Conjunctions are words like and, but so, etc.

These words are used to join

clauses, or smaller sentences together to make longer sentences. In Latin languages
the word con means with. The word junction means a place where things like roads
cross. So you can see conjunction as con-junction= with a joining/meeting.
Sometimes we call words like these “discourse markers”. Discourse just means
communication – written or spoken. This can be a normal conversation about movie,
or it can be all the books and articles written about any topic, like Theories of
Learning. A marker is like a signpost. It just tells you in which direction the
conversation will go next.
Here’s an example:
I like coke but …
Now, the word but tells you that the next clause will be going against the first
clause…
… I don’t like Pepsi
… I will have water now
So, the word but is like a signpost in the conversation telling us what way the
next piece will go. This is what we call a discourse marker.
Anyway, don’t worry too much about what we call them – we have other names
as well. Just worry about how we use them.

DISCOURSE MARKERS in ENGLISH SENTENCES

DISCOURSE MARKERS are used to combine clauses or to connect

sentence elements. Each discourse marker indicates a particular meaning
relationship between two or more clauses.
Four types of DISCOURSE MARKERS are used in combining English sentences:
1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (see I. below),
2. CONNECTORS (adverbials, conjunctive adverbs; see II. below),
3. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (see III. a + b below),
4. PHRASE LINKERS (prepositions; or ADJ + PREP; see IV. below).

Sentences consist of COMPOUND and COMPLEX sentences:

 1. using CONJUNCTIONS (coordinating
conjunctions, double conjunctions)
COMPOUND SENTENCES
(see I. and II. below) 2. using CONNECTORS (adverbials, conjunctive
adverbs)
3. using SUBORDINATORS (subordinating
COMPLEX SENTENCES
conjunctions)
(see III. a. and b. below)

Prepositions or Adjective + Preposition combinations introduce PHRASES (see

IV. below)

I. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (coordconj.): informally known

as the FANBOYS or BOYFANS

Conjunction Meaning Conjunction Meaning

REASON B = but CONTRAST, CONCESSION
F = for
ADDITION O = or CHOICE
A = and
NEGATIVE Y = yet CONCESSION; unexpected result
N = nor
ADDITION S = so RESULT, CONSEQUENCE

Coordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join two INDEPENDENT

clauses, which are set off by a comma.

independent clause
1 , coordconj independent clause 2 .
S + V
S + V

EX.: We arrived late, so we waited in the hall.

(coordconj)

II. CONNECTORS (Adverbials, conjunctive adverbs)

Connectors are discourse markers that also join two INDEPENDENT

clauses, but with a semicolon (;) or a period (.). They can occur in three positions in
a sentence: initial (beginning) position, medial (middle) position, and final (end)
position. Good writers/speakers use the position of discourse markers to give
particular emphasis to the element that immediately precedes the connector. They
also make sure that they vary the position of the discourse markers to avoid
monotony. The punctuation is different, depending on the position of the
connector.
 A. INITIAL (BEGINNING) POSITION: The connector is positioned at the
beginning of the second clause.
independent clause 1 ; connector, independent
clause 2 .
S + V S + V

independent clause 1 . Connector, independent

clause 2 .
S + V S + V
EX.: We were late for the lecture; therefore, we waited in the hall.
We were late for the lecture. Therefore, we waited in the hall.

B. MEDIAL (MIDDLE) POSITION: The connector is positioned in

the middle of the second clause, usually between subject and verb. In this case, the
subject is emphasized and contrasted.

independent clause 1 ; S , connector, V

+ C .

EX.: George and Harry are best friends. George spends his free
time reading twentieth century American short stories; Harry, on the other hand,
is more interested in sports and physical exercise.

C. FINAL (END) POSITION: The connector is positioned at the end of

the second clause.
independent clause 1 ; S + V + C ,
connector.
EX.: George spends his free time reading twentieth century
American short stories; Harry is more interested in sports and physical
exercise, on the other hand.

