THEORY OF MECHANISMS

AND
MACHINES
(CHAPTER ONE: LINKAGE AND MECHANISM)

Prepared for Prepared by

BAME III/I Raj Kumar Chaulagain
Asst. Professor
Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU

November, 2018
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Chapter over view (4 hrs)

• Mechanisms and machine : mechanism:
Basic definitions • Slider crank
• Mechanism configurations: • Scotch Yoke
• Links • Quick return
• Joints • Toggle
• Kinematic Chains • Oldham coupling & Hooke’s
• Inversions of mechanism
Coupling
• Straight line motion
• Mobility or Degree of
• Chamber wheel
freedom: Grubler’s criterion
• Constant velocity universal joint
• Mechanisms and Structures • Intermittent motion
• Four-bar linkage motion and • Mechanical computing
Grashoff’s law • Synthesis concepts
• Introduction to different
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Mechanisms and Machines

• A mechanism is a device which transforms motion to some
desirable pattern and typically develops very low forces and
transmits little power.
• A machine typically contains mechanisms which are designed
to provide significant forces and transmit significant power.

• A useful working definition of a mechanism is “A system of

elements arranged to transmit motion in a predetermined
fashion.”
• On the other hand, a machine is “A system of elements arranged
to transmit motion and energy in a predetermined fashion.”
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CONTD...
• Examples on mechanism
Rear-window
wiper
Can crusher
Simple press

Moves packages
from an assembly
bench to a conveyor
Device to close the
top flap of boxes
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CONTD...
• Example on machines

Automatic Transmission Food Blender

Bull dozer Spider Robot

• List out the differences between mechanism and machine
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Theory of Machines and mechanism

• It may be defined as that branch of Engineering-science, which
deals with the study of relative motion between the various
parts of a machine, and forces which act on them.
•
• The knowledge of this subject is very essential for an engineer
in designing the various parts of a machine or to develop
mechanism.
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CONTD…
It may be sub-divided into the following four branches :
1. Kinematics
It deals with the relative motion between the various parts of the
machines.
2. Dynamics
It deals with the forces and their effects, while acting upon the machine parts
in motion.
3. Kinetics
It deals with the inertia forces which arise from the combined effect of the
mass and motion of the machine parts.
4. Statics
It deals with the forces and their effects while the machine parts are at rest.
The mass of the parts is assumed to be negligible.
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Kinematics of motion
• It is the relative motion of bodies without consideration of the
forces causing the motion.
• In other words, kinematics deal with the geometry of motion
and concepts like displacement, velocity and acceleration
considered as functions of time.
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CONTD…
Plane Motion
• When the motion of a body is confined to only one plane, the motion is said to
be plane motion.
• The plane motion may be either rectilinear or curvilinear.
• Rectilinear Motion
It is the simplest type of motion and is along a straight line path. Such a motion
is also known as translatory motion.
• Curvilinear Motion
It is the motion along a curved path. Such a motion, when confined to one
plane, is called plane curvilinear motion.

• When all the particles of a body travel in concentric circular paths of

constant radii (about the axis of rotation perpendicular to the plane of
motion) such as a pulley rotating about a fixed shaft or a shaft rotating
about its own axis, then the motion is said to be a plane rotational
motion.
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Mechanism configurations
• Link ( Kinematic element):
It is an (assumed) rigid body which possesses at least two nodes
which are points for attachment to other links.
• Joint (kinematic pairs):
It is a connection between two or more links (at their nodes),
which allows some motion, or potential motion, between the
connected links.
• Kinematic chain:
An assemblage of links and joints, interconnected in a way to
provide a controlled output motion in response to a supplied
input motion.
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Links
• Binary link - one with two nodes.
• Ternary link - one with three nodes.
• Quaternary link - one with four nodes.
• Pentagonals – one with five nodes.
• Hexagonals – one with six nodes
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Joints
Joints can be classified on following basis
1. Type of Contact
2. Number of Degrees of Freedom allowed at the joint
3. Type of Physical Closure of the Joint
4. Order of Joints
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Joints
1. Type of Contact
• Lower Pair
If joints have surface contact, they are called Lower pair.
(as with a pin surrounded by a hole)
• Higher Pairs
If joints have point or line contact, they are called Higher pair.
(A pair of friction discs, toothed gearing, belt and rope drives,
ball and roller bearings and cam and follower)

• The main practical advantage of lower pairs over higher pairs

is their better ability to trap lubricant between their
enveloping surfaces.
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Joints
• The six possible lower pairs
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Joints
2. Number of Degrees of Freedom allowed at the joint

• One freedom joints (Full Joints): eg. a rotating pin joint

(R), Helical (H) joint and a translating slider Joint (P).

