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Floating Solar Chimney Technology

CHAPTER · FEBRUARY 2010

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 10

Floating Solar Chimney Technology

Christos D. Papageorgiou
National Technical University of Athens
Greece

1. Introduction
1.1 Floating Solar Chimney technology description
The purpose of this chapter is to present the Floating solar chimney (FSC) technology, look
for the site www.floatingsolarchimney.gr, in order to explain its principles of operation and
to point out its various significant benefits. This technology is the advisable one for
candidacy for large scale solar electricity generation especially in desert or semi desert areas
of our planet and a major technology for the global warming elimination.
The solar chimney power plants are usually referred to as solar updraft towers
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_updraft_tower) and the related solar chimneys are
huge reinforced concrete structures. However due to the high construction cost of the
concrete solar chimneys the solar up-draft tower technology is expensive demanding a high
initial investment in comparison to its competitive solar technologies. Their solar up-draft
towers are huge structures of high initial investment cost that can not be split into small
units. That is possible for the relatively also expensive PV solar technology. Also the solar
updraft technology is far more expensive compared to the conventional fossil fueled power
plants of similar electricity generation. That is why the solar chimney technology has not yet
been applied although it is a solar technology of many advantages.
The Floating Solar Chimney (FSC) is a fabric low cost alternative of the concrete solar
chimney up-draft towers that can make the Floating Solar Chimney technology cost
competitive in comparison not only with the renewable electricity generation technologies
but also with the conventional fossil fueled electricity generation technologies. Also the FSC
technology is cost effective to be split into small units of several MW each.
The Floating Solar Chimney Power Plant, named by the author as Solar Aero-Electric
Power Plant (SAEP) due to its similarity to the Hydro-Electric power plant, is a set of three
major components:
• The Solar Collector. It is a large greenhouse open around its periphery with a
transparent roof supported a few meters above the ground.
• The Floating Solar Chimney (FSC). It is a tall fabric cylinder placed at the centre of the
solar collector through which the warm air of the greenhouse, due to its relative
buoyancy to the ambient air, is up-drafting.
• The Turbo-Generators. It is a set of air turbines geared to appropriate electric
generators in the path of up-drafting warm air flow that are forced to rotate generating
electricity. The gear boxes are adjusting the rotation speed of the air turbines to the
generator rotation speed defined by the grid frequency and their pole pairs.
Source: Solar Energy, Book edited by: Radu D. Rugescu,
ISBN 978-953-307-052-0, pp. 432, February 2010, INTECH, Croatia, downloaded from SCIYO.COM
188 Solar Energy

An indicative figure of a solar chimney Power Plant with a circular solar collector and a
Floating Solar Chimney inclined due to external winds is shown in next figure( 1).

Fig. 1. Floating Solar Chimney Power Plant in operation

Because of its patented construction the FSC is a free standing lighter than air structure that
can tilt when external winds appear. Low cost Floating Solar Chimneys up to 1000 m with
internal diameters 25 m ÷ 40 m, can be constructed with an existing polyester fabric, giving
to their respective Solar Aero-Electric Power Plants, low investment costs.
By this innovating Floating Solar Chimney Technology of heights of the FSCs up to1000m,
up to 1.2 % of the arriving horizontal solar radiation on the solar collector surface, can be
converted to electricity

1.2 Similarity to hydro-electric power plants

The Floating Solar Chimney power plants, due to their similarity to hydro-electric power
plants, are named by the author Solar Aero Electric Power Plants (SAEPs).
Their similarity is due to the following facts:
• The hydro-electric PPs operate due to falling water gravity, while the solar aero-electric
PPs operate due to the up-drafting warm air buoyancy.
• The electricity generation units of hydro-electric PPs are water turbines engaged to
electric generators while the generation units of solar aero-electric PPs are air turbines
engaged to electric generators.
• The energy produced by the hydro-electric PPs is proportional to the falling water
height, while the energy produced by the solar aero-electric PPs is proportional to up-
drafting height of warm air, which is equal to the height of the solar chimneys.
• That is why Prof J. Sclaigh in his book named the solar chimney technology power
plants as the hydro-electric power plants of deserts.
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 189

1.3 Continuous operation

As it will be shown later the SAEPs operate continuously due to the ground thermal storage.
The minimum electric power is generated when the sun is just starting rising, while the
maximum electric power is achieved about 2 hours after the sun’s maximum irradiation on
ground. The power generation profile can become smoother if we increase the solar collector
thermal capacity. This can be done by putting on its ground area closed tubes filled with
water (as happens already in conventional greenhouses).

2. History
The Solar Chimney technology for electricity generation was inspired by several engineering
pioneers early in the first decade of the 20th century.
In 1926 Prof Engineer Bernard Dubos proposed to the French Academy of Sciences the
construction of a Solar Aero-Electric Power Plant in North Africa with its solar chimney on
the slope of a sufficient height mountain. His proposal is shown in the following figure( 2),
found in a book of 1954 ( “Engineer’s Dream” Willy Ley, Viking Press 1954)

Fig. 2. ( from the book: ”Engineer’s Dream”By: Willy Ley, Viking Press 1954)
Lately Schaich, Bergerman and Partners, under the direction of Prof. Dr. Ing. Jorg Schlaigh,
built an operating model of a SAEPP in 1982 in Manzaranes (Spain), which was funded by
the German Government.
This solar chimney power plant, shown in next figure (3) was of rating power 50 KW. Its
greenhouse had a surface area of 46000 m2 and its solar chimney was made out of steel tubes
of 10 m diameter and had a height of 195 m.
190 Solar Energy

This demo SAEP was operating successfully for approximately 6 years. During its operation,
optimization data were taken.
The collected operational data were in accordance with the theoretical results of the
scientific team of Prof Jorg Schlaigh.

Fig. 3. A view of the Manzanares Solar Chimney Power Plant

Prof. Jorg Schlaigh in 1996 published a book (Schlaigh 1995) presenting the solar chimney
technology. He proposed in his book the huge reinforced concrete solar chimneys of heights
of 500m-1000m.
The proposed concrete solar chimneys are huge and very expensive. Therefore the
investment cost per produced KWh on the solar chimney technology with concrete
chimneys is in the same cost range with the competitive solar thermal technologies. The
generated KWh, by the CSP Parabolic Through for example, it has almost the same direct
production cost, but the CSP power plants can be split into small units and developed using
reasonable recourses.
However the proposed solar chimney technology had an important benefit in comparison
with the major renewable technologies (Wind, SCP, PV).
That is its ability, equipping its solar collectors, with thermal storage facilities of negligible
cost, to generate uninterrupted electricity of a controlled smooth profile for 24h/day,
365days/year.
The last decade several business plans and a series of scientific research papers have focused
on the solar chimney technology, whereby the author with a series of patents and papers
has introduced and scientifically supported the floating solar technology (Papageorgiou
2004, 2009).
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 191

3. Principles of operation of the solar chimney technology and its annual

efficiency Information
3.1 Short description and principles of operation
A floating solar chimney power plant (SAEP) is made of three major components:
• A large solar collector, usually circular, which is made of a transparent roof supported a
few meters above the ground (the greenhouse). The transparent roof can be made of
glass or crystal clear plastic. A second cover made of thin crystal clear plastic is
suggested to be hanged just underneath the roof in order to increase its thermal
efficiency. The periphery of the solar collector is open in order that the ambient air can
move freely into it.
• A tall fabric free standing lighter than air cylinder (the floating solar chimney) placed in
the center of the greenhouse which is up drafting the warm air of the greenhouse, due
to its buoyancy, to the upper atmospheric layers.
• A set of air turbines geared to appropriate electric generators (the turbo generators),
placed with a horizontal axis in a circular path around the base of the FSC or with a
vertical axis inside the entrance of the solar chimney. The air turbines are caged and can
be just a rotor with several blades or a two stage machine (i.e. with a set of inlet guiding
vanes and a rotor of several blades). The gear boxes are adjusting the rotation frequency
of the air turbines to the electric generator rotation frequency defined by the grid
frequency and the electric generator pole pairs.
The horizontal solar irradiation passing through the transparent roof of the solar collector is
heating the ground beneath it. The air beneath the solar collector is becoming warm through
a heat transfer process from the ground area to the air. This heat transfer is increased due to
the greenhouse effect of the transparent roof.
This warm air becomes lighter than the ambient air. The buoyancy of the warm air is forcing
the warm air to escape through the solar chimney. As the warm air is up drafting through
the chimney, fresh ambient air is entering from the open periphery of the greenhouse. This
fresh air becomes gradually warm, while moving towards the bottom of the solar chimney,
and it is also up-drafting.
Thus a large quantity of air mass is continuously circulating from ground to the upper
layers of the atmosphere. This circulating air mass flow is offering a part of its
thermodynamic energy to the air turbines which rotate and force the geared electric
generators also to rotate. Thus the rotational mechanical power of the air turbines is
transformed to electrical power. An indicative diagram of the SAEP operation is shown in
the next figure(4).
Thus the first two parts of the SAEPs form a huge thermodynamic device up drafting the
ground ambient air to the upper atmosphere layers and the third part of the SAEP is the
electricity generating unit.
The solar energy arriving on the horizontal surface area Ac of the greenhouse of the SAEP is
given by EIR=Ac·Wy, where Wy is the annual horizontal solar irradiation in KWh/m2, at the
place of installation of the SAEP and is given by the meteorological data nearly everywhere.
The average annual horizontal solar irradiance is given by Gav=Wy/Ac.
The horizontal solar irradiation is offering thermal power PTh= m  ·cp· (T03-T02) to the up
drafting air mass flow m  of the ambient air, cp≈1005 and T02 is equal to the average ambient
temperature T0 plus ~ 0.5 0K, in order that it is taken into account the outer air stream
increased inlet temperature due to its proximity to the ground on its entrance inside the
solar collector.
192 Solar Energy