MEANING RELATIONSHIPS expressed by connectors:

1. RESULT /
2. CONTRAST 3. ADDITION 4. EMPHASIS
REASON
______; therefore, ______; however, ______; in
______; in fact, _______
____ ______ addition, ______
; thus, ; in contrast, ; furthermore, ; as a matter of fact,
; on the other
; consequently, ; moreover, ; indeed,
hand,
; as a result, ; instead, ; besides,
; hence, ; rather, ; additionally,
REASON: _____;
for this reason, ________
5. CONCESSION 8. NEGATIVE
6. TIME 7. SIMILARITY
(unexpected result) CONDITION
 ______; however, _______ . First, ______; similarly, ______; otherwise,
_____ _______ ______ _____
______; likewise,
; nevertheless, . Second,
______
; nonetheless, . Afterward,
; still, . After that,
. Later,
. Then / Next,
9. NEGATIVE 10. MAIN 11. 12. 13.
EMPHASIS IDEA EXAMPLE RESTATEMENT CONCLUSION
____; on the On the For ____; in other
In conclusion,
contrary, ____ whole, example, words, _______
For
In general, ; that means (that) To conclude,
instance,
To
Generally, In summary,
illustrate,
Generally
To summarize,
speaking,
As we have seen,
In short,

III. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (SUB)

Subordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join a dependent

(subordinate) clause to an independent (main) clause. There are two patterns (a.
and b.) for positioning the dependent clause and therefore two patterns of punctuation.

a. independent clause SUB dependent

clause .
S + V S + V
OR
b. SUB + dependent clause , independent
clause .
SUB + S + V , S + V
EX.: a. We waited in the hall because we arrived late
for the lecture.
b. Because we arrived late for the lecture, we
waited in the hall.

NOTE: With because it is recommended to identify the REASON and the

RESULT first in order to avoid a mix-up (incorrect meaning relationship):
a. RESULT because +
REASON .
 b. Because +
REASON , RESULT .

Again, the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS are used to signal

different MEANING RELATIONSHIPS.

3. CONCESSION 5. PURPO
1. REASON/CAUSE 2. CONTRAST 4. TIME
(unexpected result) SE
because , while although after so that
since , whereas even though before
(usually used with
as a comma in front even if when
in Pattern a.)
due to the fact that despite the fact that while
now that (though) since
in spite of the fact
as
that
(often used with
CAUSE/EFFECT a comma in front in as soon as
Pattern a.)
so...that until
such...that by the time that
such a...that whenever
the next time
8. DESCRIPTION/
6. CONDITION 9. EMBEDDED
7. SIMILARITY IDENTIFICATION
/RESULT STATEMENTS/QUESTIONS
(Relative Pronouns)
If..., (then) just as who that
whether (or not) whom what
how (much/many, often,
when whose
long)
In case that which who(m), which, whose
Provided that that when
Unless when where
where whether (or not), if

IV. PHRASE LINKERS (prepositions or ADJ + PREP combinations)

Phrase linkers are transitions that are often used at the beginning of a sentence.

_____________________ . PHRASE LINKER (NP) , S + V + C .

(item #1) (item #2)

1. CONTRAST 2.REASON 3. ADDITION

 In contrast to In addition to _____,
Because of _____, _____
_____, _____ _____
different from due to
unlike as a result of
5. CONCESSION
4. SIMILARITY 6. TIME
(unexpected result)
Despite _____, Before / after _____,
Similar to _____, _____
_____ _____
like in spite of until
since
during

EX.: Due to our late arrival at the lecture, we had to wait in the hall.
(NP)
In contrast to western societies, eastern societies stress the importance
of community.
(item #1) (item #2)
Before the work of Sigmund Freud, psychology was not considered an
academic subject.

Discourse markers are terms like: That is to say, however, in consequence,

and other linguistic items specialised in linking discourse fragments are discourse
markers, and in signalling the interpretation of the discourse that is being transmitted.

Discourse markers include such elements as:

and, or, but, also, even, because, however, indeed, in addition, Allegedly, frankly,
stupidly, cleverly, on the one hand…on the other hand, by the way, then, so, well, you
see?, right?, etc.

Discourse markers form a heterogeneous functional class that includes diverse

grammatical categories, with a similar function. Discourse markers link textual
fragments, facilitating the transition between them, and, consequently, ensuring the
textual cohesion. In addition, discourse markers manifest the semantic-pragmatic
relationship between the textual elements connected by them. Hence, Discourse
Markers do not have a syntactic function, but a semantic-pragmatic one.

