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LESSON 2
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE
SECTION I
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
ELECTRIC FIELD IS CONSERVATIVE
In an electric field work done by the electric field in moving a unit positive charge from
one point to the other, depends only on the position of those two points and does not
depend on the path joining them.
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
Electrostatic potential is defined as “Work required to be done against the force by
electric field in bringing a unit positive charge from infinite distance to the given point in
the electric field us called the electrostatic potential (V) at that point”
According to above definition the electric potential at point P is given by the formula

Electric potential is scalar quantity. SI units (J/C) called as volt (V)

POTENTIAL AT APOINT DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Consider a point charge positive Q at the origin. To deter let P be the point at a distance
‘r’ from origin of coordinate axis . Since work done in electric field is independent of path,
we will consider radial path as shown in figure.
According to definition of electric potential we can use the equation

And electric field E is given by

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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO GROUP OF POINT CHARGE
The potential at any point due to group of point charges is the algebraic sum of the
potentials contributed at the same point by all the individual point charges
V = V1 +V2 + V3 + ….
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Electric potential difference is defined as “Work required to be done to take a unit positive
charge from one point (say P) to another point (say Q) against the electric field
According to formula for potential at point P

Thus potential at point Q is given by

From above formula potential difference between points Q and P is given by

Or work done in moving charge from point P to point Q

SI unit of potential is V and dimensional formula [M1L2T-3A-1]

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

The electric potential energy is defined as "The work required to be done against the
electric field in bringing a given charge (q), from infinite distance to the given point
in the electric field motion without acceleration is called the electric potential
energy of that charge at that point."
From definition of electric potential energy and the electric potential we can write electric
potential energy of charge q at point P, as
𝑝 𝑝
𝑈𝑝 = − ∫ 𝑞𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑞 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑞𝑉𝑝
∞ ∞

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The absolute value of the electric potential energy is not at all important, only the
difference in its value is important. Here, in moving a charge q, from point P to Q, without
acceleration, the work required to be done by the external force, shows the difference In
the electric potential energies (UQ - Up) of this charge q, at those two points.
𝑄
𝑈𝑄 − 𝑈𝑃 = −𝑞 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
𝑃
Electric potential energy is of the entire system of the sources producing the field and the
charge, for some configuration, and when the configuration changes the electric potential
energy of the system also changes.

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF TWO POINT CHARGES

The potential energy possessed by a system of two – point charges q1 and q2 separated by
a distance ‘r’ is the work done required to bring them to this arrangements from infinity.
This electrostatic potential energy is given by
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF POINT CHARGES

The electric potential energy of such a system is the work done in assembling this system
starting from infinite separation between any two-point charges.
For a system of point charges q1, q2, q3 …. qn the potential energy is

It simply means that we have to consider all the pairs that are possible

Important points regarding electrostatic potential energy

(i) Work done required by an external agency to move a charge q from A to B in an electric
field with constant speed
(ii) When a charge q is let free in an electric field, it loses potential energy and gains kinetic
energy, if it goes from A to B, then loss in potential energy = gain in kinetic energy
Or

Solved numerical

Q) Find work done by some external force in moving a charge q = 2μC from infinity to a
point where electric potential is 104V
Solution
Work W = Vq = (104V)( 2 ×10-6C) = 2×10-2J

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Q) Three point charges q1 = 1 μC , q2 = -2μC and
q3 = 3μC are fixed at position shown in figure (a) What
is the potential at point P at the corner of the
rectangle? (b) How much work would be needed to
bring a charge q4 = 2.5 μC from infinity to place it at P

Solution
(a) The total potential at point P is the scalar sum
VP = V1 + V2 + V3

( b) External work is Wext = q[Vf – Vi], In this case Vi = 0

So Wext = q4VP = (2.5X10-6)(7.65X103) = 0.019J

Q) Three point charges 1C, 2C, 3C are placed at the corner of an

equilateral triangle of side 1m. Calculate the work required to
move these charges to the corners of a smaller equilateral
triangle of side 0.5m as shown

Solution
As the potential energy of two point charges separated by a
distance ‘r’ is given by
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
The initial potential energy of the system will be

The final potential energy of system

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So, the work done in changing the configuration of the system

W = Uf - Ui = (19.8 – 9.8)×1010 = 9.9×1010 J

Q) Suppose an electric field due to a stationary charge distribution is given

by
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘𝑦 𝑖̂ + 𝑘𝑥 𝑗̂, where k is a constant. Obtain the formula for electric
potential at any point on the line OP, with respect to (0, 0)

