Aircraft Communications and

Navigation Systems:
Principles, Operation and Maintenance
Weather radar and ILS antennas in the
nose radome of a Boeing 757 aircraft
Aircraft Communications and
Navigation Systems:
Principles, Operation and Maintenance

Mike Tooley and David Wyatt

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN • DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK
30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA

First edition 2007

Copyright © 2007, Mike Tooley and David Wyatt. Published by Elsevier 2007.
All rights reserved

The right of Mike Tooley and David Wyatt to be identified as the authors of this work
has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Science & Technology Rights
Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333;
email: [email protected]. Alternatively you can submit your request online by
visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting
Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material

Notice
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons
or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use
or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material
herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent
verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

For information on all Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann publications

visit our web site at books.elsevier.com

Typeset by the author

ISBN: 978-0-7506-81377
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiv
Online resources xiv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 The radio frequency spectrum 1
1.2 Electromagnetic waves 3
1.3 Frequency and wavelength 4
1.4 The atmosphere 4
1.5 Radio wave propagation 5
1.6 The ionosphere 7
1.7 MUF and LUF 10
1.8 Silent zone and skip distance 12
1.9 Multiple choice questions 13
Chapter 2 Antennas 15
2.1 The isotropic radiator 15
2.2 The half-wave dipole 16
2.3 Impedance and radiation resistance 18
2.4 Radiated power and efficiency 19
2.5 Antenna gain 19
2.6 The Yagi beam antenna 20
2.7 Directional characteristics 22
2.8 Other practical antennas 24
2.9 Feeders 28
2.10 Connectors 32
2.11 Standing wave ratio 33
2.12 Waveguide 38
2.13 Multiple choice questions 39
Chapter 3 Transmitters and receivers 41
3.1 A simple radio system 41
3.2 Modulation and demodulation 42
3.3 AM transmitters 43
3.4 FM transmitters 44
3.5 Tuned radio frequency receivers 45
3.6 Superhet receivers 46
3.7 Selectivity 47
3.8 Image channel rejection 50
3.9 Automatic gain control 51
3.10 Double superhet receivers 51
3.11 Digital frequency synthesis 53
3.12 A design example 55
3.13 Multiple choice questions 59
vi Contents

Chapter 4 VHF communications 61

4.1 VHF range and propagation 61
4.2 DSB modulation 62
4.3 Channel spacing 63
4.4 Depth of modulation 63
4.5 Compression 64
4.6 Squelch 65
4.7 Data modes 65
4.8 ACARS 68
4.9 VHF radio equipment 70
4.10 Multiple choice questions 72
Chapter 5 HF communications 73
5.1 HF range and propagation 73
5.2 SSB modulation 74
5.3 SELCAL 76
5.4 HF data link 76
5.5 HF radio equipment 80
5.6 HF antennas and coupling units 81
5.7 Multiple choice questions 84
Chapter 6 Flight-deck audio systems 85
6.1 Flight interphone system 85
6.2 Cockpit voice recorder 90
6.3 Multiple choice questions 92
Chapter 7 Emergency locator transmitters 93
7.1 Types of ELT 93
7.2 Maintenance and testing of ELT 94
7.3 ELT mounting requirements 95
7.4 Typical ELT 97
7.5 Cospas–Sarsat satellites 98
7.6 Multiple choice questions 100
Chapter 8 Aircraft navigation 101
8.1 The earth and navigation 101
8.2 Dead reckoning 104
8.3 Position fixing 105
8.4 Maps and charts 106
8.5 Navigation terminology 107
8.6 Navigation systems development 107
8.7 Navigation systems summary 114
8.8 Multiple choice questions 116
Chapter 9 Automatic direction finder 117
9.1 Introducing ADF 117
9.2 ADF principles 117
9.3 ADF equipment 118
9.4 Operational aspects of ADF 122
9.5 Multiple choice questions 125
Contents vii

