Proximity sensor

Proximity sensors are the most basic data acquisition devices in automation. They measure /
detect physical input such as temperature, pressure, force, length, and proximity of an
object.

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact.
A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The
object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different proximity
sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric
sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always requires a
metal target.
The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range". Some sensors
have adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection distance.
Some know this process as "thermo sensation".
Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence
of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.
Proximity sensors are commonly used on smart phones to detect (and skip) accidental touch
screen taps when held to the ear during a call.[1] They are also used in machine vibration
monitoring to measure the variation in distance between a shaft and its support bearing.
This is common in large steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use sleeve-
type bearings.

TYPES

1. Mechanical switches:
Mechanical switches are simple GO/No-go indicators. They have physical contact with the
object, usually coupled with relays and contactors to drive a circuit. Widely used in the
industry to mark the end-start points of cylinders, pistons, linear and rotary drive, to sense
doors. They are less sensitive and have lower maximum switching frequency compared to
proximity switches. Because of the physical contact with the object, they require
maintenance and replacement.
2. Magnetic Proximity Switches:
Magnetic switches (also called as Reed-contacts) use the distortion of the magnetic field. If a
ferromagnetic material (Fe-Ni compound) comes in the vicinity, the magnetic field distorts
and gives an input to the switch. Thus, they are only sensitive to ferromagnetic materials
and magnetic fields. Dirt and humidity is of little importance. They preserve high hysteresis
(indefinite range of physical input). They are widely used in pairs of machine parts such as
piston-cylinder arrangements.

3. Inductive Proximity switches:

Inductive proximity switches also work on the principles of magnetic fields and induction.
They response to conductive materials, typically metals. The tabular data on switching
distance depends on mild steel (usually Fe37); thus, a reduction coefficient must be defined
for different metals. For the metals such as Cr-Ni, brass, aluminium, and copper this value
must be modified with the experimental reduction coefficient found usually in the range of
0.25-0.9. Also the reduction coefficient depends on the size of the measured object. They
are widely used in the mass production lines and conveyors to detect metallic work pieces,
moving parts of machinery, for measuring linear, rotational speeds, presses, and encoders.

4. Capacitive Proximity switches:

Unlike the magnetic and inductive types, capacitive proximity switches response to all types
of materials. The reduction coefficient is determined experimentally in the range of 0.1 to 1
(metals =1 and water =1). Note that liquids can also be detected by capacitive switches.
They are very sensitive to environmental factors such as dust, dirt and humidity. Therefore
they can be used to distinguish object properties such as colour, thickness, water column
height, and vibration. Sample application areas are in production lines and conveyors to
count work pieces, sense packaging defects etc.

5. Optical Proximity switches:

Optical proximity switches use the presence of visible (with wavelength of 660nm -red-) or
invisible (with wavelength of 880nm -ultra-red-), light for input. They give a NPN or PNP
output to the circuit. Here, instead of the reduction coefficient the operation reserve is
defined as the ratio of signal intensity in the input of the sensor to the required intensity for
switching. Note that in correct working conditions, operation reserve must have a value of
greater than one. The operation reserve depends on ambient conditions such as dust, dirt,
ambient light colour and intensity, distance from part, reflect-angle etc.
Optical sensors are divided into two main parts:

 Light sensors (can be equipped with fibber-optic cabling for long distance transmission,
may use ambient light or the light produced in a coupled unit)
 Reflected light sensors (can be equipped with fibre-optic cabling for long distance
transmission, uses the reflected light produced in the same unit from the part or a
reflector sheet)

Optical sensors have a relatively greater switching distance. Therefore they may be used in
detecting surface irregularities, failure detection, detection of transmissive surfaces, colors
etc. Fibre optic cabling for transmission also gives a flexibility to use small units at difficult
locations.

6. Ultrasonic Proximity switches:

They use the reflected sound power for input. Note that above the sensors stated here,
ultrasonic proximity switches have the greatest switching distance and frequency.
Therefore, they are used to detect distant objects with very high speeds. They are usually
insensitive to ambient conditions and should be preferred in very extreme conditions, while
they are very expensive.

7. Pneumatic Proximity switches:

They use the reflected back-pressure supplied from a nozzle at or distant from the switch
unit. Generally preferred in the areas of:

 Very dirty and dusty places,

 At high temperatures,
 In the vicinity of explosive materials where electrical currents may be dangerous,
 At places where intensive magnetic fields are present, in the vicinity of big motors,
pumps, turbines etc.
 The sensor unit and nozzle unit may be built in one package or as different units. Can be
used to drive a pneumatic piston directly.
Applications