Solution
Equation of line is y = 4x
Let potential at origin is zero
In order to obtain potential at any point Q(x, y) on the line OP with respect to (0, 0) we can
use

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Q) The electric field at distance r perpendicularly from the length of an infinitely long wire
𝜆
is 𝐸(𝑟) = , where λ is the linear charge density of the wire. Find the potential at a
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
point having distance b from the wire with respect to a point having distance a from the
wire (a >b)
Solution: Let Va be reference point thus Va = 0

Q) An electric field is represented by 𝐸⃗ = 𝐴𝑥𝑖̂, where A = 10 V/m2. Find the potential of

the origin with respect to the point (10, 20) m
Solution : 𝐸⃗ = 𝐴𝑥𝑖̂ = 10𝑥 𝑖̂

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Since V(10,20) is to be taken zero V(0, 0) = 500 volts

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

The electric potential due to continuous charge distribution is the sum of potential of all
the infinitesimal charge elements in which the distribution may be divided
𝑑𝑞
V = ∫dV = ∫
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A CHARGED RING

A charge Q is uniformly distributed over the circumference of a ring. Let us calculate the
electric potential at an axial point at a distance r from the centre of the ring. The electric
potential at P due to the charge element dq of the ring is given by

Hence electric potential at P due to the uniformly

charged ring is given by

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A CHARGED DISC AT A POINT ON THE AXIS

A non-conducting disc of radius ‘R’ has a uniform surface charge density σ C/m2to
calculate the potential at a point on the axis of the disc at a distance from its centre.
Consider a circular element of disc of radius x’ and thickness dx. All points on this ring are
at the same distance 𝑍 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 , from the point P. The charge on the ring is dq = σA
dq= σ(2πxdx) and so the potential due to the ring is

Since potential is scalar, there are no components. The potential due to the whole disc is
given by

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For large distance R/r << 1 thus

Substituting above value in equation for potential

Thus, at large distance, the potential due to disc is the same as that of point charge

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A SHELL

A shell of radius R has a charge Q uniformly distributed over its surface.
(a) At an external point
At point outside a uniform spherical distribution, the electric field is

Since 𝐸⃗ is radial, 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑟 = E dr
Since V(∞)=0, we have

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Thu potential due to uniformly charged shell is the same as that due to a point charge Q
at the centre of the shell.

(b) At an internal point

At point inside the shell, E = 0. So work done in bringing a unit positive charge from a point
on the surface to any point inside the shell is zero. Thus, the potential has a fixed value at
all points within the spherical shell and is equal to the potential at the surface.

Above results hold for a conducting sphere also whose charge lies entirely on the outer
surface.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A NON-CONDUCTING CHARGED SPHERE

A charge Q is uniformly distributed through a non-conducting volume of radius R.
(a) Electric potential at external point is given by equation. ‘r’ is the distance of point from
the center of the sphere

(b) Electric potential at an internal point is given by equation

Here R is the radius of the sphere and r is the distance of point from the centre

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RELATION BETWEEN THE ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
We know that electric potential from electric field is given by

And potential difference between two points is given by

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ,
If points P and Q are very close to each other, then for such a small displacement𝑑𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be kept thus
integration is not required and only term 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑟
dV = - 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟

I) If ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟, is the direction of electric field 𝐸⃗ , 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = 𝐸𝑑𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝑑𝑟
dV = - Edr
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑑𝑟
This equation gives the magnitude of electric field in the direction of displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 .
𝒅𝑽
Here = potential difference per unit distance. It is called the potential gradient. It unit
𝒅𝒓
is Vm-1, which is equivalent to N/C
𝒅𝑽
II) If ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟, is not in the direction of 𝐸⃗ , but in some other direction, the − would give us
𝒅𝒓
the component of electric field in the direction of that displacement
If electric field is in X direction and displacement is in any direction ( in three dimensions)
then
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂
𝐸⃗ = EX𝑖̂ and 𝑑𝑟
∴ dV = - (EX𝑖̂ ).(𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂) = -EXdx
dV
∴ Ex = −
dx
Similarly, if the electric field is Y and only in Z direction respectively, we would get
dV dV
Ey = − and EZ = −
dy dz
Now if the electric field also have three ( x,y,z) components then
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − . 𝐸𝑦 = − . 𝐸𝑍 = − .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
And 𝐸⃗ = − ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ).
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
Here , , shows the partial differentiation of V(x, y, z) with respect to x, y, z
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
respectively. Moreover, the potential differentiation of V(x, y, z) with respect to x means
the differentiation of V with respect to x only, by taking y and z in the formula of V as
constant

