Modal Analysis Applied to the Stability Study of Hydroelectric

Systems with Modular Structures

THÈSE NO 6780 (2015)

PRÉSENTÉE LE 6 NOVEMBRE 2015
À LA FACULTÉ DES SCIENCES ET TECHNIQUES DE L'INGÉNIEUR
GROUPE DE SCIENTIFIQUES STI
PROGRAMME DOCTORAL EN ENERGIE

ÉCOLE POLYTECHNIQUE FÉDÉRALE DE LAUSANNE

POUR L'OBTENTION DU GRADE DE DOCTEUR ÈS SCIENCES

PAR

Pedro Camilo DE OLIVEIRA E SILVA

acceptée sur proposition du jury:

Prof. A. Rufer, président du jury

Dr B. Kawkabani, directeur de thèse
Prof. E. da Costa Bortoni, rapporteur
Dr A. Schwery, rapporteur
Dr R. Cherkaoui, rapporteur

Suisse
2015
 Tout notre raisonnement
se réduit à céder au sentiment.
— Blaise Pascal

A meus pais, que me deram vida, amor e muito mais.

 Abstract

Power plants experience distinct dynamic behaviors according to the primary source of energy.
Whereas thermal power plants have a slow dynamic, modern renewables such as wind and
solar PV are subject to very fast variations, due to environmental factors. Therefore, their
availability is not guaranteed.

Consequently, it is opportune to take advantage of the intrinsic flexibility of hydropower plants

for balancing fast variations caused by modern renewable sources, in order to keep stability
and reliability of the power grid. On the other hand, the use of hydropower plants as means of
compensating constant variations between electricity generation and consumption leads to
off-design operation. Such condition may cause instabilities or undesirable oscillations in the
power plant whose origin lies in the hydraulic system. Furthermore, small hydropower plants
play a major role in the development of emerging countries, where they may be frequently
subjected to islanded or isolated operation. In such context, operating conditions are more
critical in terms of reliability and stability.

Considering these factors, one can readily understand the importance of predicting the dy-
namic behavior of power plants under various scenarios and different operating modes. This
requires precise, comprehensive mathematical models and efficient computational tools,
which are appropriate for planning new installations and better exploiting the existing ones.

Thereupon, the purpose of the present work is the development of a novel tool for small-signal
stability analysis of hydroelectric systems, with comprehensive modeling of both electrical
and hydraulic elements of a hydropower plant. This tool is implemented in SIMSEN, a fully
modular, efficient, user-friendly software developed at EPFL, for the simulation of electrical

i
power networks and hydroelectric systems.

The originality of this new tool lies not only on the exhaustive and detailed modeling of
electrical and hydraulic systems (a multi-physics representation). It lies also on the fact that
it is a modular tool, capable of treating systems with any given topology, with automatic
generation of the full set of differential equations, based on circuits easily built in an user-
friendly GUI.

Another distinctive characteristic of the present work is that small-signal models of electrical
elements are based on a,b,c-phase variables, different from the traditional d,q,o-axis repre-
sentation. The procedure to be followed for the derivation of such models is presented in this
document.

Furthermore, case studies performed with this tool show that substantial interactions happen
between electrical, mechanical, hydraulic and regulation elements. These interactions can be
either positive or detrimental to the stability of the system. In case of adverse interactions, un-
stable behaviors may occur. Such instabilities cannot be predicted without a comprehensive,
multi-physics model. These conflicting interactions are presented, and their consequences
and possible solutions are discussed in this document.

Keywords: Small-signal stability, eigenanalysis, eigenvalues, eigenvectors, modal analysis,

hydroelectric power, hydropower plants, power system stability, power system dynamics.

ii
 Résumé

Les centrales électriques subissent des comportements dynamiques distincts selon leur source
d’énergie primaire. Alors que les centrales thermiques ont une dynamique lente, les énergies
renouvelables modernes, telles que l’éolienne et la solaire photovoltaïque, sont soumises à
des variations très rapides dues à des facteurs environnementaux. Leur disponibilité n’est
donc pas garantie.

Par conséquent, il est opportun de profiter de la flexibilité intrinsèque des centrales hydroélec-
triques pour compenser les variations rapides causés par les sources renouvelables modernes,
afin de maintenir la stabilité et la fiabilité du réseau électrique. D’autre part, l’utilisation
des centrales hydroélectriques comme un moyen de compenser les variations constantes
entre production et consommation d’électricité conduit à des points de fonctionnement hors
des plages habituelles. Cette condition peut provoquer des instabilités ou des oscillations
indésirables dans la centrale, dont l’origine se trouve dans le système hydraulique. En outre,
les petites centrales hydroélectriques jouent un rôle majeur dans le développement des pays
émergents, où elles peuvent être souvent soumises à des fonctionnements en îlotage ou isolés.
Dans ce contexte, les conditions de fonctionnement sont plus critiques en termes de fiabilité
et de stabilité.