Solar Horizontal irradiation

G
AIR OUT
T4

T01 P4

TURBINE

T03te T03
T02 INLET VANES

AIR IN AIR IN
Dc

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the SAEP in operation

3.2 Annual average efficiency of SAEPs

The annual efficiency of the solar collector ηsc is defined as the average ratio of the thermal
power PTh absorbed by the air mass flow to the horizontal solar irradiation arriving on the
greenhouse roof Gav·Ac, where Gav is the average horizontal irradiance and Ac the
greenhouse surface area.
The annual average double glazing solar collector efficiency ηsc is theoretically estimated to
~50%, while the annual efficiency for the single glazing solar collector is estimated to 2/3 of
the previous figure i.e. ~33%.
Thus the average exit temperature T03 from the solar collector can be calculated by the
equation m  ·cp· (T03-T02)= ηsc· Gav·Ac where T02 is the average inlet air temperature.
The exit thermal power PTh from the solar collector is transformed to electric power P, plus
power thermal losses PL (to the air turbines, gear boxes and electric generators), plus warm
air kinetic power at the top exit of the solar chimney PKIN and friction thermal losses inside
the solar chimney PFR.
The maximum efficiency of the solar chimney is the Carnot efficiency defined as the ratio of
the temperature difference between the incoming and outcoming air temperatures of the up-
drafting air divided by the ambient air temperature.
This maximum efficiency has been proven (Gannon & Backstrom 2000) to be equal to:
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 193

ηFSC,max=g·H/(cp·T0) (1)
Due to friction and kinetic losses in the solar chimney the actual solar chimney efficiency
ηFSC is for a properly designed SAEP approximately 90% of its maximum Carnot efficiency
(close to the optimum point of operation of the SAEP).
The combined efficiency ηT of the air turbines, gear boxes and electric generators is within
the range of 80%.
The average annual efficiency of the SAEP is the product of the average efficiencies of its
three major components i.e. the solar collector, the floating solar chimney and the turbo-
generators i.e. ηav= ηsc· ηFSC· ηT.
Thus the annual average efficiency of a SAEP of proper design, with a double glazing solar
collector should be approximately:

ηav =(1.2·H/1000) % (2)

While for the SAEP with a single cover collector it is approximately:

ηav= (0.79·H/1000) %. (3)

The formulae have been calculated for g=9.81,cp=1005 and T0≈293.20K(200C).
This means that if the annual horizontal irradiation arriving on the place of installation of
the SAEP is 2000 KWh/m2, the solar collector surface area is 106 m2 (one square Km) and the
solar chimney height is 750 m the SAEP can generate approximately 18 million KWh. The
same SAEP with a single glazing roof will generate approximately only 12 million KWh.
Following approximate analysis, for a SAEP with a double cover roof of given dimensions
(Ac=Greenhouse area in m2 and d=internal diameter of the Floating Solar Chimney in m) to
be installed in a place of annual horizontal solar irradiation Wy in KWh/m2 the diagram
showing the relation between the annual efficiency of the SAEP and its FSC height H can be
calculated.
The following figure (5) shows the annual efficiency as a function of FSC’s height for a SAEP
of Ac=106m2, d=40m and Wy=1700 KWh/m2 (Cyprus, South Spain).
The calculated efficiency curve is practically independent of the annual horizontal solar
irradiation Wy. However it depends on the FSC internal diameter d. The reason is that a
smaller diameter will increase the warm air speed at the top exit of the FSC and
consequently will increase the kinetic power losses and decrease the average annual
efficiency. If we vary the solar collector diameter of the SAEP its FSC internal diameter
should vary proportionally in order to keep almost constant the air speed at the top exit of
the FSC and consequently the annual efficiency of the SAEP.
Hence we should notice that in order to receive the efficiency diagram as shown in the
following figure (5) figure the kinetic and friction losses of the Floating Solar Chimney
should be approximately 10% of the total chimney power. This can be achieved if the
internal diameter of the FSC is appropriate in order to keep the average air speed in the
range of 7÷8 m/sec, and the FSC internal surface has a low friction loss coefficient.
The following figure (6) shows the variation of the annual efficiency of a SAEP of a FSC
500m high, installed in a place of annual horizontal solar irradiation 1700KWh/m2 as
function of the internal diameter of its FSC.
The annual electricity generated by the SAEP, Ey can be calculated as a product of the
annual efficiency and the arriving horizontal solar irradiation on its greenhouse surface
Ac·Wy. Thus taking into consideration that the annual efficiency is proportional to the FSC
194 Solar Energy

Greenhouse 100 Ha, Annual Horizontal Irradiation1700 KW h/sqm

1.3

1.2

1.1

1
Annual Efficiency %

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Floating Solar Chim ney height in m (FSC diam eter 40 m )

Fig. 5. Annual efficiency of a SAEP as function of its FSC height

height H, the annual generated electricity by the SAEPs is also proportional to the Floating
Solar Chimney height H, is as follows:

Ey=c·H·Ac·Wy (4)
The constant c is mainly depending on the FSC’s internal diameter d.

SAEP of a solar collector 100Ha,in a place with Wy=1700KWh/sqm

0.65

0.6
annual average efficiency %

0.55

0.5

0.45

0.4
25 30 35 40 45 50
internal diameter of FSC , height of FSC H=500m

Fig. 6. variation of the annual efficiency of a SAEP with internal FSC diameter
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 195

4. Theoretical analysis of the Floating Solar Chimney technology

4.1 Annual average efficiency of SAEPs
The ground thermal storage effect and the daily electricity generation profile, have been
studied by several authors (Bernades et.al 2003, Pretorius & Kroger 2006, Pretorious 2007).
The author has used an equivalent approach on the daily power profile study of the floating
solar chimney SAEPs using the thermodynamic model see (Backstrom & Gannon 2000) and
Fourier series analysis on the time varying temperatures and varying solar irradiance
during the 24 hours daily cycle.
Following the code of the author analysis an evaluation of the sensitivity of the various
parameters has been made leading to useful results for the initial engineering dimensioning
and design of the SAEPs.
The important results of these studies are that the solar chimney power plant annual power
production can be increased by using a second glazing below the outer glazing and its
output power production can be affected by the ground roughness and ground solar
irradiation absorption coefficients.
The thermodynamic cycle analysis proposed in ref. (Gannon Backstrom 2000) is an excellent
way of engineering analysis and thermodynamic presentation of the solar chimney power
plant operation.
The thermodynamic cycle of the solar chimney operation power plant using the same
symbols of the study of ref (Backstrom & Gannon 2000) is shown in the following figure.

T
03

Turbine
03te
Turb.loss
p02 =p03 =p0 03te'

gH/c p FSC
02
T 02=T 0
04
FSC loss Kinetic loss
gH/c p 04''
04'
4
4'
p01 =p4
01' 01

S
Fig. 7. The thermodynamic diagram of the SAEP
Temperatures, stagnation temperatures (marked with 0) and equivalent isentropic
temperatures (marked with ΄ ) are shown in the indicative diagram on the previous figure.
The main thermodynamic cycle temperatures are defined in the following table:
196 Solar Energy

T01 Isendropic temperature of ambient air in height H (exit of solar chimney)

T02 Ambient temperature in the ground around the solar collector
T03 Inlet temperature in the air turbines
T03te Exit air temperature from the turbo generators
T04 Stagnation temperature at the top of the solar collector
T4 Exit temperature of the air mixed with the ambient air at the top of the exit layers

Table 1.Tthermodynamic cycle temperatures

The process {T02 to To3} is assumed as approximately isobaric. This assumption is very
reasonable taking into consideration that the heat and expansion of moving air is taking
place inside the solar collector.
The processes {T4 to T01}, {T03te to T΄03te} and {T04 to T΄04} are definitely isobaric by nature.
By the analysis on the relations between the temperatures the following relationships can be
derived:

⎧ α ⋅ υ 2ex g ⋅H
⎪T04 =T4 + =T4 +C 2 ⋅ T42 , T03te =T04 +
⎪ 2 ⋅ c p cp
⎪⎪ T -T α ⋅ υ ex
2
′ =T03 − 03 03te , T04′′ =T04 -k ⋅
⎨ T03te (5)
⎪ n T 2 ⋅ cp
⎪ T′ ⋅ T T′
⎪ T04′ = 4 04 and T04′′ =T03 ⋅ 04
⎪⎩ T4 ′
T03te

Whereby the parameters participating in the relations are defined as follows:

