Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

MODULE 3

SUB MODULE 3.14

R L C CIRCUITS

Rev. 01 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Page

Vector Diagrams Drawn With R.M.S. Values Instead of Maximum

Alternating Current In a Circuit Posessing Resistance Only ................... 2 Values ................................................................................................... 26

Alternating Current In a Circuit Possessing Inductance Only ................. 4 Alternating Current In A Circuit Possessing Resistance, Inductance and
Capacitance In Series ........................................................................... 28
Mechanical Analogy of An Inductive Circuit ............................................ 8
Power In A.C. Circuits ........................................................................... 30
Numerical Relationship Between Current and Voltage In a Purely
Inductive Circuit..................................................................................... 10 Power In A Non-Reactive Circuit........................................................... 30

Alternating Current In a Circuit Possessing Resistance and Inductance Power In A Purely Inductive Circuit....................................................... 30
In Series ................................................................................................ 12
Power In A Circuit Having Resistance and Inductance In Series.......... 34
Alternating Current In a Circuit Possessing Capacitance Only ............. 14
Active and Reactive (or Wattless) Components of The Current ........... 36
Analogies of Capacitance In An A.C. Circuit......................................... 16
The Practical Importance of Power Factor............................................ 38
Numerical Relationship Between Current and Voltage In A Purely
Capacitive Circuit .................................................................................. 16

Representation of An Alternating Quantity By A Rotating Vector ......... 18

Addition and Subtraction of Sinusoidal Alternating Quantities .............. 22

Application of Vectors To A Circuit Possessing Resistance and

Inductance In Series ............................................................................. 24

Rev. 01 i 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to
date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.

Rev. 01 1 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

ALTERNATING CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT Substituting for Im and Vm in (1) we have:

POSSESSING RESISTANCE ONLY I V
=
Consider a circuit having a resistance R ohm connected across 0.707 0.707 R
the terminals of an alternator A, as in Fig. 1, and suppose the ∴I =V /R
alternating voltage to be represented by the sine wave of Fig. 2.
If the value of the voltage at any instant B is v volts, the value of Hence Ohm's Law can be applied without any modification to an
the current at that instant is given by: a.c. circuit possessing resistance only.

i = v/R amperes. If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is represented

by:
When the voltage is zero, the current is also zero; and since the
current is proportional to the voltage, the waveform of the current v = Vm sin θ,
is exactly the same as that of the voltage. Also the two quantities then instantaneous value of current in a resistive circuit
are in phase with each other; that is, they pass through their zero
values at the same instant and attain their maximum values in a Vm
=i= sin θ .
given direction at the same instant. Hence the current wave is as R
shown dotted in Fig. 2.
If Vm and Im be the maximum values of the voltage and current
respectively, it follows that:
Im = Vm/R. …………………….(1)
But the r.m.s. value of a sine wave is 0.707 times the maximum
value, so that:
r.m.s. value of voltage = V = 0.707 Vm
and r.m.s. value of current = I = 0.707 Im.

Rev. 01 2 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Rev. 01 3 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

