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Orthomagmatic Deposits
Geology 194

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Magmatic deposits Magmatic deposits

! Deposits that form from cooling and ! Deposits that form from cooling and
crystallization of magma crystallization of magma
! Characteristics:
1) Occurs within or very near the magma or
intrusive from which deposit was derived.
2) Simple mineralogy, and products yielded are
not numerous.
3) May occur as strata-like segregations, as
dissemination and as vein-like injection.
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Magma Generation:
Magma Partial Melting
! Masses of molten matter plus their dissolved
fluids and volatiles
! Volatiles in magma collect and transport
metals
! Separation of a partially melted liquid from
! Solidification produces igneous rocks the solid residue
! During crystallization, separates into fractions ! Small degree of partial melting of peridotite
by differentiation. Volatiles escape as the produces magma dominated by melt
magma solidifies products of cpx, with the residue reflecting
JAGR2017/GEOL194 the bulk composition of opx + ol
JAGR2017/GEOL194

Melting: Melting:
Increase Lower
Temperature pressure

Sources of heat:
Melting by (adiabatic) pressure reduction. Dashed lines
• Original heat of the earth at the time of formation represent approximate % melting.
• Radioactive decay, e.g. K, U, Th
• Heat transfer by conduction from a nearby body of ! Adiabatic rise of mantle with no heat loss
magma (heating of crustal rock)
• Hot mantle plumes may upwell into the crust (hotspot)
! Decompression partial melting: Reducing the
• Frictional heat caused by rocks grinding past each
pressure lowers the melting temperature
other (SZ)
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Tectonic Setting of
Melting: Magma Generation
Addition of
volatiles

! Water: lower solidus

temperature
! Source of water in mantle:
amphibole and phlogopite
in lherzolite (<0.1%)

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Metal Concentration in Magmatic Segregation

Magma
! Cumulate in magma chamber
! Separation of crystallizing
! Partial melting and crystal fractionation minerals based on
! Magmatic immiscibility gravitative differentiation
(density)
! Cumulate rocks – formed
by accumulation of
crystals either by floating
or settling

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Magmatic Segregation Magmatic Segregation

Deposits Deposits
! Stratiform chromite deposits
! Anorthosite-ilmenite deposits
– Hosted in ultramafic layered intrusions
-  occur as layered units in mafic ultramafic composed of cumulus crystals
differentiated intrusions
– Consist of thin but laterally continuous layers
of chromitite
– Occur in a plutonic igneous setting and
appear to be intruded into a more or less
stable craton (Precambrian age)

JAGR2017/GEOL194 JAGR2017/GEOL194
(Bateman, 1951)

Chromite types

Metallurgical Refractory Chemical

Cr2O3 >48% >30% >45%
Cr2O3 + - 57% -
Al2O3

Cr/Fe >2.8 Not -

critical
Fe - <10% -
content
Si - <5% <8%
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Magmatic Segregation Magmatic Segregation

Deposits Deposits

! Stratiform chromite deposits / Layered Cr-Pt

Mafic-Ultramafic Complexes
- In cross appear as an inverted funnel or
steep-sided cone. The complexes are
immense in size often covering thousands of
square kilometers.
- Layered, grading from ultramafic rocks at the
base to mafic-intermediate rocks near the top

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Bushveld Complex

!  Chromitite
layers occur in
3 groups

!  UG 1-3

!  MG 1-4

!  LG 1-6

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Stratiform chromite
formation
RUSTENBERG LAYERED SUITE
2000 m thick

4000 m thick

Merensky Reef <1m

400 - 1000 m thick
chromitites
800 m thick

0 - 1600 m thick
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Podiform Podiform Chromite

Chromite

! Related to ophiolites:
ultramafic section
! Pipe-like to pod-like masses of
chromite in dunite-harzburgite
sequences
! aka orogenic-type chromite
or refractory chromite
JAGR2017/GEOL194 (Ridley, 2013)
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Podiform Podiform
Chromite Chromite

