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 BDA20303
Mechanics of Machines

 Machines - devices to alter, transmit, and

direct forces to accomplish a specific
objectives.
 Mechanism – mechanical portion of machine
that has function of transferring motion and
forces from a power source to an output.

 Mechanism consider rigid parts that are

arranged and connected to desired motion of
machine.
Simon Stevin's problem

Simon Stevin (1548-1620) Stevin's ball-ramp experiment

  Machine  Structure
 Transform energy to  Not transform energy
do work
 Motion  Not move
 Transmit motion and  Transmit forces only
forces
 Physical Principles
Force and Torque

 Force: an agent or influence that, if applied to a

free body results chiefly in an acceleration of the
body and sometimes in elastic deformation and
other effects.

 Torque: Something that produces or tends to

produce rotation and whose effectiveness is
measured by the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the line of action of the
force to the axis of rotation.
 Motion
Motion: a change of position or orientation.

 Motion Along a Straight Path

Position and displacement along a line
Velocity
Acceleration
 Linear Motion in Space
Position vector and displacement vector
Velocity vector
Acceleration vector
 Motion of a Rigid Body in a Plane
 Newton's Law of Motion

 Newton's First Law

When no force is exerted on a body, it stays at rest or
moves in a straight line with constant speed.

 Newton's Second Law

When a force F is applied on an object, V, the change
of the velocity of the object, increases with the length
of time delta t increases;
The greater the force F, the greater V; and
The larger the body (object) is, the less easily
accelerated by forces.
 Momentum and Conservation of
Momentum

Impulse
Momentum
Conservation of Momentum

 Work, Power and Energy

Work
Power
Energy
CHAPTER 1

GEAR SYSTEM
1. Introduction to Gear System
2. Types of Gear system
3. Relationship between pitch diameter and pitch
circle
4. Gear Ratio
5. Gear Train
6. Gear Efficiency
7. Power Transmission in a Gear Train System
8. Equivalent Moment of Inertia
9. Gear Train Applications
10. Vehicle Dynamics
 1. Introduction to Gear System
 Gear is a toothed machine part, such as a wheel
or cylinder that meshes with another toothed part
to transmit motion or to change speed or
direction.

 Gears are the optimal medium for high accuracy

and low energy loss.
 Gears being an important part of a machine have
immense usage within various industries.

 Gears are used for two basic purposes; increase

or decrease of rotation speed and increase or
decrease of power or torque.
 2. Types of Gear System
Gear can also be classified according to the relative position of the axes of mating gears.

Intersecting Non-Intersecting Rotary to

Parallel Axes
Axes (Non-parallel) Axes Translation
Spur Gears Bevel gears Hypoid gears Rack and Pinion
Helical Gears Straight bevel Crossed helical gears -
Herring bone or
double helical Zerol bevel Worm gears -
gears
- Spiral bevel - -
Parallel Axes Shaft
The shaft axes between driver and driven gear is parallel to each other. Example
of this type of gear is Spur Gear.
Intersecting Axes Shaft
The shaft axes between driver and driven gear is perpendicular to each other.
Example of gear is bevel gears.

Figure 2: bevel gear

Figure 2: Bevel Gear

Non-Intersecting (Non-parallel) Axes Shaft
The shaft axes between the driver and driven gears are not intersecting but not
parallel at the same time. A very good example of a non-intersecting-non-parallel gear
system is a worm gear as in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Worm Gear

Perpendicular Axes Shaft / Rotary to Translation
The shaft axes between driver and driven gear are perpendicular to each other and
do not intersect to each other. Example of gear is Rack and Pinion Gear.

Figure 4: Rack and Pinion Gear

3. Relationship between Pitch
Diameter and Pitch Circle

Figure 5: Gear terminology

 Pitch circle:
A right section of the pitch surface.

 Addendum circle:
A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section of the gear.

 Root (or dedendum) circle:

The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a right section of the
gear.

 Addendum:
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.

 Dedendum:
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.

 Clearance:
The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum of
the mating gear.
 Circular thickness :
The thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the
length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.

 Tooth space:
The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.

 Backlash:
The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the
tooth space of the mating gear.

 Circular pitch p:
The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle.

