations
of the final product. They provide a
complete set of data for the product to
be reali ed including internal
dimensions and volume.
Solid models are clear representations of the final
product. They provide a complete set of data for the
product to be reali ed including internal dimensions
and volume.
Data modelling A data model explicitly determines the
also known as structure of data or structured data
Mathematical modelling/ including statistical modelling. Typical
Statistical modelling data models include databases and
information systems
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Virtual prototyping irtual prototyping involves the use of
surface and solid modelling to develop
photo-realistic interactive models.
These can be considered digital
mock-ups.
aguar and and Rover moving to virtual 3D vehicle
prototyping
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Digital humans Digital humans are computer
simulations of a variety of mechanical
and biological aspects of the human
body. They can be used to interact
ith a virtual prototype. uman
simulation in product design enables a
product to be developed more uickly,
as there can be more design iterations
in less time. This results in higher
product uality that meets human
re uirements more accurately. Digital
prototypes are cheaper to produce
than physical prototypes. Products are
safer as a result of more thorough
analysis of safety aspects. Improved
productivity results from enhanced
automation of the development
process.
Haptic technology aptic technology is a technology that
interfaces the user via a sense of
touch. Also kno n as force feedback
technology, haptic technology orks
by using mechanical actuators
(motor) to apply forces to the user. y
simulating the physics of the user’s
virtual orld, it is possible to compute
these forces into real time. aptic
technology allo s the user to become
part of a computer simulation and to
interact ith it, enabling the designer
to observe the user’s performance and
to design a better outcome. It can also
be used in situations here it is
difficult to train in the real
environment. aptic technology is
also used in feedback devices used in
home entertainment consoles.
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Virtual reality (VR) irtual reality is the ability to simulate
a real situation on the screen and
interact ith it in a near-natural ay.
Animation Animation is the ability to link graphic
screens together in such a ay as to
simulate motion or a process.
Finite element analysis Finite element analysis involves the
(FEA) calculation and simulation of unkno n
factors in products using CAD
systems, for example, simulating
stresses ithin a elded car part.
(virtual model)
Uses colour indication to sho
-Structural load (stress and strain)
-Aerodynamics
-Thermodynamics
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3.5 Rapid prototyping
Rapid prototyping is the production of a physical model of a design using three-dimensional CAD data. The gro th in computing
po er has had a ma or impact on modelling ith computer-aided manufacture. Rapid soft are and hard are developments
allo ne opportunities and exciting ne technologies to create dynamic modelling of ever-greater complexity. Models can be
simulated by designers using soft are, tested and trialled virtually before sending to a variety of peripheral machines for
prototype manufacture in an ever-increasing range of materials. The ease of sending this digital data across continents for
manufacture of prototypes has ma or implications for data and design protection.
What How it works Image of process
Laminated object It takes the sliced CAD data from a 3D
manufacturing model and cuts out each layer from a
( M) roll of material, using a laser or plotter
cutter. These sliced layers are glued
together to form the model, hich is
either built on a movable platform
belo the machine or on locating pins
hen using card.
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Topic 4
Raw material to final product
4.1 Properties of materials
Materials are selected for manufacturing products based primarily on their properties. The rapid pace of scientific discovery and
ne technologies has had a ma or impact on material science, giving designers many more materials from hich to choose for
their products. These ne materials have given scope for smart ne products or enhanced classic designs. Choosing the right
material is a complex and difficult task ith physical, aesthetic, mechanical and appropriate properties to consider.
Environmental, moral and ethical issues surrounding choice of materials for use in any product, service or system also need to be
considered.
Define Physical properties These properties tend to be the characteristic of materials that can be identified through
testing that is considered to be non-destructive, although some deformation is re uired
to test hardness. This exception is often hy hardness is often catergorised as a
mechanical property.
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Stress Force
Cross Sectional Area
Strain Change in ength
riginal ength
This straight line region is kno n as elastic region and the material can regain its
original shape after removal of load. The stress and strain are directly proportional up to
point A.
Point is kno n as the Yield Point. nce the material has crossed the ield Point the
material ill not return to it’s original shape, this is kno n as the plastic region.
The line bet een AC is not a straight line and strain increases faster than stress. The
material ill change in length faster at these points than at any other point.
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At this point C the cross sectional area of the material starts decreasing. At point D the
orkpiece changes its length ith a little or ithout any increase in stress up to point E.
Point F is called ultimate stress point or fracture point. A material is considered to have
completely failed once it reaches the ultimate stress.
Measuring hen a material reaches it’s ield Point is called the oung’s Modulus.
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Definitions Taste - the ability to detect the flavour of substances such as food and poisons.
Smell - the ability of humans and other animals to perceive odors. Consider the scene in
atato i e i here he experiences the taste of food in vibrant technicolor, think
about ho smells evoke memories, the smell of fresh bread hen you enter a
supermarket, food smells making you hungry, etc.
Appearance - related to ho something looks. What a product looks like. Is it colourful
masculine feminin funny sexy sleek minimal clean busy etc. The appearance of a
product appeals to different demographics such as age, gender, culture, ethnicity, etc.
Shopper place a large emphasis on colour, so does brand recognition IE Coca Cola
Texture - the properties held and sensations caused by the external surface of ob ects
received through the sense of touch. e.g. smoothness of kitchen ork surfaces for
reasons of hygiene, tiles around a s imming pool (i.e. roughened surface to prevent
slipping hen et). ard, Soft, Abrasive, Smooth. Wood has a grain pattern, metal has a
cold texture.
Colour- is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories of
colours.
● ptical e.g. opa ue, translucent, transparent
● Colour e.g ot, Cold, Warm, Mello , right, ivid, Cool
● Effects on emotions. e.g. sense of armth’ and coldness’ i.e. arm’
red orange yello cool’ violet green blue. The use and application of such
kno ledge in the designed environment. e.g. decoration, symbols, artefacts.
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Smart Materials Smart materials have one or more properties that can be dramatically altered, for example, viscosity,
volume, conductivity. The property that can be altered influences the application of the smart material.
Piezoelectricity is a term that is derived from the greek meaning When a piezoelectric material is deformed, it
for pie o, s uee e or pressure here electricity is gives off a small electrical discharge. When an
generated hen pie oelectric material is electric current is passed through it, it increases in
deformed, The pressure acting upon the si e (up to a 4 change in volume). These
material it gives off a small electrical discharge. materials are idely used as sensors in different
environments. Pie oelectric materials are used in
the airbag sensor on a car as it senses the force of
an impact on the car and sends an electric charge
to activate the airbag.