Compte tenu de ces facteurs, l’importance de prévoir le comportement dynamique des cen-
trales, soumises à divers scénarios et à différents modes de fonctionnement, est manifeste.
Pour ce faire, des modèles mathématiques précis et complets sont nécessaires, ainsi que des
outils informatiques performants, appropriés à la planification de nouvelles centrales et à une
exploitation plus efficace des aménagements existants.

iii
Ainsi, le but de ce travail est le développement d’un nouvel outil informatique d’analyse
de stabilité aux petites perturbations appliqué à des systèmes hydroélectriques, avec une
modélisation exhaustive des éléments électriques et hydrauliques qui composent un amé-
nagement de cette nature. Cet outil est implémenté dans SIMSEN, un logiciel à structure
entièrement modulaire, performant et convivial, développé à l’EPFL pour la simulation des
réseaux électriques et des systèmes hydroélectriques.

L’originalité de ce nouvel outil réside non seulement dans la modélisation exhaustive et

détaillée des systèmes électriques et hydrauliques (une représentation multi-physique). Elle
se situe aussi dans le fait qu’il s’agit d’un outil à structure modulaire, capable de traiter des
systèmes avec des topologies a priori quelconques, avec génération automatique du système
d’équations différentielles correspondant, basé sur des circuits facilement structurés à travers
une interface graphique conviviale.

Une autre caractéristique distinctive de ce travail est que les modèles des éléments électriques
développés pour l’analyse de la stabilité aux petites perturbations sont basés sur les coordon-
nées de phases a,b,c, ce qui diffère de la représentation traditionnelle dans les axes d,q,o. La
procédure à suivre pour la mise en place de ces modèles est présentée dans ce document.

En outre, des études de cas effectuées avec cet outil montrent que d’importantes interactions
ont lieu entre les éléments électriques, mécaniques, hydrauliques et de régulation. Ces interac-
tions peuvent être soit positives, soit nuisibles à la stabilité du système. En cas d’interactions
défavorables, des comportements instables peuvent se produire. Il n’est pas possible de pré-
voir ces instabilités sans un modèle multi-physique complet. Dans ce travail, ces interactions
problématiques sont présentées. De plus, leurs conséquences et solutions possibles sont
étudiées.

Mots clefs : Analyse de la stabilité aux petites variations, valeurs propres, vecteurs propres,
analyse modale, énergie hydroélectrique, centrales hydroélectriques, stabilité des réseaux
électriques, dynamique des réseaux électriques.

iv
 Acknowledgements

The realization of this work has only been possible due to the support of numerous people. I
would therefore like to express my gratitude to all those that have contributed.

I would like to thank first Dr. Basile Kawkabani for giving me the opportunity to join his
research group and for seeing in me the capacity for accomplishing this work. I also would
like to thank him for his guidance and availability, and for all the hours we spent together on
enriching discussions when problems arose.

I gratefully acknowledge the members of the jury, Prof. Alfred Rufer from EPFL, Prof. Edson
da Costa Bortoni from UNIFEI (Brazil), Dr. Alexander Schwery from Alstom Renewable Ltd
(Switzerland) and Dr. Rachid Cherkaoui from EPFL, for kindly accepting to evaluate this work
and for their comments and suggestions, which allowed me to improve the final version of
this document.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the companies that funded this research for
making it possible, namely EOS Holding SA, Alstom Renewable Power (Switzerland) Ltd,
Andritz Hydro AG and Voith Hydro Holding GmbH & Co. KG.

I am indebted to Mr. Patrick Grillot and Mr. Jean-Louis Drommi for their important contribu-
tion in one of the case studies presented in this document, which considerably enriched this
work.

I am grateful to Dr. Christophe Nicolet, Dr. Sébastien Alligné and Dr. Antoine Béguin, from
Power Vision Engineering, for the fruitful and pleasant collaboration during these years, as
well as for the words of encouragement all along. Thanks to Christophe for all his rich and

v
Acknowledgements

pertinent suggestions, and also for being my "coach" on the comprehension and interpretation
of hydraulic phenomena. Thanks to Seb for helping me many times to unfold intricate results
and for his advices concerning the structure of this document. And thanks to Antoine for
giving me a number of simple but truly perceptive suggestions, which helped solving problems
that looked rather complicated.

I would like to thank Philippe Allenbach for his fundamental contribution to the implementa-
tion of the models developed during this work in SIMSEN, and also for all the interesting and
entertaining discussions during the coffee breaks.