• Two freedom joints (Half Joints): eg. link against plane

and a pin in slot.

• Three freedom joints: eg. a spherical, or ball-and-socket

joints.
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Joints
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Joints
3. Type of Physical Closure of the Joint
A form-closed joint is kept together or closed by its
geometry.
(A pin in a hole or a slider in a two-sided slot are form
closed)
• A force-closed joint, such as a pin in a half-bearing or a
slider on a surface, requires some external force to keep it
together or closed.
• This force could be supplied by gravity, a spring, or any
external means.
(Roller on gates)
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Joints
4. Order of Joints
We can classify Joints by the order of joints as 1st order,
2nd order and so on.
• Order is defined as the number of links joined minus one.

• It takes two links to make a single joint; thus the simplest

joint combination of two links has order one.
• Joint order has significance in the proper determination of
overall degree of freedom for the assembly.
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Joints
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Kinematic chain
• A kinematic chain is defined as:
An assemblage of links and joints, interconnected in a way to
provide a controlled output motion in response to a supplied
input motion.

• The most important kinematic chains are those which consist

of four lower pairs, each pair being a sliding pair or a turning
pair.

• The following three types of kinematic chains with four lower

pairs are important.

1. Four bar chain or quadric cyclic chain

2. Single slider crank chain
3. Double slider crank chain
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Inversion of Mechanism
• When one of links is fixed in a kinematic chain, it is called a
mechanism.

• The method of obtaining different mechanisms by fixing

different links in a kinematic chain, is known as inversion of
the mechanism.

• It may be noted that the relative motions between the various

links is not changed in any manner through the process of
inversion, but their absolute motions (those measured with
respect to the fixed link) may be changed drastically.
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CONTD…
• The part of a mechanism which initially moves with respect to
the frame or fixed link is called driver and that part of the
mechanism to which motion is transmitted is called follower.

• Most of the mechanisms are reversible, so that same link can

play the role of a driver and follower at different times.

• For example, in a reciprocating steam engine, the piston is the

driver and flywheel is a follower while in a reciprocating air
compressor, the flywheel is a driver.
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CONTD…
• Ground
Any link or links that are fixed with respect to the reference
frame
• Crank
A link which makes a complete revolution and is pivoted to
ground
• Rocker
A link which has oscillatory (back and forth) rotation and
pivoted to ground
• Coupler (connecting Rod)
A link which has complex motion and is pivoted to crank
and rocker.
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Degree of freedom
• Degree of freedom (mobility M):
It is the number of inputs which need to be provided in
order to create a predictable output or the number of
independent coordinates required to define its position.

• Degree of Freedom in Planar Mechanisms

To determine the overall DOF of any mechanism, we must
account for the number of links and joints, and for the
interactions among them.
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CONTD…
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CONTD…
GRUBLER’S CRITERION :
Number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is given by
F = 3(n-1)-2l-h.
Where,
• F = Degrees of freedom

• n = Number of links in the mechanism.

• l = Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by counting the number of

joints. If more than two links are joined together at any point, then, one
additional lower pair is to be considered for every additional link.
• h = Number of higher pairs
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CONTD…
DOF: Example 1

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 4, l = 4 & h = 0.
• F = 3(4-1)-2(4) = 1
• I.e., one input to any one link will result in definite
motion of all the links.
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CONTD…
Example 2

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 5, l = 5 and h = 0.
• F = 3(5-1)-2(5) = 2
• I.e., two inputs to any two links are required to yield definite
motions in all the links.
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CONTD…
Example 3

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 6, l = 7 and h = 0.
• F = 3(6-1)-2(7) = 1
• I.e., one input to any one link will result in definite motion
of all the links.
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CONTD…
Example 4

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 6, l = 7 (at the intersection of 2, 3 and 4, two
lower pairs are to be considered) and h = 0.
• F = 3(6-1)-2(7) = 1
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CONTD…
Example 5

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 11, l = 15 (two lower pairs at the intersection
of 3, 4, 6; 2, 4, 5; 5, 7, 8; 8, 10, 11) and h = 0.
• F = 3(11-1)-2(15) = 0
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Mechanism and Structure

• The degree of freedom of an assembly of links completely
predicts its character.

• There are only three possibilities.