Shape memory Metals that exhibit pseudo-elasticity and shape They can be used to make products for durable
alloy (SMA's) memory effect due to rearrangement of the and harder to break. i.e. Glasses frames
molecules in the material. Pseudo-elasticity
occurs without a change in temperature or The shape memory effect allo s severe
electrical voltage. The load on the SMA causes deformation of a material, hich can then be
molecular rearrangement, hich reverses hen returned to its original shape by heating it.
the load is decreased and the material springs
back to its original shape.
Photochromicity Material that can described as having a elding goggles mask. cool tee shirts. reactor
reversible change of colour when exposed to light sunglasses
light. ne of the most popular applications is for
colour-changing sunglass lenses, hich can
darken as the sun light intensifies. A chemical
either on the surface of the lens or embedded
ithin the glass reacts to ultraviolet light, hich
causes it to change form and therefore its light
absorption spectra.
Thermoelectricity Thermoelectricity is, at its simplest, electricity est as co-founded by former Apple engineers
produced directly from heat. It involves the Fadell and Rogers in 2 1 and no produces a
oining of t o dissimilar conductors that, hen range of household monitoring devices. The
heated, produce a direct current. Thermoelectric temperature monitors uses thermocouples to
circuits have been used in remote areas and drive the electrical signal to provide the data. est
space probes to po er radio transmitters and products form part of the interface to create
receivers. smart systems that are remotely driven through
smartphone apps.
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4.2a Metals and metallic alloys
Materials are classified into six basic groups based on their different properties. Typically hard and shiny ith good electrical and
thermal conductivity, metals are a very useful resource for the manufacturing industry. Most pure metals are either too soft,
brittle or chemically reactive for practical use and so understanding ho to manipulate these materials is vital to the success of
any application.
Extracting metal from ore A metal ore is a rock containing a metal, or a metal compound, in a high enough
The Earth s crust contains concentration to make it economic to extract the metal. The method used to extract
metals and metal compounds metals from the ore in hich they are found depends on their reactivity. For example,
such as gold, iron oxide and reactive metals such as aluminium are extracted by electrolysis, hile a less-reactive
aluminium oxide, but hen metal such as iron may be extracted by reduction ith carbon or carbon monoxide. Thus
found in the Earth these are the method of extraction of a metal from its ore depends on the metal s position in the
often mixed ith other reactivity series
substances. To be useful, the
metals have to be extracted
from hatever they are mixed
ith.
Aluminium Extraction Aluminium ore, most commonly
bauxite, is plentiful and occurs
mainly in tropical and sub-tropical
areas. Bauxite is refined into
aluminium oxide trihydrate (alumina)
and then electrolytically reduced
into metallic aluminium.
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Grain size Metals are crystalline structures comprised of individual grains. The grain si e can vary
and be determined by heat treatment, particularly ho uickly a metal is cooled. uick
cooling results in small grains, slo cooling results in large grains. Grain si e in metals can
affect the density, tensile strength and flexibility.
The smaller the grains in the metal the higher density the metal is. igher density means a
lo er flexibility and sometime tensile strength. The tensile strength and flexibility ill also
depend on ho the metal is tempered normally. The rate of cooling and the amount of
impurities in the molten metal ill affect its grain si e
● Gradual cooling - a fe crystals are formed - large grain si e
● Rapid cooling - many crystals formed - small grain si e.
● Reheating a solid metal alloy allo s the grain structure to re-align itself.
● Directional cooling in a structure is achieved by selectively cooling one area of a
solid.
The effect of impurities (or additives) in a molten metal can induce a large number of fine
grains that ill give a stronger and harder metal. This addition must be carefully controlled
as too many impurities may cause an accumulation at the grain boundaries, hich ill
eaken the material.
Superalloys Design criteria for superalloys:
- Excellent mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures
- Corrosion and oxidation resistance
Creep Resistance:
- Creep is the gradual extension of a materials under constant force. Dependant on
temp. and pressure.
- ccurs as a result of thermal vibrations of the lattice. Can result in fracture of
superalloy due to development of cavities in the material
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Oxidation Resistance:
- Presence of other metals such as chromium ensure that a tight oxide film is
formed on the surface
- This restricts access of oxygen to the metal surface so that the rate of oxidation
is heavily reduced.
Applications of Superalloys: ickel ased Alloy
- et Engine Components (Turbine blades operate at high temperature and under
extreme stress conditions. In operation they ill glo red hot, ho ever they
must be creep resistant, fatigue and corrosion resistant.
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Contexts where different metals and metallic alloys are used
Classification and Type Properties (pro's and con's) Example of products
of Metal
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4.2b Timber
Timber is a ma or building material that is rene able and uses the Sun’s energy to rene itself in a continuous cycle. While
timber manufacture uses less energy and results in less air and ater pollution than steel or concrete, consideration needs to be
given to deforestation and the potential negative environmental impact the use of timber can have on communities and ildlife.
Characteristics of natural timber atural timber is timber that is used directly from the tree after being seasoned (a
controlled drying process). It is actually a type of composite material because it is made
up of cellulose ( ood fibres) held together ith a natural adhesive (lignin).
The tensile strength of timber is greater along the grain (fibre) than across the grain
(matrix).
atural timber is classified into t o main categories Softwood and Hardwood.
● Soft ood comes from oni ero s trees. These have needles that are kept
year-round.
● ard ood comes from de id o s trees. These are broad leaved and often shed
their leaves during inter, depending on the climate.
The orld’s forests can be divided into temperate and tropical
● Temperate forests are in the regions bet een the tropics and the polar areas,
mainly in the northern hemisphere. oth hard oods and so t oods ro in
te perate orests Tropical forests are in the region bet een the 2 tropics.
enera y on y hard oods are o nd in these orests
Conversion of timber After a tree has been felled/cut down and
taken to a sa mill, it is converted ready for
seasoning. After the timber dries out, it is cut
into smaller sections.
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Characteristics of natural timber - ard ood trees are mostly deciduous, and are characterised by their broad or large
hardwood area leaves. hard ood trees also bear fruit, such as nuts, seeds or acorns, there name is
often derived from the name of their fruits. They can 1 years to mature.
-Tropical hard oods are not classified as deciduous but as an iosper . but their timber
has comparable mechanical properties of strength, hardness and durability. hard ood is
mostly of a higher density and hardness than a soft ood.
-Aesthetics of hard oods is usually very appealing. This makes it very desirable and its
often used in high- uality furniture. This also makes it very expensive.
- ard oods contain much more fibrous material than soft oods. The fibers are smaller
and more compact, making it stronger and harder. In general, the greater the density of
ood, the greater its mechanical strength.
Hardwood Colour/texture Uses
Beech - A straight-grained Used for furniture,
hard ood ith a fine texture. ight children’s toys, tool
in colour. ery hard so is ideal to be handles. Can be steam
used here it is being bashed around bent and laminates
and used often. eech is also very ell.
easy to ork ith.