 Parking sensors, systems mounted on car bumpers that sense distance to nearby cars
for parking
 Ground proximity warning system for aviation safety
 Vibration measurements of rotating shafts in machinery
 Top dead centre (TDC)/camshaft sensor in reciprocating engines.
 Sheet breaks sensing in paper machine.
 Anti-aircraft warfare
 Roller coasters
 Conveyor systems
 Beverage and food can making lines
 Improvised Explosive Devices or IEDs
 Mobile devices
o Touch screens that come in close proximity to the face
Proximity sensor installed on the front of an smart phones next to the
earpiece automatically turning off the touch screen when the sensor
comes within a predefined range of an object (such as a human ear)
when using the handset.
o Attenuating radio power in close proximity to the body, in order to
reduce radiation exposure
o 3D Touch will come true with the aid of proximity sensing elements.
 Automatic faucets
Accelerometer sensor

An accelerometer sensor is a device that measures proper acceleration; proper acceleration

is not the same as coordinate acceleration (rate of change of velocity). For example, an
accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure an acceleration due to Earth's
gravity, straight upwards (by definition) of g ≈ 9.81 m/s2. By contrast, accelerometers in free
fall (falling toward the center of the Earth at a rate of about 9.81 m/s2) will measure zero.
Accelerometer sensor has multiple applications in industry and science. Highly sensitive
accelerometer sensor is components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles.
Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery.
Accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens
are always displayed upright. Accelerometers are used in drones for flight stabilisation.
Coordinated accelerometer sensor can be used to measure differences in proper
acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space; i.e., gradient of
the gravitational field. This gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak
effect and depends on local density of the Earth which is quite variable.
Single- and multi-axis models of accelerometer sensor are available to detect magnitude
and direction of the proper acceleration, as a vector quantity, and can be used to sense
orientation (because direction of weight changes), coordinate acceleration, vibration, shock,
and falling in a resistive medium (a case where the proper acceleration changes, since it
starts at zero, then increases). Micromachined accelerometer sensor is increasingly present
in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the
device or provide for game input.

Physical principles
An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences
relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. Put another way, at any
point in spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of a local inertial
frame, and an accelerometer measures the acceleration relative to that frame.[1] Such
accelerations are popularly denoted g-force; i.e., in comparison to standard gravity.
An accelerometer at rest relative to the Earth's surface will indicate approximately
1 g upwards, because any point on the Earth's surface is accelerating upwards relative to the
local inertial frame (the frame of a freely falling object near the surface). To obtain the
acceleration due to motion with respect to the Earth, this "gravity offset" must be
subtracted and corrections made for effects caused by the Earth's rotation relative to the
inertial frame.
The reason for the appearance of a gravitational offset is Einstein's equivalence
principle,[2] which states that the effects of gravity on an object are indistinguishable from
acceleration. When held fixed in a gravitational field by, for example, applying a ground
reaction force or an equivalent upward thrust, the reference frame for an accelerometer (its
own casing) accelerates upwards with respect to a free-falling reference frame. The effects
of this acceleration are indistinguishable from any other acceleration experienced by the
instrument, so that an accelerometer cannot detect the difference between sitting in a
rocket on the launch pad, and being in the same rocket in deep space while it uses its
engines to accelerate at 1 g. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any
type of free fall. This includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a
spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic "zero-g" arc, or any free-fall in
vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a sufficiently high altitude that atmospheric effects
can be neglected.
However this does not include a (non-free) fall in which air resistance produces drag forces
that reduce the acceleration, until constant terminal velocity is reached. At terminal velocity
the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards. For the same reason a skydiver,
upon reaching terminal velocity, does not feel as though he or she were in "free-fall", but
rather experiences a feeling similar to being supported (at 1 g) on a "bed" of uprushing air.
Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second (m/s2), in
the cgs unit gal (Gal), or popularly in terms of standard gravity (g).
For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth,
such as for use in an inertial navigation system, a knowledge of local gravity is required. This
can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest,[3] or from a known model of gravity
at the approximate current position.

Structure
Conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring. When the
accelerometer experiences acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is
able to accelerate the mass at the same rate as the casing. The displacement is then
measured to give the acceleration.
In commercial devices, piezoelectric, piezoresistive and capacitive components are
commonly used to convert the mechanical motion into an electrical signal. Piezoelectric
accelerometers rely on piezoceramics (e.g. lead zirconate titanate) or single crystals
(e.g. quartz, tourmaline). They are unmatched in terms of their upper frequency range, low
packaged weight and high temperature range. Piezoresistive accelerometers are preferred
in high shock applications. Capacitive accelerometers typically use a silicon micro-machined
sensing element. Their performance is superior in the low frequency range and they can be
operated in servo mode to achieve high stability and linearity.
Modern accelerometers are often small micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), and are
indeed the simplest MEMS devices possible, consisting of little more than a cantilever
beam with a proof mass (also known as seismic mass). Damping results from the residual
gas sealed in the device. As long as the Q-factor is not too low, damping does not result in a
lower sensitivity.
Under the influence of external accelerations the proof mass deflects from its neutral
position. This deflection is measured in an analog or digital manner. Most commonly, the
capacitance between a set of fixed beams and a set of beams attached to the proof mass is
measured. This method is simple, reliable, and inexpensive. Integrating piezoresistors in the
springs to detect spring deformation, and thus deflection, is a good alternative, although a
few more process steps are needed during the fabrication sequence. For very high
sensitivities quantum tunneling is also used; this requires a dedicated process making it very
expensive. Optical measurement has been demonstrated on laboratory scale.
Another, far less common, type of MEMS-based accelerometer contains a small heater at
the bottom of a very small dome, which heats the air inside the dome to cause it to rise. A
thermocouple on the dome determines where the heated air reaches the dome and the
deflection off the center is a measure of the acceleration applied to the sensor.
Most micromechanical accelerometers operate in-plane, that is, they are designed to be
sensitive only to a direction in the plane of the die. By integrating two devices
perpendicularly on a single die a two-axis accelerometer can be made. By adding
another out-of-plane device three axes can be measured. Such a combination may have
much lower misalignment error than three discrete models combined after packaging.
Micromechanical accelerometers are available in a wide variety of measuring ranges,
reaching up to thousands of g's. The designer must make a compromise between sensitivity
and the maximum acceleration that can be measured.