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Solved numerical
Q) The electric potential in a region is represented as V = 2x+3y-z. Obtain expression for
the electric field strength
Solution
We know
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗ = − ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ).
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Here
𝜕𝑉 𝜕
= [2x + 3y − z] = 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑉 𝜕
= [2x + 3y − z] = 3
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑉 𝜕
= [2x + 3y − z] = −1
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

𝐸⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂
1 𝑄
Q) The electrical potential due to a point charge is given by 𝑉 = Find
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
a) the radial component of the electric field
b) the x-component of the electric field
Solution
a) The radial component of electric field
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑄
𝐸𝑟 = − = .
𝑑𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
(b) In terms of rectangular components, the radial distance r= (x2 + y2+z2)1/2; therefore the
potential function
1 𝑄
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )12
To find the x-component of the electric field, we treat y and z constants. Thus
𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = −
𝜕𝑥
1 𝑄𝑥
𝐸𝑥 = 3
4𝜋𝜀0 2
(x + y 2 + z 2 )2
1 𝑄𝑥
𝐸𝑥 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
An equipotential surface is that surface on which the electric potentials at all points are
equal
Important points regarding equipotential surfaces
(i) The line of forces are always normal to equipotential surface.
(ii) The net work done in taking a charge from A to B is zero, if A and B are on same
equipotential surface.

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Suppose a unit positive charge is given a small displacement dl on the equipotential
surface from a given point.
In this process the work required to be done against the electric field is
⃗⃗⃗ = potential difference between those two point
dW = -𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
But the potential difference on the equipotential surface = 0
∴ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0 ⟹ E dl cosθ = 0, where θ = angle between 𝐸⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
But E ≠ 0 and dl ≠ 0
∴ cos θ = 0 ⟹ θ = π /2
𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗
But ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is along this surface. Hence electric field is normal to the equipotential surface at
that point
(iii) Equipotential surface never intersect each other. If they intersect then electric field
lines will also intersect which is not possible.

Examples
(i) In the field of a point charge, the equipotential surfaces are spheres centred
on the point charge.

(ii) In a uniform electric field, the equipotential surfaces are planes which are
perpendicular to the field lines.

(iii) In the field of an infinite line charge, the equipotential surfaces are co-axial
cylinders having their axes at the line charge.
(iv)The surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface and the inside of conductor
is equipotential space. Hence there is no electric field (and charge) inside the
conductor's surface. The lines of forces are always normal to the surface of a
conductor.

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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO DIPOLE
Let a dipole consisting of equal and opposite charge q
separated by a distance 2a. Let zero of coordinate
system is at centre of the dipole as shown in figure. Let
p be any point in x-y plane. Let PO = r. AP = r- BP = r+ .
Let r makes angle of θ with the axis of dipole.
Potential at point P is the sum of potential due at point
P due to –q and +q charges.
BM is perpendicular on OP and AN is perpendicular on
ON

From figure r- = r + ON but ON = acosθ

∴ r- = r + acosθ
Similarly
r = r+ + OM but OM = acosθ
∴ r = r+ + a cosθ
r+ = r – acosθ
r- - r+ = 2acosθ
Substituting the values we get

Since r >>2a
Case I) Potential on the axis :
For point on the axis of the dipole θ 0 or π

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1 𝑝
𝑉=±
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
From the given point, if the nearer charge is +q, then we get V as positive. And if it is –q,
then we get V as negative
Case II) Potential on the equator
From a point on the equator θ =𝜋/2 ∴ V= 0

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF DIPOLE

When a dipole is placed in external uniform electric field 𝐸⃗ , a torque 𝜏 = p
⃗ × ⃗E acts on it.
If we rotate the dipole through a small angle dθ, the work done by torque is
dW = τ dθ or dW = -PEsinθ dθ
The work is negative as the rotation dθ is opposite to the torque. The change in electric
potential energy of the dipole is therefore
dU = -dW = -PEsinθ dθ
If dipole is rotated from angle θ1 to θ2, then

Work done by external force = U(θ2) – U(θ1)

OR Wext = pE( cos θ1 - cos θ2)
Work done by electric force
Welectric force = - Wext = pE( cos θ2 - cos θ1)

PERIODIC TIME OF DIPOLE

When a dipole is suspended in a uniform electric field, it will align itself parallel to the
field. Now if it is given a small angular displacement θ about its equilibrium, the restoring
couple will be
C = -pEsinθ
Or C = -pEθ [ as for small θ, sinθ = θ]
Also couple
𝑑2 𝜃
𝐶=𝐼 2
𝑑𝑥
Thus
𝑑2 𝜃
𝐼 2 = −𝑝𝐸𝜃
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝜃 𝑝𝐸
= − 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐼
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Comparing above equation with standard equation for SHM we get
𝑝𝐸
𝜔2 =
𝐼
Thus periodic time
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑝𝐸