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Characteristics of natural timber Softwoods
softwood
Softwood Colour/Texture Uses
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Characteristics of man-made Man-made timbers are composite products that use ood lengths, fibres and veneers
timbers along ith an adhesive binder and combined under heat and pressure to produce a
product.
ighlight characteristics include tensile strength,resistance to damp environments,
longevity, aesthetic properties
MDF Plywood Chipboard/Particleboard
Advantages and disadvantages
of man-made timbers Advantages Disadvantages
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Treating and finishing timbers Timber treatments finishes are used to protect, enhance and improve the mechanical
properties.
Timber treatments- are an additive preservative to improve the timber s resistance to
attack and improve its durability is enhanced to a level hich is suitable for the intended
use.
- Wood destroying fungi - resulted from moisture
- Wood destroying insects - borers, hite ants
eg. Wood preserver, creosote, stain preservers
Timber finishes- are applied to the surface of the timber and is usually carried out to
achieve one or both of the the follo ing reasons
- Aesthetics- to improve the materials natural beauty
- Function- to protect it from environmental impact, heat, moisture
Finished timber re uires sanding ith abrasive paper to close up the grain leaving
smaller gaps.
eg. varnish estapol, finishing oil, ood ax
Timber is seasoned as part of it preparation for commercial use. This process reduces
the moisture content so that it becomes orkable. The remaining moisture, albeit small,
means that the ood never really stabilises and continues to s ell and shrink, ith
humidity and temperature variations.
Recovery and disposal of timbers Reforestation is the process of restoring tree cover to areas here oodlands or forest
once existed. If this area never returns to its original state of vegetative cover the
destructive process is called deforestation. In order to maintain a sustainable forest
industry reforestation is necessary.
Wood recycling is the process of turning aste timber into usable products. Recycling
timber is a practice that as populari ed in the early 1 s as issues such as
deforestation and climate change prompted both timber suppliers and consumers to
turn to a more sustainable timber source. Recycling timber is the environmentally
friendliest form of timber production and is very common in countries such as the U ,
Australia and e ealand here supplies of old ooden structures are plentiful. Timber
can be chipped do n into ood chips hich can be used to po er homes or po er
plants.
Uses for recycled waste wood include traditional feedstock for the panel board industry,
hich still accounts for the ma ority of recycled ood. ther uses include animal
beddings, e uestrian and landscaping surfaces, play areas and filter beds.
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4.2c Glass
The rapid pace of technological discoveries is very evident in the manufacture and use of glass in electronic devices. Different
properties have been presented in glass for aesthetic or safety considerations for many years but the future of glass seems to be
interactivity alongside electronic systems. The structure of glass is not ell understood, but as more is learned, its use is
becoming increasingly prominent in building materials and structural applications.
Characteristics of glass Glass is a hard, brittle and typically transparent amorphous solid made by rapidly
cooling a fusion of sand, soda and lime.
amorphous- Glass is an amorphous substance (a solid that is not crystalline) made
primarily of silica fused at high temperatures ith borates or phosphates.
transparency- Ability to allo light to be transmitted ith minimal scattering allo ing a
clear vie through material.
chemically inert- ack of reactivity ith other materials.
non-toxic- Absence of toxic breakdo n products lack of reactivity.
brittle- reaks into numerous sharp shards.
biocompatibility- The product ensures the continued health of a biological environment.
hardness- Scratch resistance.
aesthetic appeal- Favourable in terms of appearance.
electrical insulator- Reduces transmission of electric charge.
cheap- Abundance of material and high volume production in comparison to production
cost.
Applications of glass Laminated Glass- 2 thin sheets of glass ith an interlayer of plastic in bet een. It is
very strong bonds, retains shards of glass hen cracked e.g. iPhone glass cover,car
windshield, architectural use, bullet proof windows
Toughened or Tempered Glass- uter face of glass in compression, inner side of glass in
tension, it shatters in small pieces and used for furniture e.g. staircases/floors,
architectural use
Soda Glass- as poor thermal shock (shatters hen hot ater put in glass), expands
uickly, cheap to produce and used in drinking bottles
Pyrex slo expansion contraction and used for cooking, test tubes, thermometers,
over doors
Gorilla Glass is a brand of speciali ed toughened glass developed and manufactured by
Corning for use ith mobile devices, designed to be thin, light and damage-resistant.
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4.2d Plastics
Most plastics are produced from petrochemicals. Motivated by the finiteness of oil reserves and threat of global arming,
bio-plastics are being developed. These plastics degrade upon exposure to sunlight, ater or dampness, bacteria, en ymes, ind
erosion and in some cases pest or insect attack, but in most cases this does not lead to full breakdo n of the plastic. When
selecting materials, designers must consider the moral, ethical and environmental implications of their decisions.
Ra materials for plastics
Natural plastics Semi synthetic plastics Synthetic plastics
Raw materials for plastics Most modern plastics are derived from natural materials such as crude oil, coal and
natural gas ith crude oil remaining the most important ra material for their
production.
Polymers are substances hich are made up from many molecules hich are formed
into long chains. The differences in the ay the chains bond cause the different
properties in the different types of polymers.
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Polyethylene (PE) tough, resistant to chemicals, soft
and flexible, good electrical
insulator
HIPS Tough, high impact strength, rigid,
good electrical insulator.
Structure of thermosetting Thermosets are linear chain molecules but ith strong primary bonds between
plastics adjacent polymer chains (or cross links). This gives thermosets a rigid 3D structure.
n first heating, the polymer softens and can be moulded into shape under pressure.
o ever, the heat triggers a chemical reaction in hich the molecules become
permanently locked together. As a result the polymer becomes permanently set’ and
cannot be softened again by heating. Examples of thermosetting plastics are
polyurethane, urea formaldehyde, melamine resin and epoxy resin
Material Properties Applications
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Recovery and disposal of plastics early all types of plastics can be recycled, ho ever the extent to hich they are
recycled depends upon technical, economic and logistic factors. As a valuable and finite
Thermoplastics resource, the optimum recovery route for most plastic items at the end-of-life’ is to be
eat, Reshape, Cool recycled, preferably back into a product that can then be recycled again and again and so
on. The U uses over 5 million tonnes of plastic each year of hich an estimated 24 is
Thermosetting currently being recovered or recycled.
Plastics andfill, incinerate
Recycling: Turning aste into a ne substance or product. Includes composting if it
Biodegradable meets uality protocols.
Plastics ury in the ground, ● Provides a sustainable source of ra materials to industry
landfill ● Greatly reduces the environmental impact of plastic-rich products hich give off
harmful pollutants in manufacture and hen incinerated
● Minimises the amount of plastic being sent to the landfill sites
● Avoids the consumption of the Earth’s oil stocks
● Consumes less energy than producing ne , virgin polymers
● Encourages a sustainable lifestyle among children and young-adults
Bioplastics: To reduce the problems of disposing of plastics they can be designed to be
biodegradable, kno n as bioplastics. These are plastics derived from rene able sources,
such as vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, pea starch or microbiota.
