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SADEUROPEAN HISTORY NOTES

ADVANCED LEVEL [9055/1 ]
SHUMBA T PRODUCTION 2012
LUNDI CHRISTIAN HIGH SCHOOL

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

-Between 1789 and 1799 France underwent a great change in its social, economic and
political change. The revolution resulted in the demolition of the order. The monarchy
was overthrown in 1793 as the revolution turned radical France became a Republic for
the first time in its history. France later went to war against other countries. During this
period France was ruled by 4 Governments which were, National Assembly 1789-1791,
Legislative Assembly 1791-1792, Convention 1792-1795 and the Directory 1795-1799.

FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 111 [1848-1871]

France under the Provisional Government 1848

-After the overthrow of Louis Philippe France became a republic for the second time in its
history.
-A Provisional Government under Lamartine was set up. It was a weak government.
-The revolutionaries who had united to overthrow Louis Philippe were a combined effort of the
middle class and the workers. These had nothing in common except their hatred of the King.
After the overthrow of the King they two differed on the course of action to follow. The socialists
under Louis Blanc wanted the establishment of socialist reforms giving workers’ control of
factories which was opposed by the propertied middle class who favoured the establishment of
Capitalism. This resulted in the bloody clashes where workers protested the closure of national
works that had been introduced to create employment. The middle class had opposed these
workshops because they had caused an increase in taxes. When the workshops were closed it
resulted in violent clashes in Paris known as the ‘’June days’’. 100 000 people lost their lives.
People lost faith in the republic. It was in this chaos that Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was voted
President of the Republic in December in 1848

NAPOLEON ELECTED PRESIDENT.

In the elections of December 1848, Louis Napoleon was elected President of the Republic. He
got 5 400 000 votes, while Cavaignac got 1 400 000 and Lamartine got 17 000.

Reasons why he was elected President?

1: He was the nephew of Napoleon I, the legend. The people voted for him hoping for the revival
of the works of Napoleon 1. The reburial of Napoleon 1’s body in France from St Helena in 1848
had created a sense of Napoleonic nostalgia that worked in his favour. It is said the illiterate
voted for him thinking he was Napoleon I. People voted for the name not the person.

2: Popular clamour for stable rule

-After the disturbances of 1848, the middle class wanted a person who could help them secure
their property and create a stable Government to enable them to carry out their business.
Napoleon proved he possessed these qualities after he helped to quell the disturbances of
1848.

3: He had the support of established politicians.

-These politicians felt that they might exploit him for their own benefit.

According to Dennis Richards, such politicians commented that ‘’He was a noodle whom
anyone could twist around his finger’’. According to T.A Morris, Thiers commented that, ‘‘He is a
cretin whom we will manage’’ .In his book ‘’A History of the Empire and the Consulate’’ Thiers
glorified him.

4: His personal qualities

-He used propaganda and oratory to convince the electorate. He refused to be identified with
any party so he was clean of party politics. Through his writings he managed to ‘’sell’’ his ideas
to the French people. In his book the ‘’Extinction of Pauperism in France’’ he outlined his great
plans of transforming the country s’ economy so as to eradicate poverty. In the book ‘’The
Napoleonic Ideals’’ he sought to reconstruct the history of his uncle Napoleon 1 in his favour. He
sought to prove that his intention was not to shed blood but to transform the world but the great
powers failed to understand his intentions.

-His personal qualities should not be overemphasized because he benefited from the existing
status quo to gain power. According to Denis Richards ‘’for people in such a difficult the choice
of Napoleon was a gift from heaven’’. He did not possess a party because he lacked the
capacity to have one

5: Division that existed in the Provisional Government worked much to his advantage. He
capitalized on this chaos to assume the reins of power.