! Coto, Masinloc, Zambales

! 550m x 290m x 30-76m (giant podiform chromite)
! Orebodies in serpentinized harzburgite (saxonite)
! Associated with dunite, troctolite & gabbro
! Gangue altered to antigorite, magnesite, talc
! 33% Cr2O3, 29-38% Al2O3 (Ridley, 2013
JAGR2017/GEOL194 after Arai , 1997))
JAGR2017/GEOL194

Review: (White, 2013)

Metal Concentration in
incompatible
Magma
elements
! Cumulate in magma chamber
! Partial melting and crystal fractionation
! Magmatic immiscibility

! Elements that are unsuitable in size and/or

charge to the cation sites of the minerals
! During fractional crystallization of magma and
partial melting, they are concentrated in the
JAGR2017/GEOL194
melt phase of magma
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Review: Review:
incompatible incompatible elements
elements LILE: large-ion lithophile elements,
HFSE: high-field-strength elements

! LILE: elements having large ionic radius, such

as K, Rb, Ca, Sr, Ba
! HFSE: elements of large ionic valences (or high
charges), such as Zr, Nb, Hf, REE, Th, U and Ta
JAGR2017/GEOL194 JAGR2017/GEOL194
Ridley (2013)

Rare Earth Elements Low degrees of

Partial Melting
!  Sc, Y and 15
lanthanides
! Unique magnetic, ! Concentrations of incompatible elements will
phosphorescent be higher in the melt relative to source rock
& catalytic
! The lower the degree of partial melting, the
properties
more enriched the melt is in incompatible
! Necessary in elements
modern industry
& sustainable
technologies
JAGR2017/GEOL194 Magnets  Phosphors  Alloys   Catalysts  Ceramics  Polishing   Other    Glass JAGR2017/GEOL194

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! Alkaline magmas & kimberlite: depleted in

SiO2 but enriched in Na, K, Ca
! Rich in Cu, Fe, P, Zr, Nb, REE, F, U and Th
! e.g. carbonatite, kimberlite, nephelinite
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Kimberlites Kimberlites

! Occur as diatremes,
pipes, dykes and sills
! Diatreme formation – as
hot kimberlite magma
! alkaline, volatile-rich potassic, low density >900°C is heated near-
ultrabasic magmas surface groundwaters,
water flashes to steam
! formed as small degree partial melts of
and results in explosive
carbonate-bearing and hydrous mantle
activity
peridotite
! originated from considerable depths (>150km)
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Kimberlites

! Variable monticellite(Ca olivine), phlogopite

(Mg biotite), diopside (Mg pyroxene),
serpentine w/ minor amounts of apatite,
chromite, garnet, diamond etc
! Contains xenoliths of upper mantle materials,
eg. garnet lherzolite, eclogite& harzburgite
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Kimberlites Kimberlites

! Group I – recognized worldwide; forsterite etc

in a serpentine-carbonate matrix
! Group II (orangeite) – S. Africa; phlogopite in
olivine-mica groundmass
!  Inequigranular texure with megacrysts of
ultramafic minerals in a fine-grained matrix of ! Lamproite – Australia & India; Ti-phlogopite, Ti-
silicates + carbonates and serpentine K richterite, olivine, diopside, sanidine

! Opaque phases are ilmenite, chromian spinels

and chromite in the groundmass and as
megacrysts
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Type 2 mica-rich kimberlite

Mica does not grow this shape.

It has come from great depths
and been rounded by
abrasion.
In groundmass - rectangular

Type 1 kimberlite -fresh Type 1 kimberlite – with

highly serpentinised olivines

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Kimberlite & Kimberlite &

diamonds diamonds

! Diamonds do not originate in the kimberlite/ ! Minor phases: rutile, magnetite, perovskite,
lamproite, they only provide the transport armalcolite (Mg,Fe2+) Ti2O5, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, heazlewoodite (Ni3S2) and
! Typical diamond grades in economic native metals
kimberlites are 10 to 100 carats per 100 tonnes
! indicator minerals during prospecting are
(1 carat = 200 mg or 0.2 of a gram)
magnesian ilmenite, pyrope garnet, chrome
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diopside
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Kimberlite & Kimberlite &

diamonds diamonds
! Diamonds form at
depths of over 150 km ! Diamonds form in
at 4 Gpa (40kbar) thick old, relatively
cool ‘keel’ of thick
Archaean crust
(added to by
minor eclogite
during Proterozoic)