H =solar chimney height
d=internal solar chimney diameter
Ach=π·d2/4, is the solar chimney internal cut area
 =moving mass flow
m
α=kinetic energy correction coefficient, of a usual value of 1.058 calculated in (White 1999).
k=friction loss coefficient inside the solar chimney
k= kin+ 4·Cd ·H/d where, for the operation range of Reynolds numbers inside the solar
chimney, the drag friction factor Cd is approximately equal to 0.003, see (White 1999) and
for no available data kinit is estimated to 0.15.
ηT= turbo generators overall efficiency, if not available data estimated to 0.8.
T0= ambient air temperature
T02= T0+0.5
p0= ambient atmospheric pressure on ground level at the place of installation of the SAEP, if
not available data it is assumed as equal to 101300 Pa.
p4= ambient atmospheric pressure on top exit at height H, estimated by the formula:

g ⋅ H 3.5
p4 =p0 ⋅ (1- ) (6)
c p ⋅ T0

g= gravity constant 9.81

Floating Solar Chimney Technology 197

cp= specific heat of air approximately equal to 1005

R= air constant approximately equal to 287
R ⋅ T4 ⋅ m

υex= average air speed at the top exit of the solar chimney υex =
P4 ⋅ A ch
2
T0 -C 1 g ⋅H ⎛ R ⋅m
a  ⎞ g ⋅H
and: T4′ = T03 ⋅ ,C 1 = ,C 2 =
⋅⎜ ⎟ ,C 3 =T03 ⋅ (η Τ -1)+
T0 cp A2 ⋅ cp
⋅ p
⎝ ch 4 ⎠ cp
The system of the previous equations can been simplified (see Papageorgiou, 2004),leading
to a forth order polynomial equation for T4 given by:

w1 ⋅ T44 + w2 ⋅ T43 + w3 ⋅ T42 + w4 ⋅ T4 + w5 = 0 (7)

Where the coefficients w1, w2, w3, w4 and w5 are given by the relations:

w 1 =C 22 ⋅ ( 1-k ) , w2 =C 2 ⋅ ( 2-k-η Τ ⋅ C 2 ⋅ T4′ ) , w3 = ( 1-k ) ⋅ C 2 ⋅ C 3 +1-2 ⋅η Τ ⋅ C 2 ⋅ T4′

w4 =C 3 -ηΤ ⋅ T4′ ⋅ ( 1-C 1 ⋅ C 2 ) , w 5 =-η Τ ⋅ T4′ ⋅ C 1
The proper root of the previous polynomial equation is the temperature T4.
It is easy using the previous relations to calculate T03te by the formula:

g ⋅H
T03te =T4 +C 2 ⋅ T42 + (8)
cp

Thus the overall electrical power of the generators is given by the relation:

g ⋅H
 ⋅ c p ⋅ ( T03 − T03te ) = m
P=m  ⋅ c p ⋅ (T03 -T4 -C 2 ⋅ T42 − ) (9)
cp

As a final result we can say that the air mass flow m  and the exit temperature T03 of the
moving air mass through solar collector can define, through the previous analytical
procedure, based on the thermodynamic cycle analysis, the electrical power output P of the
SAEP.
The proposed thermodynamic analysis, though it looks more complicated than the analysis
based on the buoyancy of warm air inside the chimney and the relevant pressure drop to the
air turbine used by Bernades M.A. dos S., Vob A., Weinrebe G. and Pretorius J.P., Kroger
D.G., it is an equivalent thermodynamic analysis that takes into consideration all necessary
and non negligible effects and parameters of the process in the SAEP.
An approximate procedure for T03 calculation is given by Shlaigh in his relative book.
The approximate average equation relating the average exit solar collector air temperature
T03 to its input air temperature T02 near the point of optimal operation of the SAEP can be
written as follows:

 ·Cp·( T03 - T02) + β·Ac· (T03-T02)

ta·Gav·Ac= m (10)
where:
• β is the approximate thermal power losses coefficient of the Solar Collector (to the
ambient and ground) per m2 of its surface area and °C of the temperature difference
(T03-T02) . An average value of β for double glazing solar collectors is ~3.8÷4 W/m2 /°C.
198 Solar Energy

• Gav is the annual average horizontal irradiance on the surface of the solar collector.
• The annual average solar horizontal irradiance Gav is given by the formula:
Wy/8760hours, where Wy is the annual horizontal irradiation of the place of installation
of the SAEPP, (in KWh/m2)
• ta is the average value of the product: {roof transmission coefficient for solar
irradiation X soil absorption coefficient for solar irradiation}.An average value of the
coefficient ta for a double glazing roof is ~ 0.70 .
• and Ac is the Solar Collector’s surface area.
Using in the equation an approximation for the function T03 ( m ), it gives as:

 )= [ ta·G / (β + m
T03 ( m  ·Cp/Ac) ] –T02 (11)
Where T02 is, approximately, equal to the ambient temperature (T0 in 0K),
plus 0.5 degrees of
Celsius. The increase is due mainly to ground thermal storage around the Solar Collector.
The inlet ambient air temperature as passing above it is increasing entering to the solar
collector.
The proper value of β, giving the average solar collector thermal losses, has been calculated
by the heat transfer analysis of the solar collector. An introduction on this analysis is given
on the next paragraph. The heat transfer analysis uses time Fourier series in order to take
into account the ground thermal storage phenomena during a daily cycle of operation.
The instantaneous efficiency of the SAEP is given by the formula:

η = P / ( AC ⋅ G ) (12)

where AC·G is the solar irradiation power arriving on the horizontal solar collector surface
area Ac and P is the maximum generated electric power. This efficiency is for a given value
of horizontal solar irradiance G. However we can prove that for an almost constant mass
flow near the point of maximum power output, the maximum electric power P and the
horizontal irradiance G are almost proportional, thus the previous formula is giving also the
annual efficiency of the SAEP defined as the annual generated electricity in KWh divided by
the annual horizontal irradiation arriving on top of the roof of the greenhouse of the SAEP i.e

η = Pav / ( A C ⋅ G av ) = E y ( K W h ) / W Y (13)

As an example let us consider that a SAEP has the following dimensions and constants:
Ac =106m2 (DD=1000m), H = 800 m, d=40 m, k = 0.49, α = 1.1058, ηT = 0.8, the average
ambient temperature is To = 296.2 oK and the ambient pressure is Po = 101300 Pa. Let us
assume that the horizontal solar irradiance G is varying between 100 W/m2 to 500 W/m2
(Gav≈ 240W/m2). In following figure the effect of the G on the power output as function of
mass flow of this SAEP is shown.
If the maximum (daily average during summer operation) Gav is 500 W/m2 the maximum
power output of this SAEP, achieved for m M = ~10000 Kg/sec is 5 MW. Thus its efficiency is
approximately 1%. Let us assume that the rated power output PR of a SAEP is the maximum
power output for the maximum average solar irradiance. As we can observe on the above
figure, the maximum power output point of operation ( m  M ) is approximately the same for
any horizontal solar irradiance G.
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 199

6
x 10 DD=1000m, H=800m, d=40m, Wy=2000KWh/sqm/year
5

4.5 G=500

3.5 G=400
Electric Power in W

2.5
G=300

1.5
G=200

0.5 G=100

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
mass flow in Kg/sec 4
x 10

Fig. 9. Electrical Power as function of mass flow for various values of G

Thus if we can control the operation of the SAEP to operate with the proper constant mass
flow, close to m M , we should achieve almost the possible maximum electric power output
by the SAEP for any horizontal solar irradiance. This is referred to as an optimal operation
of the SAEP.
As we see later this can be achieved by using induction generators and gear boxes of proper
transmission rate.
As a rule of thumb we can state that m  M for optimal operation of the SAEP can be
calculated approximately by the formula m  M =ρ·υ·(π·d2/4), where air speed is υ it is
estimated to 7-8 m/sec, the air density is given by ρ=p0/(287 ·307.15) and d is the internal
solar chimney diameter.
A more accurate calculation can be done if we work out on the mass flow for maximum
electric power output per annual average horizontal solar irradiance Gav,annual=Wy/8760.
This can be done using the thermodynamic cycle analysis for variable mass flow m  and Gav.
The calculated efficiency for the annual average horizontal solar irradiance
Gav=2100000/8760≈240W/m2, of the previously defined SAEP, is 0.94 % (i.e. 6% lower than
the calculated efficiency of 1% for the maximum summer average horizontal solar irradiance
of 500W/m2).

4.2 Maximum exit warm air speed without air turbines

Using the thermodynamic cycle diagram, the maximum top exit warm air speed of the solar
collector plus the FSC alone (i.e. without the air turbines) can be calculated.
In the previous set of equations we should assume that nT=0. Thus:
200 Solar Energy

T03=T03te and T04′ =T04′′ . If we consider that the kinetic losses are approximately equal to
a ⋅υ 2 a ⋅υ 2
T04′ − T4′ ≈ , the friction losses are equal to T04′′ − T04′ = k ⋅ and taking into
2 ⋅ cp 2 ⋅ cp
T0 -C 1 g ⋅H
consideration that the equations T4′ = T03 ⋅ ,C 1 = the following relation is derived:
T0 cp

ΔT
2 ⋅g ⋅H⋅ =( k + 1) ⋅ a ⋅ υ 2 (14)
T0

Where ΔT=T03 − T0 (we can approximately consider that T0≈T02).

Thus the maximum exit top air speed in a free passage solar chimney (without air turbines)
is given by the formula:

ΔT
υ = 2 ⋅g ⋅H⋅ /[( k + 1) ⋅ a ] . (15)
T0

For example the exit top speed of the up-drafting air inside the FSC of H=800m height, with
ordinary values for coefficients a=1.1058 and k=0.49 and ambient air temperature T0=296.2
0K (23 0C) as function of ΔT is given in the next figure:

Air free up-drafting in a FSC of H=800m and d=40m

30

25
top exit air speed in m/sec

20

15

10

5
0 5 10 15 20 25
temperature increase in oC due to the greenhouse

Fig. 10. Free air speed as a function of temperature increase

The temperature increase ΔT as a function of the greenhouse surface area Ac is given by the
approximate formula ΔT≈ ta·G / (β + m  ·cp/Ac) where ta≈0.7, β≈4, cp=1005, and

mM =ρ·υ·(π·d /4) where ρ≈1.17Kg/m , and d=40m. Thus The approximate double glazing
2 3

solar collector area, generating the free up-drafting air speed υ can be defined by ΔT, υ and
G by the equation Ac≈ m  ·cp/[( ta·G )/ΔT -β].
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 201

The approximate solar collector area Ac as a function of the temperature increase ΔT for
various values of equivalent horizontal solar irradiance G=250,300,350,400 and 450 W/m2, is
shown in the following figure.

