Basics : AGL Sir

Basics
He is unworthy of the name of man who is ignorant of the fact that
the diagonal of square is incomensurable with its side .......Plato

Number system :
(i) Natural numbers : The counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, .... are called Natural Numbers. The set
of natural numbers is denoted by N. Thus N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ....}.

(ii) Whole numbers : Natural numbers including zero are called whole numbers. The set of
whole numbers, is denoted by W. Thus W = {0, 1, 2, .........}

(iii) Integers : The numbers ... – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 .... are called integers and the set is
denoted by  or Z. Thus  (or Z) = {.. – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3...}

Note : (a) Positive integers  - {1, 2, 3 ....}.

(b) Negative integers – - {....., –3, –2, –1}.
(c) Non-negative integers (whole numbers) - {0, 1, 2, ......}.

(d) Non-positive integers {......, –3, –2, –1, 0}.

(iv) Even integers : Integers which are divisible by 2 are called even integers.
e.g. 0, ± 2, ± 4,.......

(v) Odd integers : Integers, which are not divisible by 2 are called as odd integers.
e.g. ± 1, ± 3, ± 5, ± 7......

(vi) Prime number : Natural number which are divisible by 1 and itself only are prime numbers.
e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, ........

Note : (i) is neither a prime number nor composite number.

(ii) is the only even prime number.

(vii) Composite number : Let 'a' be a natural number, 'a' is said to be composite if, it has atleast
three distinct factors.

Note : (i) 1 is neither a prime number nor composite number.

(ii) Number which are not prime are composite numbers (except 1).
(iii) '4' is the smallest composite number.

(viii) Co-prime number : Two natural numbers (not necessarily prime) are coprime, if there H.C.F
(Highest common factor) is one.
e.g. (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 4), (3, 10), (3, 8), (5, 6), (7, 8) (15, 16) etc.
These numbers are also called as relatively prime numbers.

Note : (a) Two prime number(s) are always co-prime but converse need not be true.
(b) Consecutive numbers are always co-prime numbers.

(ix) Twin prime numbers : If the difference between two prime numbers is two, then the numbers
are twin prime numbers.
e.g. {3, 5}, {5, 7}, {11, 13}, {17, 19}, {29, 31}

Note : Number between twin prime numbers is divisible by 6.

 Basics : AGL Sir

(x) Rational numbers : All the numbers that can be represented in the form p/q, where p and q
are integers and q  0, are called rational numbers and their set is denoted by Q. Thus

p
Q={ : p, q  and q  0}. It may be noted that every integer is a rational number since it can
q
be written as p/1. It may be noted that all recurring decimals are rational numbers.

p 11
Note : Maximum number of decimal digits in is equal to q, i.e. will have maximum of 9 decimal digits.
q 9

(xi) Irrational numbers : Real numbers which can not be expressed in p/q form, i.e. real numbers
which are not rational are called irrational num bers and their set is denoted by
Qc. (i.e. complementary set of Q) e..g. 2 ,1+ 3 etc. Irrational numbers can not be expressed
as recurring decimals.

Note : e  2.71 is called Napier's constant and  3.14 are irrational numbers.

(x ii ) Real numbers : Numbers which can be expressed on number line are called real numbers.
The complete set of rational and irrational number is the set of real numbers and is denoted by
R. Thus R = Q  Q C.

All the numbers defined so far follow the order property i.e. if there are two distinct numbers a
and b then either a < b or a > b.

Note : (a) Integers are rational numbers, but converse need not be true.
(b) Negative of an irrational number is an irrational number.
(c) Sum of a rational number and an irrational number is always an irrational number
e.g. 2+ 3
(d) The product of a non zero rational number & an irrational number will always be an irrational
number.
(e) If a  Q and b  Q, then ab = rational number, only if a = 0.
(f) Sum, difference, product and quotient of two irrational numbers need not be a irrational number
or we can say, result may be a rational number also.

(xiii) Complex number : A number of the form a + ib is called complex number, where a,b  R and
i =  1 . Complex number is usually denoted by Z and the set of complex number is represented
by C.

Note : It may be noted that N  W    Q  R  C.

p
Example # 1 : Express the following rational numbers in the form of , ( where p, q )
q

(i) 0.1 2 (ii) 1.5 23

Solution. (i) Let x = = 0.1222.......

