Terrain awareness warning

systems (TAWS)
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During the 1970s, studies were carried out by accident

investigators and regulatory authorities to examine one
of the most significant causes of aircraft accidents of the
time: controlled flight into terrain (CFIT). This can be
defined as an accident where a service able aircraft,
under the control of a qualified pilot, inadvertently flies
into terrain, an obstacle or water.
CFIT accidents usually occur during poor visual
conditions, often influenced by other factors, e.g. flight
crew distraction, malfunctioning equipment or air traffic
control (ATC) miscommunication. With CFIT, the pilots
are generally unaware of this situation until it is too late.
The outcome of these investigations was that many CFIT
accidents could be avoided with a ground proximity
warning system (GPWS). A system was developed in
1967 to alert pilots that their aircraft was in immediate
danger of CFIT. This system was further developed into
the enhanced ground proximity warning system
(EGPWS) by adding a forward looking terrain avoidance
(FLTA) feature, made possible via global positioning
system technology. This section describes the generic
name given to this type of protection: terrain awareness
warning system (TAWS).
=========

FIG. 1 TAWS overview

GPWS FLTA Rising terrain TAWS - Terrain Awareness
Warning System; GPWS - Ground Proximity Warning
System; FLTA - Forward Looking Terrain Awareness
==========
FIG. 2 GPS principles: (a) Single satellite describes a
circle on the earth's surface, (b) Two satellites define two
unique positions
FIG. 3 Obstacle clearance/color coding
1. System overview
The terrain awareness warning system comprises air
craft sensors, a computing function and warning out
puts. The computer receives numerous inputs from on-
board sensors and processes these to determine if a
hazardous situation is developing. The TAWS computing
function can either be from a self-contained unit;
alternatively, it can integrated within another aircraft
system.
Early ground proximity warning systems were based on
aircraft sensors that detected:
-- barometric altitude
-- vertical speed
-- radio altitude
These early systems warned the crew of excessive
descent rates or if they were flying towards rising terrain.
TAWS can be considered as a ground proximity warning
system (GPWS) combined with forward-looking terrain
avoidance (FLTA), see FIG. 1. The combined systems
provide a significant increase in safety margins by
combining accurate position information (via the GPS)
together with a terrain database.
GPS is an artificial constellation of navigation aids that
was initiated in 1973 and referred to as Navstar
(navigation system with timing and ranging). The global
positioning system was developed for use by the US
military; the first satellite was launched in 1978 and the
full constellation was in place and operating by 1994.
GPS is now widely available for use in many applications
including aircraft navigation; the system calculates the
aircraft position by triangulating the distances from a
number of satellites, see FIG. 2.
Three satellites are required for the receiver to calculate
a unique lateral position; a fourth satellite pro vides
altitude, i.e. a three-dimensional position.
The availability of GPS technology thereby pro vides
forward-looking terrain avoidance (FLTA) capability; it
can look ahead of and below the aircraft flight path. This
can be depicted on a display that is color-coded (FIG. 3)
to show the required obstacle clearance:
-- red is used to indicate terrain above the aircraft's
current altitude
-- yellow is dependent on the flight phase, i.e. en route,
terminal areas or approach
-- green areas on the display are safe in terms of
required terrain clearance
The TAWS computer function creates a four dimensional
position comprising: latitude, longitude, altitude and time.
It compares this position with the on-board database that
contains details of terrain, obstacles and runways to
determine any conflicts.
(More information on GPS is provided in a related book
in the series, Aircraft Communications and Navigation
Systems.)
Key point
TAWS can be considered as a ground proximity warning
system (GPWS) combined with forward looking terrain
avoidance (FLTA).
2. System warnings and protection
Cautions and warnings are provided to the crew
depending on the level of CFIT threat; these include
visual indications and audible announcements. TAWS
equipment is designed to provide the flight crew with
adequate time to take appropriate action. Equipment is
classified either as Class A or B depending on the level
of protection that the system provides.
In general terms, passenger carrying aircraft require
TAWS-A, smaller aircraft require TAWS-B ; see
Tables 1 and 2 for a summary of features.
=====================
Table 1 TAWS: features, purpose and application (Class
A or Class B)
Feature Purpose A B
Forward-looking terrain avoidance (FLTA)
The system looks ahead of and below the aircraft's
lateral and vertical flight path to provide a suitable alert if
a potential threat exists. FLTA sub-functions are detailed
below
FLTA reduced required terrain clearance alerts
Generated when the aircraft is currently above the terrain
of the projected flight path of the aircraft and terrain
clearance ahead of the aircraft is considered unsafe
FLTA imminent terrain impact alert
Generated when the aircraft is currently below the
elevation of local terrain along the lateral flight path and
when the projected vertical flight path is considered
unsafe
FLTA high terrain impact alert
Generated when the terrain ahead of the aircraft is
higher than the projected vertical path