Production of oil based plastics tends to re uire more fossil fuels and to produce more
greenhouse gases than the production of biobased polymers (bioplastics).
Some, but not all, bioplastics are designed to biodegrade. iodegradable bioplastics can
break do n in either anaerobic or aerobic environments, depending on ho they are
manufactured. ioplastics can be composed of starches, cellulose, biopolymers, and a
variety of other materials.
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4.2e Textiles
The continuing evolution of the textiles industry provides a ide spread of applications from high performance technical textiles
to the more traditional clothing market. More recent developments in this industry re uire designers to combine traditional
textile science and ne technologies leading to exciting applications in smart textiles, sports ear, aerospace and other potential
areas.
Raw materials for textiles Fibres can be classified as being from a natural or synthetic source. A fibre is an elongated
hair like strand or continuous filament. The length exceeds more than 2 times the
diameter.
-Wool, linen and cotton are short fibres. silk is a long continuous filament fibre.
-Fibres can be t isted using the spinning process and converted into yarn or fibres can be
used in their ra form and manufactured to create felt.
-Consider absorbency, strength, elasticity and the effect of temperature
- manufactured from fibres, the origin can be subdivided into t o section
- natural (organic)
- either a plant or animal origin
- ex. cotton, linen, ool and silk
- synthetic (man-made)
- created by chemical processes
- polymer-based from oil and coal, others are from glass, metal
ceramic and carbon.
Examples of natural fibres
Cotton Cotton boll plant IG A S R E C
EGETA E night ear, summer clothes, shirts,
under ear, eans, bedsheets,
socks, to els, etc
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Properties of synthetic fibres ● man made fibres (usually from chemical resources)
● fibres produced are long and much smoother
● most are thermoplastic and ill soften and contract hen exposed to heat.
● have lo affinity for moisture creating less breathable’ fabrics.
● sources include viscose, acrylic, nylon and polyester
Examples of synthetic fibres
Synthetic Fibre End uses
ylon Rope, fishing filament, seatbelts, parachutes, luggage,
conveyor belts, outer ear, tents.
Conversion of fibres to yarns ● in the beginning, the strands are a tangle of loose fibres.
● natural fibres, except silk, ill be in different lengths to symbolise the maturity of
gro th.
● natural fibres also re uire cleaning and refining, and some mixing in order to
homogenise the batch
● the fibres are then slightly t isted and thinned out in order to produce sufficient
strength for handling
● rapping fibres around each other increases strength
● the process is repeated, hile lengthening the yarn.
● the yarn that is formed is called a single’ (single strand of yarn)
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( agged edges) and are less perfect in structure
- (from ool) progressively depositing layers of cleaned and combed fibers into a
large tray, each degrees from each other.
- hot soapy ater assists ith lubrication and reduces friction and so the fibres can
move and because entangles in the scales on the fibre surface.
- they then bond to form a cloth.
- (alternative) needle felting involves combining fibres using special felting needles.
Recovery and disposal of textiles Many items of clothing are manufactured and produced in developing countries. ften
orking conditions that many people experience ho do a repetitive, lo skilled ob.
ther ethical issues connected to the production and manufacture of textiles are linked to
environmental issues, chemical dyes, ashing, finishes, use of pesticides to gro the
crops and land usage for gro ing the crops and gra ing for the animals.
Development of ne textiles and other related technologies needs to consider the
sustainability issues such as recycling and disposal.
● Wastage from textiles may be categori ed as either pre- or post - consumer.
Pre-consumer textile aste is mostly formed of materials that are generated as
by-products of production processes. Post-consumer aste mentions to clothing
or household textiles that is reused or recycled instead of being disposed.
● Recycling involves the reprocessing of used materials (clothing, fabric scraps, etc)
and aste from the manufacturing process.
● nce all of the materials are collected, cleaned and sorted, recyclable textile may
be processed first mechanically here the fibres are separated before being
re-spinned into yarn or chemically through repolymeri ing fibres. to again spin
into yarn.
● With aste reduction, reuse and recycling results in o ering purchase prices,
reducing use of virgin materials, reducing disposal costs and landfill, generating
less air and ater pollution, keeping materials out of the aste stream and
preserving the embodied energy’ used in manufacturing.
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4.2f Composites
Composites are an important material in an intensely competitive global market. e materials and technologies are being
produced fre uently for the design and rapid manufacture of high- uality composite products. Composites are replacing more
traditional materials as they can be created ith properties specifically designed for the intended application. Carbon fibre has
played an important part in eight reduction for vehicles and aircraft.
Form fibres sheet particles and Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites)
matrix are materials made from t o or more constituent materials ith significantly different
physical or chemical properties, that hen combined, produce a material ith
characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components
remain separate and distinct ithin the finished structure. The ne material may be
preferred for many reasons common examples include materials hich are stronger,
lighter or less expensive hen compared to traditional materials. ne material acts as
the matrix, hich can be in the form of fibres, sheets or particles ith the other as the
bonding agent.
Advantages Disadvantages
➔ When broken the P interlayer hold the pieces of glass together (safer)
avoiding the release of other ise dangerous shards of glass
➔ The fracture produces a pattern of radial and concentric cracks (spider- eb
mattern)
➔ used for car indscreens
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Laminar composites
➔ aminates of different material oined together in a sand ich structure
➔ Consists of layer of thin or bidirectional fibres or metal sheet held apart by a
light eight core (foam or honey-comb style structure)
● Fibre-reinforced
● Particle reinforced
Process eaving, moulding, Weaving: to form (fabric or a fabric item) by
pultrusion and lamination interlacing long threads passing in one direction ith
others at a right angle to them.
Moulding
Similar to in ection moulding,
using mix of materials. r put
under high pressure
Pultrusion is a continuous
molding process hereby
reinforcing fibers are
saturated ith a li uid
polymer resin and then
carefully formed and pulled
through a heated die to form a
part.
Lamination
ne of the early materials that as
used as part of a lamination process
as called Formica. Formica originally
consisted of layers of fabric bound
together ith resin later, it as made
ith thick pieces of paper laminated
ith melamine. This tougher
substance could resist heat and
abrasion, hile the paper opened up a
ealth of possibilities for printing
colours and patterns, hich proved
key to its success.
Spray-up
Spray-up is carried out on an open mould, here
both the resin and reinforcements are sprayed
directly onto the mould. The resin and glass may
be applied separately or simultaneously
chopped in a combined stream from a chopper
gun. Workers roll out the spray-up to compact the
laminate. Wood, foam or other core material may
then be added, and a secondary spray-up layer
embeds the core bet een the laminates
(sand ich construction). The part is then cured,
cooled and removed from the reusable mould.
