Chapter 1

Introduction of the
blast furnace process

Two different process routes are available for the production of steel products, namely
the blast furnace with oxygen steelmaking and the electric arc steelmaking route. The
routes differ with respect to the type of products that can be made, as well as the
raw materials used. The blast furnace-oxygen steelmaking route mainly produces
flat products, while electric arc steelmaking is more focused on long products. The
former uses coke and coal as the main reductant sources and sinter and pellets as
the iron-bearing component, while the latter uses electric energy to melt scrap. The
current trend is for electric arc furnaces to be capable of also producing flat products.
Nevertheless, the blast furnace-oxygen steelmaking route remains the primary source
for worldwide steel production, as shown in Figure 1.

Global finishedsteel consumption: 934 million ton (144 kg per capita, per year)

Resources Processes Finished Products

Iron Ore Oxygen

(Sinter, pellet, lump) steelmaking
M* M*
1,128 min ton (60%)

Scrap
EAF (34 %)
300 min ton (est.)

Other" (6%)
= Corex , open hearth. etc.

Figure 1: Steelmaking routes and raw materials (IISI Steel Statistical Yearbook, 2003)

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 1 - Introduction of the blast furnace process

Hot metal is produced in a blast furnace , from where it is transported as liquid

hot metal to the steel plant where refinement of hot metal to steel takes place by
removing elements such as sulphur, silicon , carbon, manganese and phosphorous.
Good performance of the steel plant requires consistent hot metal quality of a given
specification . Typically the specification demands silicon content between 0.3% and
0.7%, manganese between 0.2% and 0.4%, phosphorous in the range 0.06-0.08%
or 0.1-0.13% and a temperature as high as possible.

In the blast furnace process iron ore and reducing agents (coke, coal) are
transformed to hot metal and slag is formed from the gangue of the ore burden and
the ash of coke and coal. Hot metal and liquid slag do not mix and remain separate
from each other with the slag floating on top of the denser iron. The iron can then
be separated from the slag in the casthouse, but before that can take place, the
transformation to hot metal and slag must be understood.

Let us now consider the contents of a blast furnace at any given moment. Ore
and coke are charged in discreet layers at the top of the furnace. From studies of
quenched furnaces it was evident that these layers of ore and coke remain until
the temperatures are high enough for softening and melting of the ore to begin.
Quenched furnaces are "frozen in action" with the help of water or nitrogen and
examples of quenched blast furnaces is presented in Figure 2. The quenched blast
furnace shows clearly the layer structure of coke and ore. Further analysis reveals
information about the heating and melting of the ore as well of the progress of
chemical reactions (Bonnekamp et al, 1984).

I
Figure 2: Dissections of quenched blast furnaces Kakogawa I and Tsurumi
(Based on Omori et al, 1987)

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 1 - Introduction of the blast furnace process

As indicated in Figure 3, at any moment, an operating blast furnace contains, from

top downwards: :
• Layers of ore and coke.
• An area where ore starts to soften and melt, known as the softening-melting zone.
• An area where there is only coke and liquid iron and slag, called the "active coke"
or dripping zone.
• The dead man, which describes the coke in the hearth of the furnace.

A blast furnace has a typical conical shape. The sections from top down are:
• Throat, where the burden surface is.
• The shaft, where the ores are heated and reduction starts.
• The bosh parallel or belly and
• The bosh, where the reduction is completed and the ores are melted down.
• The hearth, where the molten material is collected and is cast via the taphole.

Throat
Burden

Shaft zone Coke

Cohesive zone

Active coke zone

Dead Man
Raceway
Hearth
Taphole

Figure 3: The zones in the blast furnace

1.1 What is driving the furnace?

1.1.1 Process Description

The driving forces in the blast furnace are illustrated in Figure 4 (next page)
• A blast furnace is filled with alternating layers of coke and the iron ore-containing
burden.
• Hot blast is blown into the blast furnace via tuyeres. A tuyere is a cooled copper
conical pipe numbering up to 12 in smaller furnaces, and up to 42 in bigger
furnaces through which pre-heated air (up to more than 1,200°C) is blown into the
furnace.