FSC (H=800m,d=40m),up-drafting air temperature increase for various G and Ac

1400

1200
G is varying from 250 (blue)
solar collector surface area in ha

towards 450
1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
temperature increase in oC due to the greenhouse

Fig. 11. The solar collector area as a function of its generating temperature increase
Example: for a solar collector of surface area Ac=400Ha (i.e.400000m2), with a diameter
Dc≈715m, for an equivalent horizontal solar irradiation G of 250W/m2, the created
temperature difference ΔT is ~14.50C and the free up-drafting air speed υ inside the FSC of
H=800m height and d=40m internal diameter will be ~21m/sec, while for G=450W/m2, ΔT
is ~22.50C and υ is ~27m/sec.
For one dimensional analysis a≈1 and if the friction losses are negligible, i.e. k≈0, we have:

ΔT
υ ≈ 2 ⋅g ⋅H⋅ (17)
T0

Therefore free up-drafting warm air top speed formula, in an adiabatic and free friction FSC,
due to its buoyancy, is similar to free falling water speed due to gravity given by:

υwater ≈ 2 ⋅ g ⋅ H

4.3 The thermal heat transfer model of the SAEP

In order to use the previous thermodynamic cycle analysis of the SAEP we should calculate
the warm air temperature T03 at the entrance of the air turbine or at the exit of the solar
collector. The calculation of this average temperature can be done by using the previously
proposed approximate analysis. However the temperature T03 is varying during the 24
hours daily cycle.
In order for the daily variation to be calculated and consequently the electric power daily
variation using the previously proposed thermodynamic cycle analysis, we should make a
202 Solar Energy

heat transfer model and use it for the calculation of the exit temperature as function mainly
of daily horizontal irradiance profile and ambient temperature daily profile.
The SAEP heat transfer model with a circular collector is shown in the indicative diagram of
the previous figure.
The circular solar collector of this SAEP is divided into a series of M circular sectors of equal
width Δr as shown in the next figure.
In this figure the cut of a circular sector of the solar collector of the SAEP is shown with the
heat transfer coefficients of the process (radiation and convection) and the temperatures of
ground (Ts), moving air (T), inner curtain (Tc), outer glazing (Tw), ambient air (T0) and sky
(Tsk). The ground absorbs a part of the transmitted irradiation power due to the horizontal
solar irradiance G (ta·G).
The wind is moving with a speed υw and on the ground it is a thin sheet of water inside a
dark plastic film. The ground is characterized by its density ρgr, its specific heat capacity cgr
and its thermal conductivity kgr.

Fig. 12. The cut of a circular sector of a double glazing circular solar collector
The mth circular sector (m=1up to M) will have a width Δr =( Dc-Din)/M, an average radius
rm= Dc/2-Δr ·(m1-1/2) and an average height Hm=(Hin,m+Hex,m)/2.
For a linear variation of the roof height Hm= Hin+(Hout-Hin)· (m-1/2)/M, where Dc=solar
collector diameter and Din=Final internal diameter of the solar collector.
These consecutive circular sectors, for the moving air stream of mass flow m  , are special
tubes of nearly parallel flat surfaces and therefore they have equivalent average diameters
de,m=2*Hm.
As the ambient air moves towards the entrance of the first circular sector it is assumed that
its temperature T0 increases to T0+dT due to the ground heat transfer convection to inlet air,
around the solar collector. As an approximation dT is estimated to 0.5 °K.
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 203

The exit temperature of the first sector is the inlet temperature for the second etc. and finally
the exit temperature of the final Mth sector is the T03, i.e. the inlet stagnation temperature to
the air turbines.
The solar chimney heat transfer analysis during a daily 24 hours cycle, is too
complicated to be presented analytically in this text however we can use the results of
this analysis in order to have a clear picture of the operational characteristics of the
SAEPs. Using the code of the heat transfer analysis for moving mass flow m  M , the daily
variation of the exit temperature T03 can be calculated. Using these calculated daily
values of the T03 and by the thermodynamic cycle analysis for the optimal mass flow
m M the daily power profile of the electricity generation can be calculated.
With this procedure the 24 hour electricity generation power profile of a SAEP with a solar
collector of surface area Ac=106m2 and a FSC of H=800m height and d=40m internal
diameter for an average day of the year has been calculated. The SAEP is installed in a place
with annual horizontal solar irradiation Wy=1700 KWh/m2.
In the following figure three electric power profiles are shown with or without artificial
thermal storage.

SAEP of H=800m, d=40m, Ac=1.0 sqrKm, Wy=2000KWh/sqm

200

180
Ground only

160
produced power % of average

10%of area covered by tubes

140

120
25% covered by tubes

100

80

60

40
0 5 10 15 20 25
solar time in hours

Fig. 13. The average daily SAEP’s electricity generating profiles

The relatively smooth profile shows the electric power generation when only the ground
acts as a thermal storage means. While the smoother profiles are achieved when the
greenhouse is partly covered (~10% or ~25% of its area) by plastic black tubes of 35cm of
diameter filled with water, i.e. there is also additional thermal storage of an equivalent
water sheet of 35·π/4=27.5 cm on a small part of the solar collector.
The daily profiles show that the SAEP operates 24hours/day, due to the greenhouse ground
(and artificial) thermal storage. That is a considerable benefit of the FSC technology
compared to the rest solar technologies and the wind technology which if they are not
equipped with energy mass storage systems they can not operate continuously.
204 Solar Energy

As shown in the produced curves on the previous figure, with a limited (~10%) of the
greenhouse ground covered by plastic tubes (35 cm) filled with water, the maximum daily
power is approximately 140% of its daily average, or the daily average is 70 % of its
maximum power.
Taking into consideration the seasonal power alteration and assuming that the average
annual daily irradiation at a typical place is approximately 70% of the average summer daily
irradiation, the annual average power can be estimated as a percentage of the maximum
power production (at noon of summertime) as the product of 0.77·0.70=0.49.
The maximum power is equal to the rating of the power units of the SAEP (Air turbine,
electric generator, electric transformer etc.), while the average power multiplied by 8760
hours of the year defines the annual electricity generation. Therefore the capacity factor of a
SAEP equipped with a moderate artificial thermal storage can be as high as ~49%.
Without any artificial thermal storage the average daily power is approximately 0.55 of its
maximum thus the capacity factor is ~37% (0.55·0.70≈0.385).
This means that in order to find the annual energy production by the SAEP we should
multiply its rating power by ~3250÷4300 hours. However we should take into consideration
that the SAEPs are operating continuously (24x365) following a daily and seasonal varying
profile.

5. The major parts and engines of Floating Solar Chimney technology

5.1 The solar collector (Greenhouse)
The solar collector can be an ordinary circular greenhouse with a double glazing transparent
roof supported a few meters above the ground. The periphery of the circular greenhouse
should be open to the ambient air. The outer height of the greenhouse should be at least 2
meters tall in order to permit the entrance of maintenance personnel inside the greenhouse.
The height of the solar collector should be increased as we approach its centre where the
FSC is placed. As a general rule the height of the transparent roof should be inversely
proportional to the local diameter of the circular solar collector in order to keep relatively
constant the moving air speed. The circular greenhouse periphery open surface can be equal
or bigger than the FSC cut area.
Another proposal with a simpler structure and shape the greenhouse can be of a rectangular
shape of side DD. The transparent roof could be made of four equal triangular transparent
roofs, elevating from their open sides towards the centre of the rectangle, where the FSC is
placed. Thus the greenhouse forms a rectangular pyramid.
The previous analysis is approximately correct and can be figured out by using an
equivalent circular greenhouse external diameter Dc ≈ DD ⋅ 4 / π .
The local height of each inclined triangular roof is almost inversely proportional to the local
side of the triangle in order to secure constant air speed.
Both solar collector structures are typical copies of ordinary agriculture greenhouses
although they are used mainly for warming the moving stream of air from their periphery
towards the centre where the FSC of the SAEP is standing. Such greenhouses are
appropriate for FSC technology application combined with special agriculture inside them.
In desert application of the FSC technology the solar collectors are used exclusively for air
warming. Also in desert or semi desert areas the dust on top of the transparent roofs of the
conventional greenhouses could be a major problem. The dust can deteriorate the
transparency of the upper glazing and furthermore can add unpredictable weight burden on
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 205

the roof structure. The cleaning of the roof with water or air is a difficult task that can
eliminate the desert potential of the FSC technology.
Furthermore in desert or semi-desert areas the construction cost of the conventional solar
collector (a conventional greenhouse) could be unpredictably expensive due to the
unfavourable working conditions on desert sites.
For all above reasons another patented design of the solar collectors has been proposed by
the author.The proposed modular solar collector, as has been named by the author, will be
evident by its description that it is a low cost alternative solar collector of the circular or
rectangular conventional greenhouse which can minimize the works of its construction and
maintenance cost on site.
We can also use and follow the ground elevation on site, and put the FSC on the upper part
of the land-field therefore the works on site for initial land preparation will be minimized.
The greenhouse will be constructed as a set of parallel reverse-V transparent tunnels made
of glass panels as shown in the next figure (14). The maximum height of the air tunnel
should be at least 190cm in order to facilitate the necessary works inside the tunnel, as it is
for example the hanging of the inner crystal clear curtains.