The elements connected by discourse markers are diverse. They can be phrasal
elements (1), sentences (2), a group of sentences inside a paragraph (3) or, even,
whole paragraphs (4). Discourse markers can, even, introduce a linguistic element
which connects with an extra linguistic event (5).
 (1) Hailing from Zurich, Winkler has a sensuality not normally associated with
either click-click electronic or the cold lap of Switzerland, but his voice and his
carefully-constructed compositions have the overtly sexual vibe of Seventies
pop: that is to say, disco. (Katie Addleman, “No rest for the
wicked”, Metropolitan, 01/vi/2008)

(2) Barcelona fans exited the ground accusing the referee of poor decision-
making, but, in truth, they had few grounds for complaint as for large chunks of the
match, they were outplayed by a spirited Osasuna side who shot out of the blocks
from the first whistle and took the lead just four minutes into the match. (Max
Bentley, “Guardiola’s gamble backfires as Barcelona suffer second league
defeat”, Metropolitan, 13/ii/2012)

(3) Young, successful, handsome, and a sharp dresser, ‘Pep’s’ popularity

transcends even the boundaries of sport (just ask your girlfriend). But it was his
industrious and inspirational performances on the field during Johan Cruyff’s tenure
in the Nineties that truly captured the imagination of culers everywhere, most of
whom were overjoyed to witness Pep’s promotion from Barça B team coach to first
team nanager in the summer of 2008.(“Josep (Pep)
Guardiola”, Metropolitan, http://www.barcelona-
metropolitan.com/topics/josep_pep_guardiola)

(4) Still, it’s packed to the rafters on a Wednesday night and our request for a
bigger table so we can pig out is denied. Around us are families with kids, dapper old
gents out for a mid-week supper, cooing couples and giggling friends, and the menu
immediately makes you feel at home, if home is France. An all-French wine list
features bottles from the Loire to the Languedoc, with the vin du table going for €14 a
bottle, and the most expensive Bordeaux a not-too-terrifying €43. A map on the back
of your placemat shows you exactly where everything came from and on the other
side there are cuts of the steer, so you can tell your aiguillette from your bavette.
Elsewhere, the menu offers classics like the humble salad niçoise for €6.50, a cheese
omelette for €8.50 andmoules frites for €12. (Tara Stevens, “French
Style”, Metropolitan, Frebruary 2012)

(5) [One person is eating a little chocolat cake]

But, weren’t you on a diet?

Such examples show that the main function of discourse markers is not that of
integrating syntactical structures, as conjunctions do, but marking the semantic and
pragmatic relationships between the textual units that they connect.

In the past, discourse markers were considered fillers or expletives, i.e., linguistic
elements with not function at all. Now it has been realised that they accomplished
different functions related to explicit:

relationships among utterances or part of utterances;

 speaker’s attitude towards he/she is saying;
speaker – hearer relationships.

Questions in the study of discourse markers

The study of discourse markers has raised —and still raises— some questions
that can be specify as follows:

Are they a separated word class? And if they are, what class?
What elements are within this class of words?
What is their grammatical function?
What is their meaning?
What are their semantic-pragmatic functions in the speech?
Which are their prosodic characteristics?
What is their relationship with the discursive traditions?

Characterization of discourse markers

Discourse markers have some prosodic, syntactic, semantic, textual and

morphologic properties that individualized them as a functional class.

Prosody and syntax

Punctuation isolates graphically discourse markers from the rest of the text in
order to mark a prosodic characteristic. Indeed, discourse markers are not prosodically
integrated in the text; they do not form part of the sentence in which they appear, but
affect the whole utterance. And as a result, discourse markers can occupy different
positions inside the sentence: However, we are thinking of other possibilities; We
are, however, thinking of other possibilities.

Discourse markers cannot receive specifiers or complementary adjuncts, and

neither can coordinate with each other or be affected by negation.

Procedural meaning

Discourse markers have not referential meaning, but procedural. That is to say,
discourse markers codify an instruction in order to guide the interpretation of the text
in which they appear. Often, discourse markers add a subjective meaning which
reflects the speaker’s opinion.

Discourse markers as cohesive elements

Discourse markers are elements without a syntactic function. They are

extrasentence linkers specialised in textual cohesion and in guiding the interpretation
of utterances.

Morphology
 Discourse markers are invariable linguistic units, belonging to different
grammatical categories.

Classification of discourse markers

Discourse markers are a functional class, not a categorical class, that is to say,
what they have in common is not the grammatical category they pertain to, but, the
function they do. Discourse Markers can be classified into three types:

Contrastive Markers: they signal some contrast between the textual elements
they link:

But, although, contrariwise, contrary to expectations, conversely, despite

(that/this), however, in spite of, in comparison, in contrast, instead, nevertheless,
notwithstanding, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, still, though, whereas,
yet, etc.

Elaborative Markers: they signal an elaboration or continuation of the first

textual element by the second:

And, also, alternatively, besides, correspondingly, for example, for instance,

futher(more), in addition, in other words, in particular, more importantly, more to the
point, moreover, on that basis, otherwise, rather, similarly, etc.