• If the DOF is positive, it will be a mechanism, and the links will have
relative motion.
• If the DOF is exactly zero, then it will be a structure, and no motion is
possible.
• If the DOF is negative, then it is a preloaded structure, which means
that no motion is possible and some stresses may also be present at the
time of assembly.
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CONTD…
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CONTD…
Example 6

(a) (b) (c)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h F = 3(n-1)-2l-h F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n = 4, l = 5 Here, n = 3, l = 2 Here, n = 3, l = 2
and h = 0. and h = 1. and h = 1.
F = 3(4-1)-2(5) = -1 F = 3(3-1)-2(2)-1 = 1 F = 3(3-1)-2(2)-1 = 1
I.e., it is a preloaded
structure
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Four-bar mechanism
• The simplest and the basic
kinematic chain is a four bar
chain or quadric cycle chain.

• It consists of four links, each

of them forms a turning pair at
A, B, C and D.
• The four links may be of
different lengths.
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CONTD…

• In Fig. AD (shortest link 4 ) is a crank.

• The link BC (link 2) which makes a partial rotation or oscillates
is known as lever or rocker or follower
• The link CD (link 3) which connects the crank and lever is
called connecting rod or coupler.
• The fixed link AB (link 1) is known as frame of the mechanism.
• When the crank (link 4) is the driver, the mechanism is
transforming rotary motion into oscillating motion.
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CONTD…
• According to Grashof’s law for a four bar mechanism, the
sum of the shortest and longest link lengths should not be
greater than the sum of the remaining two link lengths if there is
to be continuous relative motion between the two links.
➢S = length of shortest link
➢L = length of longest link
➢P = length of one remaining link
➢Q =length of other remaining link

if L+S > P+Q then the linkage is a Non-Grashof type

if L+S < P+Q then the linkage is a Grashof type
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CONTD…

• It is to ensure that the input crank makes a complete revolution

relative to the other links.
• If no link makes a complete revolution, will not be useful.
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Inversion of four bar mechanism

1. 4R-kinematic chain which has all the four kinematic pairs as
revolute/turning pairs.
2. 3R-1P kinematic chain which has three revolute pairs and
one prismatic pair. This is also called as single slider crank
chain.
3. 2R-2P kinematic chain which has two revolute pairs and two
prismatic pairs. This is also called as double slider crank
chain.
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1. Inversion of 4R- kinematic chain

• Bysuitably altering the proportions of lengths of links 1, 2, 3
and 4 respectively several mechanisms are obtained.

T= turning
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Beam engine (crank and lever mechanism)

• The purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion into
reciprocating motion which consists of four links.
• When the crank rotates about the fixed centre A, the lever
oscillates about a fixed centre D.
• The end E of the lever/rocker CDE
is connected to a piston rod which
reciprocates due to the rotation of
the crank.
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CONTD…
• Every complete rotation of link 2 (called a crank), the link 4
(called a lever or rocker), makes oscillation between extreme
positions O4B1 and O4B2.
• Crank angles for the two strokes (forward and backward) of
oscillating link O4B are not same.
• The proportions of the link may be as follows

Fig. Crank-rocker
Mechanism
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Double-lever Mechanism or
Rocker-Rocker Mechanism
• In this mechanism, both the
links 2 and 4 can only oscillate.
• This mechanism must satisfy
the following relations.

Fig. Double-lever Mechanism

• If links 2 and 4 are of equal lengths and l1 > l3,

this mechanism forms automobile steering gear
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Double Crank Mechanism

• The links 2 and 4 of the double crank mechanism make
complete revolutions. There are two forms of this mechanism.
i. Parallel Crank Mechanism

• In this mechanism, lengths of links 2 and 4 are equal. Lengths

of links 1 and 3 are also equal.
• Coupling of the locomotive wheels where wheels act as cranks
of equal length and length of the coupling rod is equal to centre
distance between the two coupled wheels
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CONTD…
ii. Drag Link Mechanism
• In this mechanism also links 2 and
4 make full rotation.
• As the link 2 and 4 rotate,
sometimes link 4 rotate faster and
sometimes it becomes slow in
rotation.
• Used in the automobile bar steering
system.
• The proportions of this mechanism
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2. Inversions of 3R-1P or Inversions of

Slider crank
• In this four bar kinematic chain, four links shown by blocks are
connected through three revolute pairs T1, T2 and T3 and one
prismatic pair.