Fig. 14. A part of the triangular tunnel of two panels (a)glass panel, (b)ground support,
(c)glass panel connector (d)glass plastic separator
An indicative figure of a greenhouse made of ten air tunnels is shown in next figure. Among
the parallel air tunnels it is advisable that room should be made for a corridor of 30-40cm of
width for maintenance purposes.
By above description it is evident that the modular solar collector is a low cost alternative of
a conventional circular greenhouse for the FSC technology in desert or semi-desert areas
that minimize the works on site and lower the construction costs of the solar collector and its
SAEP. Furthermore the dust problem is not in existence because the dust slips down on the
inclined triangular glass panels.
The average annual efficiency of the modular solar collector made by a series of triangular
warming air tunnels with double glazing transparent roofs is estimated to be even higher
than 50%. Thus its annual efficiency will follow the usual diagram of efficiency (or it will be
even higher).
The total cut area of all the triangular air tunnels should be approximately equal to the cut
area of the FSC for constant air speed. The central air collecting corridor cut should also
follow the constant air speed rule for optimum operation and minimum construction cost.
206 Solar Energy

Fig. 15. Modular solar collector with ten air tunnels (a)Triangular tunnel, (b)Maintenance
corridor (c)Central air collecting tube, (d)FSC

5.2 The Floating Solar Chimney (FSC)

A small part of a typical version of the FSC on its seat is taking place in the figure(16) below.
Supporting Ring
Inner fabric wall Inflated or
Aluminum tube
Strong fabric of
the heavy base
Lifting Tube
Filled with lifting
Gas
Lower ring of the
heavy base Upper Ring of
the heavy base

Accordion type
folding lower Seat of the
part floating solar
chimney

Fig. 16. A small part of a typical version of the FSC on its seat
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 207

The over-pressed air tubes of the fabric structure retain its cylindrical shape. While the
lifting tubes (usually filled with NH3) supply the structure with buoyancy in order to take
its upright position without external winds. Both tubes can be placed outside the fabric wall
as they are shown in the figure or inside the fabric wall. When the tubes are inside the fabric
core they are protected by the UV radiation and the structure has a more compact form for
the encountering of the external winds unpredictable behavior. But inside the warm air
friction losses are increased and in order to have the same internal diameter the external
diameter of the fabric core should be greater. In the first demonstration project both shapes
could be tested in order that the best option is chosen.
Therefore the FSCs of the SAEPs are free standing fabric structures and due to their
inclining ability they can encounter the external winds. See the next indicative figure (17)
describing its tilting operation under external winds.

Direction of Wind

Main
Chimney
made of
parts

Heavy
Mobile Base
Chimney
Seat Folding Lower
Part

Fig. 17. Tilting operation of the FSC under external winds

However in areas with annual average strong winds the operating heights of the inclining
fabric structures are decreasing. The following figure (18) presents the operating height loss
of the FSCs as function of the average annual wind speed, for Weibull average constant
k≈2.0. The net buoyancy of the FSC is such that will decline 600 degrees when a wind speed
of 10 m/sec appears.
For example using the diagram in figure (18), for an average wind speed of 3 m/sec and a
net lift force assuring a 50% bending for a wind speed of 10 m/sec, the average operating
height decrease is only 3.7%.
As a result we can state that the best places for FSC technology application are the places of
high average horizontal solar irradiation, low average winds and limited strong winds. The
mid-latitude desert and semi-desert areas, that exist in all continents, combine all these
properties and are excellent places for large scale FSC technology application.
208 Solar Energy

weibull constant k=2; decline 50 % for v=10 m/sec

8

decrease in FSC Height % 6

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Áverage annual wind speed in m/sec

Fig. 18. FSC’s operating height average decrease under external winds.

5.3 The air turbines

The air turbines of the SAEPs are either of horizontal axis placed in a circular pattern around
their FSCs or with normal axis placed inside the FSCs (near the bottom). The later case with
only one air turbine is most appropriate for the FSC technology, while the former is more
advisable for concrete solar chimney technology applications.
The air turbines of the solar chimney technology are caged (or ducted) air turbines. These air
turbines are not similar to wind turbines that transform the air kinetic energy to rotational
energy, therefore their rotational power output depends on the wind speed or the air mass
flow. The caged air turbines transform the dynamic energy of the warm air, due to their
buoyancy, to rotational. Therefore their rotational power output does not depend on the
mass flow only but on the product of the mass flow and the pressure drop on the air turbine.
Therefore the warm air mass flow, as we have noticed already, is possible to remain
approximately constant during the daily operation (in order that an optimal operation is
achieved) while its rotational power and its relative electric power output vary during the
daily cycle. The varying quantity is the pressure drop of the air turbine. This pressure drop
depends on the warm air temperature i.e. the warm air proportional buoyancy and the FSC
height.
The air turbines are classified according to the relation between their mass flows and their
pressure drops. The wind turbines are class A turbines (large mass flow small pressure
drop). The useful classes for solar chimney application are the class B and C. The class B are
the caged air turbines with lower pressure drop and relatively higher mass flow and made
without inlet guiding vanes, while the class C air turbines are with higher pressure drops
and relatively lower mass flows and should be made of inlet guiding vanes in order that
optimal efficiency is achieved.
Considering that the floating or concrete solar chimney SAEPs can have the same heights
(between 500m÷1000m) the defining factor for air turbines with or without inlet guiding
vanes is the solar collector diameter.
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 209

For the expensive concrete solar chimney the respective solar collectors are made with high
diameters in order to minimize the construction cost of their SAEPs. While the low cost
floating solar chimneys can be designed with smaller solar collectors for minimal cost and
optimal operation.
The diameters of the solar collectors are proportional to the increase of the warm air
temperatures ΔT=T03-T0, thus proportional also to the buoyancies and to the pressure drops
on the air turbines.
Therefore the Floating Solar Chimney SAEPs can be designed with air turbines of class B
(i.e. without inlet guiding vanes). These caged air turbines are lower cost units per
generated electricity KWh in comparison with class C air turbines which are appropriate for
concrete solar chimney SAEPs.

5.4 The electric generators

There are two types or electric generators which can be used in SAEPs, the synchronous and
the induction or asynchronous electric generators.
The synchronous electric generators for FSC technology should have a large number of pole-
pairs pp. The frequency of the generated electricity by the multi-pole synchronous electric
generator should be equal to the grid frequency f.
The generated electricity frequency of the synchronous generators fel is proportional to its
rotational frequency fg i.e. fel = pp·fg. Thus in case of varying fg an electronic drive is
necessary, for adjusting the generated electric frequency fel to the grid electric frequency f.
A multi-pole (high value of pp) synchronous electric generator combined with an electronic
drive can be a reasonable solution in order to avoid the adjusting gear box.
In order to control the set to operate the whole SAEP under optimal conditions we either
control its electronic drive unit or its air turbine blade pitch.
The induction generators are of two types. The squirrel cage and the double fed or wound
rotor induction generators. The squirrel cage induction generators rotate with frequencies
close to their synchronous respective frequencies f/pp defined by the grid frequency and
their pole-pairs. For given pole-pairs (for example for four pole caged induction generators
pp=2) the induction generator should engage itself to the air turbine through an appropriate
gear box that is multiplying its rotational frequency in order that the generator rotational
speed matches to the frequency (f/pp)·(1+s), where s is the absolute value of the slip and it
is a small quantity in the range of 0.01 for large generators.
The electric power output of the squirrel cage induction generator is approximately
proportional to the absolute value of the slip s near their operating point. Thus even high
power variations can be absorbed with small rotational frequency variations. Therefore the
squirrel cage induction generators engaged to the air turbines with proper gear boxes are
supplying the grid always with the proper electric frequency and voltage without any
electronic control. The only disadvantage of the squirrel cage induction generators is that
they always produce an inductive reactive power. This reactive power should be
compensated using a parallel set of capacitors creating a capacitive reactive power.
The wound rotor or doubly fed induction generators are characterized by the fact that their
rotors are supplied with a low frequency electric current. With proper control of the voltage
and frequency of the rotor supply we can make them operate as zero reactive power units.
The electronic system supplying the rotor with low frequency current is a power electronic
unit of small power output (~3% of the power output of the generator). However the doubly
fed induction generators with these small electronic supplies of their rotors are more
210 Solar Energy

expensive than the squirrel cage induction generators with reactive power compensating
capacitors.
The SAEPs with normal axis air turbines have enough space underneath the air turbine to
accommodate a large diameter multi-pole generator with a large number of pole pairs in
order to avoid the rotation frequency adjusting gear box.
I believe that the large scale application of the FSC technology will boost the research and
production of large diameter multi-pole squirrel caged or wound rotor induction generators
in order to avoid the sensitive and expensive adjusting gear boxes and to lower the cost of
large electronic drives of multi-pole synchronous generators.

5.5 The gear boxes

The gear box is a essential device for adjusting the frequency of the rotation of the air
turbines fT to the electric frequency f of the grid through the relation
f = pp·fT·rt. The rt is the rate of transmission of the gear box i.e the generator rotates with
frequency fg= fT·rt .
When conventional electric generators with a few pole pairs (low pp) are used, as electricity
generating units, gear boxes with a proper rate of transmission rt are necessary. However if
multi-pole electric generators are used with high pole-pair values (pph) then the gear boxes
can be avoided ( if pph=pp·rt).
The gear boxes are mechanical devices made of gears of various diameters and
combinations in order to transform their the mechanical rotation incoming and out-coming
characteristics (i.e.the frequency of rotation fin , fout and the torque Tqin and Tqout ) by the
relations fin/fout=Tqout/Tqin=rt=rate of transmission.
The gears demand a continuous oil supply and have a limited life cycle. Thus the gear boxes
being huge and heavy devices of high maintenance and sensitivity, if possible they should
not be preferred.
The electric power production by the SAEPs, is calculated as a function of the inlet air speed
υ (i.e. the air mass m ) in the air turbines by a relation of the form:

g ⋅H
 ⋅ c p ⋅ ( T03 − T03te ) = m
P=m  ⋅ c p ⋅ (T03 -T4 -C 2 ⋅ T42 − ) (9)
cp

 and FSC top exit temperature T4.