Solved numerical
Q) When two dipoles are lined up in opposite direction, the arrangement is known as
quadruple ( as shown in figure) Calculate the electric potential at a point z = z along the
axis of the quadruple

Electric potential at point p is given by

V = V1 + V2 + V3

SECTION II
ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS
a) EFFECT OF EXTERNAL FIELD ON CONDUCTOR
In a metallic conductor there are positive ions situated at the lattice points and the free
electrons are moving randomly between these ions. They are free to move within the
metal but not free to come out of the metal.
When such a conductor is placed in an external electric field, the free electrons move
under the effect of the force in the direction opposite to the direction of electric field and
get deposited on the surface of one end of the conductor, and equal amount of positive
charge can be considered as deposited on the other end.
These induced charges produce an electric field inside the conductor, in the direction
opposite to external electric field. When these two electric fields become equal in
magnitude, the resultant net electric field inside the conductor becomes zero. Now the
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motion of charges in the conductor stops and the charges become steady on the end
surfaces
Thus in the case of metallic conductor, placed in an external electric field
(1) A steady electric charge distribution is induced on the surface of the conductor
(2) The net electric field inside the conductor is zero
(3) The net electric charge inside the conductor is zero
(4) On the outer surface of the conductor, the electric field at every point is locally normal
to the surface.
If the electric field were not normal (perpendicular) a component of electric field parallel
to the surface would exist and due to it the charge would move on the surface. But now
the motion is stopped and the charges have become steady. Thus the component of
electric field parallel to the surface would be zero, and hence the electric field would be
normal to the surface.
(5) Since 𝐸⃗ =0 at every point inside the conductor, the electric potential everywhere inside
the conductor and equal to the value of potential on the surface

CAVITY INSIDE A CONDUCTOR

Consider a +q0 suspended in a cavity in a conductor. Consider. Consider a Gaussian surface

just outside the cavity and inside the conductor 𝐸⃗ =0 on this Gaussian surface as it is inside
the conductor form Gauss’s law
∑𝑞
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 =
𝜀0
we have
∑𝑞 = 0
This concludes that a charge of –q must reside on the metal surface on the cavity so that
the sum of this induced charge –q and the original charge +q within the Gaussian surface is
zero. In other words, a charge q suspended inside a cavity in a conductor is electrically
neutral, a charge +q is induced on the outer surface of the conductor. As field inside the
conductor, as shown in figure
ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING
When a conductor with a cavity is placed inside the electric field, Charge induces on the
surface of the conductor. These induce charges produce electric field inside the conductor
such that net electric field inside the conductor and inside the cavity is zero. Thus electric
field everywhere inside the cavity is zero. This fact is called electrostatic shielding
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EFFECT PRODUCED BY PUTTING CHARGE ON THE CONDUCTOR
The charge placed on a conductor is always distributed only on the outer surface of the
conductor. We can understand this by the fact that the electric field inside a conductor is
zero. Consider a Gaussian Surface shown by the dots inside the surface and very close to
it. Every point on it is inside the surface and not on the surface of conductor. Hence the
electric field at every point on this surface is zero. Hence according to Gauss's theorem the
charge enclosed by the surface is also zero

Consider a Gaussian surface of a pill-box of extremely

small length and extremely small cross-section ds. A
fraction of it is inside the surface and the remaining
part is outside the surface . The total charge enclosed
by this pill-box is q=σds, where σ = surface charge
density of the charge on the conductor. At every point
on the surface of the conductor 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular to
the local surface element. Hence it is parallel to the
surface vector 𝑑𝑠⃗⃗⃗⃗
But inside the surface 𝐸⃗ is zero. Hence flux coming out from the cross-section of pillbox
inside the surface is zero. The flux coming out from the cross-section of pill-box outside
the surface is 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐸 𝑑𝑠
𝑞 𝜎𝑑𝑠
According to Gauss’s theorem E ds = =
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝜎
𝐸 =
𝜀0
In vector form
𝜎
𝐸⃗ = 𝑛̂
𝜀0