• T= turning, S= sliding
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2. Inversions of 3R-1P or Inversions of

Slider crank
First Inversion
➢In this mechanism, link 1 is fixed, link
2 works as crank, link 4 works as a
slider and link 3 connects link 2 with
4. It is called connecting rod. Between
links 1 and 4 sliding pair has been
provided.
➢This mechanism is also known as
slider crank chain or reciprocating
engine mechanism because it is used Figure : First inversion
in internal combustion engines.
➢It is also used in reciprocating pumps
as it converts rotary motion into
reciprocating motion and vice-versa.
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2. Inversions of 3R-1P or
Inversions of Slider crank
Second Inversion
• In this case link 2 is fixed and link 3
works as crank. Link 1 is a slotted link
which facilitates movement of link 4
which is a slider.
• This arrangement gives quick return
motion mechanism also called
Whitworth Quick Return Motion
Mechanism.

Figure : Second Inversion

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2. Inversions of 3R-1P or
Inversions of Slider crank
Third Inversion
• This inversion is obtained by
fixing link 3.
• Some applications of this
inversion are
• oscillating cylinder engine
• crank and slotted lever quick return
motion mechanism of a shaper
machine.

Figure : Crank and Slotted Lever Mechanism

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2. Inversions of 3R-1P or
Inversions of Slider crank
Fourth Inversion –Pendulum
Pump
• It is obtained by fixing link 4 which
is slider.
• Application of this inversion is Fig. Hand pump
limited.
• Eg. Pendulum pump and hand pump .
• Pendulum pump, link 3 oscillates
like a pendulum and link 1 has
translatory motion which can be
used for a pump.

Fig . Pendulum pump

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3. Inversion of 2R-2P or Double Slider

Crank mechanism
• This four bar kinematic chain has two revolute or
turning pairs – T1 and T2 and two prismatic or
sliding pairs – S1 and S2.
• This chain provides three different mechanisms
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3. Inversion of 2R-2P or Double Slider

Crank mechanism
First Inversion
➢The first inversion is obtained by
fixing link 1. By doing so a
mechanism called Scotch Yoke is
obtained.
➢The link 1 is a slider similar to link
3. Link 2 works as a crank. Link 4
is a slotted link.
➢When link 2 rotates, link 4 has
simple harmonic motion for angle
‘θ’ of link 2, the displacement of
link 4 is given by X= OA cos θ
Figure : Scotch Yoke Mechanism
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3. Inversion of 2R-2P or Double Slider

Crank mechanism
Second Inversion
➢In this case, link 2 is fixed and a
mechanism called Oldham’s
coupling is obtained.
➢This coupling is used to connect
two shafts which have eccentricity
‘θ’. The axes of the two shafts are
parallel but displaced by distance θ.
➢The link 4 slides in the two slots
provided in links 3 and 1.
➢The centre of this link will move on
a circle with diameter equal to Figure: Oldham’s Coupling
eccentricity.
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3. Inversion of 2R-2P or Double Slider

Crank mechanism
Third inversion
• This inversion is obtained by
fixing link 4.
• The mechanism so obtained
is called elliptical trammel

Figure: Elliptical Trammel

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Miscellaneous mechanisms
1. Toggle
2. Hooke’s Coupling
3. Straight line motion
4. Chamber wheel
5. Intermittent motion
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1. Toggle mechanism
• Toggle: a point where the link cannot rotate anymore.
• Determined by the colinearity of two moving links.
• Many linkages employ a toggle which occurs when links the line up.
• At toggle the velocity ratio, VA/VB, and mechanical advantage become very
large.
• Locking fasteners/ handles use the toggle to provide a large force in the
locked position.
• The locked position is slightly beyond toggle so that a small force must be
applied in order to unlock the latch/fastener/lock/handle.
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CONTD…
• Conveniently, the crank and connecting rod come into toggle
just when the large force is required.
• Examples:
• Punch presses,
• rivet machine,
• stone crusher,
• friction ratchet etc
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2. Hook’s or universal Joint

➢ It is used for connecting two shafts whose
axes are non-parallel but intersecting as
shown .
➢ Both the shafts, driving and the driven, are
forked at their ends.
➢ Each fork provides for two bearings for the
respective arms of the cross.
➢ The cross has two mutually perpendicular
arms.
➢ In fact, the cross acts as an intermediate link
between the two shafts.
➢ In the figure, the driven shaft has been shown
as inclined at an angle α with the driving
shaft.
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CONTD…
Applications:
• Transmission of motion from
the gear box to the back axle of
automobile.
• Drive to the spindles in a multi-
spindle drilling machines
• Places where motion is required
to be transmitted in non-parallel
shafts with their axes
intersecting.
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3. St. Line Motion Mechanism