 Diametral pitch P:
The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch diameter. A
toothed gear must have an integral number of teeth.
The circular pitch, therefore, equals the pitch circumference divided by the
number of teeth. The diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of teeth divided
by the pitch diameter. That is,

p=
πD
N
and P=
N
D
Hence pP = π

Where;

p = circular pitch N = number of teeth

P = diametral pitch D = pitch diameter
 4. Gear Ratio
Consider a gear set below;

Driven gear
Driver gear

When two gear mate efficiently at point A, the velocity, of both gear are the same. Thus;
v

v = v1 = v2
with
v = wD
2

Then from will produce

w1 D1 w2 D 2
=
2 2
w1 = D2
w2 D1

Where = speed of driver gear

w1

=speed of driven gear

w2
Gear ratio is defined as ratio of speed of driven gear with the speed of driver gear.
n

p g
n =
w2
=
D1
=
N1
=
α 2

w1 D2 N2 α 1

Gear ratio,

Where α1
= angular acceleration of driver gear
n α2
=angular acceleration of driven gear
 5. Gear Train
 Gear trains consist of
two or more gears for the
purpose of transmitting
motion from one axis to
another.
 A gear train may have several drivers and several
driven gears.
 When gear A turns once clockwise, gear B turns 4
times counter-clockwise and gear C turns once
clockwise.

 Hence gear B does not change the speed of C from

what it would have been if geared directly to gear
A, but it changes its direction from
counterclockwise to clockwise.
 “For an ODD number
of mating gears, the
rotation of Driven
gear is the SAME as
Driver Gear.”

 “For an EVEN
number of mating
gears, the rotation of
Driven gear is
REVERSE of Driver
Gear.”
 1.6 Gear Efficiency
 Gear efficiency is defined as the ratio of Output
Power from Driven Gear to the Input Power from
Driver Gear.

 Gear efficiency measures how efficient a gear

system is to transmit power.

 High value of gear efficiency reflects a more

efficient gear system.

 Power loss in a gear system may come from sources

like friction, slip, backlash and so on.
 P = Tω

From Power, , then

T2 ω 2
η =
P2
=
T1ω1
=
T2
n
Gear Efficiency, G ,1− 2
P1 T1

Where P1 = Input power from driver gear

P2
= Output power from driven gear
n
= Gear ratio
If the , thus the torque at driver gear is;
T1
ηG ≠ 1.0
 1.7 Power Transmission in a Gear Train
System

Consider a gear train consists of two sets of gear reducing arrangement. A motor
Im IT

is attached to the system with is the moment of inertia of motor shaft, is moment of
inertia of middle shaft and is the moment of inertia of hoist which acts as the load of
IG

the system. Gear ratio and gear efficiency of gear set 1-2 is and , between gear
n1 / 2 η G1 / 2

set 3-4 is n3 / 4 and ηG3 / 4 respectively. Let;

Tm
= Torque of motor
= Torque of hoist
TG

= Friction torque at bearing X

TX

Draw the free body diagram and using Newton Second Law,
 Tm − T1 = I m α m

T2 − T3 = IT α T

h i i

)
Assume clockwise direction as positive value.
For (A)
α
……………………………………………….…………… (1)
Tm − T1 = I m m

For (B)
T2 − T3 = …………………………………….………………………. (2)
IT α T

Since there is gear mating between gear 1 and 2, thus, must include in the analysis its own gear
ratio and gear efficiency, and relate it to the inertia of middle shaft, . IT

Previously, , thus it follows that

T2
η G1 / 2 = n1 / 2
T1

………………………………..……………………………….………. (3)

η G1 / 2T1
T2 =

For (C) n1 / 2

……………………….………………..……………………….. (4)

also T4 − TX − TG
…………………………………………………………………………..(5)
= I G α G
 P = Tω ,

Using power, power transfer to each gear component is;

a) Power transfer by the motor
Pm = Tm ω m

b) Power at gear 1
P1 = T1 ω m = (Tm − I m α m ω
) m

c) Power at gear 2
P2 = P1η G1 / 2

d) Power at gear 3
P3 = T3 ω T = (T2 − I T α T ω
) T

e) Power at gear 4

f) Power at hoist
P4 = P3η G 3 / 4

g) Overall power transfer

ω efficiency,
PG = TG G = (T4 − T X − I G α G ω
) G

ηO
 1.8 Equivalent Moment of Inertia, I equiv
Consider a simple gear system as below Figure. In order for the driver gear A to start rotate, it
IA

must have enough torque to overcome its own inertia, first, and then another additional
torque to start accelerate the driver gear B.