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Design contexts in this
composite materials is used
Concrete Sand, concrete, aggregate and ater Construction (reinforced ith Steel) to make
are mixed together, they form a fluid mass that strong
Types and how used is easily molded into shape. ver time, the
cement forms a hard matrix hich binds the
rest of the ingredients together into a durable
stone-like material ith many uses
Engineered wood: is made by binding or fixing -Medium Density Fibreboard
strands, particles of fibres, veneers of boards of -Particle or chipboard
ood together ith adhesives or other fixing -Ply ood
methods to create composite materials. - - laminated veneered timer
-I oists or I beams
Kevlar is a composite material similar to Carbon evlar is used in a variety of applications
Fibre and is oven into a cloth hich combined because of its uni ue properties, including
ith Polyester resin can be moulded into a -body protection, such as bullet-proof vests
variety of complex shapes. It can also be oven Military helmet here light eight
into fabric cloth to protect the earer almost properties, comfort and flexibility are
like an indestructible net. evlar also has a high important
strength-to- eight ration and is five times -sports e uipment, such as skis, helmets
stronger than steel. and rac uets, here light eight properties
and strength are important
-sails for indsurfing, here the material
has to ithstand high speeds
Carbon reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite ● oat hulls
material made from plastic and fine fibres of ● Canoes
glass. It is also kno n as Fibreglass.The strands ● Car body panels
are combined ith resin (polyester or epoxy ● Chemical storage tanks
resin) to make GRP. Fibreglass and resin on their ● Train canopies
o n are eak but hen combined create a good
strength-to- eight ratio material. It is very
versatile and can easily be moulded into 3D
shapes.
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL ) is an
engineered ood product that uses multiple
layers of thin ood assembled ith adhesives.
It is typically used for headers, beams, rimboard,
and edge-forming material.
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4.3 Scales of Production
The scale of production depends on the number of products re uired. Decisions on scale of production are influenced by the
volume or uantities re uired, types of materials used to make the products and the type of product being manufactured. There
are also considerations of staffing, resources and finance.
Scales of Description of why you would Advantages Disadvantages
Production selecting an appropriate scale of
production
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4.4 Manufacturing processes
Different manufacturing processes have been developed to innovate existing products and create ne products. Designers
sometimes engineer products in such a ay that they are easy to manufacture. Design for manufacture (DfM) exists in almost all
engineering disciplines, but differs greatly depending on the manufacturing technologies used. This practice not only focuses on
the design of a product’s components, but also on uality control and assurance.
Process Manufacturing techniques
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4.5 Production systems
The development of increasingly sophisticated production systems is transforming the ay products are made. As a business
gro s in si e and produces more units of output, then it ill aim to experience falling average costs of production economies
of scale. The business is becoming more efficient in its use of inputs to produce a given level of output. Designers should
incorporate internal and external economies of scale hen considering different production methods and systems for
manufacture.
Type Description/Impact of different Advantages Disadvantage
production systems on the
workforce and environment
Computer numerical C C refers to the computer control of machines for the purpose of manufacturing complex parts in
control (CNC) metals and other materials. Machines are controlled by a programme commonly called a G code .
Each code is assigned to a particular operation or process. The codes control , and movement
and feed speeds.
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Design for Design for manufacture (DfM) means designers design specifically for optimum use of existing
manufacture (DfM) manufacturing capability. Designers need to consider designing products so they can be easily and
efficiently manufactured ith minimal impact on the environment. Design for Manufacture can be a
constraint on the design brief. Design for Manufacture involves Design for Process, Design for
Materials and Design for Assembly Disassembly.
There are four aspects of DfM.
Design for materials: designing in relation to materials during processing.
The selection of materials is an important consideration for a designer. It can affect environmental at
each stage of the Product Cycle, from pre-production to disposal. For example, the choice of a
thermoplastic may mean an impact on the environment through the extraction of oil, ho ever
thermoplastics are highly recyclable meaning less of an impact at the disposal stage, providing they
are recycled and not sent to landfill or incinerated. Minimising the amount of materials and using
non-toxic or biodegradable alternatives can also reduce the impact on the environment.
Design for process: designing to enable the product to be manufactured using a specific
manufacturing process, for example, in ection moulding .
When designing or redesigning products, designers should consider ho the manufacture of parts
and components can be achieved efficiently and ith minimal aste. For example in ection moulding
is an extremely energy efficient process ith minimal aste produced.
Design for assembly: designing taking account of assembly at various levels, for example,
component to component, components into sub-assemblies and sub-assemblies into complete
products
Design for disassembly: designing a product so that hen it becomes obsolete it can easily and
economically be taken apart, the components reused or repaired, and the materials repurposed or
recycle.
y minimising components, assembly can be made to be uicker and more efficient. In addition, using
standard components can decrease manufacturing time. More and more designers are considering
ho their designs can be disassembled. This means that different materials can be separated for
recycling or to make repair or reconditioning easier resulting in less products being sent to landfill.
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4.6 Robots in automated production
The development of increasingly sophisticated robotic manufacturing systems is transforming the ay products are made.
Designers should consider the benefits of increased efficiency and consistency hen using robots in production and be able to
explore the latest advances in technology to ensure the optimum manufacturing process is used. o ever, a good designer ill
also understand their responsibility to consider the moral and ethical issues surrounding increased use of automation, and the
historical impact of lost obs.
Primary characteristics A robot is defined as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator
of robots programmable in three or more axes, hich may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in
industrial automation applications. The introduction of robots to an assembly line has had a
ma or impact on the labour force, often making skilled orkers redundant in favour of a
technician ho can maintain and e uip a large number of robots.
Work envelope The 3D space a robot can operate ithin, considering clearance and reach. These distances are
determined by the length of a robot s arm and the design of its axes. Each axis contributes its
o n range of motion. A robot can only perform ithin the confines of this ork envelope. Still,
many of the robots are designed ith considerable flexibility. Some have the ability to reach
behind themselves. Gantry robots defy traditional constraints of ork envelopes. They move
along track systems to create large ork spaces.
Advantages of using robotic Disadvantages of using robotic
systems in production systems in production
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ey components of an M2M system include sensors, a Wi-Fi or cellular communications link and
autonomic computing soft are programmed to help a net orked device interpret data and make
decisions
First generation robots First-generation robots are a simple mechanical arm that has the ability to make precise motions
at high speed. They need constant supervision by a human operator.
The operation of these machines must be constantly supervised, because if they get out of
alignment and are allo ed to keep orking, the result can be a series of bad production units.