All along my doctoral studies, I shared many moments, courses, duties, doubts, meals and
laughter with my colleague and friend Michel Han. Thank you Michel for being there all the
time, for the technical and non-technical discussions, for keeping me good company, for
helping me improve mon français and for making me discover the hardest face of Le Moléson,
which I will never forget.

I am also grateful to Dr. André Hodder for all the advices he gave me, for the times he helped
me to better understand intricacies related to electrical machines, and also for giving me the
opportunity of working with him as a teaching assistant in many lab courses. In these courses,
I had the pleasure to work in collaboration with Sylvain Robert and Stéphane Burri. I would
like to thank both of them for sharing their time, experience and stories with me.

In addition, I would like to thank all those people in EPFL that directly or indirectly helped me
and motivated me, either with words or attitudes that made me go on when I thought I had
exhausted my forces.

While I was writing this document, I was fortunate enough to have three persons going through
it (either partially or totally) with very attentive eyes, looking for my mistakes in order to make
it better. Therefore, I feel very indebted to my little sister Heloísa, as well as to Adrien L. and
Catherine S. I thank you sincerely for this great help. Many thanks to Catherine S. also for
having encouraged and supported me all along the development of this work.

On a more personal note, I would like to thank my friends with whom I shared many coffees
and meals at EPFL, and/or good moments in Lausanne: Ricardo Padilha, Joana & Mark,
Laurence & Rafael, Maria & Catatau, Montse & Marcelão, Reni & Alê, Simona & Pietro, Didier,
and Camillo. Thank you to my friend Antônio "Conselheiro" for his interest in my research
and for keeping in touch. I could not forget my friend Dayana, whom I deeply thank for her
loyal and patient friendship. Many thanks to my friends in Brazil with whom I shared great
times during holidays in my hometown, Sete Lagoas: Laura, Sheila, Lu & Gustavo, Bill, Boró,
Muri and Caio. Thanks also to Anay from São Paulo for giving me attention and consoling
words many times during difficult moments, and to Carina from Taubaté for being frequently

vi
 Acknowledgements

(virtually) present.

Many thanks to my housemates Anouk, Sam, Elisabeth and Nuria, for their good company
and the funny moments along these years, for tolerating me during the final stretch of this
work and also for cooking me dinner when I had no time whatsoever for doing so.

I am also very grateful to my friends of GEEPE for receiving me with open arms, for treating
me always warmly and kindly, for praying for me, for trusting me and for understanding my
constant absence in the last few months. Special thanks to "my" group of Thursday evenings
for always being there for me and for everything they taught me. I also would like to thank
my friends Ane, Sérgio and Luciana from Basel for their companionship since we met; Glória,
André, Letícia, Sofia and Nikita from Biel for their friendship and the good times we spent
together; Gorete, Walda & Mario, Carol & Galo from Winterthur, and Isabel and Luciana from
St.-Gallen, for having me with much affection as part of their families, just as I have them as
my second family, here in Switzerland; Jorge Godinho and Antônia Helena from Brasília for
their constant guidance, patience and friendship.

I am deeply thankful to my parents, my sisters and their husbands, and my nieces and nephews,
for whom I leave here a few words in Portuguese: Pai e mãe, muito obrigado por todo o carinho
e apoio, por tudo o que me ensinaram para que eu me tornasse a pessoa que sou e pelos sábios
conselhos tão valiosos que vocês sempre me deram para que eu chegasse até aqui. Mesmo que
vocês não o entendam, este trabalho e todo o empenho que coloquei nele são dedicados a vocês.
Luciana; Marília, Fernando, Bela, Lica e Dedé; Carola, Daniel, Lulu, João e Larinha; Laura,
Demetrius, Cissa e Álvaro; Heloísa, o carinho de vocês, o interesse pelo meu sucesso e bem-estar
sempre me deram mais forças para continuar caminhando sempre, mesmo nos momentos de
maior dificuldade. O apoio que vocês me deram desde o dia em que lhes contei sobre meu desejo
de encarar esse desafio foi muito importante. Muito obrigado do fundo do meu coração!

Last, but by no means least, I would like to thank my dearest, minha lindinha, Tatiana for
giving me happiness and lull during the most tempestuous times of my life.