Chapter 10 VHF omnidirectional range 127

10.1 VOR principles 127
10.2 Airborne equipment 131
10.3 Operational aspects of VOR 136
10.4 Multiple choice questions 139
Chapter 11 Distance measuring equipment 141
11.1 Radar principles 141
11.2 DME overview 142
11.3 DME operation 143
11.4 Equipment overview 143
11.5 En route navigation using radio navigation aids 145
11.6 Multiple choice questions 149
Chapter 12 Instrument landing system 151
12.1 ILS overview 151
12.2 ILS ground equipment 151
12.3 ILS airborne equipment 155
12.4 Low range radio altimeter 159
12.5 ILS approach 160
12.6 Autoland 160
12.7 Operational aspects of the ILS 161
12.8 Multiple choice questions 162
Chapter 13 Microwave landing system 163
13.1 MLS overview 163
13.2 MLS principles 163
13.3 Aircraft equipment 166
13.4 Ground equipment 168
13.5 MLS summary 168
13.6 Multiple choice questions 168
Chapter 14 Hyperbolic radio navigation 171
14.1 Hyperbolic position fixing 171
14.2 Loran overview 173
14.3 Loran-C operation 173
14.4 Loran-C ground equipment 175
14.5 Loran-C airborne equipment 176
14.6 Enhanced Loran (eLoran) 177
14.7 Multiple choice questions 178
Chapter 15 Doppler navigation 179
15.1 The Doppler effect 179
15.2 Doppler navigation principles 179
15.3 Airborne equipment overview 183
15.4 Typical Doppler installations 184
15.5 Doppler summary 184
15.6 Other Doppler applications 185
15.7 Multiple choice questions 186
viii Contents

Chapter 16 Area navigation 187

16.1 RNAV overview 187
16.2 RNAV equipment 191
16.3 Kalman filters 196
16.4 Required navigation performance 198
16.5 Multiple choice questions 199
Chapter 17 Inertial navigation systems 201
17.1 Inertial navigation principles 201
17.2 System overview 204
17.3 System description 204
17.4 Alignment process 211
17.5 Inertial navigation accuracy 214
17.6 Inertial navigation summary 214
17.7 System integration 214
17.8 Multiple choice questions 215
Chapter 18 Global navigation satellite system 217
18.1 GPS overview 217
18.2 Principles of wave propagation 217
18.3 Satellite navigation principles 217
18.4 GPS segments 218
18.5 GPS signals 221
18.6 GPS operation 221
18.7 Other GNSS 223
18.8 The future of GNSS 224
18.9 Multiple choice questions 225
Chapter 19 Flight management systems 227
19.1 FMS overview 227
19.2 Flight management computer system 227
19.3 System initialisation 230
19.4 FMCS operation 232
19.5 FMS summary 236
19.6 Multiple choice questions 237
Chapter 20 Weather radar 239
20.1 System overview 239
20.2 Airborne equipment 240
20.3 Precipitation and turbulence 243
20.4 System enhancements 251
20.5 Lightning detection 251
20.6 Multiple choice questions 252
Chapter 21 Air traffic control system 253
21.1 ATC overview 253
21.2 ATC transponder modes 254
21.3 Airborne equipment 255
21.4 System operation 256
21.5 Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast 265
21.6 Communications, navigation and surveillance/air traffic management 267
21.7 Multiple choice questions 270
Contents ix

Chapter 22 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system 271

22.1 Airborne collision avoidance systems 271
22.2 TCAS overview 272
22.3 TCAS equipment 275
22.4 System operation 277
22.5 Multiple choice questions 283
Appendices 285
1 Abbreviations and acronyms 285
2 Revision papers 291
3 Answers 297
4 Decibels 303
Index 305
Preface