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De Beers pipe, Why is South Africa so

Kimberley diamondiferous?
"  A number of
different kimberlites
might use the same
conduit
"  Not all will be
diamondiferous
"  Diamonds are
divided into P types
–derived from
peridotite and E-
type derived from
eclogite
Kimberlites erupted at different times:
1800 Ma at Kuruman, 1200 Ma at Cullinan, 850 kimberlites in SA
After Clement and Skinner, 1979, 560-520 at Alldays, 250-200 Jwaneng, Only 50 have diamonds
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1985 JAGR2017/GEOL194
110-100 Ma – major period

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Oct 2006 - the Lesotho Promise, 478ct Light of Letšeng – 20th largest
603 ct stone is 15th biggest sold for diamond – sold for US$ 18.4 m
US$ 12.37m = R150 m

168ct white Letseng Legacy – 493ct , found in

found by 2007 18th largest stone – sold for US
$10
Petra at
Cullinan sold
in Nov 09 for
$6.28 million

Cullinan diamond – 3106 ct, found

404ct 27th largest found Feb in Jan 1905, cut into 9 major
JAGR2017/GEOL194 2016 at Lulo mine, in Angola stones, now in the Crown Jewels JAGR2017/GEOL194
sold for $16m.

Carbonatites Carbonatites

Carbonatite Lava, Tanzania

! Igneous rocks defined by mineralogical

composition consisting of >50% carbonate
! Occur as small plugs within alkali intrusive
complexes, or as dikes, sills, breccia & veins
! Associated w/ continental rift-related settings
! Variable mineralogy but may include
sodalite, apatite, magnetite, barite, fluorite
JAGR2017/GEOL194 Dalton and Presnall (1998)
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Carbonatites Metal Concentration in

! Sulfide Queen Magma
Carbonatite Intrusion,
Mountain Pass, California ! Cumulate in magma chamber

! High LREE concentrations ! Partial melting and crystal fractionation

! Associated with ! Magmatic immiscibility

ultrapotassic alkaline
intrusion
! Ore in calcitic
carbonatite with barite
! Bastnasite (REE)CO3F
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Peralkaline
Crystal fractionation
igneous complex
! Removal and segregation of mineral
precipitates from a melt
! During crystal fractionation, melts become
enriched in incompatible elements ! Khaldzan Burgei Nb Zr REE granite, W. Mongolia
! Dome shaped stocks of peralkaline granite
! Represent late plutonic phases of Devonian
age (380 390Ma)
! Rich in Zr (<5.3wt%), Nb (<0.8wt%), REE (<0.4wt%)

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Peralkaline Peralkaline
igneous complex igneous complex
! Khaldzan Burgei Nb Zr REE granite ! Khaldzan Burgei Nb Zr REE granite

Zircon ZrSiO4 Fergusonite YNbO4

JAGR2017/GEOL194 Gittinsite CaZrSi2O7 Pyrochlore (Ca,Na)2Nb2O6F JAGR2017/GEOL194

Pegmatite Pegmatite

! Crystalline, intrusive igneous rock composed of ! Formed from the last crystallizing magma
interlocking crystals usually larger than 2.5 cm in enriched in vapor and water pressure (10 30 wt.
size. % H2O)
! Magma enriched in incompatible elements (U, ! Composed of quartz, feldspar and mica; in
Th, Zr, Nb, Ta, Ti, Y, REE, Be) and fluxing elements essence a granite. Rarer intermediate
(F, B, Li) composition and mafic pegmatites are known
! Incompatible elements decrease temperature ! Accessories: sulfides, beryl (emeralds,
of crystallization, rate of nucleation and aquamarine), rubies, garnets
viscosity of magma and increase diffusivity and
solubility of elements, resulting in large crystals
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Zoned or Heterogeneous
Pegmatite
Pegmatite
! Formed at ~250-700°C
! Morphology – dike or ! Formed from one
lens-shaped period of crystallization:
after injection of
! Associated with
hydrous siliceous late-
plutonic or regional
stage melt
metamorphic zones
! First-formed minerals
react w/ progressively
changing residual
magmatic fluids from
outer to inner zone
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Zoned or Heterogeneous
Pegmatite Deposit
Pegmatite
! Angelierspan II, South Africa
! Border zone – same
mineralogy as wall
zone but finer-grained
! Wall zone – coarse
plag, qtz, musc
! Intermediate zone –
variety of pegmatitic
gem minerals
! Core Zone – coarse
barren white qtz
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Metal Concentration in Liquid Immiscibility