Notes:
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Topic 5
Innovation + Design
5.1 Invention
The protection of a novel idea of ho to solve a problem is a ma or factor in commercial design. Invention by lone inventors or in
collaborative, creative teams is at the forefront of design. Designers must not only be creative and innovative, but also
understand the concepts that ill make a ne product viable. A designer must use imagination and be firmly grounded in factual
and procedural kno ledge hile remembering the needs and limitations of the end user.
Define an Invention Invention is the process of discovering a principle hich allo s a technical advance in a
particular field that results in a novel ne product.
Drivers for Invention Motivation Drivers for invention include personal motivation to express creativity for personal
for Invention interest, scientific or technical curiosity, constructive discontent, desire to make money,
desire to help others. A fe of the many reasons that drive invention are listed belo
● a personal motivation to invent in order to express one’s creativity or personal
interest
● scientific and or technical curiosity
● constructive discontent ith an existing invention design
● desire to make money
● desire to help others.
The Lone Inventor The lone inventor is an individual orking outside or inside an organi ation ho is
What are the advantages and committed to the invention of a novel product and often becomes isolated because he or
disadvantages of being a lone she is engrossed ith ideas that imply change and are resisted by others. Individuals
inventor ith a goal of the complete invention of a ne and some hat revolutionary product.
● ave ideas that are completely ne and different.
● May not comprehend or give sufficient care to the marketing and sales of their
product.
● Are usually isolated, and have no backing to ards their design.
● Are having a harder time to push for ard their designs, especially in a market
here large investments are re uired for success.
● Their ideas, because of ho different they are are often resisted by other
employees and orkers.
Intellectual Property (IP) A legal term for intangible property such as creations of the mind such as inventions
and designs that are used in a commercial setting. Intellectual property is protected by
la .
What are the benefits of IP enefits of IP include differentiating a business from competitors, selling or licensing to
provide revenue streams, offering customers something ne and different,
marketing branding, its value as an asset. The benefits of intellectual property include
● differentiating a business from competitors
● allo ing sale or licensing, providing an important revenue stream
● offering customers something ne and different
● marketing branding
● establishing a valuable asset that can be used as security for loans.
Copyright Copyright is a legal right created by the la of a country, that grants the
creator of an original ork exclusive rights to its use and distribution, usually for a limited
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Patent pending An indication that an application for a patent has been applied for but has not yet been
processed. The marking serves to notify those copying the invention that they may be
liable for damages (including back-dated royalties), once a patent is issued.
First to market When a company or a person has or think they have a innovative idea or product,
therefore ill rush to have it on the market before anyone else. Some innovators decide
not to protect their IP as an alternative strategies to ensure success by allo ing them to
get first to market rather than spend money on patents or aste time.
Shelved technologies- Reasons Technology that is shelved for various reasons. Sometimes shelved technologies ill be
hy some patented inventions rediscovered or taken off the shelf.
are shelved
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5.2 Innovation
There are many different types of innovation. Designers ill be successful in the marketplace hen they solve long-standing
problems, improve on existing solutions or find a product gap . The constant evaluation and redevelopment of products is key,
ith unbiased analysis of consumers and commercial opportunities.
Define an Innovation The business of putting an invention in the marketplace and making it a success.
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Modular Innovation The basic configuration stays the same, but one or more key
components are changed. Example include a ne type of
s itch button on a toaster.
Also kno n as incremental design
Configurational Innovation
Modifying arrangements of components to improve performance, usability and function
(buttons, interface, dials, better heating element, 4 slots rather than 2, etc).
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5.3 Strategies for innovation
Designers have a range of strategies for innovation. Companies encourage advancements in technology and services, usually by
investing in research and development (R D) activities. Even though the R D may be carried out by a range of different experts
from varied fields of research, the development process is often based on common principles and strategies to identify the
direction of development. This methodology structures the R D of ne technologies and services.
Act of insight ften referred to as the eureka moment , a sudden image of a potential solution is
formed in the mind, usually after a period of thinking about a problem. Such as e ton
atching an apple fall and gaining insight in gravitation forces.
Analogy An idea from one context is used to stimulate ideas for
solving a problem in another context. Sonar modelled on ho
bats navigate and used no in ships to check depth or
placement of fish.
Chance An unexpected discovery leads to a new idea. elcro as
developed hen a chap alking ith his dog found lots of
seed pods stuck to his socks and dog. e looked under the
microscope and made his discovery of the pods having many
little hooks
Technology push Scientific research leads to advances in technology that underpin new ideas. This is
here the driving force for a ne design emerges from a technological development. The
Sony alkman is an example.
● Innovation is created, then appropriate
applications are sought to fit the
innovation
● Did the market ask please give me an
iPod ith do nload store or a camera
phone Most likely not so this ould be
a technology push
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5.4 Strategies for innovation
There are three key roles in invention and innovation, hich can be shared by one or more people. Collaborative generation of
kno ledge and high efficiency information flo allo for diversity, increased resilience, reliability and stability ithin an
organi ation. Through participatory research, stakeholders can make full use of the resulting innovation and invention, by
transferring findings relevant to the sector in hich they are positioned. A designer’s increased a areness through shared
industry kno ledge enhances profitability and policy.
The Lone Inventor The lone inventor is an individual orking outside or inside an organi ation ho is
committed to the invention of a novel product and often becomes isolated because he or
she is engrossed ith ideas that imply change and are resisted by others.
one inventors are
● Individuals ith a goal of the complete invention of a ne and some hat
revolutionary product.
● ave ideas that are completely ne and different.
● May not comprehend or give sufficient care to the marketing and sales of their
product.
● Are usually isolated, and have no backing to ards their design.
● Are having a harder time to push for ard their designs, especially in a market
here large investments are re uired for success.
● Their ideas, because of ho different they are are often resisted by other
employees and orkers.
The Entrepreneur An influential individual ho can take an invention to market, often by financing the
development, production and diffusion of a product into the marketplace. Profile of an
Entrepreneur
● usiness acumen
● Self-control
● Self -confidence
● Sense of urgency
● Comprehensive A areness
● Realism
● Conceptual Ability
● Status Re uirements
● Interpersonal Relationships
● Emotional Stability
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Roles of the product champion Sometimes an inventor may have developed skills or profiles of a product champion
and entrepreneur in the and or entrepreneur. ames Dyson and Thomas Edison are t o examples.
innovation of products and Edison (later it as discovered that S an invented the light bulb) used profits from his
systems earlier inventions to bring the light bulb to market.
ames Dyson is an example of an inventor, product champion and or entrepreneur. e
invented the cyclone technology for suction. At first no-one as interested in this radical
design so he championed’ his product until he found a apanese company ould ould
take it on. ater he ould use the profits to further improvements and novel products.
e build an understanding of business.
Comparison bet een one The lone inventor may lack the business acumen to push the invention through to
Inventor and Product champion innovation. The product champion is often a forceful personality ith much influence in a
company. e or she is more astute at being able to push the idea for ard through the
various business channels and is often able to consider the merits of the invention more
ob ectively.