➢A mechanism built in such a manner that a particular point in it
is constrained to trace a straight line path within the possible
limits of motion, is known as a straight line motion mechanism.
• The Scott Russel Mechanism is an example of straight line
motion mechanism
➢On this mechanism as shown consists of a crank OC,
connecting rod CP, and a slider block P which is constrained to
move in a horizontal straight line passing through O. The
connecting rod PC is extended to Q such that PC= CQ= CO
➢It will be proved that for all horizontal movements of the slider
P, the locus of point Q will be a straight line perpendicular to
the line OP.
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CONTD…
Procedure
• Draw a circle of diameter PQ as shown. It is
known that diameter of a circle always subtends a
right angle or any point on the circle.
• Thus, at point O, the angle QOP is a right angle.
• For any position of P, the line connecting O with
P will always be horizontal.
• Therefore, line joining the corresponding position
of Q with O will always a straight line Figure :Scott Russel
perpendicular to OP. Mechanism
• Thus, the locus of point Q will be straight line
perpendicular to OP.
• Thus, a horizontal straight line motion of slider
block P will enable point Q to generate a vertical
straight line, both passing through O.
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4. Chamber wheels
This mechanism can be used
mainly as following two
types:
i. Lobe pump
• Two lobes operates
inside the casing.
• used on IC engine for
Pressurized air supply

Lobes pump
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CONTD…
ii. Rankle engine
• In the Rankle engine, the four strokes
of a typical otto cycle occurs.
• Rankle engines are considerably
lighter, simpler, and contain far fewer
moving parts than piston engines.
• In the racing world, different
company has had substantial success
with two-rotor, three-rotor, and four-
rotor engine car.
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5. Intermittent motion mechanism

• The intermittent mechanism indexes the output shaft forward
each revolution.
• The duration of the indexing motion depends on
• the distance between the locking disks and
• the length of the angular joint.

Intermittent drive
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Synthesis concepts
• The synthesis (fusion) of mechanism is the design or
creation of a mechanism to produce a desired output
motion for a given input motion.
• In other words, the synthesis of mechanism deals with the
determination of proportions of a mechanism for the given
input and output motion.
• Synthesis: to design or create a mechanism to give a
certain motion
• Analysis: to determine the motion characteristics of a
given mechanism
• The synthesis is the opposite of analysis.
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CONTD…
• In the application of synthesis, to the design of a mechanism,
the problem divides itself into the following three parts:

1. Type synthesis, i.e. the type of mechanism to be used

2. Number synthesis, i.e. the number of links and the number of

joints needed to produce the required motion

3. Dimensional synthesis, i.e. the proportions or lengths of the

links necessary to satisfy the required motion characteristics.
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CONTD…
• In designing a mechanism, one factor that must be kept in mind
is that of the accuracy required of the mechanism.
• Sometimes, it is possible to design a mechanism that will
theoretically generate a given motion.
• The difference between the desired motion and the actual
motion produced is known as structural error.
• In addition to this, there are errors due to manufacture.
• The error resulting from tolerances in the length of links and
bearing clearances is known as mechanical Error.
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CONTD…
Classifications of Synthesis Problem
1. Function generation.
In designing a mechanism, the frequent requirement is that the
output link should either rotate, oscillate or reciprocate
according to a specified function of time or function of the
motion of input link. This is known as function generation.
A simple example is that of designing a four bar mechanism to
generate the function y = f (x).
In this case, x represents the motion of the input link and the
mechanism is to be designed so that the motion of the output
link approximates the function y.
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CONTD…
2. Path generation.
• In a path generation, the mechanism is required to guide a point
(called a tracer point or coupler point) along a path having a
prescribed shape.
• The common requirements are that a portion of the path be a
circular arc, elliptical or a straight line.
3. Body guidance
• In body guidance, both the position of a point within a moving
body and the angular displacement of the body are specified.
• The problem may be a simple translation or a combination of
translation and rotation.
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Chapter Summary
• Basic definitions of Mechanisms and machine
• Mechanism configurations: Links, Joints, Kinematic Chains,
Inversions of mechanism
• Mobility or Degree of freedom: Grubler’s criterion
• Mechanisms and Structures
• Four-bar linkage motion and Grashoff’s law
• Introduction to different mechanism:
• Synthesis concepts
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THANK YOU