Fundamentals of

Heat Transfer
(Basic Concepts)

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 Topics

• Historical Background
• Thermodynamics
• Heat transfer
• Thermodynamics versus Heat Transfer
• Areas and Applications of Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer problems

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 Historical Background
Heat
Perceived to be something that produces in us a
sensation of warmth
Heat is fluid like substance called caloric that is
mass-less, colorless, odorless, tasteless that can be
poured from one body into another : Caloric Theory

James P. Joule:
Published in 1843 that
heat was not a substance
Historical Background

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Thermodynamics
and Heat Transfer

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 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics deals with the science of
“motion” (dynamics) and/or the transformation
of “heat’ (thermo) and energy into various other
energy containing forms.

Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science

that deals with the relations between heat and
other forms of energy (such as mechanical,
electrical, or chemical energy), and by extension,
of the relationships between all forms of energy.

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 Thermodynamics

• Science of thermodynamics deals with the

amount of heat transfer as system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another
without any information concerning the nature of
interaction or the time rate at which it occurs.

• Deals with the equilibrium and feasibility of

process and properties of system, direction of
change etc.

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 Thermodynamics
System: It is the subject of the investigation.
Open system (allows energy and matter exchange), Closed
system (allows only energy transfer), Isolated system (allows
neither energy or matter transfer)

Surroundings: Everything external to the system is

the surroundings.

Boundary: It is a closed surface surrounding a

system through which energy and mass may enter
or leave the system.

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 Thermodynamics

Study of the relationship between heat, work

and energy.

Energy
The capacity to do work or transfer heat.

Work
The energy required to move an object against a
force.

Work = force × distance

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Energy can exist in various forms such as
✓ thermal
✓ mechanical
✓ kinetic
✓ potential
✓ electrical Their sum constitutes the
✓ magnetic total energy E of a
✓ chemical
system.
✓ nuclear

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Internal energy is the energy stored in a body.

Internal energy is the sum of kinetic and potential

energy of all particles in the body.

Unit of internal energy: joule (J)

It increases when the temperature of the body

rises or when the body changes from solid to liquid
or from liquid to gas.

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Temperature is a measure of velocity and hence
kinetic energy of the molecule of the system.

When all the molecular motion ceases and there is

no motion energy within the molecules, the
temperature of the molecules is absolute zero.

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Heat

According to the modern or dynamic theory of heat:

“ Heat is a form of energy.

The energy in transit is termed as heat.

Energy flow due to temperature difference is called

heat.

The mean kinetic energy per molecule of the

substance is proportional to its absolute
temperature.

Unit of heat: joule (J) 13

Facts
• Whenever there is an exchange of heat, heat is
consumed (heat lost by the hot body is always
equal to heat gained by the cold body).

• The heat flow takes place from high to lower

temperature.

• The substances expand on heating.

• In order to change the state of a body from solid to

liquid to gas, certain amount of heat is required.

• When a body is heated or cooled, its weight does

not change. 14
 Heat Transfer Heat transfer is
transmission of energy
from one region to another
region as a temperature
difference between them.

Whenever there exists a temperature difference in

mediums or within medium, heat transfer must occur
(always from the high temperature medium to the
lower temperature one)
Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the
same temperature (thermal equilibrium).
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When two bodies of different temperatures touch
each other, energy is transferred from the hot body
to the cold body until they reach the
same temperature. (The bodies are then said to be
in thermal equilibrium.)

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Heat Transfer: Driving potential: Temperature
difference

Mass transfer: Driving potential: Concentration

difference (concentrate on mass motion which
result in changes in composition and are caused by
variations in concentration of the various constituent
species. This transfer is also known as “diffusion”)

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Heat Transfer

Science of thermodynamics and fluid mechanics

Heat transfer is a branch of thermal science which

deals with analysis of rate of heat transfer and
temperature distribution taking place in a system
as well as the nature of heat transfer.

Heat transfer cannot be measure directly but the

effects produced by it can be observed and
measured.

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Note: Heat cannot be measured directly by an
instrument as temperature is by a thermometer.

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 Heat Temperature
It is a form of energy called It is a thermal state of a
thermal energy. body which distinguishes a
hot body from a cold body

It is measure of degree of
hotness or coldness of
system
Measured in kcal, BTU etc. Measured in 0C, 0F, K etc.
Colorimeter is used for Thermometer is used for
measurement. measurement.
Extensive property Intensive property

Extensive properties (i.e. mass) are dependent upon

the amount of a substance, while intensive
properties (i.e. density) are independent of quantity. 20
Difference between
Thermodynamics
and Heat Transfer

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Interested in how long it
takes for the hot coffee in a
thermos bottle to cool to a
certain temperature which
can not be determined from
a thermodynamic analysis
alone

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Consider the cooling of a hot steel bar placed in
water bath.

Thermodynamic analysis will predict the final

equilibrium temperature of the composite system
comprised by steel bar-water combination but it
will not predict how long it takes to reach this
equilibrium condition or what the temperature of
bar will be after a certain length of time before
the equilibrium condition is attained.