SECTION III
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
CAPACITY OF AN ISOLATED CONDUCTOR
When charge is given to an isolated body, its potential increases and the electric field also
go on gradually increasing. In this process at some stage the electric field becomes
sufficiently strong to ionize the air particles around the body as a result body is not able to
store any additional charge. During the process the ratio of charge Q on the body and
potential (V) on the body remains constant. This ratio is called the capacity of the body
C = Q/V
In SI system, the unit of capacity is coulomb/volt and is called Farad (F)
The capacity of a body is independent of the charge given to it and depends on the shape
and size only.
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CAPACITOR
Capacitor is an arrangement of two conductors carrying charges of equal magnitude and
opposite sign and separated by an insulating medium. The following points may be
carefully noted.
(i) The net charge on the capacitor as a whole is zero. When we say that a capacitor has a
charge Q, we mean that positively charged conductor has a charge +Q and the negatively
charged conductor has a charge -Q.
(ii) The positively charged conductor is at a higher potential than negatively charged
conductor. The potential difference V between the conductors is proportional to the
magnitude of charge Q and the ratio Q/V is known as capacitance C of the capacitor.
Q C= V
Unit of capacitance is farad (F). The capacitance is usually measured in microfarad (μF)
(iii) Circuit symbol is -||-

PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two metal plates placed
parallel to each other and separated by a distance ‘d’ that is very
small as compared to the dimensions of the plates. Due to this, the
non-uniformity of the electric field near the ends of the plates can
be neglected and in the entire region between the plates the
electric field can be taken as constant. The area of each plate is A.
Let Q be the charge on each plates. Surface charge is σ. Direction of
electric field produced by both the plates is in same direction.
Where outside the plates electric field is opposite in direction
hence zero
Then electric field between the plates is given by

𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= + =
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝜀0
The potential difference (V) between plates is given by V = Ed
𝜎 𝑄
𝑉= 𝑑= 𝑑
𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0
Hence
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶 = =
𝑉 𝑑
ISOLATED SPHERE AS A CAPACITOR
A conducting sphere of radius R carrying a charge Q can be treated as a capacitor with high
potential conductor as the sphere itself and low potential conductor as sphere of infinite
radius. The potential difference between these two spheres is
𝑄
𝑉 = −0
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
Hence Capacitance C = Q/V = 4π𝜀0 R

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ENERGY STORED IN CHARGED CAPACITOR
In order to establish a charge on the capacitor, work has to be done on the charge. This
work is stored in the form of the potential energy of the charge. Such a potential energy is
called the energy of capacitor.
Suppose the charge on a parallel plate capacitor is Q. In this condition each plate of the
capacitor is said to be lying in the electric field of the other plate.
𝜎
The magnitude of the uniform electric field produced by one plate of capacitor is =
2𝜀0
𝑄
Where σ 𝑖𝑠 and A is area of plate
𝐴
Hence taking arbitrarily the potential on this plate as zero, that of the other plate at
𝜎
distance d from it will be = 𝑑
2𝜀0
The potential energy of the second plate will be = (potential) (charge Q on it)
𝜎
Potential energy stored in capacitor = 𝑑𝑄
2𝜀0
𝜎𝑑𝑄 𝑄 𝑑 𝑄 𝑄2 1 𝑄2
𝑈𝐸 = = = =
2𝜀0 𝐴 2𝜀0 2 (𝜀0 𝐴⁄ ) 2 𝐶
𝑑
OR
1 2 1
𝑈𝐸 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑉𝑄
2 2
ENERGY DENSITY OF A CHARGED CAPACITOR
Energy stored in capacitor is localized on the charges or the plates but is distributed in the
field. Since in case of parallel plate capacitor, the electric field is only between the plates
i.e. in a volume ( A X d), the energy density
1
𝑈𝐸 𝐶𝑉 2 1 𝜀0 𝐴 𝑉 2
𝜌𝐸 = = 2 = [ ]
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴 × 𝑑 2 𝑑 𝐴𝑑
1 𝑉 2
𝜌𝐸 = 𝜀0 ( )
2 𝑑
as E = V/d
1
𝜌𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2
2
FORCE BETWEEN THE PLATES OF A CAPACITOR
In a capacitor as plates carry equal and opposite charges, there is a force of attraction
between the plates. To calculate this force, we use the fact that the electric field is
conservative and in conservative field F = -dU/dx. In case of parallel plate capacitor
1 𝑄2
𝑈𝐸 =
2 𝐶
𝜀0 𝐴
But 𝐶 =
𝑥

1 𝑄2
𝑈𝐸 = 𝑥
2 𝜀0 𝐴
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So
𝑑 1 𝑄2 −1 𝑞2
𝐹= − [ 𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜀0 𝐴 2 𝜀0 𝐴
The negative sign indicates that the force is attractive