10x = 1. 2 ........(i)
 Basics : AGL Sir

100x = 12. 2 .......(ii)

11
 90x = 11  x= (so x is a rational number)
90

(ii) Let x = 1.5 23

1000x = 1523 . 23

10x = 15. 23

1508 754
990x = 1508  x= = (so x is a rational number)
990 495

Self practice problem

p
(1) Express the following in form of , where p, q   and q  0
q

(i) 0.18 (ii) 0.16 (iii) 0.423

2 1 419
Answers : (1) (i) (ii) (iii)
11 6 990
 Basics : AGL Sir

Divisibility test :
Divisibility
S.No. of Test
1 2 The digit at the unit place of the number is divisible by 2.
2 3 The sum of its digits of the number is divisible by 3.
3 4 The last two digits of the number together are divisible by 4.
4 5 The digit of the number at the unit place is either 0 or 5.
The digit at the unit place of the number is divisible by 2 & the sum of all
5 6 digits of the number is divisible by 3.
6 8 The last 3 digits of the number all together are divisible by 8.
7 9 The sum of all it's digits is divisible by 9.
8 10 The digit at unit place is 0.
The difference between the sum of the digits at even places and the sum of
digits at odd places is 0 or multiple of 11. e.g.1298, 1221, 123321, 12344321,
9 11 1234554321, 123456654321

Example # 2 : Consider a number N = 2 1 P 5 3 Q 4

(i) Number of ordered pairs (P, Q) so that the number ‘N is divisible by 9, is

(A) 11 (B) 12 (C) 10 (D) 8

(ii). Number of values of Q so that the number ‘N’ is divisible by 8, is

(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 2 (D) 6

(iii) Number of ordered pairs (P, Q) so that the number ‘N is divisible by 44, is
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
Solution. (i) Sum of digits = P + Q + 15
‘N’ is divisible by 9 if
P + Q + 15 = 18, 27
 P+Q=3 ..........(i) or P + Q = 12 .............(ii)
P = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
From equation (i)

P  0 , Q  3

P  1 , Q  2

P  2 , Q  1 No. of ordered pairs is 4
P  3 , Q  0

From equation (ii)

P3 , Q  9

P4 , Q  8
........ .........  No. of ordered pairs is 7
,
P8 Q  4
P9 , Q  3 

Total number of ordered pairs is 11

(ii) N is divisible by 8 if
 Basics : AGL Sir

Q = 0, 4, 8
Number of values of Q is 3

(iii) SO = P + 9
SE = Q + 6
SE – S0 = Q – P – 3
N is divisible by 4 if
Q = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8
‘N’ is divisible is 11 if
Q – P – 3 = 0 or multiple of 11
P – Q = –3 .............(i) or P–Q=8 ...............(ii)
From Equation (i)
Q = 0 P = –3 (not possible)
Q = 2 P = –1 (not possible)
Q=4 P=1
Q=6 P=3
Q=8 P=5
 number of ordered pairs is 3

 total number of ordered pairs, so that number ‘N’ is divisible by 44, is 3

Self practice problem

Consider the number N = 7 7 4 9 5 8 P 9 6 Q

(2) If P = 2 and the number N is divisible by 3, then number of possible values of Q is/are

(3) If N is divisible by 4, then

(4) If N is divisible by 8 and 9 both, then number of possible ordered pair (P, Q) is/are

Answers : (2) 4 (3) P can be any single digit whole number and Q = 0, 4, 8

(4) 3
 Basics : AGL Sir

Remainder theorem : Let p(x) be any polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one and 'a' be any real
number. If p(x) is divided by (x – a), then the remainder is equal to p(a).

Factor theorem : Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than of equal to 1 and 'a' be a real number
such that p(a) = 0, then (x – a) is a factor of p(x). Conversely, if (x – a) is a factor of
p(x), then p(a) = 0.
 Basics : AGL Sir

Example # 3 : Show that (x – 3) is a factor of the polynomial x 3 – 3x2 + 4x – 12.