Where TO3, TO3te are functions of mass flow m
We have shown that T4 is the (appropriate) root of a fourth order polynomial equation:

w1 ⋅ T44 + w2 ⋅ T43 + w3 ⋅ T42 + w4 ⋅ T4 + w5 = 0 (7)

where w1, w2, w3, w4 and w5 are functions of the geometrical, the thermal and ambient
parameters of the SAEP, the air turbine efficiency ηT and the equivalent horizontal solar
irradiance G.
The mass flow m  = ρ ⋅ At ⋅ υ ) Thus:
 and the warm air speed υ are proportional ( m

P=Function (υ)
The efficiency of the air turbine is in general a function of the ratio υ / υ tip
i.e. ηT(υ / υ tip) where υ tip is the blades’ end rotational speed.
The air turbines of the SAEPs with their geared electric generators are generating electric
power following the air turbine characteristics given by the two operating functions P (υ),
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 211

and ηT (υ / υ tip). Considering that υ tip = π· fT · dT, where fT is the air turbine frequency of
rotation and dT the turbine diameter.
The electric frequency for the geared electric generators is equal to fn where: fn = ft·rt·pp, rt is
the gear box transmission ratio and pp the number of their pole pairs. Hence:

π ⋅ dT ⋅ fn
υtip = (18)
rt ⋅ pp
For optimal power production by a SAEP, for an average solar irradiance G, the maximum
point of operation of P(υ) should be reached for an air speed υ for which the efficiency
ηT (υ / υ tip) is also maximum.
The value of υm for maximum electric power can be defined by the SAEP operating function
for ηT=constant (usually equal to 0.8) and a given solar irradiance G.
The value of the ratio (υ / υ tip)m for maximum air turbine efficiency can be defined by the
turbine efficiency function ηT(υ / υ tip).
Thus the appropriate υ tip is defined by the relation:

υm
υ tip , m = (19)
⎛ υ ⎞
⎜ υ ⎟
⎝ tip ⎠m
Where the index m means maximum power or efficiency.
Thus for υ tip,m the maximum power production under the given horizontal solar irradiance
G is generated. Taking into account that υ tip and fn are proportional, fn should vary with the
horizontal solar irradiance G.
However as we have stated the mass flow for maximum power output by the SAEP is
slightly varying with varying G, thus we can arrange the optimum control of the SAEP for
the average value of G.
A good choice for this average G is a value of 5÷10% higher than the annual average Gy,av,
defined by the relation Gy,av=Wy/8760.
Following the previous procedure for the proposed G, if the air turbine efficiency function
ηT(υ / υ tip) is known or can be estimated, the value of υ tip,m can be calculated.
The frequency f of the produced A.C. will follow fn by the relation f = (1+s)·fn, where s is the
absolute value of the operating slip. Taking into consideration that the absolute value of slip
s, for large induction generators, is less than 1%, f≈fn.
Thus the gear box transmission ratio will be defined by the approximate relation:

π ⋅ dT ⋅ f
rt ≈ (20)
υtip ,m ⋅ pp

If the air turbine efficiency function ηT(υ / υ tip) is not known we can assume that for caged
air turbines without inlet guiding vanes their maximum efficiency is achieved for
υ tip,m=( 6÷8)·υ.
Thus:

π ⋅ dT ⋅ f
rt ≈ (21)
(6"8) ⋅ υm ⋅ pp
212 Solar Energy

Where: υ m= the air speed for maximum efficiency of the SAEP (derived by the SAEP basic
equation for the chosen value of G), dT= the caged air turbine diameter (smaller by 10% of
the FSC diameter usually), f=the grid frequency (usually 50 sec-1), pp=2 (usually the
generators are four pole machines).

6. Dimensioning and construction cost of the Floating Solar Chimney SAEPs

6.1 Initial dimensioning of Floating Solar Chimney SAEPs
The floating solar chimneys are fabric structures free standing due to their lifting balloon
tube rings filled with a lighter than air gas. The inexpensive NH3 is the best choice as lifting
gas for the FSCs. As we will see later the FSCs are low cost structures, in comparison with
the respective concrete solar chimneys.
The annual electricity generation by the SAEPs (E) is proportional to their FSC’s height (H),
their solar collector surface area (Ac) and the annual horizontal irradiation at the place of
their installation Wy i.e. E=c·H·Ac·Wy.
As for the concrete solar chimney SAEPs, due to their concrete solar chimneys high cost, it is
obvious that in order to minimize their overall construction cost per produced KWh, it is
preferable to use one solar chimney, of height H and internal diameter d, and a large solar
collector of surface area Ac.
In case of the floating solar chimney SAEPs, generating the same annual amount of
electricity, a farm of N similar SAEPs should be used. Their FSCs will have the same height
(H) and their solar collectors a surface area Ac/N. If the internal diameters of these FSCs are
dFSC ≈ d / N then both Power Plants they will have the same efficiency and power
production. Usually dFSC > d / N therefore the FSC farm has higher efficiency and
generates more electricity than the concrete solar chimney SAEP for the same solar collector
area.
We have several benefits by using farms of FSC technology as for example:
• The handling of FSC lighter than air fabric structures is easy if their diameters are
smaller. The diameter dFSC should not be less than 1/20 of FSC height H.
• This choice will give us the benefit of using existing equipment (electric generators,
gear-boxes, etc.) already developed for the wind industry.
• The smaller surface areas of the solar collectors will decrease the average temperature
increase ΔT of the moving air mass, and consequently it is advisable that simpler and
lower cost air turbines should be used (class B instead of class C air turbines i.e. caged
air turbines without inlet guiding vanes).
The following restrictions are prerequisite for a proper dimensioning of the Floating Solar
Chimney SAEPs.
• The FSC height H should be less than 800m.
• Their internal diameter should be less than 40m
• The solar collector active area should be less than 100 Ha (i.e. 106m2)
If the solar collectors are equipped with artificial thermal storage the SAEP will have a
rating power of Pr=Wy·η·Ac/4300. For maximum height 800m, and d=40m the SAEP annual
efficiency is η≈1%. In desert places Wy can be as high as 2300 KWh/m2. Thus Pr for the
maximum solar collector surface area of 106m2 is less than 5MW.Generators and respective
gear-boxes up to 5MW are already in use for wind technology. Furthermore if we choose an
internal diameter of 40m for the FSC, it can be proven that for rating power less than 5MW,
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 213

the optimal air turbine should be of class B, i.e. without the inlet guiding vanes. The air
turbine will be placed onto the normal axis inside the bottom of the FSC. A useful notice
concerning the dimensioning of the SAEPs is that for constant FSC height H, rating power
and annual horizontal irradiation the solar collector equivalent diameter Dc and the FSC
internal diameter d are nearly proportional.Let us apply the dimensioning rules in the case
of desert SAEPs, considering for example that the annual horizontal irradiation is not less
than 2100 KWh/m2.Let us consider that the FSC height H is varying, while the solar
collector area is remaining constant to1.0Km2 and the FSC internal diameter is also constant
and equal to 40m. The rating power of the respective SAEPs, with artificial thermal storage,
is shown on the following table(2).

FSC internal FSC height Rating power

Solar collector area in Km2
diameter d in m H in m Pr in MW
1.0 40 180 1.0
1.0 40 360 2.0
1.0 40 540 3.0
1.0 40 720 4.0
1.0 40 800 4.5

Table 2. Dimensions and rating of SAEPs of 1Km2 with artificial thermal storage
In the following table (3) initial dimensions of the SAEPs of FSC height 720m installed on
the same area for rating power 1MW, 2MW, 3MW and 4 MW are shown.

Solar collector area in Minimum FSC internal FSC height H Rating power
Km2 diameter d in m in m Pr in MW
0.25 36 720 1.0
0.50 36 720 2.0
0.75 36 720 3.0
1.0 36 720 4.0
Table 3. Dimensions and rating of SAEPs of 720m height with artificial thermal storage

6.2 Estimating the direct construction cost of Floating Solar Chimney SAEPs
The direct construction cost of a Floating Solar Chimney SAEP with given dimensions is the
sum of the costs of its three major parts, the solar collector cost (CSC), the FSC cost (CFSC) and
the Air turbines gear boxes and generators cost (CTG).The construction cost of the solar
collector is proportional to its surface area. A reasonable rough estimate of modular solar
collectors including the cost of their collecting corridors is:

CSC=6.0·Ac in EURO (Ac in m2) (22)

The construction cost of the FSC is the sum of the cost of its fabric lighter than air cylinder,
and the cost of the heavy base, the folding accordion and the seat. A reasonable rough
estimation of above costs is:
214 Solar Energy

CFSC=60·H·d+ 300·d2 in EURO (H, d in m) (23)

The construction cost of the Turbo-Generators is proportional to the rating power Pr of the
SAEP a reasonable rough estimation for this cost is:

CTG=300·Pr in EURO (Pr in KW) (24)

The estimating rough figures are reasonable for SAEPs of rating power of 1÷5 MW. Any
demonstration SAEP and maybe the first few operating SAEPs possible will give us a
construction cost up to ~100% higher than the estimated by the previous rough formulae but
gradually the direct construction cost of the SAEPs should have even lower construction
costs than estimated by the given rough formulae. In the following tables (4,5) the
construction costs of the previously dimensioned SAEPs are given.
Taking into consideration that the rating power multiplied by 4300 hours (for solar collectors
reinforced with artificial thermal storage) will give the annual electricity generation, the
construction cost per produced KWh/year is also presented in the tables (4,5).