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But heat transfer study will predict the temperature
of both the bar and water as a function of time.
That is the temperature at all points of interest
within the bar or temperature at any specific point
(such as at the center of the bar where it is the
highest) at any time can be predicated. Also the
instantaneous heat transfer rate can be predicated
from all or from any part of the surface of the bar at
any time.
Heat transfer studies mainly require the
knowledge of thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, physics and mathematics.
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 Thermodynamics Heat Transfer
It is concerned with It is concern with non-
equilibrium states and equilibrium states.
precludes existence of Temperature gradient must
temperature gradient exist for exchange of heat
It helps to determine quantity It helps to predict rate at
of heat and work interactions which energy is exchanged
when a system changes from and also predicts temperature
one equilibrium state to distribution as a function of
another but do not provide coordinates and time within
information on nature of regions of matter
interaction and time rate at
which interaction occurs
∆u = ∆Q ± ∆W
We can not obtain We can obtain temperature
temperature profile profile

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Summary:
1. In thermodynamics, no consideration is given to time or
temperature difference required to bring about the
transfer of heat energy and whether or not there is
uniform temperature within the thermodynamic system.
2. The subject of heat transfer seeks to provide answer to
the question such as
• Possibility of removal or addition of heat at a
desire rate
• Temperature distribution existing within the system
• Amount of heat to be transferred
• Time taken (duration of heating and cooling) for a
certain duty and surface area required to
accomplish that duty.
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 Law of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic entails four laws

1. Zeroth Law of thermodynamics
2. First Law of thermodynamics
3. Second Law of thermodynamics
4. Third Law of thermodynamics

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 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if

two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

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 First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law, also known as Law of Conservation of
Energy, states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed in an isolated system.

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 Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics states that the

entropy of any isolated system always increases.

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• Second law of Thermodynamics indicates the
limit of converting heat into work and introduces
the principle of increase of entropy.
OR
It states that "Heat will flow naturally from one
reservoir to another at a lower temperature but
not in opposite direction without assistance.” (This
law established the direction of energy transport).

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 Third Law of Thermodynamics

The third law of thermodynamics is

sometimes stated as follows, regarding the
properties of systems in equilibrium at absolute
zero temperature: The entropy of a perfect
crystal at absolute zero is exactly equal to zero

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• Zeroth law of Thermodynamics deals with
thermal equilibrium and establishes a concept of
Temperature.

• First law of Thermodynamics throws light on

concept of internal energy.

• Second law of Thermodynamics

Thermal energy is transferred whenever a

temperature gradient exists and the free flow of
heat energy is always from a higher temperature
to a lower temperature in accordance with the
second law of thermodynamics.
Third law of Thermodynamics defines
absolute zero of entropy.

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 Importance of Heat Transfer
Heat transfer study is carried out for the follows
purpose:
1. To estimate the rate of flow of energy as heat
through the boundary of a system under study
(both under steady and transient conditions).
2. To determine the temperature field under
steady and transient conditions

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 Application Areas of Heat Transfer
Energy production and Conversion:
For thermal design of boilers, steam turbines,
condensers, gas turbines, cooling towers, feed
heaters, internal combustion engine
Have to make a detailed heat transfer analysis
(amount of heat to be transmitted as well as the rate at which
heat is to be transferred)

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning:

The thermal design of compressors,
evaporators, incinerators involves an intensive
study of heat transfer.
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 Application Areas of Heat Transfer
Electric Machines:
Insulations provide on electric wires need a
heat transfer analysis to avoid conditions
which will cause overheating.

heat transfer analysis must also be accounted

in the design of electronic components,
electric machines, transformers and
bearings to avoid overheating and damage of
equipment

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 Application Areas of Heat Transfer
Civil Engineering:
Design of buildings for the minimization of
heat losses need heat transfer study.
Construction of dams and other heavy
structures, calculation of thermal expansion of
suspension bridge and railway tracks.
Manufacturing process:
The casting of metals, extrusion, metal cutting
and heat treatment of metals involve heat
transfer study.
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 Application Areas of Heat Transfer
Chemical and Petrochemical operations
Environmental Engineering
Earth Sciences
Astronomy
Agriculture and Food processing

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Areas covered under discipline of Heat Transfer
1. Design of thermal and nuclear power plants
including heat engines, steam generators,
condensers and other heat exchange
equipment, catalytic converters, heat shields
for space vehicles, furnaces, electronic
equipment etc.
2. Internal combustion engine
3. Refrigeration and air conditioning units
4. Design of cooling systems for electric motors,
generators and transformers
5. Heating and cooling of fluids etc. in chemical
operations 40
Areas covered under discipline of Heat Transfer

6. Construction of dams and structures;

minimization of building-heat losses using
improved insulation techniques
7. Thermal control of space vehicles
8. Heat treatment of metals
9. Dispersion of atmospheric pollutants

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Application Areas of Heat Transfer

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Importance of Study of Heat Transfer

NPTEL Video Lecture - 1 Introduction on Heat

and Mass Transfer (Time: 6.57 to 30.36)

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 Engineering Heat Transfer

Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers,

boilers, condensers, radiators, heaters, furnaces,
refrigerators, and solar collectors are designed
primarily on the basis of heat transfer analysis.

The heat transfer problems encountered in

practice can be considered in two groups:
(1) rating and (2) sizing problems.

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 Engineering Heat Transfer

An engineering device or process can be studied

either experimentally (testing and taking
measurements) or analytically (by analysis or
calculations).

The experimental approach has the advantage

that we deal with the actual physical system, and
the desired quantity is determined by
measurement, within the limits of experimental
error. However, this approach is expensive, time
consuming, and often impractical.
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 Questions
1. The capacity to do work is _____________.
2. Heat is measured in _________.
3. The form of energy that produced feeling of hotness is
called________.
4. __________is neither created nor destroyed it can only
change one form to another.
5. What is the driving force for a heat transfer?
6. Heat transfer takes place according to __________law of
thermodynamics.
7. How does the science of heat transfer differ from the
science of thermodynamics?
8. How do rating problems in heat transfer differ from the
sizing problems?
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