Inferential Markers: they signal a contextual implication in the second textual

segment by the first one.

So, after all, as a conclusion, as a result, because, consequently, for this/that

reason, hence, accordingly, in this/that/any case, on this/that condition, therefore,
thus, etc.

Discourse Particles: they signal the speaker’s attitude in conversation, and they
structure the relationships between speaker and listener. They are basically a feature of
spoken language.

Well, gosh, uh, I mean, you know, in fact, frankly, actually, etc.

Connectors and discourse markers. The fuzzy boundaries between connectors,

conjunctions and discourse operators

There has been some controversy about the relationship between connectors and
conjunctions. For instance, the difference between conjunctions and connectors is one
of scope. Conjunctions have a sentence scope. Connectors, instead, link sentences or
paragraphs. However, there is not easy to maintain this distinction. For instance, the
conjunctions and-or can be used as a Discourse Markers:
 (6) –Yesterday, Lola told me she wanted to get divorced
–And what did you say to her?
(7) Talk to her at once. Or you are afraid of her?

At (6), and signals the continuity respect the first utterance, propriety
characteristic of Discourse Markers. At (7), o introduces an argumentative
justification. Hence, conjunctions can show a discursive function which links them to
Discoursive Markers.

Tests
Find discourse markers for each of the following sentences.
1. They have all completed their tests, ......., I'm way behind.
o as for me
o for mine
o I
o my test
2. It rained all day, ......., we still went swimming in the sea.
o as far as
o as for
o nevertheless
o with regard to
3. It rained all day, ......., we didn't swim in the sea.
o as far as
o consequently
o us
o we
4. Ten people were invited, ......., a waiting list was compiled.
o as a result
o as far as
o in addition
o therefore
5. He ate ice cream and she ordered coffee, ....... I chose pizza.
o as far
o as regards
o while
o with regard to
6. You are very late but ....... I'm concerned, you can join in.
o as far as
o as regards
o however
o on the other hand

7. You are late, ......., you may not sit the examination.
o as far as
o however
o therefore
o while
8. He ate chocolate and I drank tea, she ....... wanted a meal.
o as far as
o as regards
o on the other hand
o while
9. ....... the letter I sent you last week, I wish to discuss the bill.
o However
o On the other hand
o Therefore
o With regard to
10. The athletes swim firstly, run secondly and ....... they cycle.
o fourthly
o lastly
o on the other hand
o while
 "So" expressions

ADVERB ADVERB CONJUNCTION OTHER

I want the design just My screen His idea was too His idea
so. (in this way, like is so dim that I complicated, so was so-so. (ave
this) can't see it. we chose rage)
(excessively) another. (Cause &
Effect)

I hope it will My screen We simplified the The project

be so. (in that way is so bright. (very) idea so leader has
or manner) that it would be the say-so. (fin
easier to al decision)
complete. )

Your plab is good, His design is ever So what? He is a so-and-

and so is his. (in that so good. (so very) (impolite – It so. (unpleasant
way) doesn't matter "So person)
why does it
matter?")

I change the We'll be done with So-and-so will

width, and so it this project in a finish the
becomes easier to day or so.(more or work (unspecific
see. (and in that less time) person)
manner, method)
So that's that. (in that My so-called fri
way, concession) end, forgot to
call. (wrongly
named)

So be it. (in that way, Drink it because

conclusion) I said so. (to
drink it) (said
by a parent)

Exercise 1

Read Conversation

Caller: Hello. I'd like a basket of food delivered to my house.

Anne: Hello. __ (ADD A TRANSITION: Inference, guessing) is that for
today?
Caller: Yes, today.

Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION:affirmation_) what would you like in the

basket?
Caller: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: hesitation) an assortment of cheese,
crackers, fresh fruit and some little pickles.
Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: inference) do you mean dill pickles or
French-style cornichons?
Caller: I mean dill pickles. My wife is expecting, and she loves little
pickles.
Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: summation, addition) what time do you
want this delivered?
Caller: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: hesitation)immediately if possible.

Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION concession) it will be difficult but we'll

try.
Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: summation or addition) what's your
address?
Caller: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: hesitation) it's 155 South 2nd Street,
apartment 2.
Anne: __. (ADD A TRANSITION: affirmation) We'll get your basket of
food to you and your wife as soon as we can.
Caller: ___!(ADD A TRANSITION: surprise) Thanks a lot. You are
good ! (provide good service)

Add discourse markers for the conversational exchange above.

1. Edit the sentence adding a word or phrase.