Solved numerical
Q) The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are 5 mm apart and 2 m2 in area. The
plates are in vacuum. A potential difference of 1000 V is applied across a capacitor.
Calculate
(a) the capacitance;
(b) the charge on each plate;
(c) the electric field in space between the plates;
(d) the energy stored in the capacitor.
Solution
(a) Capacitance

(b) Charge
Q = CV = (0.00354 X 10-6) x ( 1000) = 3.54μC
The plate at higher potential has a positive charge +3.54 μC and the plate at lower
potential has a negative charge of -3.54 μC
(c) E = V/d = 1000 / 0.005 = 2X105 V/m
1 1
(d) Energy = 𝐶𝑉 2 = (0.00354) × 10−6 × 106 = 1.77 × 10−3 𝐽
2 2

Q) A parallel plate air capacitor is made using two square plates each of side 0.2m spaced
1 cm apart. It is connected to a 50V battery
a) What is the capacitance?
b) What is the charge on each plate?
c) What is the electric field between the plates?
e) If the battery is disconnected and then the plates are pulled apart to a separation of
2cm, what are the answers to the above parts?
Solution
𝜀 𝐴 (8.85×10−12 )×0.2×0.2
(a) 𝐶 = 0 = = 3.54 × 10−5 𝜇𝐹
𝑑 0.0.1
(b) Q = CV = 3.54x10-5x50 = 1.77x10-3μC
1 1
(c) 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 2 = × (3.54 × 10−11 )(502 ) = 4.42 × 10−8 𝐽
2 2
(d) E = V/d = 50/0.01 = 5000 V/m
(e) If the battery is disconnected the charge on the capacitor plates remains constant
while the potential difference between the plates can change

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DIELECTRICS AND PLOLARISTAION

Non-conducting material are called dielectric. Dielectric materials are of two types (i) non-
polar dielectric (ii) Polar dielectric

(i) Non-polar dielectric

In a non-polar molecule, the centre of the positive and negative charge coincides with
each other. Hence they do not possess a permanent dipole moment. Now when it is
placed in a uniform electric field, these centres are displaced in mutually opposite
directions. Thus an electric dipole is induced in it or molecule is said to be polarized. If
extent of electric field is not very strong, it is found that this dipole moment of molecule is
proportional to external electric field 𝐸⃗0
∴ 𝑝 = 𝛼𝐸⃗0
Where α is called the polarisability of the molecule
The units of α is C2 m N-1

(ii) Polar Molecule

A polar molecule possesses a permanent dipole moment p, but such dipole moments of
different molecules of the substance are randomly oriented in all possible directions and
hence the resultant dipole moment of the substance becomes zero.
On applying an external electric field a torque acts on every molecular dipole.
Therefore, it rotates and tries to become parallel to the electric field. Thus a resultant
dipole moment is produced. In this way the dielectric made up of such molecules is said to
be polarised.
Moreover, due to thermal oscillations the dipole moment also gets deviated from being
parallel to electric field. If the temperature is T, the dipoles will be arranged in such an
3
Equilibrium condition that the average thermal energy per molecule ( 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ) balances the
2
potential energy of dipole (𝑈 = −𝑝. 𝐸⃗ ) in the electric field. At 0 K temperature since the
thermal energy is zero, the dipoles become parallel to the electric field.
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EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC ON CAPACITANCE
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor in vacuum is given by charge density on plates is
σ
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶0 =
𝑑

Consider a dielectric inserted between the plates of

capacitor, the dielectric is polarized by the electric field, the
effect is equivalent to two charged sheets with surface
charge densities 𝜎𝑃 and −𝜎𝑃 . The electric field in the
dielectric will be
𝜎 − 𝜎𝑃
𝐸=
𝜀0
So the potential difference across the plates is
𝜎 − 𝜎𝑃
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = d
𝜀0
For linear dielectric, we expect 𝜎𝑃 to be proportional to electric field due to plates 𝐸0
Thus (𝜎 − 𝜎𝑃 ) is proportional to σ and can be written as
𝜎
(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑃 ) =
𝐾
Where K is a constant characteristic of the dielectric. Then we have
𝜎 Qd
𝑉= d=
𝐾𝜀0 A𝐾𝜀0
The capacitance C, with dielectric between the plates , is then