6: He had parliamentary experience since he was elected into parliament in the June elections

FROM PRESIDENT TO EMPEROR

-The presidency carried a 4 year term and did not allow room for extension. Napoleon therefore
was not allowed another term. However Napoleon had no intention to resign whatsoever. He
had to fight his way through.
-He began to appoint his own friends and relatives to influential positions.
-He gained the support of the army by reintroducing the Eagle Standards of Napoleon 1.
-He went around the countryside on tours to increase his support before attempting a coup
d’état in December 1851.
-All those opposed the extension were arrested and executed. Around 20 000 opponents were,
imprisoned, killed or deported.
-The coup was a step further towards establishing the Empire.
-A plebiscite was held and the majority approved his action. 7,5million voted in favour against a
640 000 who opposed. People supported him because he claimed that he was protecting the
nation.
- The assembly was dissolved and in the new constitution he was allowed another 10 years.
-He then persuaded the parliament to vote for the restoration of the Empire. This was approved
by a Plebiscite which showed that the majority supported the action. 7, 5 million against 253
000 voted in favour.
-On 2 December the republic was transformed into an Empire.
- France became an Empire for the second time in its history.

Reasons for this transformation were;

1: His election as president of the republic put him on the spotlight. It was the first step.
2: The success of the coup of December 1851 gave him the courage to go ahead with his plans
to establish the Empire.
3: His tour of the country enabled him to gauge his support
4: A plebiscite held after the coup of 1851 showed total support hence was prepared to take
another risk.
5: He had put people loyal to into influential positions
6: Weaknesses of his opponents
-they failed to unite to thwart his plans
7: He had the support of the army
8: He had support the support of the middle class who wanted someone with a strong hand to
protect their property

DOMESTIC POLICY OF NAPOLEON

Important ideas to note about his domestic policy
-He was a popular dictator
-At he established dictatorship but from 1860 sought to establish a liberal empire.
-He developed France

1: Establishment of dictatorship
-He claimed that his regime meant ‘’order first and liberty later’’.
-All political opponents were silenced especially the Socialists, Republicans and Orleans’s.
-All civil servants had to take an oath of allegiance to him before working for the government
-list of candidates approved by him were allowed in elections
-Prefects were carefully chosen and were only answerable to the Emperor. These were little’’
Emperors’’ as they appointed teachers in schools.
-close censorship was introduced. Newspapers that published information against him were
banned while editors were imprisoned.
- History and philosophy were banned in schools.
- The National Guard was suppressed because it was middle class dominated.
-A decree of 1853 confiscated the estates of Orleanais Monarchy.
* With all this dictatorship he remained a popular ruler as confirmed by plebiscites. However
some people could have voted him out of fear.
2: economic developments
Commerce and industry

-He created a Mortgage bank, Credit Fanciers, Industrial Credit Institution and the Credit
Mobiles. These were to offer shares for sale to the public. With the huge funds from the sale
of shares the institutions raised funds to give loans to public works undertaken by private
contractors.
- Railway construction was undertaken by both private and public finance. Railway
increased from 3000km in 1848 to 17 000 in 1870. Railway linked major economic centres
with Italy Belgium and Germany. Average cost of transporting goods dropped as volume of
traffic increased. The railway was important to France economic transformation.
-Steamship was introduced
-Telegraph lines increased from 2000 to over 70 000 km between 1852 and 1870.
-Production of coal, iron and steel increased tremendously
-in 1855 a great exhibition of France’s industrial products and arts was held in France.
-foreign trade trebled during his time.

Agriculture
- Irrigation and drainage brought 1.5 million hectares of land under cultivation.

Public works
-He completed his uncle’s great avenue Run De
-He constructed les Hales as a central market.
-Paris was transformed into a city with splendour like Vienna, London etc

Education
-Many schools universities were established
-By 1866 68% of children attended school compared with 51 % in 1851
-Illiteracy fell from 31% in 1856 to 15% in 1881
-The narrow streets were replaced with wider roads lit with lamps. This was intended to
make erection of barricades during revolts difficult.
-There was a construction of suburbs.
-Drainage system was developed to cater for the ever increasing population
-these developments spread to other cities and towns.

Comment

-Economic decline experienced in Europe between 1815 and 1850 was reversed in 1852 by the
dramatic increase in the supply of gold. Therefore the economic prosperity experienced during
his time was largely by coincidence than his efforts. His otherwise great achievements were
also overshadowed by the destruction of political liberty. According to D Thompson ‘’ Napoleon
III aimed to award economic prosperity as a compensation for liberty’’.