The books in this series have been designed for also describes the various mechanisms by which
both independent and tutor assisted studies. They radio waves propagate together with a detailed
are particularly useful to the ‘self-starter’ and to description of the behaviour of the ionosphere
those wishing to update or upgrade their aircraft and its effect on radio signals.
maintenance licence. The series also provides a Antennas are introduced in Chapter 2. This
useful source of reference for those taking ab chapter explains the principles of isotropic and
initio training programmes in EASA Part 147 and directional radiating elements and introduces a
FAR 147 approved organisations as well as those number of important concepts including radiation
following related programmes in further and resistance, antenna impedance, radiated power,
higher education institutions. gain and efficiency. Several practical forms of
This book is designed to cover the essential antenna are described including dipoles, Yagi
knowledge base required by certifying mechanics, beam antennas, quarter wave (Marconi) antennas,
technicians and engineers engaged in engineering corner reflectors, horn and parabolic dish
maintenance activities on commercial aircraft. In radiators. Chapter 2 also provides an introduction
addition, this book should appeal to members of to feeders (including coaxial cable and open-wire
the armed forces and others attending training and types), connectors and standing wave ratio
educational establishments engaged in aircraft (SWR). The chapter concludes with a brief
maintenance and related aeronautical engineering introduction to waveguide systems.
programmes (including BTEC National and Radio transmitters and receivers are the subject
Higher National units as well as City and Guilds of Chapter 3. This chapter provides readers with
and NVQ courses). an introduction to the operating principles of AM
The book provides an introduction to the and FM transmitters as well as tuned radio
principles, operation and maintenance of aircraft frequency (TRF) and supersonic-heterodyne
communications and navigation systems. The aim (superhet) receivers. Selectivity, image channel
has been to make the subject material accessible rejection and automatic gain control (AGC) are
and presented in a form that can be readily important requirements of a modern radio
assimilated. The book provides syllabus coverage receiver and these topics are introduced before
of the communications and navigation section of moving on to describe more complex receiving
Module 13 (ATA 23/34). The book assumes a equipment. Modern aircraft radio equipment is
basic understanding of aircraft flight controls as increasingly based on the use of digital frequency
well as an appreciation of electricity and synthesis and the basic principles of phase-locked
electronics (broadly equivalent to Modules 3 and loops and digital synthesisers are described and
4 of the EASA Part-66 syllabus). explained.
It is important to realise that this book is not Very high frequency (VHF) radio has long
designed to replace aircraft maintenance manuals. been the primary means of communication
Nor does it attempt to provide the level of detail between aircraft and the ground. Chapter 4
required by those engaged in the maintenance of describes the principles of VHF communications
specific aircraft types. Instead it has been (both voice and data). The chapter also provides
designed to convey the essential underpinning an introduction to the aircraft communication
knowledge required by all aircraft maintenance addressing and reporting system (ACARS).
engineers. High frequency (HF) radio provides aircraft
Chapter 1 sets the scene by providing an with an effective means of communicating over
explanation of electromagnetic wave propagation long distance oceanic and trans-polar routes. In
and the radio frequency spectrum. The chapter addition, global data communication has recently
xii Preface