ALTERNATING CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT At instant F, the current has ceased growing but has not yet
POSSESSING INDUCTANCE ONLY begun to decrease; consequently the rate of change of current is
then zero. The induced emf will therefore have decreased from a
Let us consider the effect of a sinusoidal current flowing through maximum at O to zero at F. Curves can now be drawn through
a coil having an inductance of L henrys and a negligible the derived points, as shown in Fig. 2.
resistance, as in Fig.1. For instance, let us consider what is During the second quarter-cycle, the current decreases, so that
happening during the first quarter-cycle of Fig. 2. This quarter- the rate of increase of current is negative and the induced emf
cycle has been divided into three equal intervals, OA, AC and becomes positive, tending to prevent the current decreasing.
CF seconds. During interval OA, the current increases from zero Since the sine wave of current is symmetrical about ordinate FH,
to AB; hence the average rate of increase of current is AB/OA the curves representing the rate of change of current and the
amperes/second, and is represented by ordinate JK drawn emf induced in the coil will be symmetrical with those derived for
midway between O and A. But, the first quarter-cycle. Since the rate of change of current at any
the emf, in volts, induced in a coil instant is proportional to the slope of the current wave at that
instant, it is evident that the value of the induced emf increases
= -L × rate of increase of current in amperes per second; from zero at F to a maximum at T and then decreases to zero at
consequently, the average value of the induced emf during U in Fig. 2.
interval OA is -L x AB/OA, namely -L x JK volts, and is By using shorter intervals, for example by taking ordinates at
represented by ordinate JQ in Fig. 2. The negative sign denotes intervals of 10° and noting the corresponding values of the
that the induced emf tends to oppose the growth of the current in ordinates from the sine table, it is possible to derive fairly
the positive direction. accurately the shapes of the curves representing the rate of
Similarly, during interval AC, the current increases from AB to change of current and the induced emf.
CE, so that the average rate of increase of current is DE/AC From Fig. 2, it will be seen that the induced emf attains its
amperes/second, which is represented by ordinate LM in Fig. 2; maximum positive value a quarter of a cycle after the current has
and the corresponding induced emf. is -L x LM volts and is done the same thing-in fact, it goes through all its variations a
represented by LR. During the third interval CF, the average rate quarter of a cycle after the current has gone through similar
of increase of current is GH/CF, namely NP amperes/second; variations. Hence the induced emf is said to lag the current by a
and the corresponding induced emf is -L x NP volts and is quarter of a cycle or the current is said to lead the induced emf
represented by NS. by a quarter of a cycle.

Rev. 01 4 3.14
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 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Rev. 01 5 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Since the resistance of the coil is assumed negligible, we may

regard the whole of the applied voltage as being absorbed in
neutralizing the induced emf. Hence the curve of applied voltage
in bellow figure can be drawn exactly equal and opposite to that
of the induced emf; and since the latter is sinusoidal, the wave of
applied voltage must also be a sine curve.
From the figure it is seen that the applied voltage attains its
maximum positive value a quarter of a cycle earlier than the
current; in other words, the voltage applied to a purely inductive
circuit leads the current by a quarter of a cycle or 90°, or the
current lags the applied voltage by a quarter of a cycle or 90°.
The student may quite reasonably ask: If the applied voltage is
neutralized by the induced emf, how can there be any current?
The answer is that if there were no current there would be no
flux, and therefore no induced emf. The current has to vary at
such a rate that the emf induced by the corresponding variation
of flux is equal and opposite to the applied voltage. Actually
there is a slight difference between the applied voltage and the
induced emf, this difference being the voltage required to send
the current through the low resistance of the coil.

Rev. 01 6 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Rev. 01 7 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

MECHANICAL ANALOGY OF AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT Immediately after C has passed the mid-point, the direction of
the applied force is reversed and increased until the body is
One of the most puzzling things to a student commencing the
brought to rest at B and then begins its return movement.
study of alternating currents is the behaviour of a current in an
inductive circuit. For instance, why should the current in Fig. 1 be The reaction of C, on the other hand, is equal and opposite to
at its maximum value when there is no applied voltage? Why the applied pressure and corresponds to the emf induced in the
should there be no current when the applied voltage is at its inductive circuit.
maximum? Why should it be possible to have a voltage applied
From an inspection of the arrows in Fig. 2 it is seen that the
in one direction and a current flowing in the reverse direction, as
speed in a given direction is a maximum a quarter of a complete
is the case during the second and fourth quarter-cycles in Fig. 1.
oscillation after the applied force has been a maximum in the
It may therefore be found helpful to consider a simple same direction, but a quarter of an oscillation before the reaction
mechanical analogy-the simpler the better. In Mechanics, it is reaches its maximum in that direction. This is analogous to the
found that the inertia of a body opposes any change in the speed current in a purely inductive circuit lagging the applied voltage by
of that body. The effect of inertia is therefore analogous to that of a quarter of a cycle and leading the induced emf by a quarter of
inductance in opposing any change in the current. a cycle. Also it is evident that when the speed is a maximum the
applied force is zero, and that when the applied force is a
Suppose we take a heavy metal cylinder C (Fig. 2), such as a
maximum the speed is zero; and during the second half of the
pulley or an armature, and roll it backwards and forwards on a
movement indicated in Fig. 2, the direction of motion is opposite
horizontal surface between two extreme positions A and B. Let
to that of the applied pressure. These relationships correspond
us consider the forces and the speed while C is being rolled from
exactly to those found for an inductive circuit.
A to B. At first the speed is zero, but the force applied to the
body is at its maximum causing C to accelerate towards the
right. This applied force is reduced-as indicated by the length of
the arrows in Fig. 2 -until it is zero when C is midway between A
and B. C ceases to accelerate and will therefore have attained
its maximum speed from left to right.