𝑄 𝐾𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶 = = = KC0
𝑉 𝑑
The product Kε0 is called the permittivity of the medium denoted by ε , ε = Kε0
𝜀
Or 𝐾 =
ε0
For vacuum K = 1 and for other dielectric medium K >1.
INTRODUCTION OF A DIELECTRIC SLAB OF DILECTRIC CONSTANT K
BETWEEN THE PLATES
(a) When battery is disconnected
Let q0, C0, V0, E0 and U0 represents the charge, capacity, potential difference, electric
field and energy associated with charged air capacitor respectively. With the introduction
of a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K between the plates and the battery
disconnected.
(i) Charge remains constant, i.e., q = q0 , as in an isolated system charge is conserved.
(ii) Capacity increases, i.e., C = KC0, as by the presence of a dielectric capacity becomes
K times.
(iii) Potential difference between the plates decreases,

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𝑞 𝑞0 𝑉0
𝑉= = = [∵ 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶0 ]
𝐶 𝐾𝐶0 𝐾
𝑉0
𝑉=
𝐾

(iv) As Field between the plates decreases,

𝑉 𝑉0 𝐸0 𝑉0
𝐸= = = [𝐴𝑠 𝑉 = ]
𝑑 𝐾𝑑 𝐾 𝐾
𝐸0
𝐸=
𝐾
(v) Energy stored in the capacitor decreases
𝑞2 𝑞02 𝑈0
𝑈= = = [𝑎𝑠 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶0 ]
2𝐶 2𝐾𝐶0 𝐾
(b) When battery remains connected ( potential held constant)
(i) Potential remains constant i.e V = V0
(ii) Capacity increases i.e C = KC0
(iii) Charge on the capacitor increases i.e q = Kq0
(iv) Electric field remains unchanged E = E0
(v) Energy stored in the capacitor increases

Solved numerical
Q) A parallel plate capacitor has plates of area 4m2 separated by a distance of 0.5 mm. The
capacitor is connected across a cell of emf 100V
(a) Find the capacitance, charge and energy stored in the capacitor
(b) A dielectric slab of thickness 0.5mm is inserted inside this capacitor after it has been
disconnected from the cell. Find the answers to part (a) if K = 3
Solution:
Part a

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Part b ) As the cell has been disconnected Q = Q0

GROUPING OF CAPACIORS
SERIES COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
Capacitor are said to be connected in series if
charge on each individual capacitor is same. In
this situation
V = V1 + V2 + V3
If C is the effective capacitance of combination
then we know that V = q/C and V1 = q/C1 , V2 =
q/C2 , V3 = q/C3
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
= + +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
OR

PARALLEL COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS

When capacitors are connected in parallel, the potential difference V
across each is same and the charge on C1, C2 and C3 is different i.e q1, q2
and q3
The total charge q is given by
q = q1+ q2 + q3
potential across each capacitor is same thus q1 = C1V
q2 = C2V and q3 = C3V
If C is equivalent capacitance then
q = CV
Thus CV = C1V + C2V + C3V
Or C = C1 + C2 + C3
Charge on capacitor
Let two capacitors are connected in parallel, let Q be the total charge , Let Q 1 be the
charge on capacitor of capacity C1 and Q2 be the charge on capacitor of capacity C2
Since both capacitor have same potential from formula V = Q/C we get
𝑄1 𝑄2
=
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑄1 𝐶1
=
𝑄2 𝐶2
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𝑄1 + 𝑄2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
=
𝑄2 𝐶2
Since Q = Q1+Q2

𝑄 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
=
𝑄2 𝐶2

𝐶2
𝑄2 = 𝑄
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Similarly
𝐶1
𝑄1 = 𝑄
𝐶1 + 𝐶2

Solved numerical

Q) Two capacitors of capacitance C1 = 6 μF and C2 = 3 μF are connected in series across a

cell of emf 18V. Calculate
(i) the equivalent capacitance
(ii) the potential difference across each capacitor
(iii) the charge on each capacitor
Solution
𝐶 𝐶 6×3
(i) 𝐶 = 1 2 = = 2𝜇𝐹
𝐶1 +𝐶2 6+3
𝐶2 6
(ii) 𝑉1 = ( )𝑉 = ( ) × 18 = 12𝑉
𝐶1 +𝐶2 6+3
(iii) In series combination charge on each capacitor is same Q = CV = 2×10-6×18=36 μC

Q) In the circuit shown the capacitors are C1 = 15μF, C2 = 10μF and C3 = 25μF. Find

