The document discusses the behavior of concrete and steel under repeated axial cyclic loads such as those caused by earthquakes. Plain concrete has much lower tensile strength than compressive strength. Experiments show that under repeated compressive loads, the stress-strain curve of concrete shows hysteresis and strength/stiffness decrease with each cycle as cracks form. Reinforcing steel also exhibits hysteresis under repeated tensile/compressive loads, with the stress-strain loop remaining consistent per cycle. Tests on reinforced concrete beams under repeated loading/unloading show cracks forming and remaining partially open, decreasing flexural rigidity. Reversal of loading leads to further cracking and strength reduction in concrete due to bond deterioration between steel and concrete.
The document discusses the behavior of concrete and steel under repeated axial cyclic loads such as those caused by earthquakes. Plain concrete has much lower tensile strength than compressive strength. Experiments show that under repeated compressive loads, the stress-strain curve of concrete shows hysteresis and strength/stiffness decrease with each cycle as cracks form. Reinforcing steel also exhibits hysteresis under repeated tensile/compressive loads, with the stress-strain loop remaining consistent per cycle. Tests on reinforced concrete beams under repeated loading/unloading show cracks forming and remaining partially open, decreasing flexural rigidity. Reversal of loading leads to further cracking and strength reduction in concrete due to bond deterioration between steel and concrete.
Behaviour of Concrete and Steel with High Intensity Repeated
Axial Cyclic Loads.
Earthquakes cause ground motions in a random fashion in all directions
having significant horizontal and vertical ground accelerations as function of time. Structures subjected to ground motions respond in a vibratory fashion. The maximum response acceleration during the elastic stage depends on the natural frequency of vibration of the structure and the magnitude of the damping. The maximum inertia loads acting on a structure during an earthquake is determined by multiplying the mass by the acceleration. In order to understand the behaviour of reinforced concrete structure under such repeated cyclic loads, we first discuss the behaviour of plain concrete and reinforcing steel below.
(a) Plain concrete
Plain concrete has tensile strength less than twenty per cent of its compressive strength. The tensile strength of plain concrete is normally not obtained from the direct tension test because of difficulties in holding the specimens and the uncertainties of developing secondary stresses due to holding devices. Hence, this is measured indirectly either by split cylinder test or by bending test conducted on plain concrete prisms. Prism tests give the tensile strength of concrete in flexure, known as the modulus of rupture. Plain concrete specimens are not tested under repeated axial cyclic tensile loads. However, earlier experiments on plain concrete cylinders with high intensity repeated axial compressive loads at slow rate of straining give the stress- strain curve as shown in Fig. 16.39.1. The stress-strain curve shows pronounced hysteresis effect and the envelope curve is almost identical to that of a single continuous load. Furthermore, such a curve obtained from the static test is also the same as that of the first cycle. Figure 16.39.1 shows that the slope of the stress-strain curve and the maximum attainable stress decrease with the number of cycles indicating the reduction of strength and stiffness of concrete due to the formation of cracks. With the increase of rate of loading, the compressive strength of concrete increases while the strain at the maximum stress decreases.
(b) Reinforcing steel
Figure 16.39.2 represents a typical stress-strain curve based on experiments with steel rods with repeated axial loads in tension and
Lecture Notes Prepared by Dr.P.Saravanakumar, Asst.Prof., SASTRA Page 1
compression. Initially, the curve is similar to that obtained in static test in tension. On reversing the load after reaching the yield strain in tension, the unloading curve is seen to be curvilinear forming loops instead of the straight line as shown in Fig. 16.39.2, showing Bauschinger effect. The loop formed by one complete cycle is known as hysteresis loop, the area of which is the energy absorbed by the specimen in that cycle. Practically the same path is repeated in subsequent cycles. Thus, we find that the stress-strain curve for steel is cycle independent. The loop, therefore, continues for number of cycles till the specimen buckles or fails due to fatigue. It is also worth mentioning that the same hysteresis loops are obtained for specimens loaded first in compression, unloaded and reloaded in tension. However, the yield strength of steel is dependent on the rate of loading.
(c) Reinforced Concrete
Similar tests of loading and unloading in tension and compression on doubly-reinforced cantilever beam loaded with a point load P at the free end reveal the following: (i) Formation of large cracks when the load P acting downward causes post- elastic range of stress in tension steel (Fig. 16.39.3a). (ii) Due to residual plastic strains in the steel, these cracks do not completely close on unloading but they remain open (Fig. 16.39.3b). (iii) On loading the beam in a reverse direction (upward), as shown in Fig. 16.39.3c, the resistance to rotation is decreased with respect to that during the first loading. This reduction is due to the presence of open cracks in the compression zone. As a result, the whole of compression is carried by compression steel. Thus, the flexural rigidity of the section is only that of steel. (iv) At higher load (upward) when Bauschinger effect starts and behaves inelastically, the flexural rigidity further reduces (Fig. 16.39.3d). The cracks in the compression zone may close depending on the magnitude of the load and the relative amounts of tension and compression steel. As a result, the stiffness of the member increases since concrete now can carry some compression load due to the closing of the cracks. However, if the cracks do not close and the member is unloaded, the cracks may be throughout the whole depth at critical sections. The width of these full-depth cracks depends on the amount of yielding and the effectiveness of the bond. (v) If the member is again loaded downward, the member behaves as a steel beam initially as the concrete is not in contact with the steel at the face of the crack.
Lecture Notes Prepared by Dr.P.Saravanakumar, Asst.Prof., SASTRA Page 2
Due to such reversal of loading, opening and closing of cracks in the alternate tension and compression zones will gradually reduce the compressive strength of concrete either due to less or no contact because of slight relative lateral movement or presence of debris in the crack. This along with Bauchinger effect of steel gives the moment-curvature relation for the doubly-reinforced section as shown in Fig. 16.39.4. This diagram is far different from the idealised moment-curvature relation as shown in Fig. 16.39.5. The rounding and pinching of the loops of Fig. 16.39.4 clearly show smaller area than that of Fig. 16.39.5. Therefore, less energy will be dissipated per cycle in the actual case than the assumed idealised one. Accordingly, the response of frames to severe earthquake motions will be influenced by such effects. Furthermore, the presence of high shear causing large shear displacement will split the concrete longitudinally along the flexural steel bars leading to further loss of bond and stiffness. Thus, the influential factors of load-displacement relationship of reinforced concrete members during severe earthquake subjected to reversed inelastic deformations are summarised as: 1. Inelastic behaviour of steel reinforcement,
2. The extent of cracking of concrete,
3. Effectiveness of bond and anchorage, and
4. Presence of high shear.
Accordingly, realistic dynamic analyses shall be based on more accurate moment-curvature loops. The moment-curvature relationships, shown in Figs. 16.39.4 and 16.39.5, reveal that the deformation changes from cycle to cycle after the yielding starts.
Lecture Notes Prepared by Dr.P.Saravanakumar, Asst.Prof., SASTRA Page 3
Lecture Notes Prepared by Dr.P.Saravanakumar, Asst.Prof., SASTRA Page 4 Lecture Notes Prepared by Dr.P.Saravanakumar, Asst.Prof., SASTRA Page 5
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