Rev. 01 8 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Rev. 01 9 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

NUMERICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT AND If V and I are the rms values of the applied voltage and current
VOLTAGE IN A PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT respectively:
From the above discussion it is seen that the current increases V 0.707Vm
from zero to its maximum value Im in a quarter of a cycle. If the = = 2Π fL
I 0.707 I m
frequency is f cycles/second, the duration of one cycle is 1/f
second and that of a quarter-cycle is 1/(4f) second. = inductive reactance of the circuit.
Hence, average rate of increase of current during quarter of a Since the reactance is the ratio of the voltage to the current, it is
cycle expressed in ohms. It is represented by the symbol XL.
= Im / 1/(4f) = 4fIm amperes/second. V V
Hence I= = .
We know: 2ΠfL X L
average emf induced in coil = -L x 4fIm volts
It is evident that the inductive reactance is proportional to the
average value of applied voltage = + 4fLIm volts. frequency and that for a given voltage; the current is inversely
proportional to the frequency. These relationships are
But it was shown that for a sinusoidal wave:
represented graphically by the straight line and hyperbola
average value of voltage = 0.637 x maximum value of respectively in the figure bellow.
voltage
If instantaneous value of applied voltage
2 = v = Vmsinθ
= × Vm
Π
then instantaneous value of current in a purely inductive circuit
2
Hence Vm = 4 fLI m Vm
Π =i= sin(θ − Π / 2) .
2ΠfL
Vm
and = 2ΠfL.
Im

Rev. 01 10 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Rev. 01 11 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

ALTERNATING CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT POSSESSING

RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES
Suppose the circuit to have resistance R ohms in series with
inductance L henrys Fig. 1), and suppose the current to be
sinusoidal, as shown in Fig. 2. We know that the p.d. across R is
in phase with the current; and that the voltage applied to an
inductance leads the current by 90°. The curves for these p.d.s
are shown dotted in Fig. 2. At instant the resultant voltage is the
sum of the p.d.s across R and L; thus at instant A, the p.d.
across R is AB and that across L is AC, so that the total applied
voltage = AB + AC = AD. By adding together the two dotted
curves in this way, we can derive the curve representing the
resultant voltage across R and L.
It is seen that the resultant voltage attains its maximum positive
value φ degrees before the current does so; similarly the
resultant voltage passes through zero φ degrees before the
current passes through zero in the same direction.
It will now be evident that the representation of alternating
currents and voltages by curves such as those of Fig. 2,
becomes involved when the circuit is anything but a simple
resistance or reactance. Also the calculations become very
cumbersome. Both the representation and the calculations can
be simplified considerably by the use of vector diagrams.

Rev. 01 12 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Rev. 01 13 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