Solution. Let p(x) = x 3 – 3x2 + 4x – 12 be the given polynomial. By factor theorem, (x – a) is a factor of
a polynomial p(x) iff p(a) = 0. Therefore, in order to prove that x – 3 is a factor of p(x), it is
sufficient to show that p(3) = 0. Now,
p(x) = x 3 – 3x 2 + 4x – 12
 p(3) = 33 – 3 × 32 + 4 × 3 – 12
= 27 – 27 + 12 – 12 = 0
Hence, (x – 3) is a factor of p(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 12.

Example # 4 : Without actual division prove that 2x4 – 6x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x – 2 is exactly divisible by x 2 – 3x + 2.

Solution. Let f(x) = 2x 4 – 6x3 + 3x 2 + 3x – 2and g(x) = x 2 – 3x + 2 be the given polynomials. Then
g(x) = x2 – 3x + 2 = x 2 – 2x – x + 2 = x(x – 2) – 1(x – 2)
= (x – 1) (x – 2)
In order to prove that f(x) is exactly divisible by g(x), it is sufficient to prove that x – 1 and
x – 2 are factors of f(x). For this it is sufficient to prove that f(1) = 0 and f(2) = 0.
Now, f(x) = 2x 4 – 6x 3 + 3x2 + 3x – 2
 f(1) = 2 × 14 – 6 × 13 + 3 × 12 + 3 × 1 – 2
f(1) = 0
and, f(2) = 2 × 24 – 6 × 23 × 22 + 3 × 2 – 2
f(2) = 0
 Hence , (x – 1) and (x – 2) are factors of f(x).
 g(x) = (x – 1) (x – 2) is a factors of f(x).
Hence, f(x) is exactly divisible by g(x).

Example # 5 : The polynomials P(x) = kx3 + 3x2 – 3 and Q(x) = 2x3 – 5x + k, when divided by (x – 4) leave the same
remainder. The value of k is
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 0 (D) –1

Solution. P(4) = 64k + 48 – 3 = 64k + 45

Q(4) = 128 – 20 + k = k + 108
given P(4) = Q(4)
 64k + 45 = k + 108
 63k = 63  k = 1

Example # 6 : If a two-digit number is divided by the number having same digits written in reverse order, we get 4 as
quotient and 3 as remainder and if the number is divided by the sum of the digits then 8 as a quotient
and 7 as a remainder is obtained. Find the number.

Solution. Let 10x+y be the required number.

 10x+y = 4(10y+x) + 3................. (i)
and 10x+y = 8(x+y) + 7,......................(ii)
on solving (i) and (ii)
we get x=7, y=1
 the number is equal to 71

Self practice problems :

(5) Determine the remainder when the polynomial P(x) = x 4 – 3x2 + 2x + 1 is divided by x – 1
 Basics : AGL Sir

(6) Find the value of a, if x – a is a factor of x 3 – a2x + x + 2.

(7) Using factor theorem, show that a – b, b – c and c – a are the factors of
a(b2 – c 2) + b(c 2 – a2) + c (a2 – b2).

(8) A polynomial in x of the third degree which will vanish when x = 1 & x =  2 and will have the
values 4 & 28 when x =  1 and x = 2 respectively is ______ .

Answers : (5) 1 (6) a=–2 (8) f(x) = 3 x 3 + 4 x 2  5 x – 2

 Basics : AGL Sir

Some important identities:

(1) (a + b) 2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2 + 4ab

(2) (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2 – 4ab

(3) a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)

(4) (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b)

(5) (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab (a – b)

(6) a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b) = (a + b) (a2 + b2 – ab)

(7) a3 – b3 = (a – b) 3 + 3ab (a – b) = (a – b) (a2 + b2 + ab)

(8) (a + b + c) 2 = a2 + b2 + c 2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca

 1 1 1
= a2 + b2 + c 2 + 2abc    
a b c

1
(9) a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2

(10) a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)

1
= (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2
If a + b + c = 0 , then a3 + b3 + c 3 = 3abc
(11) a4 – b4 = (a + b) (a – b) (a2 + b2)

(12) a4 + a2 + 1 = (a2 + 1) 2 – a2 = (1 + a + a2) (1 – a + a2)

Note : It is useful to observe that

 1 1 1
 ab + bc + ca = abc    
a b c

1
 a2 + b2 + c 2 – ab – bc – ca = ((a – b) 2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2)
2