Inventors often take the role of product champion and or entrepreneur because …
● Their product or idea is novel
● Too novel or out there’ for a company to take a risk on
● Can t find a backer or company to produce it
● The inventor ill have to champion’ their product to different companies
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5.5 Product life cycle
There are several key stages in the product life cycle. Designers need to consider the hole product cycle of potential products,
services and systems throughout the design cycle and beyond. Products may have an impact not only on the direct consumer
but also on society at large and the environment.
ey stages of the product life 1. Launch There are slo sales and little profit as the product is launched on the
cycle launch, gro th, maturity, market.
decline. Including examples of 2. Growth The market gradually accepts the product, so diffusion starts and sales
products at different stages of the expand.
product life cycle including those 3. Maturity Sales peak but remain steady, so maximum profit is achieved.
ne to the market and classic 4. Decline Market saturation is reached and sales start to reduce as ell as profit.
designs
Length of the product life cycle - ength of the product life cycle considering the effect of technical development
considering the effect of technical - ength of the product life cycle considering the effect of consumer trends including
development and consumer fashion
trends
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5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and consumers
Innovations take time to diffuse into a target audience. Rogers’ four main elements that influence the spread of ne ideas
(innovation, communication channels, time and a social system) rely heavily on human capital. The ideas must be idely
accepted in order to be self sustainable. Designers must consider various cultures and communities to predict ho , hy and at
hat rate ne ideas and technology ill be adopted.
The impact of Rogers’ five Five characteristics identified by Rogers that impact on consumer adoption of an
characteristics on consumer innovation Relative advantage Compatibility Complexity bservability Trialability
adoption of an innovation
1. Innovation/Relative advantage is the the degree to hich the innovation is
perceived as better than the idea it supersedes. Relative advantage refers to the
extent to hich the innovation is more productive, efficient, costs less, or
improves in some other manner upon existing practices .
2. Compatibility is the degree to hich the innovation is perceived as being
consistent ith existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential
adopters. An innovation must be considered socially acceptable to be
implemented. And some innovations re uire much time and discussion before
they become socially acceptable’.
3. Complexity (simplicity) is the degree to hich the innovation is perceived as
difficult to understand and use .
4. Observability is the degree to hich the results of the innovation are visible
to others. The chances of adoption are greater if folks can easily observe relative
advantages of the ne technology. In fact, after some adopt, observability can
improve the diffusion effect, a critical component of technology transfer .
5. Trialability is the degree to hich the innovation may be experimented ith
on a limited basis. Innovations are easier to adopt if they can be tried out in part,
on a temporary basis, or easily dispensed ith after trial .
The influence of social media on Consumers can influence diffusion of innovation. When considering the influence of
the diffusion of innovation social media in rallying support for boycotting of some products systems, students can
explore the concepts behind organi ations such as ickstarter, Sellaband, Seedrs and
Cro dCube, hich act as cro d-funding platforms for creative products and pro ects.
They can also examine the role of social net orks such as Facebook , inkedIn and
T itter as methods of raising brand a areness.
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Categories of consumers include
innovators, early adopters, early
ma ority, late ma ority, laggards
This in relation to ho adopt consumers technology
● Innovators (risk takers) are the first individuals to adopt an innovation. They
are illing to take risks.
● Early adopters (hedgers) are the second fastest category to adopt an
innovation.
● Early majority ( aiters) the third group, tends to take more time to consider
adopting ne innovations and is inclined to dra from feedback from early
adopters before taking the risk of purchasing ne products systems.
● Late majority (skeptics) adopts the innovation after it has been established in
the marketplace and is seldom illing to take risks ith ne innovation.
● Laggards (slo pokes) are the last to adopt an innovation. They tend to prefer
traditions and are un illing to take risks.
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5.7 Innovation, design and marketing specifications
Successful innovations typically start ith detailed design and marketing specifications. Designers must establish clear
parameters for a marketing specification in order to create uni ue and creative solutions to a problem. Designers need to collect
valid and useful data from the target market and audience throughout the design cycle to ensure the specification includes
certain essential components.
Target markets When determining the target market, market sectors and segments need to be
identified.
o a target audience is used to Who is most likely to buy this product given its benefits o can the organi ation tap
establish the characteristics of into the buying po er of these consumers Where is the target market most likely to
users find out about the product Ans ering these uestions helps you to position your
product in the correct marketing and distribution channels.
Market analysis An appraisal of economic viability of the proposed design from a market perspective,
taking into account fixed and variable costs and pricing, is important. It is typically a
summary about potential users and the market.
User need A marketing specification should identify the essential re uirements that the product
must satisfy in relation to market and user need.
Research methods Literature search
A thorough analysis of competing Usually performed using authoritative sources such as academic ournals, books, theses,
designs is re uired to establish consumer maga ines, government agency and industry publications
the market need. User trial
A trial here members of the community ho ill use the product are observed using
the product. This usually happens in a lab environment and participants have set tasks to
perform under controlled conditions.
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User research
The uestioning of users about their experience using a product. Usually as a
uestionnaire or focus group.
Expert appraisal
Where an expert (chosen on the basis of their kno ledge or experience) is asked to give
their opinion.
Performance test
Where the product is tested and data is collected- crash test dummy
Design specifications All of the re uirements, constraints and considerations must be specific, feasible and
measurable.
A list of re uirements, constraints and considerations that a yet-to-be-designed product
must fulfil. The design specification must be developed from the design brief and
research and re uirements ould include
● aesthetic re uirements
● cost constraints
● customer re uirements
● environmental re uirements
● si e constraints
● safety considerations
● performance re uirements and constraints
● materials re uirements
● manufacturing re uirements
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Topic 6
Classic Design
6.1 Characteristics of classic design
A classic design has a timeless uality, hich is recogni ed and remains fashionable. A classic design is not simply defined by
ho ell it functions or its impact. Classic designs can be recogni ed as from their design movement era. et, originality,
hether it is evolutionary or revolutionary, seems to be the trait that makes a product timeless .
Design Classic A product that serves as a standard of its time, that has been manufactured industrially
and has timeless appeal. It serves as a standard of its time, despite the year in hich it
as designed, is still up to date and remains relevant to future generations and in this
ay has a lasting impact on society. The design resists the vagaries of taste and fashion
and once established as a classic it gradually ac uires further value.
Design classics are iconic products and characterised by simplicity, balance, is still up to
date and usually innovative in their use of material. ften they unite technological
advances ith beautiful design, for example, Apple products such as the iPod, the
Coca-Cola bottle and soft drink cans. Classic designs can emerge from any sector of the
market.
To ensure sustained success over an extended period of time, design classics must not
only address functional and aesthetic re uirements but also an emotional connection
ith the user o ner.