ALTERNATING CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT At instant M, the slope of the voltage curve is at its maximum,
POSSESSING CAPACITANCE ONLY i.e. the p.d. is varying at the maximum rate; consequently the
current is also a maximum at that instant.
Fig. 1 shows a capacitor C connected in series with an ammeter From a comparison of the voltage and current curves in Fig. 2 it
A across the terminals of an alternator; and the alternating is seen that the current is leading the voltage by a quarter of a
voltage applied to C is represented in Fig. 2. Suppose this cycle. A simple mechanical analogy may again assist in
voltage to be positive when it makes D positive relative to E. understanding this relationship.
If the p.d. across the capacitor increases .by v volts in t seconds
and if the average charging current is i amperes, the increase of
charge is i x t coulombs. If the capacitance is C farads, the
increase of charge is also Cv coulombs,
∴it = Cv
and i = C×v/t = C × rate of increase of p.d.
In Fig. 2, the p.d. is increasing at the maximum rate at instant 0;
consequently the charging current is also at its maximum value
Im at that instant.
At instant L, the applied voltage has reached its maximum value
Vm ; and for a very brief interval of time, the p.d. is neither
increasing nor decreasing, so that there is no current. During
interval LM, the applied voltage is decreasing. Consequently the
capacitor discharges, and the discharge current is in the
negative direction.

Rev. 01 14 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Rev. 01 15 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

ANALOGIES OF CAPACITANCE IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT NUMERICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT AND

VOLTAGE IN A PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
If the piston P in Fig.1 be moved backwards and forwards, the
to-and-fro movement of the water causes the diaphragm to be At instant L in Fig. 2 above, the p.d. across C is Vm so that the
distended in alternate directions. This hydraulic analogy, when charge on C is CVm coulombs. But the charge is also equal to the
applied to capacitance in an a.c. circuit, becomes rather product of the average current during interval OL and the
complicated owing to the inertia of the water and of the piston; duration of that interval; hence, if Im is the maximum value of the
and as we do not want to take the effect of inertia into account at current, the average current is (2/π)Im
this stage, it is more convenient to consider a very light flexible
2 1
strip L, such as a meter rule, having one end rigidly clamped. Let and CVm = × Im ×
us apply an alternating pressure comparatively slowly by hand Π 4f
so as to oscillate L between positions A and B.
where f = frequency in cycles/second
When L is in position A, the applied pressure is at its maximum
towards the left. As the pressure is relaxed, L moves towards the Vm 1
∴ = = Xc = capacitive reactance
right. Immediately L has passed the center position the applied I m 2ΠfC
force has to be increased towards the right, while the speed in
this direction is decreasing. These variations are indicated by the Hence,
lengths of the arrows in Fig. 2. From the latter it is seen that the
r.m.s.`value`of `p.d . V 0.707Vm 1
speed towards the right is a maximum a quarter of a cycle before = = =
the applied force is a maximum in the same direction. The speed r.m.s.`value`of `current I 0.707 I m 2ΠfC
is therefore the analogue of the alternating current, and the
applied force is that of the applied voltage. and I = 2πfCV = V/Xc
It is seen that capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to
the capacitance and to the frequency of the supply voltage,
whereas inductive reactance is directly proportional to the
inductance and to the frequency. The hyperbola and straight line
in Fig. 3 show how the capacitive reactance and the current due
to a given applied voltage vary with the frequency.

Rev. 01 16 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Rev. 01 17 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

REPRESENTATION OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY Thus when θ=90°, the projection is OA itself; when θ=180°, the
BY A ROTATING VECTOR projection is zero and corresponds to the current passing
through zero from a positive to a negative value; when θ=210°,
In Figure (a), OA represents to scale the maximum value of the the vector is in position OA1, and the projection=OD= 12 OA1= -
alternating quantity, say, current; i.e. OA=Im. Suppose OA to 1
Im; and when θ=360°, the projection is again zero and
2
rotate counter-clockwise about O at a uniform angular velocity.
This is purely a conventional direction, which has been corresponds to the current passing through zero from a negative
universally adopted. Also an arrowhead is always placed at the to a positive value. It follows that OA rotates through one
outer end of the vector, partly to indicate which end is assumed revolution or 2π radians in one cycle of the current wave.
to move and partly to indicate the precise length of the vector If f is the frequency in cycles/second, then OA rotates through f
when two or more vectors happen to coincide. revolutions or 2πf radians in 1 second. Hence the angular
Let us assume that Figure (b) shows OA when it has rotated velocity of OA is 2πf radians/second and is denoted by the
through an angle θ from the position occupied when the current symbol ω (omega):
was passing through its zero value. If AB and AC be drawn i.e. ω = 2πf radians/second.
perpendicular to the horizontal and vertical axes respectively:
If the time taken by OA to rotate through an angle θ radians be t
OC = AB = OA sin θ seconds, then:
= Im sin θ θ = angular velocity x time
= i, namely the value of the current at that instant.
= ωt = 2πft radians.
This relationship follows from the method used to construct a
We can therefore express the instantaneous value of the current
sine wave. Hence the projection of OA on the vertical axis
thus :
represents to scale the instantaneous value of the current.
i = Im sin θ = Im sin ωt = Im sin 2πft.