2
 1 1
Example # 7 : If  a   = 3, then a3 + 3 equals :
 a a

(A) 6 3 (B) 3 3 (C) 0 (D) 7 7 (E) 6 3

1
Solution. a+ =± 3
a

3
1  1  1
a3 + = a   – 3  a   = ± 3 3  3 3 = 0.
a 3
 a  a 
 Basics : AGL Sir

Example # 8 : Show that the expression, (x2 – y z)3 + (y2 – z x) 3 + (z2 – x y) 3 – 3 (x 2 – y z) . (y2 – z x).(z2 – x y)
is a perfect square and find its square roots.
Solution. (x2 – yz)3 + (y2 – zx)3 + (z2 – xy)3 – 3(x2 – yz) (y2 – zx) (z2 – xy)
= a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc where a = x2 – yz, b = y2 – zx, c = z2 – xy
= (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)

1
= (a + b + c) ((a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2)
2

1 2
= (x + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)[(x2 – yz – y2 + zx)2 + (y2 – zx – z2 + xy)2 + (z2 – xy – x2 + yz)2]
2

1 2 2 2
= (x + y + z – xy – yz – zx) [{x2 – y2 + z(x – y)}2 + {y2 – z2 + x (y – z)}2 + {z2 –x2 + y (z – x)}2]
2

1 2
= (x + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx) (x + y + z)2 [(x – y)2 + (y – z)2 + (z –x)2]
2
= (x + y + z)2 (x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)2 = (x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz)2 (which is a perfect square)
its square roots are

 ( x 3  y 3  z 3  3 xyz )

Self practice problems :

(9) If x, y, z are all different real numbers, then prove that

2
1 1 1  1 1 1 
  =    .
(x  y) 2
(y  z) 2
( z  x) 2
 x  y y  z z  x

(10) Factorise the expression, (x + y + z)3  x3  y3  z3 into linear factors.

(11) Factorize
(i) 1 + x4 + x8 (ii) x4 + 4

Answers : (10) 3 (x + y) (y + z) (z + x)
(11) (i) (x 4 – x2 + 1) (x2 + x + 1) (x 2 – x + 1)
(ii) (x 2 – 2x + 2) (x 2 + 2x + 2)
 Basics : AGL Sir

Definition of indices :
If 'a' is any non zero real or imaginary number and 'm' is the positive integer, then am = a. a. a. ...a
(m times). Here a is called the base and m is the index, power or exponent.

Law of indices :

(1) a0 = 1, (a  0)
1
(2) a–m = , (a  0)
am
(3) am + n = am . an , where m and n are rational numbers

am
(4) am – n = , where m and n are rational numbers, a  0
an
(5) (am)n = amn
q
(6) ap/q = ap

4 4
3 6 9   6 3 9 
Example # 9 : Simplify  a   a  ; the result is :
   
(A) a16 (B) a12 (C) a8 (D) a4 (E) a2

Solution. a9(1/6)(1/3)4 . a9(1/3)(1/6)4 = a2 . a2 = a4 .

1 1
 a  b  a  b
Example # 10 : Simplify a  
 + b  

 2b a   2a b 

Solution. The given expression is equal to

 2b a     b 
a  b 2a b  a
 a  b  +  a  b  = 2ab   = 2ab
     a b a  b 

Example # 11 : Evaluate 3  3  2  3  7  48

Solution. 3  3  2  3  7  48

= 3  3  2  3  4  3  2 12

= 3 3  2 3  4  3

= 3 3  42 3

= 3  3  3 1 = 42 3 = 3 +1
 Basics : AGL Sir

= 3 +1

43 5
Example # 12 : Find rational numbers a and b, such that =a+ b 5
43 5

43 5 43 5
Solution. × =a+ b 5
43 5 43 5

61  24 5
=a+b 5
 29

61 24
a=– ,b=– Ans.
29 29

Self practice problems :

(12) Find the value of

3
 1
10 4  1 
 1  64 9 
(i)   .27 3 +   .( 25 )  2 +
 
3 5  
 

(ii)
5 3  50  5  24 
75  5 2

Answer : (12) (i) 8 (ii) 1

 Basics : AGL Sir

Ratio :