(i) the equivalent capacitance of the circuit

(ii) the charge on each capacitor
(iii) the potential difference across each capacitor
Solution
(i) C1 and C2 are parallel thus C12 = 15+10 = 25 μF
This C12 is in series with C3 thus
1 1 1 2
= + =
𝐶 25 25 25
C = 12.5 μF
(ii) Q is the total charge supplied by the cell = CV = (12.5 × 10) C
𝐶1 15
Charge on C1 = Q1 = ( )𝑄 = ( ) × 125 = 75μC
𝐶1 +𝐶2 15+10
𝐶2 10
Charge on C2 = Q2 = ( )𝑄 = ( ) × 125 = 50μC
𝐶1 +𝐶2 15+10
Charge on C3 = Q = 125 μC
(iii) p.d across C1 = V1 = Q1/C1 = 75/15 = 5 V
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p.d across C2 = V2 = V1 = 5 V
p.d across C3 = V3 = Q3/C3 = 125/25 = 5V

REDISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES
If there are two spherical conductors of radius R1 and R2 at potential V1 and V2 respectively
Far apart from each other (so that charge on one does not affect the other). The charges
on them will be
Q1 = C1V1 and Q2 = C2V2
The total charge on the system is Q = Q1 + Q2
The capacitance C = C1 + C2
Now if they are connected through a wire, charge will flow from conductor at higher
potential to lower potential till both acquires same potential let charge on first becomes q 1
and charge on second sphere becomes q2
Since potential is same
𝑞1 𝑞2
=
𝐶1 𝐶2
We know that capacity of sphere C = 4πε0R . Thus C ∝ R
𝑞1 𝑞2
=
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑞1 𝑅1
=
𝑞2 𝑅2
𝑞1 + 𝑞2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
=
𝑞2 𝑅2
But Q = q1 + q2
𝑄 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
=
𝑞2 𝑅2

𝑅2
𝑞2 = 𝑄
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
similarly

𝑅1
𝑞1 = 𝑄
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Solved numerical
Q) Two isolated metallic solid spheres of radius R and 2R are charged such that both of
these have same charge density σ. The spheres are located far away from each other and
connected by a thin conducting wire. Find the new charge density on the bigger sphere

Solution: given both spheres have same charge density thus

Q1 =4πR2 σ. And Q2 = 4π(2R)2 σ
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Total charge on both spheres Q = 20 πR2 σ
Now in sharing, charge is shared in proportion to capacity i.e. radius, so charge on the
bigger spheres
𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑄
𝑞2 = 2 𝑄 = 𝑄= eq(1)
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅+2𝑅 3
So charge density on the bigger sphere after sharing
2𝑄⁄
′
𝑞2 3 = 𝑄
𝜎2 = =
4π(2R)2 16π(R)2 24π(R)2
Putting the value of Q from equation (i) we get
′
20𝜋𝑅2 𝜎 5𝜎
𝜎2 = =
24𝜋𝑅2 6

VAN DE GRAFF GENERATOR

Principle:
Suppose there is a positive charge Q, on an insulated
conducting spherical shell of radius R, as shown in figure. At the
centre of this shell, there is a conducting sphere of radius r
(r<R), having a charge q.
Here electric potential on the shell of radius R is,
1 𝑄 𝑞
𝑉𝑅 = ( + )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝑅
And the electric potential on the spherical shell of radius r is,
1 𝑄 𝑞
𝑉𝑟 = ( + )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝑟
It is clear from these two equations that the potential on the smaller sphere is more and
the potential difference between them is
1 𝑄 𝑞 1 𝑄 𝑞
𝑉𝑟 − 𝑉𝑅 = ( + )− ( + )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝑅

𝑞 1 1
𝑉𝑟 − 𝑉𝑅 = [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑅
Hence if the smaller sphere is brought in electrical contact with bigger sphere then the
charge goes from smaller to bigger sphere. Thus charge can be accumulated to a very large
amount on the bigger sphere and there by its potential can be largely increased

Construction

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As shown in the figure a spherical shell of
a few meter radius, is kept on an
insulated support, at a height of a few
meters from the ground.
A pulley is kept at the centre of the big
sphere and another pulley is kept on the
ground. An arrangement is made such
that a non-conducting belt moves across
two pulleys. Positive charges are
obtained from a discharge tube and are
continuously sprayed on the belt using a
metallic brush (with sharp edges) near
the lower pulley. This positive charge
goes with the belt towards the upper
pulley.
There it is removed from the belt with
the help of another brush and is deposited on the shell (because the potential on the shell
is less than that of the belt on the pulley.) Thus a large potential difference (nearly 6 to 8
million volt) is obtained on the big spherical shell.
Uses : With the help of this machine, a potential difference of a few million (1 million = 106
= ten lac) volt can be established. By suitably passing a charged particle through such a
high potential difference it is accelerated (to very high velocity) and hence acquires a very
1
high energy ( 𝑚𝑣 2 ). Because of such a high energy they are able to penetrate deeper into
2
the matter. Therefore, fine structure of the matter can be studied with the help of them.

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