Rev. 01 18 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Rev. 01 19 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Let us next consider how two quantities such as voltage and

current can be represented by rotating vectors. Fig. (b) shows
the voltage leading the current by an angle φ. In Fig. (a), OA
represents the maximum value of the current and OB that of the
voltage. The angle between OA and OB must be the same angle
φ as in Fig. (b). Consequently when OA is along the horizontal
axis, the current at that instant is zero and the value of the
voltage is represented by the projection of OB on the vertical
axis. These values correspond to instant O in Fig. (b).
After the vectors have rotated through an angle θ, they occupy
positions OA1 and OB1 respectively; and the instantaneous
values of the current and voltage are again given by the
projections of OA1 and OB1 on the vertical axis, as shown by the
horizontal dotted lines.
If the instantaneous value of the current is represented by
i = Im sin θ,
then the instantaneous value of the voltage is represented by
v = Vm sin (θ+φ)
where Im=OA and Vm=OB in Fig. (a).

Rev. 01 20 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Rev. 01 21 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF SINUSOIDAL If voltage OB is to be subtracted from OA, then OB is produced
ALTERNATING QUANTITIES backwards so that OB1 is equal and opposite to OB (Fig. 2). The
diagonal OD of the parallelogram drawn on OA and OB1
Suppose OA and OB in Fig. 1 to be rotating vectors representing
represents the vectorial difference of OA and OB.
to scale the maximum values of, say, two alternating voltages
having the same frequency but differing in phase by an angle φ.
Complete the parallelogram OACB and draw the diagonal OC.
Project OA, OB and OC on to the vertical axis. Then for the
positions shown in Fig. 1:
instantaneous value of OA = OD
instantaneous value of OB = OE
and instantaneous value of OC = OF.
Since AC is parallel and equal to OB, DF=OE,
∴ OF = OD+DF = OD+OE,
i.e. the instantaneous value of OC
= sum of the instantaneous values of OA and OB.
Hence OC represents the maximum value of the resultant
voltage to the scale that OA and OB represent the maximum
values of the separate voltages. OC is therefore termed the
vectorial sum of OA and OB; and it is evident that OC is less
than the arithmetic sum of OA and OB except when the latter are
in phase with each other. This is the reason why it is seldom
correct in a.c. work to add voltages or currents together
arithmetically.

Rev. 01 22 3.14
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 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Rev. 01 23 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

APPLICATION OF VECTORS TO A CIRCUIT POSSESSING

RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES
If V and I are the r.m.s. values of the voltage and current
It is evident from Fig. 1 that the quantity, which is common to the respectively, then:
resistance and the inductance, is the current. Hence we
V 0.707Vm
commence the vector diagram by drawing a vector OA (Fig. 2) in =
any convenient direction to represent the maximum current, Im, I 0.707 I m
to scale. It was seen that the p.d. across R is in phase with the
current; hence draw OB in phase with OA to represent RIm to = √(R2+ X 2L ) = impedance (in ohms)
some convenient scale. It is often helpful-especially to a
V V
beginner-to draw OA and OB slightly apart so that the identity of I= =
each may be easily recognized. R +X
2 2
L
Z
The voltage applied to the inductance L leads the current by 90°
The impedance of any a.c. circuit is always given by the ratio of
and its peak value is 2πfLIm. Hence draw OC 90° in front of OA
the voltage to the current, irrespective of the nature of the circuit,
to represent the maximum value of the p.d. across L. A vector
and is represented by the symbol Z.
OD, drawn equal and opposite to OC, represents the peak value
of the emf induced in L. When a circuit is non-reactive, its impedance is the same as the
resistance. When the circuit consists of an inductor (or choking
The maximum value, Vm, of the resultant applied voltage is
coil), namely a coil having a very low resistance and used
represented to scale by the diagonal OB of the parallelogram
primarily because it possesses inductance, the impedance is
OBEC; and angle φ between OA and OB represents the phase
practically the same as the reactance; e.g. if Z=10 Ω, and R=1Ω,
difference between the current and the applied voltage.
XL=√(102-12)=9.95 Ω.
Since the angle between OB and BE is a right angle:
EB OC 2ΠfLI m
OE2 = OB2 + BE2 = OB2 + OC2 From Fig. 2, tan φ = = =
OB OB RI m
∴ V 2m = (Rlm)2 + (2πfLlm)2
2ΠfL reactance
= =
+X 2L ). resistance
2 2 2
and Vm = Im√ [R +(2πfL) ] = Im√(R R