been made possible using strategically located HF During the late 1940s, it was evident to the
data link (HFDL) ground stations. Chapter 5 aviation world that an accurate and reliable short-
describes the principles of HF radio range navigation system was needed. Since radio
communication as well as the equipment and communication systems based on very high
technology used. frequency (VHF) were being successfully
As well as communication with ground deployed, a decision was made to develop a radio
stations, modern passenger aircraft require navigation system based on VHF. This system
facilities for local communication within the became the VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)
aircraft. Chapter 6 describes flight-deck audio system, and is described in Chapter 10. This
systems including the interphone system and all- system is in widespread use throughout the world
important cockpit voice recorder (CVR) which today. VOR is the basis of the current network of
captures audio signals so that they can be later ‘airways’ that are used in navigation charts.
analysed in the event of a serious malfunction of Chapter 11 develops this theme with a system
the aircraft or of any of its systems. for measuring distance to a navigation aid. The
The detection and location of the site of an air advent of radar in the 1940s led to the
crash is vitally important to the search and rescue development of a number of navigation aids
(SAR) teams and also to potential survivors. including distance measuring equipment (DME).
Chapter 7 describes the construction and This is a short/medium-range navigation system,
operation of emergency locator transmitters often used in conjunction with the VOR system to
(ELT) fitted to modern passenger aircraft. The provide accurate navigation fixes. The system is
chapter also provides a brief introduction to based on secondary radar principles.
satellite-based location techniques. ADF, VOR and DME navigation aids are
Chapter 8 introduces the subject of aircraft installed at airfields to assist with approaches to
navigation; this sets the scene for the remaining those airfields. These navigation aids cannot
chapters of the book. Navigation is the science of however be used for precision approaches and
conducting journeys over land and/or sea. This landings. The standard approach and landing
chapter reviews some basic features of the earth’s system installed at airfields around the world is
geometry as it relates to navigation, and the instrument landing system (ILS). Chapter 12
introduces some basic aircraft navigation describes how the ILS can be used for approach
terminology, e.g. latitude, longitude, dead through to autoland. The ILS uses a combination
reckoning etc. The chapter concludes by of VHF and UHF radio waves and has been in
reviewing a range of navigation systems used on operation since 1946.
modern transport and military aircraft. Many Chapter 13 continues with the theme of guided
aircraft navigation systems utilise radio frequency approaches to an airfield. There are a number of
methods to determine a position fix; this links shortcomings with ILS; in 1978 the microwave
very well into the previous chapters of the book landing system (MLS) was adopted as the long-
describing fundamental principles of radio term replacement. The system is based on the
transmitters, receivers and antennas. principle of time referenced scanning beams and
Radio waves have directional characteristics as provides precision navigation guidance for
described in the early chapters of the book. This approach and landing. MLS provides three-
is the basis of the automatic direction finder dimensional approach guidance, i.e. azimuth,
(ADF); one of earliest forms of radio navigation elevation and range. The system provides
that is still in use today. ADF is a short–medium multiple approach angles for both azimuth and
range (200 nm) navigation system providing elevation guidance. Despite the advantages of
directional information. Chapter 9 looks at the MLS, it has not yet been introduced on a
historical background to radio navigation, worldwide basis for commercial aircraft. Military
reviews some typical ADF hardware that is fitted operators of MLS often use mobile equipment
to modern commercial transport aircraft, and that can be deployed within hours.
concludes with some practical aspects associated Long-range radio navigation systems are
with the operational use of ADF. described in Chapter 14. These systems are based
Preface xiii