3
 1 - Introduction of the blast furnace process

• The hot blast gasifies the reductant components in the furnace, those being coke
as well as auxiliary materials injected via the tuyeres. In this process, the oxygen
in the blast is transformed into gaseous carbon monoxide. The resulting gas has
a high flame temperature of between 2,100 and 2,300°C . Coke in front of the
tuyeres is consumed thus creating voidage.
• The very hot gas ascends through the furnace , carrying out a number of vital
functions.
• Heats up the coke in the bosh/belly area.
• Melting the iron ore in the burden, creating voidage.
• Heats up the material in the shaft zone of the furnace.
• Removes oxygen of the ore burden by chemical reactions.
• Upon melting, the iron ore produces hot metal and slag, which drips down through
the coke zone to the hearth, from which it is removed by casting through the
taphole. In the dripping zone the hot metal and slag consume coke, creating
voidage. Additional coke is consumed for final reduction of iron oxide and carbon
dissolves in the hot metal, which is called carburisation.

The blast furnace can be considered as a counter current heat and mass exchanger,
as heat is transferred from the gas to the burden and oxygen from the burden to the
gas. Gas ascends up the furnace while burden and coke descend down through the
furnace. The counter current nature of the reactions makes the overall process an
extremely efficient one.

Figure 4: The driving force of a blast furnace: the counter current process creates
voidage at the indicated areas causing the burden to descend

A typical example of the temperature profile in the blast furnace is shown in Figure 5.
It is shown that the softening/melting zone is located in an area where temperatures

4
 1 - Introduction of the blast furnace process

are between 1,100 and 14450°C. The temperature differences in the furnace are
large. In the example the temperature gradients are bigger in the horizontal direction
than in the vertical direction, which will be explained in chapter 6.

I
L_
Figure 5: Temperature profile in a blast furnace (typical example)

1.2 The Equipment

1.2.1 Equipment overview

An overview of the major equipment is shown in Figure 6 (next page). These include:
• Hot Blast Stoves. Air preheated to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,250°C is
produced in the hot blast stoves and is delivered to the furnace via a hot blast
main, bustle pipe and finally through the tuyeres. The hot blast reacts with coke
and injectants, forming the so-called raceway in front of the tuyeres.
• Stock house. The burden materials and coke are delivered to a stock house. The
materials are screened and then weighted before final delivery into the furnace.
The stock house is operated automatically. Corrections for coke moisture are
generally made automatically. The burden materials and coke are brought to the
top of the furnace via skips or via a conveyor belt, where they are discharged into
the furnace in separate layers of ore and coke.
• Gas cleaning. The top gas leaves the furnace via uptakes and a down-comer.
The top gas will contain many fine particles and so to remove as many of these as
possible the top gas is lead through a dust catcher and wet cleaning system.
• Casthouse. The liquid iron and slag collect in the hearth of the furnace, from where
they are tapped via the taphole into the casthouse and to transport ladles.
• Slag granulation. The slag may be quenched with water to form granulated slag,
which is used for cement manufacture.

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 1 - Introduction of the blast furnace process

Figure 6: Blast furnace general arrangement

The top of the blast furnace is closed, as modern blast furnaces tend to operate with
high top pressure. There are two different systems:
• The double bell system, which for burden distribution purposes, requires movable
throat armour.
• The bell less top, which allows easier burden distribution.

Examples of both types are schematically shown in Figure 7.

Double-bell top Paul Wurth Top

with movable armour (Bell-Less Top)

Distributor

Big Bell ^ ^^^^

Movable armour >l
I
4..^i
114
Figure 7: Blast furnace top charging systems

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 1 - Introduction of the blast furnace process

1.2.2 Blast furnace construction

There are basically two construction techniques to support blast furnaces. The
classic design utilises a supported ring, or lintel at the bottom of the shaft, upon
which the higher levels of the furnace rests. The other technique is a freestanding
construction requiring an independent support for the blast furnace top and the
gas system. The required expansion (thermal as well as from the pressure) for the
installation is below the lintel that is in bosh/belly area for the lintel furnace, while the
compensator for expansion in the freestanding furnace is at the top, as indicated in
Figure 8.