3: Liberalization of the Empire

-It started in 1859
Reasons for liberalizing the Empire were;
-they are two schools of thought, the first one is that liberalization was done was as a result of
challenges faced both at home and in his foreign policy and another one is that he granted
reforms out of his own goodwill.
1: On establishing the empire he had promised people order first and liberty later.
-repression according to this view was a temporary measure to achieve stability. Upon realizing
that there was order the Emperor honoured his promise and gave people liberty. According to
this view the economic problems of 1857 and the futile Italian campaign in 1859 did not create
the policy of liberalization, but merely dictated its timing.
2: The Emperor considered the principle of free trade as essential, both on the foundation fo
Expansion of France and as a cornerstone for the understanding with Britain which was a
cornerstone of his foreign policy.
3: He liberalized the Empire to play off one group against the other.
-Bonapatists were in conflict with the Republics, Liberals, Catholics and Socialists.
4: Growing demand for liberal reforms and opposition at home
-The opposition demanded reforms. The failure of dictatorship to end opposition could have
forced him to change.
- Liberalization was seen as an attempt to establish order in France
5: Increasing difficulties in foreign policy
-from 1859 to 1870 France was facing hurdles in foreign policy. It was blamed on him because
he maintained a grip on foreign policy. His inconsistence in foreign policy seen in Italy increased
opposition from all quarters.
6: The free trade treaties hit French manufacturers greatly as they had to compete with cheap
British goods. Napoleon having lost the support of manufactures, decided to get the support of
the liberals.
7: Economic recession experienced in 1857 and 1858.
*whatever the motive behind what is certain is that liberalization of the empire was a measure
taken to strengthen his rule.
-Liberalization of the empire took two forms, that is, liberalization of commerce ad liberalization
of the constitution

Liberalization of commerce
-He started a policy of Laissez Faire.
-A free trade treaty was signed with Britain known as Cobden-Chevalier of 1860. According to
T.A Morris ‘’Cobden-Chevalier treaty is a 90% political rather economic with a view to cement
the alliance with this country’’
-Under the treaties import duties on British goods like coal, iron, steel and machinery were to be
lowered by 25% for 8 years with exception on textiles. In return the French goods would enter
into Britain in substantially low rates.
-The treaty was followed by other treaties with Belgium [1861], Italy [1863] Switzerland [1864],
Spain and Netherlands [1865].

Results of the treaties

-Immediate response was the opposition from the businessmen and financiers who depended
on the system of protectionism. It led to increased unrest of workers. It actually violated his
promise of prosperity to both workers and industrialists.
Liberalization of the constitution
-It took 2 forms
1] Reforms on the laws governing political working class.
11] Relaxing limitations on parliamentary liberty.
- In 1859 political amnesty was granted to political prisoners. Most of these were prisoners and
exiles punished after the coup of 1852. Extreme Republicans like Leduc Rollin were not granted
amnesty. Fearing this political plot by the Emperor some exiles like Victor Hugo, the poet
refused to accept the amnesty.
-In 1864 the government subsidized the visit of the workers to an international exhibition in
London. This opportunity was highly unlikely in few previous years.
-employers and workers were equal before the law.
-In 1864 peaceful strikes were legalized but not all strikes were allowed.
-The legality to form trade unions was fully legalized in 1868 but D Richards noted that only ‘’a
limited right to form trade unions was granted’’
*on parliamentary democracy some limited rights were also given
-Emperor no longer borrowed money when parliament was on recess.
-The budget was now to be voted by sections not as a whole. This gave the deputies the
opportunity to attack the unpopular side of the budget.
-Journalists were allowed to cover and report the business of parliament
-Ministers became more accountable to parliament on behalf of their ministries or departments.
-Freedom was now given to parliament to criticize and amend the proposals brought before it.
-Journalists were given the right to report parliamentary debates fully.
-Press censorship was relaxed in 1868. Government could no longer warn or suppress
newspapers but the deposit they paid to start business remained in place.
-Public meetings were allowed and control of political meetings was relaxed though not
abolished. Resources of electoral management remained in the hands of prefects and power of
police supervision
-The transition from autocracy to liberalism was seen in the elections of 1867-69.oppostion
especially Republicans were got many in seats in parliament.
-Sweeping reforms were made in 1869. Parliament was now given power to initiate laws, elect
its own officers, debate and vote on the budget. The Senate was transformed into an Upper
House and allowed ministers to be drawn from the members of either members of parliament or
the Upper House.
-Both Chambers could criticize government
-The power to confirm any constitution revision was transferred to the public/people.
-A plebiscite of 1870 held to ratify these measures introduced from 1860 retained a favourable
majority of 7, 3 million yes and 500 000 no. 2 million did not vote revealed doubt on the
measures.
* Although Napoleon liberalized the empire it had a lot of limitations