1. If A and B be two quantities of the same kind, then their ratio is A : B; which may be denoted by the

A
fraction (This may be an integer or fraction)
B

a ma na
2. A ratio may represented in a number of ways e.g. = = = ..... where m, n,..... are non-zero
b mb nb
numbers.
3. To compare two or more ratio, reduced them to common denominator.

a c a/b ad
4. Ratio between two ratios may be represented as the ratio of two integers e.g. : : = or
b d c/d bc
ad : bc. duplicate, triplicate ratio.

a c e ace
5. Ratios are compounded by multiplying them together i.e. . . .... = ....
b d f bdf

6. If a : b is any ratio then its duplicate ratio is a2 : b2 ; triplicate ratio is a3 : b3 ..... etc.

7. If a : b is any ratio, then its sub-duplicate ratio is a1/2 : b1/2 ; sub-triplicate ratio is a1/3 : b1/3 etc.

Example # 13 : What term must be added to each term of the ratio 5 : 37 to make it equal to 1 : 3?

Solution. Let x be added to each term of the ratio 5 : 37.

x5 1
Then =  3x + 15 = x + 37 i.e. x = 11
x  37 3

Example # 14 : If x : y = 3 : 4; find the ratio of 7x – 4y : 3x + y

x 3 3
Solution. y = 4  4x = 3y or x= y
4
3
7. y  4y
7 x  4y 4
Now 3x  y = 3 (putting the value of x)
3. y  y
4
21
y  4y
4 5y 5
= 9 = 13 y = i.e. 5 : 13 Ans.
yy 13
4

Self practice problem

a 2 b 4 ab
(13) If = and = , then find value of
b 3 c 5 bc

p
(14) If sum of two number is C and their quotient is find number
q
 Basics : AGL Sir

20 pc qc
Answers. (13) (14) ,
27 pq pq
 Basics : AGL Sir

P ropo rtio n :

When two ratios are equal, then the four quantities compositing them are said to be proportional. If

a c
= , then it is written as a : b = c : d or a : b :: c : d
b d
1. 'a' and 'd' are known as extremes and 'b and c' are known as means.

2. An important property of proportion : Product of extremes = product of means.

3. If a : b = c : d, then

a c b d
b : a = d : c (Invertando) i.e.   
b d a c

4. If a : b = c : d, then

a c a b
a : c = b : d (Alternando) i.e.   
b d c d

5. If a : b = c : d, then

ab cd a c a c
= (Componendo) i.e.   1 1
b d b d b d

6. If a : b = c : d, then

ab cd a c a c
= (Dividendo) i.e.   1 1
b d b d b d

7. If a : b = c : d, then

ab cd
= (Componendo and dividendo)
ab cd

a c a c ab c d
i.e.   1 1   .......(1)
b d b d b d

a c ab c d
1 1   ........(2)
b d b d
Dividing equation (1) & (2) we obtain

ab cd
=
ab cd

x y z x 3  a3 y 3  b3 z3  c 3 ( x  y  z )3  ( a  b  c ) 3
Example # 15 : If = = show that 2 + + =
a b c x  a2 y 2  b2 z2  c 2 ( x  y  z )2  (a  b  c ) 2

x y z
Solution. = = = k (constant)
a b c
 x = ak; y = bk; z = ck
Substituting these values of x, y, z in the given expression
 Basics : AGL Sir

x 3  a3 y 3  b3 z3  c 3 ( x  y  z )3  ( a  b  c ) 3
+ + =
x 2  a2 y 2  b2 z2  c 2 ( x  y  z )2  (a  b  c ) 2

we obtain

a 3k 3  a 3 b 3k 3  b 3 c 3k 3  c 3 a 3 (k 3  1) b 3 (k 3  1) c 3 (k 3  1)
L.H.S. = + + = + +
a 2k 2  a 2 b 2k 2  b 2 c 2k 2  c 2 a 2 (k 2  1) b 2 (k 3  1) c 2 (k 2  1)

a(k 3  1) b(k 3  1) c(k 3  1) (k 3  1)

= + + = . (a + b + c)
k2  1 k2  1 k2  1 (k 2  1)