Expansion

Lintel

Expansion

Free-standing Furnace Furnace with Support Ring

("German Construction") ("US Construction")
Figure 8: Blast furnace constructions

1.2.3 Blast furnace development

Blast furnaces have grown considerably in size during the 20th century. In the early
days of the 20th century, blast furnaces had a hearth diameter of 4 to 5 metres and
were producing around 100,000 tonnes hot metal per year, mostly from lump ore and
coke. At the end of the 20th century the biggest blast furnaces had between 14 and
15 m hearth diameter and were producing 3 to 4 MT per year. A typical development
of blast furnaces is shown in Table 1 for the situation of the IJmuiden steel works. The
ore burden developed, so that presently high performance blast furnaces are fed with
sinter and pellets. The lump ore percentage has generally decreased to 10 to 15%

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 1 - Introduction of the blast furnace process

or lower. The reductants used developed as well: from operation with coke only to
the use of injectant through the tuyeres. Mainly oil injection in the 1960's, while since
the early 1980's coal injection is used extensively. Presently, about 30 to 40% of the
earlier coke requirements have been replaced by injection of coal and sometimes oil
and natural gas.

Table 1: Development of the blast furnaces at Corus lJmuiden, The Netherlands

Blast Furnace No . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hearth Diameter m 4.8/5.6 4.8/5.6 5.2/5. 9 8.5 8 /9 10/11 13/13.8
Working Volume m3 519 519 598 1413 1492 2328 3790
Built 1924 1926 1930 1958 1961 1967 1972
Initial Productivity t/d 280 280 360 1,380 1,700 3,000 5,000
Most Recent t/d 1,000 1,000 1,100 3,500 3,700 7,000 10.500
Productivity
Last Renovation 2002 1991

Demolished 1974 1974 1991 1997 1997

The size of a blast furnace is often expressed as its hearth diameter or as its
"working volume" or "inner volume". The working volume is the volume of the blast
furnace that is available for the process i.e. the volume between the tuyeres and the
burden level. Definitions of working volume and inner volume are given in Figure 9.

Bottom . Bottom , Bottom of

of bell of bell (vertical)
f ` chute
Zero level burden
1 m below t Bottom of , 1m below
bottom movable chute
of bell armour
a)
E

a)
C
0

Tuyerelevel

Taphole level
Uppermost brick
bottom layer

Figure 9: Definitions of working volume and inner volume

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 1 - Introduction of the blast furnace process

Presently, very big furnaces reach production levels of 12,000 t/d or more. E.g. the
Oita blast furnace No. 2 (NSC) has a hearth diameter of 15.6 meter and a production
capacity of 13,500 t/d. In Europe, the Thyssen-Krupp Schwelgern nr 2 furnace has a
hearth diameter of 14.9 m and a daily production of 12,000 t/d.

1.3 Book Overview

Blast furnace ironmaking can be discussed from 3 different perspectives:

• The operational approach: discussing the blast furnace with its operational
challenges.
• The chemical technology approach: discussing the process from the perspective of
the technologist who analyses progress of chemical reactions and heat and mass
balances.
• The mechanical engineering approach focussing on equipment.

The focus of this book is the "operators view", with the aim to understand what is
going on inside the furnace. To this end the principles of the process are discussed
(Chapter 2) followed by the demands on burden quality (Chapter 3) and coke and
auxiliary reductants (Chapters 4 and 5). Simplified calculations of burden and top gas
are made (Chapter 6). The control of the process is discussed in Chapter 7: burden
descent and gas flow control. The issues pertinent to understanding the blast furnace
productivity and efficiency are presented in Chapter 8. Subsequently, hot metal and
slag quality (Chapter 9), casthouse operation (Chapter 10) and special situations like
stops and starts (Chapter 11) are discussed.

1.4 Exercises

The exercises refer to a large modern blast furnace operated on pulverised coal
injection and equipped with high top pressure and high blast temperature. The
working volume is 3,800 m3 and it has four tapholes.
The furnace is producing 10,000 tonne/day with a slag volume of 250 kg/tHM. As
a reductant the furnace uses 300 kg coke per tonne hot metal (tHM) and 200 kg
pulverised coal injection (PCI).

Questions (The answers to this exercise can be found in Annex III.):

1. The International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI) estimates that the worldwide pig
iron production was 575.7 Mt in 2001. How many of these "modern furnaces" are
required to produce this amount? And-if there are three of these furnaces on one
site-how many pig iron producing sites are necessary?
2. Calculate the annual usage of pellets and coal at such a site. How much finished
steel products are produced? Use the following data:
a) From 1 tonne iron 1.1 tonne liquid steel is produced and 0.9 tonne steel finished
products.
b)To produce 1 tonne iron, one requires 1.6 tonne pellets.
c) Coke is produced mainly on local coke plants. 25% of the coal is gasified during
cokemaking.