Magma
! When liquids do not mix
! Cumulate in magma chamber
! Silicate-carbonate
! Partial melting and crystal fractionation
! Silicate-oxide
! Magmatic immiscibility
! Silicate-sulfide
! Liquid immiscibility associated with
mineralization
! Base metal, Ni sulfide deposits

JAGR2017/GEOL194
! Precious metal PGE sulfide deposits
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Silicate-sulfide immiscibility Silicate-sulfide immiscibility

! Sulfide incorporation in silicate melt

-  Melting of minor disseminated sulfide minerals
in mantle peridotite
-  Low solubility of sulfide: incorporated
progressively in silicate magma with
increasing degrees of partial melting
-  Increase in chalcophile elements (Ni, Cu) and
PGE in melt

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Silicate-sulfide immiscibility Magmatic sulfide

deposit formation
! Solubility of sulfide increase with increase in
temperature, decreases with increase in ! If magma becomes sulfur-saturated, will form
pressure or increase in SiO2 drops of immiscible sulfide liquid (Ni, Cu, Co,
PGE, Au)
! Sulfide in silicate melt can become
undersaturated or oversaturated ! The droplets of melt will be denser than
magma, settle and accumulate at the base
! Magma mixing triggers sulfide supersaturation
! Ore minerals:
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8,
pyrrhotite (Fe1–xS) & lesser magnetite (Fe3O4)
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Ni-Cu magmatic Ni-Cu magmatic

sulfide deposit sulfide deposit
! Host intrusions – massive Sulfide mineral concentrations in Sudbury Complex, Canada
Ni-Cu ores broadly
layered from mafic to
less mafic going
upwards
! Sulfide ore bodies grade
from massive to veins to
disseminated going
upwards

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Ni-Cu magmatic Ni-Cu magmatic

sulfide deposit sulfide deposit
formation
Noril’sk-Talnakh complex, Russia
! Sulfide saturation
! Chalcophile elements
partition into sulfide
melt
! Sulfide droplets
separate from
magma until
crystallization
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Merensky reef – Two Rivers

PGE sulfide deposits

project showing the basal contact
and underlying anorthosite

•  PGE’s have been produced

from the Merensky Reef PGM’s have been produced from the
since 1926 Merensky Reef since 1926 -typically
around 1 m thick, shallow dipping
•  Associated with chromite Merensky pyroxenite from Two Rivers illustrating the upper chromitite stringer . tabular layers with 5-8g/t PGE+Au.
layers, typically ~1 m thick,
shallow dipping tabular
layers with 5-8g/t PGE+Au.

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!  Chromitite
layers occur in
3 groups

!  UG 1-3

!  MG 1-4

!  LG 1-6

20 Magnetite layers
Second biggest world
producer of vanadium
- 35%
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PGE sulfide deposit

formation Summary
•  New input of
primitive magma ! Magmatic segregation deposits
results in
immiscible sulfide - Anorthosite-ilmenite deposits
droplets along - Stratiform chromite – Bushveld Complex, SA
with Cr
•  Sulfide droplets - Podiform Chromite – Coto, Zambales
and Cr settle at
the melt-
cumulate
interface
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Summary Summary

! Deposits from low degrees of partial melting ! Magma immiscibility

- Carbonatite – Mountain Pass, CA, USA - Ni-Cu magmatic sulfide deposit - Noril’sk-
Talnakh complex, Russia
- Kimberlite – De Beers Pipe, Kimberley, SA
- PGE sulfide deposits – Bushveld Complex,
! Crystal fractionation deposits
SA
- Peralkaline Igneous Complex - Khaldzan
Burgei , Mongolia
!  - Pegmatite – Angelierspan II, South Africa
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