(ak  bk  ck )3  (a  b  c )3 k 3 (a  b  c ) 3  ( a  b  c ) 3
Now R.H.S = =
(ak  bk  ck )2  (a  b  c )2 k 2 (a  b  c ) 2  ( a  b  c ) 2

(k 3  1)(a  b  c )3 (k 3  1)
= = . (a + b + c)
(k 2  1)(a  b  c )2 (k 2  1)
We see that L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Example # 15 : If a, b, c, d, e are in continued proportion, prove that (ab + bc + cd + de) 2 = (a2 + b2 + c 2 + d2)
(b2 + c 2 + d2 + e2)

a b c d
Solution. If = = = , then we have
b c d e

a b c d (a 2  b 2  c 2  d 2 )
= = = = = k (say)
b c d e (b 2  c 2  d 2  e 2 )

i.e. a = bk  ab = b2k
b = ck  bc = c 2k
c = dk  cd = d2k
d = ek  de = e2k
Again (a2 + b2 + c 2 + d2) = k 2 (b2 + c2 + d2 + e2) ...........(i)
Now L.H.S. = (ab + bc + cd + de)2
= (kb2 + kc 2 + kd2 + ke2)2
= k 2 (b2 + c2 + d2 + e2)2
= k 2 (b2 + c2 + d2 + e2) (b2 + c2 + d2 + e2)
= (a2 + b2 + c 2 + d2 ) (b2 + c 2 + d2 + e2) (Note) (use (i))
Hence (ab + bc + cd + de) 2 = (a2 + b2 + c 2 + d2) (b2 + c 2 + d2 + e2)

3 x 4  x 2  2x  3 5 x 4  2x 2  7 x  3
Example # 16 : Solve the equation =
3 x 4  x 2  2x  3 5 x 4  2x 2  7 x  3

3 x 4  x 2  2x  3 5 x 4  2x 2  7 x  3
Solution. =
3 x  x  2x  3
4 2
5 x 4  2x 2  7 x  3
By the process of componendo and dividendo, we have

3x 4 5x 4
=
x 2  2x  3 2x 2  7 x  3
or 3x 4 (2x 2 – 7x + 3) – 5x4(x 2 – 2x – 3) = 0
 Basics : AGL Sir

or x 4 [6x 2 – 21x + 9 – 5x 2 + 10x + 15] = 0

or x 4 (x 2 – 11x + 24) = 0
 x = 0 or x 2 – 11x + 24 = 0
x = 0 or (x – 8) (x – 3) = 0
 x = 0, 8, 3

Self practice problem

(15) If (a2 + b2 + c2) (x2 + y2 + z2) = (ax + by + cz)2 , show that x : a = y : b = z : c.

a c e 2 a 4 b2  3 a2 c 2  5 e4 f
(16) If = = , then find the value of in terms of a and b.
b d f 2 b 6  3b 2 d2  5f 5

a4
Answer : (16)
b4
 Basics : AGL Sir

Cross multiplication :
If two equations containing three unknown are
a 1x + b 1y + c 1z = 0 ............(i)
a 2x + b 2y + c 2z = 0 ............(ii)
Then by the rule of cross multiplication

x y z
b1c 2  b 2c 1 = c 1a 2  c 2 a1 = a1b 2  a 2b1 ............(iii)

In order to write down the denominators of x, y and z in (3) apply the following rule,
"write down the coefficients of x, y and z in order beginning with the coefficients of y and repeat them
as in the diagram"

Multiply the coefficients across in the way indicated by the arrows; remembering that informing the
products any one obtained by descending is positive and any one obtained by ascending is negative.

Example # 17 : Find the ratios of x : y : z from the equations 7x = 4y + 8z, 3z = 12x + 11y.
Solution : By transposition we have 7x – 4y – 8z = 0,
12x + 11y – 3z = 0,
Write down the coefficients, thus
–4 –8 7 –4
11 – 3 12 11,
hence we obtain the products
(– 4) × (– 3) – 11 × (– 8), (– 8) × 12 – (– 3) × 7, 7 × 11 – 12 × (– 4),
or 100, – 75, 125

x y z x y x
 = = , that is, = = .
100  75 125 4 3 5

Example # 18 : Eliminate x, y, z from the equations

a 1x + b 1y + c 1z = 0 ..........(1)
a 2x + b 2y + c 2z = 0 ..........(2)
a 3x + b 3y + c 3z = 0 ..........(3)

x y z
From (2) and (3), by cross multiplication, b c  b c = c a  c a = a b  a b ;
2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2

denoting each of these ratios by k, by multiplying up, substituting in(1), and dividing through
out by k, we obtain
a1(b 2c3 – b 3c2) + b1(c2a3 – c3a2) + c1 (a2b3 – a3b2) = 0
This relation is called the eliminant of the given equations.
 Basics : AGL Sir