Rev. 01 24 3.14
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Fig. 2
Fig. 1

Rev. 01 25 3.14
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 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.14 – R L C CIRCUITS

Hence φ can be obtained from the tables. VECTOR DIAGRAMS DRAWN WITH R.M.S. VALUES INSTEAD
OF MAXIMUM VALUES
OE RI m
Also, cos φ = = In practice, ammeters and voltmeters usually measure the r.m.s.
EB ZI m value of the current and voltage. It is therefore much more
resistance convenient to make the vectors represent the r.m.s. rather than
= the maximum values. Since the r.m.s. value of a sine wave is
impedance 0.707 times the peak value, it follows that if the vectors in the
figure, for instance, are drawn to represent to scale the r.m.s.
reactance
Similarly, sin φ = values of the current and voltages, the angles and therefore the
impedance phase relationships of the various quantities remain unaffected.
Vector diagrams are extremely helpful in a.c. calculations, and
students should cultivate the habit of introducing a vector
diagram wherever possible.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT From expression (13.3) it is seen that:

POSSESSING RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND 1
CAPACITANCE IN SERIES Resultant reactance = 2ΠfL −
2ΠfC
= inductive reactance-capacitive reactance.
Let V and I be the r.m.s. values of the supply voltage and current If φ=phase difference between the current and the supply
respectively. The p.d. across R is RI volts in phase with the voltage,
current and is represented by OA in Fig. 1. We know that, p.d.
AE OD OB − OC 2ΠfLI − I /(2ΠfC )
across L is 2πfLI, leading the current by 90°, and is represented tan φ = = = =
by vector OB. Also, the p.d. across C is I/(2πfC), lagging the OA OA OA RI
current by 90°, and is represented by vector OC. Since OB and inductive reactance-capacitive reactance
OC are in direct opposition, their resultant is OD = OB-OC, OB =
being assumed greater than OC in Fig. 2; and the supply voltage resistance
is the vectorial sum of OA and OD, namely OB. OA RI resis tan ce
cos φ = = =
From the vector diagram: OE ZI impedance
OB2 = OA2+OD2 = OA2+(OB-OC)2
AE resul tan t `reac tan ce
1 2 sin φ = =
∴ V = ( RI ) + (2ΠfLI −
2 2
) OE impedance
2ΠfC
If the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive
1 2 reactance, tan φ is positive and the current lags the applied
So that, V = I √{R2+( 2Π fL − )} voltage by an angle φ; if else tan φ. Is negative, signifying that
2Π fC
the current leads the supply voltage by an angle φ.
V V
and I= =
1 2 Z
R 2 + (2ΠfL − )
2Π fC
Where, Z= impedance of the circuit in ohms

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Fig. 1

Fig. 2

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POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS POWER IN A PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