Examples Fender Telecaster, Eames ounge chair and ttoman, Porsche 11
Image Within the context of classic design, image relates to the instantly
recogni able aesthetics of a particular product. For example, the shape of
a Coca-Cola bottle, or the shape of a olks agen eetle motor car.
The classic design is instantly recogni able and provokes emotional
reactions.
ften referred to as iconic , the longevity of classic designs suggests
uality and the continued demand for such products is not dependent on
heavy marketing or advertising, although this often takes place to
reinforce the status and remind ne generations of consumers of the
intrinsic value of the classic design. The design is often idely imitated,
usually ith cheaper versions, so this reinforces the status of the original design and its
pioneering concept.
Status and culture Classic design defies obsolescence and transcends its original function. Classic designs
are often recognised across culture and hold iconic status The iconic status of classic
design is often attributed to them being breakthrough products, products that set ne
standards or ne meanings.
Status Products considered as classic designs often increase in value and
can pro ect a certain status as they become more desirable. The
o nership of a classic design can increase the perceived status of
an individual.
E.g. Status of earing a Rolex Watch
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Mass production For many centuries prior to the Industrial Revolution, classic evoked thoughts of
artistry and craft skills, for example, classical architecture and furniture. The advent of
mass production and designing for the masses often meant a reduction in uality of
products and poor design. o ever, once mass production techni ues became more
established some designers embraced the opportunities offered by the ne techni ues
and materials as a ay of providing people ith ell-designed products at an affordable
price due to the cost-effectiveness of production. o longer as classic design the
preserve of the elite in society.
Mass production involves the bulk manufacture of products that have little or no
customisation. The setup costs for mass production are high because it usually involves
extensive mechanisation and automation. The total cost per unit is lo er though as less
labour is re uired and materials can be sourced in larger uantities for less. The constant
presence of a product in a changing context leads to classic design status
Example W eetle 21 million sold (1 41-2 3)
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Ubiquitous/ A classic design often has a constant presence, or omnipresence, in a rapidly changing
omnipresence context. When an ob ect becomes part of our everyday lives, e become very familiar
and comfortable ith it’s presence and style. The product becomes part of our life and
e start to attach emotions, feelings and experiences to the product.
The product becomes embedded in our life. Therefore the demand for the product
continues even hen ne products ith better function enter the market. This
continued demand for the product hen ne er alternatives are available afford the
product classic design status.
This makes a classic designs often dominant in the marketplace and difficult to change.
Dominant design The design contains those implicit features of a product that are recogni ed as essential
by a ma ority of manufacturers and purchasers.
When classic design is dominant in the market-place it can be difficult to change. Apart
from the functional or particular feature that is so appealing to the user, emotional
issues can impact. Users are often reluctant to change, they are happy ith the product
and can not see any advantage in up-grading’ or changing to a later model.
Users can become emotionally attached to the classic design, can cannot believe that
any other product is better, or in fact simply do not ant to change from their reliable,
and cherished possession.
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6.2 Classic design, function and form
For a design to become a classic design, the form can transcend the function. Classic design holds form follo s function as a
fundamental principle, but this is not al ays evident in practice. Some products are so ell designed ith function as their
primary goal, that their use is intuitive. As designers develop ne technologies, the lines bet een the form and function of a
product continue to blur.
Form Also considered as the three-dimensional space that a product takes up, in the context
of classic design, form relates to the shape of a product and the aesthetic qualities that
the shape gives.
Function Products can be considered classic designs based on ho ell they fulfil the task that
they have been designed for.
Form versus function This is the meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose.
Sometimes there is tension bet een form and function hen developing ne products
based on a classic design. When considering form, it can also be dictated by other
functions such as design for manufacture techni ues, for example, design for
disassembly.
Bauhaus School The auhaus School (literally meaning building house’ in German) as founded in 1 1
by Walter Gropius in Weimar, then the capital of post WWI Germany. In this era of change
and disillusionment, the movement sought to embrace 2 th century machine culture in a
ay that allo ed basic necessities like buildings, furniture, and design, to be completed
in a utilitarian but effective ay.
With their theory of form follows function, the school emphasi ed a strong
understanding of basic design, especially the principles of composition, color theory, and
craftsmanship, in a ide array of disciplines.
Retro-styling Retro styling uses the form and decoration of classic designs from a particular period of
time and or style. Retro styling builds on the classic image but can often involve the use
of ne technology. Retro-styling a ne product needs to respect and understand the
original form and underlying structure before making changes. Designers need to
ho ever be respectful of the original designer s’ intent.
Retro-design often mimic a product or past experience to evoke feelings of nostalgia.
Modern retro products may also use an old format to meet a ne demand. E.g. Sony
DR-S16D P digital clock radio
For the Mini Cooper it as important to keep the car small, playful and cute. A hole
generation had gro n up ith the original Mini, and it’s retro styled remake needed to
capture the same emotion to appeal to this generation a second time around.
Conflict and compromise Comparison of retro-styled products ith the original production models in relation to
form and function.
The balance bet een function and form is often a difficult area for the designer. If a
product is purely functional, it may be lacking in appeal to consumers, no matter ho
good it is at completing its ob. ften e are dra n to products that have been
developed ith form as the primary consideration. The human psyche appreciates
beauty. The aesthetics of a product are embedded in its form- and often e can be
dra n or attracted to it because of its inherent beauty- perhaps over-looking its
functional attributes.
The Starck designed Salif uicer, a classic design, has a high aesthetic value, its form is
celebrated yet its function is poor. The MT4 teapot by Marianne randt is completely
stripped of the decoration popular in 1 24 - presenting as a purely functional product.
Practical function The practical function of an ob ect or space is determined by the rational - the logical or
ell reasoned approach to its design. Decisions by the designer or user ill determined
by the ob ects usability and reliability.
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Psychological function The psychological function of an ob ect or space is determined by the emotional
responses. These are the needs and ants driven by fads, fashion and technological
trends. Decisions by the designer or the user ill evoke psychological responses-
personal identity, the narrative of me’ and relate to the desirability of the ob ect or
space.
Practical function versus Some products have either practical function or psychological function has the
psychological function determining factor in the design.
When practical function forms the designers primary goal the interaction ith the ob ect
can become intuitive. Intuitive design ill have a number of redeeming features
affordance, expectation, efficiency, responsiveness, responsiveness, forgiveness,
explorability, emotional security. A product can transcend the its practical function to
meeting the psychological needs of the user by evoking emotions- aesthetically pleasing
ob ects appear to the user to be more effective, by virtue of their sensual appeal. This is
due to the affinity the user feels for an ob ect that appeals to them, due to the formation
of an emotional connection ith the ob ect.
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Examples of Classic Design Products
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