on hyperbolic navigation; they were introduced in Navigation by reference to the stars and planets
the 1940s to provide en route operations over has been employed since ancient times; aircraft
oceans and unpopulated areas. Several hyperbolic navigators have utilised periscopes to take
systems have been developed since, including celestial fixes for long distance navigation. An
Decca, Omega and Loran. The operational use of artificial constellation of navigation aids was
Omega and Decca navigation systems ceased in initiated in 1973 and referred to as Navstar
1997 and 2000 respectively. Loran systems are (navigation system with timing and ranging). This
still available for use today as stand-alone global positioning system (GPS) was developed
systems; they are also being proposed as a for use by the US military; it is now widely
complementary navigation aid for global available for use in many applications including
navigation satellite systems. aircraft navigation. Chapter 18 looks at GPS and
Chapter 15 looks at a unique form of dead other global navigation satellite systems that are
reckoning navigation system based on radar and a in use, or planned for future deployment.
scientific principle called Doppler shift. This The term ‘navigation’ can be applied in both
system requires no external inputs or references the lateral and vertical senses for aircraft
from ground stations. Doppler navigation systems applications. Vertical navigation is concerned
were developed in the mid-1940s and introduced with optimising the performance of the aircraft to
in the mid-1950s as a primary navigation system. reduce operating costs; this is the subject of
Being self-contained, the system can be used for Chapter 19. During the 1980s, lateral navigation
long distance navigation and by helicopters and performance management functions were
during hover manoeuvres. combined into a single system known as the flight
The advent of computers, in particular the management system (FMS). Various tasks
increasing capabilities of integrated circuits using previously routinely performed by the crew can
digital techniques, has led to a number of now be automated with the intention of reducing
advances in aircraft navigation. One example of crew workload.
this is the area navigation system (RNAV); this is Chapter 20 reviews how the planned journey
described in Chapter 16. Area navigation is a from A to B could be affected by adverse weather
means of combining, or filtering, inputs from one conditions. Radar was introduced onto passenger
or more navigation sensors and defining positions aircraft during the 1950s to allow pilots to
that are not necessarily co-located with ground- identify weather conditions and subsequently re-
based navigation aids. route around these conditions for the safety and
A major advance in aircraft navigation came comfort of passengers. A secondary use of
with the introduction of the inertial navigation weather radar is the terrain-mapping mode that
system (INS); this is the subject of Chapter 17. allows the pilot to identify features of the ground,
The inertial navigation system is an autonomous e.g. rivers, coastlines and mountains.
dead reckoning system, i.e. it requires no external Increasing traffic density, in particular around
inputs or references from ground stations. The airports, means that we need a method of air
system was developed in the 1950s for use by the traffic control (ATC) to manage the flow of
US military and subsequently the space traffic and maintain safe separation of aircraft.
programmes. Inertial navigation systems (INS) The ATC system is based on secondary
were introduced into commercial aircraft service surveillance radar (SSR). Ground controllers use
during the early 1970s. The system is able to the system to address individual aircraft. An
compute navigation data such as present position, emerging ATC technology is ADS-B, this is also
distance to waypoint, heading, ground speed, covered in Chapter 21.
wind speed, wind direction etc. The system does With ever increasing air traffic congestion, and
not need radio navigation inputs and it does not the subsequent demands on air traffic control
transmit radio frequencies. Being self-contained, (ATC) resources, the risk of a mid-air collision
the system can be used for long distance increases. The need for improved traffic flow led
navigation over oceans and undeveloped areas of to the introduction of the traffic alert and collision
the globe. avoidance system (TCAS); this is the subject of
xiv Preface

Chapter 22. TCAS is an automatic surveillance

system that helps aircrews and ATC to maintain Online resources
safe separation of aircraft. TCAS is an airborne
system based on secondary radar that interrogates Additional supporting material (including video
and replies directly with aircraft via a high- clips, sound bites and image galleries) for this
integrity data link. The system is functionally book are available at www.66web.co.uk or
independent of ground stations, and alerts the www.key2study.com/66web
crew if another aircraft comes within a
predetermined time to a potential collision.
The book concludes with four useful
appendices, including a comprehensive list of
abbreviations and acronyms used with aircraft
communications and navigation systems.
The review questions at the end of each chapter
are typical of these used in CAA and other
examinations. Further examination practice can
be gained from the four revision papers given in
Appendix 2. Other features that will be
particularly useful if you are an independent
learner are the ‘key points’ and ‘test your
understanding’ questions interspersed throughout
the text.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following
persons and organisations for permission to
reproduce photographs and data in this book:
Lees Avionics and Wycombe Air Centre for
product/cockpit images; Trevor Diamond for the
ADF, VOR and DME photographs; CMC
Electronics for data and photographs of Doppler
and MLS hardware; the International Loran
Association (ILA) and US Coast Guard for
information and data on both the existing Loran-
C infrastructure and their insight into future
developments; Kearfott (Guidance & Navigation
Corporation) and Northrop Grumman
Corporation for permission to reproduce data on
their inertial navigation systems and sensors;
ARINC for information relating to TCAS; ADS-
B Technologies, LLC for their permission to
reproduce data on automatic dependent
surveillance-broadcast. Finally, thanks also go to
Alex Hollingsworth, Lucy Potter and Jonathan
Simpson at Elsevier for their patience,
encouragement and support.