Consider a coil wound with such thick wire that the resistance is
POWER IN A NON-REACTIVE CIRCUIT negligible in comparison with the inductive reactance XL ohms.
Under a.c. theory it was explained that when an alternating When such a coil is connected across a supply voltage V, the
current flows through a resistance R ohms, the average heating current is given by I= V/XL amperes. Since the resistance is very
effect over a complete cycle is I2R watts, where L: is the r.m.s. small, the heating effect and therefore the power are also very
value of the current in amperes. small, even though the voltage and the current be large. Such a
curious conclusion-so different from anything we have
If V volts be the r.m.s. value of the applied voltage, then for a experienced in d.c. circuits-requires fuller explanation if its
non-reactive circuit, V = IR, so that : significance is to be properly understood. Let us therefore
average value of the power = I2R = I x IR consider the figure, which shows the applied voltage and the
current for a purely inductive circuit, the current being a quarter
= IV watts. of a cycle behind the voltage.
Hence the power in a non-reactive circuit is given by the product
The power at any instant is given by the product of the voltage
of the ammeter and voltmeter readings, exactly as in a d.c.
and the current at that instant; thus at instant L, the p.d. is LN
circuit.
volts and the current is LM amperes, so that the power at that
instant is LN x LM watts and is represented to scale by LP.
By repeating this calculation at various instants we can deduce
the curve representing the variation of power over one cycle. It is
seen that during interval OA the applied voltage is positive, but
the current is negative, so that the power is negative; and that
during interval AB, both the current and the voltage are positive,
so that the power is positive.

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The power curve is found to be symmetrical about the horizontal During interval BC, the current and its magnetic field are
axis OD. Consequently the shaded areas marked '-' are exactly decreasing; and the emf induced by the collapse of the magnetic
equal to those marked ' + ‘ so that the mean value of the power flux is in the same direction as the current. But any circuit in
over the complete cycle OD is zero. which the current and the induced or generated emf are in the
same direction acts-as a generator of electrical energy.
It is necessary, however, to consider the significance of the
Consequently the coil is now acting as a generator transforming
positive and negative areas if we are to understand what is really
the energy of its magnetic field into electrical energy, the latter
taking place. So let us consider an alternator P (Fig. 1)
being sent to alternator P to drive it as a motor. The energy thus
connected to a coil Q whose resistance is negligible, and let us
returned is represented by the shaded area marked ' –‘ in Fig. 2;
assume that the voltage and current are as represented in Fig. 2.
and since the positive and negative areas are equal, it follows
At instant A, there is no current and therefore no magnetic field
that during alternate quarter-cycles electrical energy is being
through and around Q. During interval AB, the growth of the
sent from the alternator to the coil, and during the other quarter-
current is accompanied by a growth of flux as shown by the
cycles the same amount of energy is sent back from the coil to
dotted lines in Fig. 1. But the existence of a magnetic field
the alternator. Consequently the net energy absorbed by the coil
involves some kind of a strain in the space occupied by the field
during a complete cycle is zero; in other words, the average
and the storing of energy in that field, as already dealt with. The
power over a complete cycle is zero.
current, and therefore the magnetic energy associated with it,
reach their maximum values at instant B; and since the loss in
the coil is assumed negligible, it follows that at that instant the
whole of the energy supplied to the coil during interval AB, and
represented by the shaded area marked ' + ‘ is stored in the
magnetic field.