FLTA flight path intent advisory alerts
Generated when the terrain ahead of the aircraft conflicts
with the flight plan
Premature descent alert
The system compares the aircraft's current lateral and
vertical position with the proximity of the nearest airport.
Predicted flight path information and details from the
database are used to determine if the aircraft is below
the normal approach path for the nearest runway
Attention alerts
The system provides appropriate visual and audio alerts
for both cautions and warnings
Terrain awareness display
The system provides terrain information to a suitable
display system, e.g. a multi-function display (MFD)
===================
Table 2 TAWS ground proximity warning Modes (Class A
and Class B)
Mode Description A B
1 Excessive descent rate
2 Excessive terrain closure rate
3 Negative climb rate or altitude loss after take-off
4 Flight into terrain when not in landing configuration
5 Excessive downward deviation from an ILS glide slope
6 Altitude callout at 500 feet
7 Wind shear
====================
Cautionary alerts are given by TAWS that require
immediate crew awareness; subsequent corrective
action will normally be necessary. Warning alerts are
given for a terrain threat that requires immediate crew
action. Aural alerts are synthesized voice messages that
are produced through the audio panel into crew headsets
and through the flight compartment speakers. Messages
are presented on a suitable electronic display in text
format, typically on a multi-function or other navigation
display. Electronic navigation displays provide situational
awareness, i.e. direction of flight and the location of
nearby airports (given as four letter codes). Local terrain
features can be overlaid onto this presentation.
Messages are either red or amber, depending on the
threat level. Master caution and GPWS lights are
illuminated depending on the threat level.
=========
FIG. 4 MFD/navigation display
GPWS Alert messages:
- Terrain (red)
- Terrain (amber) Terrain caution alert
- Solid yellow Terrain warning alert
- Solid red Amber
==========
We have seen from the above that TAWS can be
considered as a ground proximity warning system
(GPWS) and forward-looking terrain avoidance (FLTA).
Forward-looking terrain avoidance produces alerts from
obstacles ahead of the aircraft using a terrain data base,
GPS position and other reference data, e.g. aircraft
speed etc. The ground proximity warning system
produces alerts from the terrain below the aircraft and
configuration inputs, e.g. gear and flap settings during
approach and landing. FLTA features in Class A and B
TAWS are identical and provide the same level of safety
for the aircraft. The primary differences between Class A
and B TAWS are in the GPWS features and terrain
awareness display. Class A TAWS can be considered as
being autonomous, i.e. all the aircraft reference inputs
are from independent sources. Class B TAWS derives
much of its references from within the TAWS computer
(or TAWS section of another computer). In summary, the
following sensor inputs and displays are required by
Class A TAWS, but not Class B:
-- radar altitude
-- air data
-- gear position
-- map display
A terrain awareness display is only required for Class-A
TAWS, although the display is found in many Class-B
installations as an option. The graphical display of terrain
relative to the aircraft position and projected flight path is
a major enhancement to situational awareness. Terrain
can be displayed on general purpose multi-function
displays (MFD) or on a navigation display (ND), see FIG.
4. Color coding and intensity are used to depict terrain
relative to the aircraft.
Displays can be either a profile view or plan view.
In addition to the terrain map, text messages are
produced depending on system status and the terrain
awareness threat level. When integrated with an
electronic display, the surrounding terrain can be viewed
relative to the aircraft position; this provides strategic
terrain information up to 30 minutes in advance of a
potential terrain conflict.
Test your understanding 1
Define the meaning of CFIT.
Key point
A terrain awareness display is only required for Class-A
TAWS.
The two classes of TAWS are aimed at different types of
aircraft; in broad terms Class A is intended for larger
passenger aircraft, Class B is for general aviation
aircraft. By deriving critical parameters such as synthetic
radar altitude, the cost of Class B TAWS is substantially
reduced in terms of both equipment and certification
costs.
3. External references
The ground proximity Modes are derived from a number
of signal inputs to the computer; each input is received
from a variety of aircraft system outputs including:
-- barometric air data
-- radio altitude
-- instrument landing system
-- attitude and heading reference system
The source of these inputs to the computer will vary
depending on aircraft type.
Barometric air data includes altitude and vertical rate, or
vertical speed. These two parameters are usually
derived from an air data computer (ADC). This computer
combines the functions of individual instruments, and
can be used to determine data from the aircraft's pitot-
static system:
-- altitude
-- vertical rate, or speed
-- calibrated airspeed
-- mach number
Air data computers usually have an input of total air
temperature to enable computation of static air
temperature and true airspeed.
=============
FIG. 5 Low-range radio altimeter: (a) principle of
operation, (b) analogue indication, (c) electronic
indication
Decision height readout (green); adio altitude (white or
blank above 2500 ft.)
==============
FIG. 6 Elevation, altitude and height
MSL; Altitude; Height; Elevation
===============