Intervals :
Intervals are basically subsets of R and are commonly used in solving inequalities or in finding domains.
If there are two numbers a, b  R such that a < b, we can define four types of intervals as follows :

Name Representation Discription

Open Interval (a, b) {x : a < x < b} i.e. end points are not included.
{x : a  x  b} i.e. end points are also included. This is possible only when
Close Interval [a, b] both a and b are finite.
Open - Closed Interval (a, b] {x : a < x  b} i.e. a is excluded and b is included.
Close - Open Interval [a, b) {x : ax < b} i.e. a is included and b is excluded.

Note : (1) The infinite intervals are defined as follows :

(i) (a, ) = {x : x > a} (ii) [a, ) = {x : x  a}
(iii) (– , b) = {x : x < b} (iv) (, b] = {x : x  b}
(v) (– ) = {x : x  R}

(2) x  {1, 2} denotes some particular values of x, i.e. x = 1, 2

(3) If their is no value of x, then we say x  (null set)
 Basics : AGL Sir

Rules of Inequalities :
1. If a, b, c  R, then
a > b a + c > b + c

2. If a, b, c  R, then
(i) a > b ac > bc if c > 0
(ii) a > b ac < bc if c < 0

3. If a, b, c, d  R, then
a > b and c > d  a+c> b+d

4. If a, b, c, d  R +, then
a > b and c > d  ac > bd

Remember : Never ever subtract or divide two inequalities

5. (i) If a, b, c  R+ , then a > b > c a2 > b2 > c2

(ii) If a, b, c  R– , then a > b > c a2 < b2 < c2

Remember : If a, b, c, d are of mixed sign, then break them into two groups of positive and negative
seperately and then square.

1 1 1
6. If a, b, c  R + or a, b, c  R– then a > b > c  < <
a b c
Remember : If a, b, c, d are of mixed sign, then break them into two groups of positive and negative
seperately and then resiprocate.

7. (i) If a > 1, then loga x > loga y x > y > 0

(ii) If 0 < a < 1, then loga x < loga y x > y > 0
 Basics : AGL Sir

8. Wavy curve method :

f (x)
To solve the ineqalities of the type g( x ) * 0 , where ‘ * ’ can be > , , <,  we take the following steps.
s.

(i) Find all the roots of f(x) = 0 and g(x) = 0

(ii) Write all these roots on the real line in increasing order of values.

f (x)
(iii) Check the sign of the expression g( x ) after the last root.

(iv) If a root occurs even number of times, then sign of expression will be same on both sides of the root
and if a root occurs odd number of times, then sign of the expression will be different on both sides of
the root.
(v) Write the answer according to need of the question.

f (x)
Example #1 : Let f(x) = x2 (x – 1) (x + 2) and g(x) = (x3 – 1) (2x – 1) (3 – x), then solve for g( x ) < 0,  0 > 0,  0

Sol. f(x) = 0  x = 0, 0, 1, – 2 g(x) = 0  x = 1, 0, 3

f (x)
g( x ) is negative, when x > 3

+ – + + –
–2 0 1 3

f (x)
So, g( x ) < 0  x  (–2, 0) U (3, )

 0  x  [–2, 0) U (3, )

> 0  x  (–, –2) U (0, 1) U (1, 3)
 0  x  (–, –2] U (0, 1) U (1, 3)

1
Example # 2 : If x  (–3, 2], find the range of
x

1  1
Sol. –3 < x < 0     ,  
x  3

1 1
and 0 < x  2   <
2 x

1  1 1 
so    ,     ,  
x  3  2 

Example # 3 : If x  [–9, 3) find the range of x 2

Sol. x  [–9, 0]  0  x 2  81
x  (0, 3)  0 < x2 < 9
so range of x 2 is [0, 81]