For a simple gear system, the solution is straightforward, but when it comes to complex gear
train design, it is useful to simplify / group together all inertia term in the system into a single
compact inertia expression.
 IB

1. Torque at B to overcome
TB = I B αB

ωB αB
Refer αB

to gear A side. Use gear ratio, n =

ωA =

Thus, TB = I B nα A

2. Gear efficiency is related to power and thus torque of the mating gears, thus
PB TB n
ηG = =
PA TA

IB

3. Therefore, torque at A, to accelerate

(I α ) (I nα )n 2
α
η η η η
TB n I n
TA = = B B
n = B A
= B

G G G G
 IA IB

4. Therefore total torque at A to accelerate and is

TTOTAL = I α
A A + TA

 n2 
α
I
TTOTAL = I

A +
ηG
B

,  Or in general form,
A
(referred to motor side)
TTOTAL =

Thus  I n2 
I equiv = 
I + B



A
ηG 

The derivation of of this simple gear system can be extended to a double set of gear
I equiv

reducing problem as in section 1.7. By neglecting the friction torque effect, , thus,
TX
 1.9 Gear Train Applications (Solved Problem )
 Example 1(Taken from Roslan, Che’ Abas, Yunus (2001),
UTM)

A motor is accelerating a 250 kg load with acceleration of

1.2 m/s2 through a gear system as shown below. The rope that
carries the load are encircled on a hoist with diameter 1.2m.Gear
for the hoist’s shaft has 200 teeth, gear for motor shaft has 20
teeth. Gear efficiency is 90%. Mass and radius of gyration of each
shaft is as below;
Mass (kg) Radius of gyration
(mm)
Motor shaft 250 100
Hoist shaft 1100 500

Calculate the torque of the motor needed to bring up the load with
acceleration 1.2 m/s2. Neglect friction effect.
 Dia = 1.2 m

Total torque at motor to bring up load

Where = Torque to overcome equivalent inertia (refer to motor side).

Ttotal = TM 1 + TM 2

TM 1
=Torque to accelerate the load through gear system
 TM 1

a) Consider for
IGn2
I equiv = I +
M
ηG
From

Thus IM
= Motor shaft inertia
I M = mr 2
kgm2
= 250(0.1)
2
= 2.5

IG
= Hoist shaft inertia
kgm2
= 1100(0.5 ) =
2
I G 275

Gear ratio,
N1 20
n = = = 0.1
N2 200

Put into kgm2

Acceleration of hoist,
 275(0.1)2 
I equiv = 2.5 +   = 5.55
 0.9 

Thus rad/s aG = α G rG

From the gear ratio, angular acceleration of motor, rad/s

αG =
1.2
= 2
0.6

Now torque due to equivalent inertia,

Nm.
 TM 2

b) Consider for

From Newton 2nd Law, ∑ F = ma

F − 250 g = 250 a
F = 250( g + a ) = 250(9.81 + 1.2 )
F = 2752.5 N

Then, torque at hoist

Nm
TG = Fr = 2752.5(0.6 ) = 1651.5

But due to gear efficiency (since the hoist shaft is connected to the gear system), torque to
TG
accelerate the load,
Hoist

Nm r

a F

Then total torque referred to motor side is;

Ttotal = TM 1 + TM 2

Ttotal = 111.1 + 183.5

250 kg

Ttotal = 294.6
Nm
250g
Example 2(Taken from Roslan, Che’ Abas, Yunus, (2001), UTM)

Figure 12 below shows a motor used to accelerate a hoist through two sets of gear reducing
system. Moment of inertia for the motor shaft is 5 kgm2, middle shaft is 40 kgm2 and hoist shaft
is 500 kgm2. Gear ratio for gear set 1 and 2 is 1/3.5 while for gear set 3 and 4 is 1/ 4.5. Gear
efficiency for both gear set is 90%. By neglecting the friction effect, find the total torque
required by the motor to accelerate the load of 6 tones at acceleration of 0.4 m/s2.