FSC Construction
Solar FSC Rating Construction
internal cost in EURO
collector height H power Pr cost in million
diameter d per produced
area in Km2 in m in MW EURO
in m KWh/year
1.0 40 180 1.0 7.2 1.54
1.0 40 360 2.0 8.0 0.85
1.0 40 540 3.0 8.7 0.62
1.0 40 720 4.0 9.4 0.50
1.0 40 800 4.5 9.8 0.47
Table 4. Direct construction cost of various SAEPs

Minimum Construction
Solar Rating Construction
FSC internal FSC height cost in EURO
collector power Pr cost in million
diameter d H in m per produced
area in Km2 in MW EURO
in m KWh/year
0.25 36 720 1.0 2.75 0.64
0.50 36 720 2.0 5.45 0.63
0.75 36 720 3.0 7.35 0.57
1.0 36 720 4.0 9.15 0.53
Table 5. Direct construction cost of various SAEPs

7. Floating Solar Chimney versus concrete chimney SAEPs

The optimum dimensions and power ratings of the concrete solar chimney SAEPs are far
higher than the Floating Solar Chimney dimensions and rating. In order for them to be
compared we should consider a concrete solar chimney SAEP with given dimensions and
construction cost and a Floating Solar Chimney SAEP farm generating annually the same
electricity and having the same solar chimney height.
In a paper presented in 2005 (Shlaigh et al., 2005) it was mentioned the estimates on the
construction cost of large SAEPs of concrete solar chimneys (Solar Updrafts Towers as they
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 215

name them). According to these estimates concerning a 30 MW SAEP with a concrete solar
chimney of 750 m height and 70 m of internal diameter and a solar collector of 2900m
diameter( i.e. 6.6 Km2 of surface area) the SAEP will generate 99 million KWh/year and will
have a construction cost of 145 million EURO (2005 prices). Prof Jorg Schlaigh in a recent
speech was estimating the construction cost of a similar concrete solar chimney SAEP of a
solar chimney of 750m height and 3Km diameter to be 250÷300 million EURO (prices 2010).
Let us compare this concrete chimney SAEP with a farm of 9 Floating Solar Chimney SAEPs
each one with a solar collector of surface area 740000m2 (all of them together will cover
approximately the same land area of the concrete solar chimney SAEP of 6.6Km2).
Furthermore let as assume that all of them have the same FSC of ~750m height and an
internal diameter of ~40m. Let us also assume that the power rating of each FSC SAEP is
~3MW.
Although it is reasonable to assume that with these assumptions both electricity generating
power plants will generate the same KWh of electricity per year (~99million KWh/year), the
FSC farm could generate30% more electricity. This is the result of having a higher overall
solar chimney cut in the farm of nine SAEPs, or equivalently the FSC farm will have an
equivalent solar chimney diameter of 120m ( 120m = 40m ⋅ 9(SAEPs ) ). Thus the warm air
speed, in the FSCs, is lower than the air speed within the concrete chimney, therefore the
kinetic energy losses of the exit air are lower in the FSCs and the efficiency of the FSC farm
is higher.
Using the previous construction cost relations the estimated construction cost of each
Floating Solar Chimney SAEP of the farm is ~6million EURO (2010 prices). Thus the whole
FSC farm will have a construction cost of 54 million EURO.
The final result is that the capital expenditure for the Floating Solar Chimney farm, for
similar electricity generation with the concrete solar chimney solar updraft tower, is 3 to 5
times smaller.

8. Direct production cost of electricity KWh of the FSC technology

8.1 Direct production cost analysis
The direct production cost of MWh of any electricity generating power plant is the sum of
three costs:
• The capital cost related to the capital expenditure (CapEx) on investment
• The operation and maintenance cost
• The fuel cost
• The CO2 emission cost
For renewable technology PPs the fuel and the carbon dioxide emission costs are zero.
The base load continuous operating technologies are dominating the electricity generation
and their average estimated direct production cost per MWh is, without any carbon
emission penalty within the range of 55÷60 EURO (EU area 2009).
The onshore wind turbine farms have succeeded to generate electricity almost with the same
cost in average. However it is generating intermittent electricity thus it can enter to the grid
up to 45% in power and cover the 15÷20 of the electricity demand.
Let us calculate the direct production cost of the solar chimney technology.
The assumptions we use are the following for FSC and concrete solar chimney SAEPs:
• The life cycle of both SAEPs is high (minimum 40 years)
216 Solar Energy

• The CapEx is a long term loan repaid in 40 equal installments

• The interest rate of above loans is 6% (2009)
• The fabric FSCs should be replaced every 6÷10 years. This cost goes along with the
maintenance cost.
• The initial construction period of the concrete chimney SAEPs is 3÷5 years while the
period for FSC SAEPs is 1÷2 years. The repayments will start after those periods.
• Thus the annual repayment installment will be equal to 7% for the FSC farm and 7.5%
for the concrete solar chimney PP (with the cost of initial grace period to be included)
• The rest operation and maintenance cost of both SAEPs is in the range of 5.0 EURO per
generated MWh.
• The land lease is not included in the calculation because it is a negligible cost for desert
or semi desert installation
In order to calculate the FSC technology average direct production cost we can use the
figures of the previous paragraph for the SAEP farm of 9 similar units. The dimensions of
which are H=750m, d=40m and Ac=740000m2. Each one of these SAEPs will have a rating
power of 3MW and an annual generating ability of ~12.9GWh/year. Thus their construction
cost was estimated to 6 million. The Annual repayment amount for each FSC SAEP will be
420000 EURO or a capital cost of 32.3 EURO per produced MWh/year.
For the concrete SAEP we consider as a moderate estimation the amount of 200 million
EURO construction cost with an annual generation of ~100 GWh/year. Thus the annual
repayment cost will be 15 million EURO or a capital cost of ~150EURO per MWh/year.
The fabric structure of the FSC should be replaced every 6÷10 years. Its replacement cost is
estimated to be 50·H·d=1.5 million EURO (present value) or a maximum of 250000
EURO/year i.e. 19.2EURO MWh/year (for 6 year replacement period).
The rest operation and maintenance cost for both SAEPs is ~5 EURO per produced MWh.
Thus the direct production cost of MWh/year by the two technologies is:
• FSC technology ~56.5 EURO/MWh
• Concrete solar chimney technology ~155 EURO/MWh
Both SAEP technologies operate 24 hours/day year round and they can replace the base
load fossil fueled power plants (Coal, Natural Gas and Nuclear).

8.2 Direct production cost comparison

The following table (6) gives the comparison of the major electricity generating technologies.
The figures for the rest technologies are average values of collected official data, released by
EU authorities in various publications.
The conventional base load electricity generating technologies are the coal and the natural
gas fueled technologies of combined cycle and the nuclear fission technology.The first two
technologies are emitting greenhouse gases and should sooner or later be replaced by
alternative zero emission technologies, while the third-one although it is of zero emission
technology it is considered to be dangerous and health hazardous technology. A necessary
condition for the replacement of the base load electricity generating technologies by
alternative renewable technologies is that these alternative technologies should operate
continuously and their sources should be unlimited. The nuclear fusion technology is an
alternative but its progress is slow, while the global warming threat demands urgent
actions. That goes too for the promising carbon capture and storage technology, besides the
problems related to carbon dioxide safe sequestration
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 217

MWh Direct Investment in EURO

Fuel or Method of Mode of operation
Production Cost per produced
Electricity Generation and Capacity factor
in EURO MWh/year
Coal fired (not
Combined cycle base
including carbon 55-60 200
load 85%
emission penalties)
Coal fired with CCS
Combined cycle base
(Carbon capture and 80-100 300-400
load 85%
storage)
Natural Gas fired
(not including carbon 60-65 150 Combined cycle 85%
emission penalties)
Nuclear Fission 65-75 400÷450 Base load 95%
Wind parks onshore 60 500 Intermittent 30%
Wind parks offshore 75 650 Intermittent 30%
Concentrating Solar Continuous with
180 2000
CSP thermal storage 30%
Photo Voltaic PV 280 3000 Intermittent 15-17%
Solar Chimney concrete 155 ~2000 Continuous ~50%
Floating Solar Chimney ~60 ~500 Continuous ~50%
Biomass 55-75 500-÷700 Continuous 85%
Continuous 90%
Geothermal 50-70 500-÷800
(limited resource)
Continuous (load
Hydroelectric 50-60 500÷800 following, limited
resource)
Table 6. A cost comparison of electricity generating technologies
The wind and solar technologies are appropriate technologies if they are equipped with
massive energy storage systems for continuous operation. With today’s technology only the
solar concentrating power plants (CSP) can be equipped with cost effective thermal energy
storage systems and generate continuous electricity. However their MWh direct production
cost is three times higher in comparison with the respective cost of the existing base load
technologies. The FSC technology is by nature equipped with ground thermal storage and
operates continuously. Due to its low investment cost and its almost equal direct production
cost to the conventional base load electricity technologies it is an ideal candidate to replace
the fossil fueled base load technologies.