Self Practice Problems :

 Basics : AGL Sir

x 3 ( x  2)(5  x )
1. Solve for x, > 0.
( x 2  4)( x  1)

x
2. Solve for x, < 1.
x 2
2

Answers : (1) (–2, –1)  (0, 2)  (2, 5) (2) R

 Basics : AGL Sir

Various types of functions :

(i) Polynomial Function :

If a function f is defined by f (x) = a0 x n + a1 x n1 + a2 x n2 +... + an1 x + an where n is a non
negative integer and a0, a1, a2,........., an are real numbers and a0  0, then f is called a
polynomial function of degree n.

Note :  There are two polynomial functions, satisfying the relation; f(x).f(1/x) = f(x) + f(1/x), which are
f(x) = 1  x n

(ii) Constant function :

A function f : A  B is said to be a constant function, if every element of A has the same f image
in B. Thus f : A  B; f(x) = c,  x  A, c  B is a constant function.

(iii) Identity function :

The function f : A  A defined by, f(x) = x  x  A is called the identity function on
A and is denoted by A. It can be observed that identity function is a bijection.

(iv) Algebraic Function :

y is an algebraic function of x, if it is a function that satisfies an algebraic equation of the form,
P0 (x) yn + P1 (x) yn1 +....... + Pn1 (x) y + Pn (x) = 0 where n is a positive integer and P0 (x),
P1 (x)....... are polynomials in x. e.g. y = x is an algebraic function, since it satisfies the
equation y²  x² = 0.

Note :  All polynomial functions are algebraic but not the converse.

 A function that is not algebraic is called Transcendental Function.

(v) Rational function :

g( x )
A rational function is a function of the form, y = f (x) = , where g (x) & h (x) are polynomial
h( x )
functions.

(vi) Irrational function :

An irrational function is a function y = f(x) in which the operations of additions, substraction,
multiplication, division and raising to a fractional power are used
x 3  x1/ 3
For example y = is an irrational function
2x  x
(a) The equation f ( x ) = g(x), is equivalent to the following system
f(x) = g2(x) & g(x)  0

(b) The inequation f ( x ) < g(x), is equivalent to the following system

f(x) < g2(x) & f(x)  0 & g(x)  0

(c) The inequation f ( x ) > g(x), is equivalent to the following system

g(x)  0 & f(x)  0 or g(x)  0 & f(x) > g2(x)
 Basics : AGL Sir

(vii) Exponential function :

A function f(x) = ax = ex In a (a > 0, a  1, x  R) is called an exponential function. Graph of
exponential function can be as follows :

Case -  Case - 
For a > 1 For 0 < a < 1
 Basics : AGL Sir

(viii) Logarithmic function : f(x) = logax is called logarithmic function where a > 0 and a  1 and
x > 0. Its graph can be as follows

Case-  Case- 
For a > 1 For 0 < a < 1
 Basics : AGL Sir

(ix) Absolute value function / modulus function :

 x if x0
The symbol of modulus function is f (x) = x and is defined as: y = x  
 x if x0

Properties of modulus : For any a, b  R

(i) |a|  0 (ii) |a| = |–a|
(iii) |a|  a, |a|  –a (iv) |ab| = |a| |b|
a |a|
(v) = |b| (vi) |a + b|  |a| + |b|
b
(vii) |a – b|  ||a| – |b||

Example # 19 :

Solve the following linear equations

(i) x |x| = 4
(ii) |x – 3| + 2|x + 1| = 4
Solution : (i) x|x| = 4
If x > 0
 x2 = 4  x = ± 2 but x = 2
If x < 0  – x2 = 4  x 2 = – 4 which is not possible

(ii) |x – 3| + 2|x + 1| = 4

case  : If x  –1
 –(x – 3) + 2(x + 1) = 4
= – x + 3 – 2x – 2 = 4
= – 3x + 1 = 4  – 3x = 3
 x = – 1
case  : If – 1 < x  3
 –(x – 3) + 2(x + 1) = 4
 – x + 3 + 2x + 2 = 4
 x = – 1 which is not possible

case  : If x > 3

x – 3 + 2(x + 1) = 4
3x – 1 = 4  x = 5/3 which is not possible
 only x = – 1