Hoist

Diameter = 1.2 m

Solution
= 1

=5 kgm2, kgm2, =500 kgm2,

n1 /
IM IT = 40 IG
2 3.5

Given that , ,
Neglect friction effect.

Total torque required for the motor is

Ttotal = TM 1 + TM 2

Where TM 1
= Torque to overcome equivalent inertia (refer to motor side).
T
=Torque to accelerate the load through gear system
 TM 1

a) Consider for
TM 1 = I α

Recall that , but for two set of gear system with friction effect is neglected,
equiv m

2
I ( n1 / ) I G ( n1 / ) 2 ( n3 / 4 ) 2
= +
η +
η η
T 2 2
I equiv I m
G ,1 / 2 ( G ,1 / 2 )( G ,3 / 4 )

40( 1 ) 2
500( 1
I = 5 + 3 .5 + 3
equiv
0.9 ( 0 .9

aG = 0.4

From question, given that, m/s2, thus;

aG 0.4
αG = =
rG 0.6

α G = 0.6667
rad/s2

From gear ratio, α α α 1 1 1

α =
α ×
α = × =
G G T

m T m 4.5 3.5 15.75

Thus, α = 15.75 α
m G

rad/s2
α m = 15.75(0.6667 ) = 10.5

Thus,
= α = 11.116(10.5 )

Nm.
Tm1 I equiv m
 TM 2

b) Consider for in Figure 13;

Hoist
From Newton 2nd Law,
∑F = ma

4500 − F1 = 4500 a a
N
F1 = 4500( g − a ) = 4500(9.41) =

a
42345

F1 F2
F2 − 6000 g = 6000 a

N 6000 kg
F2 = 6000(a + g ) = 61260

4500 kg
Resultant torque at hoist
kN
FR = F2 − F1 = 18.915

Thus torque at hoist 6000g

4500g
kN
TG TM 2

It is known that referred to motor side will be denoted as and is related by

TG n1 / n3 /
= 2 4
TM 2
η G ,1 / 2 η G ,3 / 4

TM =
11.349 1(3.5
1
4. 5
)(
Nm ) = 889.6
0.9(0.9 )
2

Thus total torque at motor required is

Ttotal = TM 1 + TM 2

Ttotal = 116.72 + 889.6

Nm.
Example 3(Taken from Roslan, Che’ Abas, Yunus, (2001), UTM)

Hoist
Dia = 0.9 m

Figure 14: Gear with inclined loading

Figure 14 above shows a motor accelerating a hoist with diameter 0.9m, through two sets
of gear reducing system. Gear ratio for gear 1 and 2 is 1/3.5 while for gear 3 and 4 is 1/ 4.5.
Moment of inertia for the motor shaft is 5 kgm2, middle shaft is 20 kgm2 and hoist shaft is 100
kgm2. The rope that is encircled on the hoist must be capable to lift up a load of 5 tones that is
sliding on a 1 in 50 slope. Friction on the slope is 1000N and the total torque at motor required to
raise the load is 1500N. Use gear efficiency of 90% for both gear set. If there is friction torque
effect on the middle shaft, Nm and at hoist shaft is Nm. Calculate the
acceleration of the load at the above condition.
Solution TX = 150

T y = 800

For the overall gear ratio,

Total torque required by motor to raise load

Where = Torque to overcome equivalent inertia (refer to motor side).

=Torque to accelerate the load through gear system
n0 = n1 / 2 n3 / 4 =
1
3.5
×
1
4.5
=
1
15.75

= + TM + TM

Total torque to overcome friction effect.