Limitations of the reforms

-Foreign policy remained firmly in his hands
-He retained the power to appoint ministers
-Amnesty did not cover all people.
-Not all strikes were allowed

Effects of the liberalization reforms

-He lost support of the merchants due Liberalization of commerce
-It increased opposition to his empire. Opposition that operated in secret came to the open.
More political parties emerged. In 1863 a party known as the Third Party emerged formed by
people who broke away from the government.
-liberals supported him but support was weakened by anti-liberal policies in foreign countries
like Italy

The FOREIGN POLICY

Important ideas to note when studying his foreign policy are

-His foreign policy was full of inconsistence and contradictions.
-He made a lot of blunders due to tough choices and wrong decisions.
-he was greedy, overambitious and overestimated his power.
- It was impossible to please both the Liberals and Catholics.
-Bismarck outclassed Napoleon diplomatically.

Aims of his foreign policy

1: He wanted to make a name for himself.
2: He wanted to make France great and get glory abroad
-without glory he knew that continued support of the army leaders was not guaranteed
-people also hoped for the revival of the Napoleonic legacy
-intervention in Crimean war was primarily for this reason.
3: He sought to please the Catholics.
-As a result he kept French garrison in Rome since 1848
-Mexican adventure was also to get Catholic support
4: He sought to please the Empress Eugene.
5: As an ex-Carbonari he wanted to promote nationalism and therefore please the Liberals.
-This was reason for intervening in Italy though at some other point he fought the nationalists in
Italy
6: To embarrass other European countries
-In Mexican campaign he wanted to embarrass the USA and in the Crimean war he wanted to
prove the backwardness of Russia.
7: To create a French Empire in the heart of Europe.
8: to revise the peace treaties of 1815.
9: to divert the people’s minds from problems at home.

Colonial conquest

-Napoleon managed to complete the conquest of Algeria in the 1850s

-The Suez Canal that was started in 1859 was completed in 1869 with support of France
-In West Africa Ivory Coast, Senegal and Guinea were also colonized
-French influence was extended in Indo-China
-In Europe he helped the Pope in Italy in 1848. He sent an army to go and destroy the Rome
Republic set up by Mazzini and Garibaldi. He restored the Pope and kept a garrison in Rome
from 1848 to 1870

CRIMEAN WAR [1854]

-It was fought by France, Britain and Piedmont with Russia
-Reasons for fighting Russia were
1: To get French prestige
2: To get support of the Catholics
3: To revenge the Tsar who refused to call him brother
4: To stop Russia from extending her hand into Eastern territories
-Russia claiming to protect Orthodox Christians had waged a successful war against Turkey.
Fearing the growth strength of Russia in the East France and Britain declared war on Russia.
-After 100 000 French lives were lost Russia was defeated and the treaty of Paris was signed.
-Paris became the diplomatic centre of Europe and Napoleon and France gained immense
prestige. -this however was Napoleon’s last outright victory

ITALIAN ADVENTURE [1859]

-Cavour of Piedmont had joined the Crimean with hope of gaining support of the major powers
in his struggle against Austria. At the Paris conference he pleaded for support and Napoleon
promised that he will assist Piedmont.

Reasons for intervening in Italy were;

1: To earn the opposition if the Catholics because Austria was a great Catholic state.
2: A successful intervention in Italy would bring about glory.
3: As an ex-Carbonari he also felt obliged to help the Italians in their quest for independence.
-Years passed before fulfilled his pledge .Feeling betrayed by Napoleon an Italian nationalist;
Orsini attacked the Emperor on his way to the palace Opera. Napoleon escaped unhurt but
many people lost their lives. This forced him to act fearing another attempt on his life.
-Napoleon met Cavour at Plombiers and the two signed the Pact of Plombiers. Napoleon
pledged to support Piedmont with 200 000 soldiers in the event of war against Austria on
condition;
1: Austria was made to be the aggressor
2: Napoleon would get Nice and Savoy
3: Victor Emmanuel‘s daughter would marry Jerome Napoleon’s cousin.
-War was fought and Napoleon send troops to help Piedmont. At the battles of Magenta and
Solferino France and Piedmont won though at a heavy cost. When all seemed to going on well
Napoleon made a