FIG. 7 Instrument landing system

Runway (a) Final approach Runway (b) Glide slope
Vertical guidance Runway (c) Localizer Horizontal
guidance
=============
The low-range radio altimeter (LRRA) is a self contained
vertically directed primary radar system operating in the
4.2 to 4.4 GHz band. Airborne equipment comprises a
combined transmitting and receiving antenna, LRRA
transmitter/receiver and a flight deck indicator. Most
aircraft are fitted with two independent systems. Radar
energy is directed via a transmitting antenna to the
ground (FIG. 5(a)); some of this energy is reflected back
from the ground and is collected in the receiving
antenna. This is displayed to the crew on an dedicated
display (FIG. 5(b)) or an electronic instrument ( FIG.
5(c)).
FIG. 8 GPWS Mode 1: (a) excessive descent rate profile,
(b) excessive descent rate envelope
For aircraft operations, and in particular for TAWS, it is
important to differentiate between elevation, altitude and
height. Referring to FIG. 6, the basic reference point is
mean sea level (MSL). Terrain that rises above MSL is
measured as elevation. The aircraft's altitude is
measured (normally in feet) above MSL, whereas the
aircraft's height is measured above the terrain.
The instrument landing system is used during the final
approach and is based on directional beams propagated
from two transmitters at the airfield; see FIG. 7. One
transmitter (the localizer) guides the aircraft in the
horizontal plane. The second transmitter (the glide slope)
provides guidance in the vertical plane and has a range
of approximately 10 nm.
The attitude of an aircraft (pitch and roll) is sensed by
gyroscopes. These sensors provide reference outputs
that are processed to develop navigation and attitude
data. Larger passenger aircraft derive this data from an
inertial reference system (IRS). Developments in micro-
electromechanical systems (MEMS) technology have led
to silicon accelerometers that are more reliable and can
be manufactured onto an integrated circuit. MEMS is the
integration of mechanical elements, sensors and
electronics on a common silicon substrate through micro-
fabrication technology. This technology is being
introduced onto general aviation aircraft for attitude and
heading reference systems (AHRS). These systems are
described in more detail in Aircraft Navigation and
Communication Systems.
Key point
Warning alerts are given for a terrain threat that requires
immediate crew action.

FIG. 9 GPWS Mode 2 profiles: (a) excessive terrain

closure rate, (b) excessive terrain closure rate, flaps and
gear down
cont. to part 2 >>
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