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Fig. 1 Fig. 2

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POWER IN A CIRCUIT HAVING RESISTANCE AND Since the number of watts is very often less than the number of
INDUCTANCE IN SERIES volt-amperes, the latter has to be multiplied by some factor,
equal to or less than unity, to give the power in watts. This factor
It has been previously shown that in a circuit having a resistance
is therefore termed the power factor, i.e.
R ohms in series with an inductance L henrys, the current lags
the applied voltage by an angle φ such that tan φ = 2πfL /R. In the power in watts = number of volt-amperes x power factor
figure the current and voltage are shown with a phase difference
of 60°. The power wave is again derived from the product of the Power in watts
instantaneous values of current and voltage. It is seen that the or power factor = ……(a)
product of r.m.s. values of
positive area representing the energy absorbed by the circuit voltage and current
during interval AB is greater than the negative area representing
the energy returned from the circuit to the alternator during I 2 R( watts ) IR
interval BC. Also it is found that the power curve is symmetrical = =
IV (volt − amperes) V
about a dotted line MN drawn midway between the positive and
negative peaks of the power curve. Hence the height of this
dotted line above the zero axis OABC represents the average
The vector diagram for a circuit having resistance and
value of the power over one cycle.
inductance in series has already been given, from which it is
By drawing power curves for voltages and currents having the seen that IR / V = cosφ, where φ is the phase difference between
same amplitudes but various phase differences, it can be seen the current and the applied voltage.
that the larger the phase difference, the smaller is the difference
between the areas representing the positive and negative Hence power factor = cos φ ……….(b)
energies, and the smaller, therefore, is the mean value of the It should be pointed out that expression (a) for power factor is
power. always correct, whereas expression (b) is correct only when both
It was explained before, that in any circuit having a resistance R the current and the voltage waveforms are sinusoidal, since it
ohms, the average heating effect due to a current having an has been derived from a vector diagram, and vector diagrams
r.m.s. value of I amperes is I2R watts. On the other hand, the are based upon sine waves.
product of the r.m.s. values of the current and applied voltage is If Z be the impedance of the circuit in ohms, then V=IZ,
IV volt-amperes, the latter term being used to distinguish this
IR IR R
quantity from the power, expressed in watts. ∴ power factor = = =
R IZ Z

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ACTIVE AND REACTIVE (OR WATTLESS) COMPONENTS OF

THE CURRENT
Hence component OA of the current is such that the product of
OA and the voltage gives the power. Therefore OA is termed the
active or power component of the current, i.e.
Let us again consider a circuit consisting of resistance and
inductance in series, and suppose the applied voltage and the Active or power component of current = I cos φ
current to be represented V by the vectors OV and OI
respectively. Since OB lags the voltage by 90°,

Let us resolve the current I into two components, one component Power due to a component OB = OB × V × cos 90° = 0.
being in phase with the voltage V and the other lagging V by 90° Hence OB is referred to as the reactive or watless component
(or quarter-cycle); for instance, draw IA perpendicular to OV, and of the current. From the figure it is seen that:
IB perpendicular to OB, which is at right-angles to OV.
Consequently OAIB is a rectangle and the diagonal OI Reactive or wattless component of current = OB=AI
represents the vectorial sum o two currents represented by OA =I sin φ
and OB; i.e. a current OI may be replaced by two currents
represented in magnitude and phase by OA and OB and reactive component (or VAr) = IV sin φ
respectively.
Since OI represents the actual current, I amperes, and since OA
=OI cosφ
∴power=IV cosφ=V×OI cosφ
=V×OA watts.

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THE PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE OF POWER FACTOR The matter may be put another way by saying that, for a given
power, the lower the power factor the larger must be the size of
If an alternator is rated to give, say, 2000 A at a voltage of 400
the alternator to generate that power, and the greater must be
V, it means that these are the highest current and voltage values
the cross-sectional area of the conductor to transmit it; in other
the machine can give without the temperature exceeding a safe
words, the grater is the cost of generation and transmission of
value. Consequently the rating of the alternator is given as 400 x
the electrical energy. This is the reason why supply authorities
2000/1000=800 kVA. The phase difference between the voltage
do all they can to improve the power factor of their loads either
and the current depends upon the nature of the load and not
by the installation of capacitors or special machines or by the
upon the generator. Thus if the power factor of the load is unity,
use of tariffs which encourage consumers to do so.
the 800 kVA are also 800 kW; and the engine driving the
generator has to be capable of developing this power together
with the losses in the generator. But if the power factor of the
load is, say, 0.5, the power is only 400 kW; so that the engine is
only developing about one-half of the power of which it is
capable, though the alternator is supplying its rated output of 800
kV A.
Similarly the conductors connecting the alternator to the load
have to be capable of carrying 2000 A without excessive
temperature rise. Consequently they can transmit 800 kW if the
power factor is unity, but only 400 kW at 0.5 power factor, for the
same rise of temperature.
It is therefore evident that the higher the power factor of the load,
the greater is the power that can be generated by a given
alternator and transmitted by a given conductor.

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STUDENT NOTES

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