U-turn and withdrew from the war and went on to sign the treaty of Villafranca with Austria.
Napoleon withdrew from the war because:

1: Growing Catholic opposition at home

2: He feared he was failing to control the Italian movement
3: War was won at a heavy cost
4: He was worried about the reaction of Prussia
-Although he got Nice and Savoy and participated in future Italian affairs this adventure led to
opposition from both the Catholics and Liberals. The Catholics were not happy because he
fought Austria a Catholic state and the Liberals were bitter because he failed to complete the
war.

The MEXICAN ADVENTURE [1861]

-His next adventure was a complete fiasco
-In 1861 the Mexican Government had borrowed large sums of money from many European
countries and was refusing to repay the money with interest. Britain, France and Spain send a
joint force to enforce the payment. Other countries left the country as soon as they mission was
completed but Napoleon remained in the country because;

1: He wanted to create a Catholic state in the heart of America. This would help him to regain
the support of the Catholics lost in the Italian adventure.
2: He would get the much needed glory
3: He was influenced by the Empress Eugene.
-He persuaded Maximilian the brother of the Austrian Emperor to accept the crown. After bitter
resistance from the Mexicans under Juarez, Maximilian entered the country and was crowned

-the situation changed rapidly after 1865 because

1: After the end of the civil war in America, America warned France that by remaining in Mexico
she was infringing the Monroe doctrine.
2: Prussia was growing in strength and Napoleon felt he could not afford to keep 40 000 soldiers
in America.
-As a result Napoleon withdrew his soldiers and left Maximilian there who was eventually killed-
Napoleon suffered severe humiliation.

FRANCE’S RELATIONS WITH PRUSSIA

-In 1866 it was becoming clear that Prussia was becoming the dominant country in Europe
-the war party and the Empress demanded war with Prussia to check on her growing
supremacy
-Bismarck also wanted war because it was the only way of ensuring success of his plans of
uniting Germany. It was Bismarck‘s strategy of isolating his enemies before waging war with
them. France was isolated
-In 1866 Prussia fought Austria in the 7 weeks war. To keep France from siding with Austria
Bismarck promised Napoleon III territories like Belgium. Rhine, Luxemberg.
-Napoleon had hoped that war between Austria and Prussia was going to last a long time so
that the two countries would grow weary and then France would intervene and dictate her
terms. Unfortunately in only 7 weeks Prussia had defeated Austria at Adowa.
-The defeat of Austria humiliated France more than Austria. According to Thiers it was France
that was defeated at Sadowa not Austria.
-Napoleon demanded the territories promised and this helped Bismarck to further isolate France
Bismarck published France demands on the Rhineland, Belgium and Luxermburg. This led to
the isolation of France. The South German states stopped supporting France. Britain was bitter
to these claims. Austria was grateful to Bismarck for treating her leniently after the 1866 war.
-Napoleon ailing with poor health was driven into war by his wife, the war party and Bismarck.

The Spanish succession

-In 1868 there was a revolution in Spain. The ruling Queen Isabella was overthrown. Seven
candidates were lined to succeed the throne. In 1870 the throne was offered to Hohenzllern, a
relative of the King of Prussia.
-Bismarck encouraged the king to support the candidature even in the face of strong French
opposition. -Fearing to be encircled by Prussian states Napoleon refused. Under pressure, King
William agreed to withdraw the candidature. This seemed to be a diplomatic victory for France.
Napoleon sent its ambassador to the King to get assurance that this candidature was not going
to be restored again. The King refused to this guarantee. Afterwards the King send a telegram
to Bismarck telling him what had happened and gave him the go ahead to publish this in the
press . Bismarck altered the telegram to read as if the King had insulted the French ambassador
-To the French this was tantamount to declaration of war.

The Franco-Prussian war and the end of the Empire

-The war was a disaster for France. Her troops were badly organized and transport was
unreliable. France was defeated at the battles of Wooth and Mertz. In September 1870 a French
force under Machmahon was defeated at Sedan. Napoleon Surrendered and in Paris a republic
was proclaimed under Gambetta.