9. Large scale application of the FSC technology in deserts

9.1 Desert solar technologies
The mid-latitude desert or semi desert areas of our planet are more than enough in order to
cover the present and any future demand for solar electricity. According to most
conservative estimations, a 3% of these areas with only 1% efficiency for solar electricity
generation can supply 50% of our future electricity demand. Also these kinds of lands exist
in all continents and near the major carbon emitting countries (USA, China, EU and India).
218 Solar Energy

The desert solar technologies for continuous electricity generation are the following:
• The photo voltaic (PV) large scale farms equipped with batteries
• The concentrating solar power plants (CSP) equipped with thermal storage tanks
• The concrete solar chimney SAEPs or Solar Up-draft Towers
• The floating solar chimney (FSC) farms
The following table (7) is giving us a comprehensive comparison of these desert solar
technologies (OM means operation and maintenance).

Desert
MWh Direct Investment per
Technology of
Major benefits Major problems production cost produced
continuous
in EURO MWh/year
operation
-Demands no
PV with -The replacement Very high Very high
water
energy storage cost of the
-Low OM care
batteries batteries 280 >3000
and cost
-Demands water
CSP with High High
-Low cost for its operation
thermal
thermal storage -Demands OM
storage 180 >2000
personnel on site
- No water
Solar up-draft demand -High initial cost
High High
Tower -High operating -High
(concrete solar life construction
155 >2000
chimney) -Low OM care period on site
and cost
-No water
demand -Periodic
Low Low
Floating Solar -Easy and fast replacement of
Chimney deployment on the FSC fabric
60 500
site parts
-Low OM care
Table 7. Comparison of desert solar technologies

9.2 The Desertec project

The Desertec project is a proposal to EU for using the desert or semi desert areas in MENA
area (Middle East and North Africa) in order to generate solar electricity. Using an
appropriate area of 300KmX300Km in MENA with only 1% efficiency up to 50% of its
present and future electricity demand can be generated.
The transmission of the generated electricity to the EU can be achieved by using UHVDC
(Ultra High Voltage Direct Curent) lines. Using the existing technology up to 6.4 GW of
electricity power can be transmitted by only one UHVDC line of two conductors (±800KV
and 4000A).
The UHVDC lines can be overhead, underground or undersea lines with different
construction costs but the same safety and reliability.
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 219

The farm of desert power plants generates AC electricity (up to 6.4 GW). This AC electricity
is converted to DC electricity, at a special power station near the farm. Through a UHVDC
line the DC electricity is transmitted to the chosen place of EU, where a reverse converter
power station is transforming the DC to AC electricity with the suitable characteristics for
the EU local grid.
The losses of the UHVDC transmission (including the losses of two converting power
stations) are not more than ~5% per 2000 Km of transmission distance. Their construction
cost for 2000Km average distance between MENA and EU areas, depends on the mode of
the UHVDC line and will range between 1÷2 Billion EURO.
The following table shows a comparison cost for an electricity generation system of 6.4GW
installed in MENA area and transmitting its electricity power to a EU grid for a distance of
2000Km. It is assumed that due to the energy storage systems of all the desert power plants
their capacity factor is more or less similar ( ~50%). This practically means that the desert
solar farms would generate electricity of ~6.4GW X (8760/2)hours≈28000GWh/year, of
which ~95% or ~26500 GWh/year (or 26.5 TWh/year) will be transmitted to the EU chosen
place.
In order to cover 40÷50% of the present and future EU electricity demand i.e. 1060÷1500
TWh/year we should build a set of 40 to 56 independent solar farms of 6.4GW that can be
installed in appropriate MENA areas and connected through UHVDC lines to the proper
places of EU countries. In order to build 40-56 farms we should invest capital of the amounts
as shown in the next table (8) for respective technologies.

Investment cost
Investment cost for MWh direct
Desert Technology (including UHVDC lines
building 40÷56 production cost in
of continuous cost of 1.5 billion EURO)
similar solar farms EURO (26.5 TWh
operation for the solar farm of
in billion EURO supplied to EU )
6.4GW in billion EURO
PV with energy 3420
>85.5 >285
storage batteries 4778
CSP (parabolic
through or tower) 2300
57.5 185
with thermal 3220
storage
Solar up-draft
2300
Towers 57.5 160
3220

Floating Solar
620
Chimney 15.5 65
868

Table 8. Cost comparison of solar desert farms of 6.4 GW

The maximum desert or semi desert area for the installation of one solar farm of 6.4GW is
not more than 1600 Km2 or a square area ~(40Km X 40Km). Thus the maximum neaded area
in order to cover the 40÷50% of the present and future EU electricity demand, with zero
emission solar electricity, is 64000÷90000Km2 (i.e. a square area of 250Km X 250Km up to
300Km X 300Km)
220 Solar Energy

This maximum area is indispensable for solar chimney farms (concrete or floating) of 1%
efficiency. As for the rest solar technologies a much smaller desert area is adequate.
However the maximum area needed is not more than 2% of proper desert or semi desert
area in MENA territory.
By the presented data it is evident that the FSC technology has tremendous benefits in
comparison with its solar competitors for desert application.
Its major benefits are:
• Low investment cost
• Low KWh direct production cost (almost the same with the fuel consuming base load
electricity generating technologies)
• 24hours/day uninterrupted operation due to the ground thermal storage
• The daily power profile can be as smooth as necessary using low cost additional
thermal storage
• Demands no water for its operation and maintenance
• Easy and fast deployment on site
• It uses recycling and low energy production materials (mainly plastic and glass)
• Minimum personnel on site during its construction and operation
Large scale desert application of the Floating Solar Chimney technology can be one of the
major tools for global warming elimination and sustainable development.

10. Climate change warning

Climate change indications due to the global warming threat are accelerating. Climate change
policies should be agreed upon and urgent measures should be taken. Global warming due to
greenhouse gases emissions (CO2, CH4 etc.) is a reality scientifically documented.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a Nobel Priced UN committee
studying carefully and objectively the global warming due to greenhouse gases produced by
human activity on earth. The major producer is the fossil fuels used in residential, industrial,
and transportation activities, of which the major-one is the electricity generation of fossil
fueled power plants. According to IPCC estimations the global average temperature
increase on earth will follow the pattern shown in the next figure (19) depending on our
future model of energy use, electricity generation scenarios and greenhouse gases
concentration. According to mentioned estimations, pertaining the existing technology and
applying an internationally agreed upon strict policy on greenhouse gas emissions, the
scenario most likely to come up is an eventuality between I and II.
According to mentioned scientifically documented estimations, global temperatures in
excess of 1.9 to 4.6 0C warmer than pre-industrial would appear and it will be possibly
sustained for centuries.
The major global warming effects on our planet, according to IPCC are:
• Anthropogenic warming and sea level rise would continue for centuries even if the
greenhouse gas concentrations were to be stabilized
• Eventual melting of the Greenland ice sheet, would raise the sea level by 7 m compared
to 125,000 years ago
• Due to precipitation changes fertile land devastation is possible to appear in many areas
• The existing atmospheric models can not exclude the appearance of extreme
catastrophic atmospheric phenomena such as: very strong typhoons, tornados, snow or
hail storms etc.
Floating Solar Chimney Technology 221

Fig. 19. IPCC scenarios of global temperature increase

The energy sector is the major source of the greenhouse gases due to its fossil fuelled
technologies of electricity generation, transportation, industrial activities etc. For the year of
2010 an estimated quantity of 29,000 Mt of carbon dioxide will be spread all over the
environment from fossil fuel combustion of which:
• 36.4 % from electricity generation
• 20.8 % from the industry
• 18.8 % from transport and
• 14.2 % from household, service and agriculture and
• 9.8 % from international bunkers
The mechanism of Kyoto protocol aims to create an “objective” over the external cost at least
for the threatening carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions through trading their rights.
The cost of the emitted CO2, sooner or later it will reach at prices 20-30 EURO per ton of CO2
and after the year 2012 for EU the fossil fuelled PPs should pay for each ton of CO2 emitted
by them. Taking into consideration that 1 Kg of coal has a thermal energy of ~8.14 KWh,
thus a modern coal fired power plant with efficiency ~45% will generate by this ~ 3.66 KWh
and will emit to the environment 3.667 Kg of CO2. Thus in a modern coal fired plant
approximately 1.0 Kg of CO2 is emitted per generated KWh. For the lignite coal fired power
plants this figure is 50% higher and for modern combined cycle natural gas power plants
could be 50% smaller.

11. Conclusion
Although electricity generation is a major carbon dioxide producer we should notice that
electricity can replace all the energy activities related to fossil fuelled technologies. Thus a
solution to the global warming is possible if we succeed to generate zero emission clean
electricity.
222 Solar Energy

The renewable electricity generating technologies is a major tool, some believe that it should
be the exclusive technology, towards the aim of eliminating the greenhouse emissions
threatening the future on our planet.
It is possible to mitigate global warming if the world-wide consumption of fossil fuels can
be drastically reduced within the next 10 to 15 years. I believe that the only viable scenario
that could lead to a successful and real reduction of fossil fuels is the large scale application
of the FSC technology in desert or semi desert areas. This means that we should start
building, for the next 30 years, Floating Solar Chimney SAEP desert farms of overall rating
power ~160 GW/year, that could generate ~720 TWh/year.
Thus for the next 30 years we will build SAEP desert farms generating more than 21600
TWh/year solar electricity that could replace fossil fuelled generated electricity. The global
investment cost for this choice will not exceed the amount of 360 billion EURO/year or 11.5
trillion EURO for the next 30 years. These investments in electricity generation are
reasonable taking into consideration that the future electricity demand could reach the
45000 TWh. The necessary land for the 30 years FSC power plants is 1.000.000 Km2 (1000 Km
X 1000 Km)

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