Ttotal TM 1 2 3
 TM 1

a) Consider for
TM 1 = I α

Previously,
equiv m

For double set of gear reducing system,

2
I ( n1 / ) I G (
= +
η +
η
T 2
I equiv I m
G ,1 / 2 (

kgm2
20( 1 ) 2

I = 5 + 3.5
equiv
0.9

From a = αr
, thus

a a
αG = =
rG 0.45
Also from gear ratio, , thus

αG 1
=
αm 15.75

Thus
α m
Nm= 15.75 α G

= 15.75
a 

 0.45 
= 3
 TM 2

b) Consider for as in Figure 15;

From ∑ F = ma ,

F1

Mg sinθ
FR
N
5000g Thus, torque to accelerate hoist
θ

Nm
F1
Use gear efficiency to relate with
r
TG

hoist
Nm
Figure 15: inclined loading
 TM 3

c) Consider for
TM 3

Friction effect can be grouped together to form where;

T X n1 / TY n1 / n3 /
= +
η η η
2 2 4
TM 3
G ,1 / 2 G ,1 / 2 G ,3 / 4


150
1 

 3.5 
Nm 
800
 3
TM 3 = +
0.9 0

From
Ttotal = TM 1 + TM 2 + TM 3

Thus m/s2
1500 = (255.92 a ) + (176
 1.10Vehicle Dynamics
Wheel
v
wr
R
D/2
FT

Surface
Figure 16: Vehicle dynamics

For a moving vehicle as in Figure 16, some of the forces acting on it are;
• Friction due to the vehicle’s body (aerodynamic friction),
• Forces due to friction from the engine to the wheel such as friction in bearing, shaft,
R

clutch and gears, .

• Forces due the acceleration of the vehicle, which is called tractive force, considering
R INT

no slip between the wheel and the road surface.

We can estimate the speed of the moving vehicle by considering the speed of the wheel itself.
FT

Vehicle speed,
Example 1 (Solved Problem)

Total mass for a two wheeled motorcycle including passenger is 190 kg. The engine produce
torque of 25 Nm at speed of 1800 RPM. Moment of inertia for each wheel is 1.4 kgm2 while for
other rotating parts in the engine is considered as 0.15 kgm2. The wheel’s effective diameter is
610 mm. If the motorcycle is moving on a road with a speed 23 km/hr at second gear, find
(i) Gear ratio for the second gear
(ii) Acceleration at speed 23 km/hr
Assume wind friction is 200 N and gear efficiency is 90%.
Solution
Given that =190 kg,
m
=25 Nm at =1800 PM, =1.4 kgm2, =0.15 kgm2, =610
N

IR

mm,
Ttotal I int

If =23 km/hr at 2nd gear, with =200 N, =90%.

v R

ηG
1st Step – Draw Free Body Diagram

Iint IR
Engine

Wheel
Gear system
Figure 17: Free body diagram

2nd Step
Total torque at engine,
Ttotal

Where = Torque due to equivalent inertia of rotating parts in the engine.(referred to engine
Ttotal = TM 1 + TM 2

side). TM 1

= Torque to accelerate the wheel.

3rd Step TM 2

Convert all measurement to SI standard.

Engine speed, rad/s

Wheel speed, m/s

 TM 1

th
4 Step– Determine
In order to find gear ratio for second gear,
n =
wR
=
(6.3889 0.305 ) =
1
wint
(Where
188.5 9
) wR =

Thus gear ratio for second gear is n = (19 )

Equivalent moment of inertia is

I n2
I equiv = I int + R

ηG

kgm2

In order to find , use

I = and gear ratio
0.15 +
(2 × 1.4 ) ( 19 )
2

= 0.1884
equiv
0.9

αR
α int

αR = a
(D 2)
rad/s2

Thus,
Nm.
 TM 2

5th Step – Determine as in Figure 18;

a
R
m=190 kg

FT

Figure 18: dynamic force on the motorcycle

From
∑ F = ma ,

FT = R + ma

Total torque at wheel, FT = 200 + 190 a

TR = FT r = (200 + 190 a )0.305

TR = 61 + 57.95a

Refer to motor side using gear efficiency

TR

Nm

Thus, total torque at engine TM 2 = ( 7.35 + 7.154 a )

=
TR n
=
(61 + 57.95a ) ( 19 )
TM 2
η G 0 .9

The acceleration at that speed is;

By solving the equation for the total torque above, thus
Ttotal = (5.559 a ) + (7.35 + 7.154 a )

m/s2