Applications
Engineering
Accelerometers can be used to measure vehicle acceleration. Accelerometers can be used
to measure vibration on cars, machines, buildings, process control systems and safety
installations. They can also be used to measure seismic activity, inclination, machine
vibration, dynamic distance and speed with or without the influence of gravity. Applications
for accelerometers that measure gravity, wherein an accelerometer is specifically
configured for use in gravimetry, are called gravimeters.
Notebook computers equipped with accelerometers can contribute to the Quake-Catcher
Network (QCN), a BOINC project aimed at scientific research of earthquakes.
Accelerometers have been used to calculate gait parameters, such as stance and swing
phase. This kind of sensor can be used to measure or monitor people.
Consumer electronics
Accelerometers are increasingly being incorporated into personal electronic devices to
detect the orientation of the device, for example, a display screen.
A free-fall sensor (FFS) is an accelerometer used to detect if a system has been dropped and
is falling. It can then apply safety measures such as parking the head of a hard diskto
prevent a head crash and resulting data loss upon impact. This device is included in the
many common computer and consumer electronic products that are produced by a variety
of manufacturers. It is also used in some data loggers to monitor handling operations
for shipping containers. The length of time in free fall is used to calculate the height of drop
and to estimate the shock to the package.
Motion input
Some smartphones, digital audio players and personal digital assistants contain
accelerometers for user interface control; often the accelerometer is used to
present landscape or portrait views of the device's screen, based on the way the device is
being held. Apple has included an accelerometer in every generation of iPhone, iPad,
and iPod touch, as well as in every iPod nano since the 4th generation. Along with
orientation view adjustment, accelerometers in mobile devices can also be used
as pedometers, in conjunction with specialized applications.
Orientation sensing
A number of 21st century devices use accelerometers to align the screen depending on the
direction the device is held, for example switching between portrait and landscape modes.
Such devices include many tablet PCs and some smartphones and digital cameras. The
Amida Simputer, a handheld Linux device launched in 2004, was the first commercial
handheld to have a built-in accelerometer. It had incorporated many gesture based
interactions using this accelerometer, including page-turning, zoom-in and zoom-out of
images, change of portrait to landscape mode and many simple gesture-based games.
As of January 2009, almost all new mobile phones and digital cameras contain at least a tilt
sensor and sometimes an accelerometer for the purpose of auto image rotation, motion-
sensitive mini-games, and to correct shake when taking photographs.
Image stabilization
Camcorders use accelerometers for image stabilization, either by moving optical elements
to adjust the light path to the sensor to cancel out unintended motions or digitally shifting
the image to smooth out detected motion. Some stills cameras use accelerometers for anti-
blur capturing. The camera holds off capturing the image when the camera is moving. When
the camera is still (if only for a millisecond, as could be the case for vibration), the image is
captured. An example of the application of this technology is the Glogger VS2,[30] a phone
application which runs on Symbian based phones with accelerometers such as the Nokia
N96. Some digital cameras contain accelerometers to determine the orientation of the
photo being taken and also for rotating the current picture when viewing.
Device integrity
Many laptops feature an accelerometer which is used to detect drops. If a drop is detected,
the heads of the hard disk are parked to avoid data loss and possible head or disk damage
by the ensuing shock.
Gravimetry
A gravimeter or gravitometer, is an instrument used in gravimetry for measuring the
local gravitational field. A gravimeter is a type of accelerometer, except that accelerometers
are susceptible to all vibrations including noise that cause oscillatory accelerations. This is
counteracted in the gravimeter by integral vibration isolation and signal processing. Though
the essential principle of design is the same as in accelerometers, gravimeters are typically
designed to be much more sensitive than accelerometers in order to measure very tiny
changes within the Earth's gravity, of 1 g. In contrast, other accelerometers are often
designed to measure 1000 g or more, and many perform multi-axial measurements. The
constraints on temporal resolution are usually less for gravimeters, so that resolution can be
increased by processing the output with a longer "time constant".