Lausanne, September 18, 2015 Pedro Camilo de Oliveira e Silva

vii
 Contents

Abstract i

Résumé iii

Acknowledgements v

I Introduction 1

1 Introduction, Context and Purpose 3

1.1 Power Sector Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Reliability of Power Networks and the Role of Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Concepts on Power System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Physical and Theoretical Definition of Power System Stability . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Classification of Power System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.3 Interactions Between Hydroelectric Machinery and the Power Grid . . . 10
1.4 Description of the Present Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.3 Structure of the Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 State of the Art 19

2.1 Eigenvalues Computation Methods for Small-Signal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Small-Signal Multi-Physics Models for Stability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Power Systems Softwares with Eigenanalysis Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Eigenanalysis Capabilities in SIMSEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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Contents

II Theoretical Approach 27

3 Small-Signal Stability 29
3.1 Lyapunov Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Eigenanalysis: An Intuitive Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Concepts on Small-Signal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3.1 Linearized State-Space Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.2 Eigensolution of the Linearized System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.3 Participation Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.4 Eigenvalue Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.5 Eigenanalysis and Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4 Small-Signal Modeling of Electrical Elements 41

4.1 Time-Domain Models of Electrical Elements in SIMSEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 Extension of Eigenanalysis Concepts to Nonautonomous Systems . . . . . . . . 43
4.3 Small-Signal Electrical Models for SIMSEN based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates . 44
4.4 Proposed Modeling Procedure Applied to the Salient-Pole Synchronous
Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5 Validation of the Small-Signal Models 53

5.1 Small-Signal Electrical Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates . . . . . . . . 53
5.2 Construction of System Matrices in SIMSEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.4 Wound-Rotor Induction Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.5 Power Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.6 RL and RLC Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.7 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.8 Voltage Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.9 Power System Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6 Modeling of Hydraulic Elements 77

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2 Hydroacoustic Model of a Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.3 Francis Turbine Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.4 Model of a Surge Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.5 Model of the Turbine Governor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.6 Linearization of the Hydraulic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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 Contents

III Case Studies 87

7 Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant 89

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.2 Case Study Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.2.1 Electrical Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.2.2 Hydraulic Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.2.3 Possible Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.3 Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.3.1 The Regular Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.3.2 The Intermediate Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.3.3 The Critical Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.3.4 Contribution of the PSS to the Stability of the Local Mode . . . . . . . . . 96
7.4 Eigenanalysis of the Hydraulic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.5 Eigenanalysis of the Complete Hydroelectric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.5.1 Interactions between the Hydraulic and the Electrical Subsystems . . . . 101
7.5.2 Contribution of the Turb. Governor to the Stability of the Local Mode . . 102
7.5.3 Interaction between the Turbine Governor and the PSS . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

8 Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant 111

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.2 Case Study Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.1 Electrical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.2 Hydraulic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2.3 Problems Encountered During Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.3 Validation of the Electrical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.4 Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System at Part Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.5 Eigenanalysis of the Hydraulic System at Part Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.6 Hydroelectric System Eigenanalysis at Part Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

IV Conclusions 137

9 Summary, Conclusions and Perspectives 139

9.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.2 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.3 Contributions of the Present Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.4 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

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9.4.1 Other Standard Types of Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

9.4.2 Parametric Studies through Eigenvalue Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.4.3 Extension to other Renewable Energy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

V Appendices 145

A Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates 147

A.1 Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
A.1.1 Stator Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
A.1.2 Rotor Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
A.1.3 Mechanical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
A.2 Wound-Rotor Induction Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
A.2.1 Stator Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
A.2.2 Rotor Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
A.2.3 Mechanical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
A.3 Power Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A.3.1 Vector Group Yy0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A.3.2 Vector Group Yd5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
A.3.3 Vector Group Yd11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
A.4 Electrical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
A.4.1 RL Series Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
A.4.2 RLC Series Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
A.5 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
A.5.1 RL Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
A.5.2 π-Section Model of Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
A.6 Voltage Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
A.6.1 IEEE ST1A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
A.6.2 Unitrol® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
A.6.3 Voltage Input (∆u m ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
A.7 Power System Stabilizer IEEE PSS2B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Bibliography 182

List of Symbols 183

List of Figures 193

List of Tables 197

Curriculum Vitae 201

xii
 Part I

Introduction

1
 Introduction, Context and Purpose
1

1.1 Power Sector Evolution

The power sector is in constant evolution and the worldwide demand for electricity is in
permanent expansion. Consequently, electricity is the fastest-growing final form of energy
throughout the world, and sustaining the growth of its supply is essential. Nonetheless, the
development of the electricity market is also driven by concerns for environmental issues,
especially reduction of flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion; furthermore, this
expansion is also affected by the need of replacement of retired power plants along the years.

Current energy policies and investments promote the expansion of renewable power genera-
tion in many OECD countries, while the growth of several emerging economies keeps relying
on traditional sources (fossil fuels). In fact, growth and transformations in the power sector
are fundamental and universal, but the way they happen varies according to current and new
policies, distribution of investments and how authorities tackle the issues, thus driving market
trends.

The "New Policies Scenario"a proposed by the International Energy Agency (IEA) in its World
Energy Outlook 2014 indicates that over the period of 2012-2040 world electricity demand
is forecasted to increase with an average ratio of 2.1% per year. Power capacity additions
correspond to 7200 GW, whereas retirements add up to 2450 GW. As a result, the worldwide
installed capacity rises from 5950 GW in 2013 to 10700 GW in 2040 [37].

a This scenario admits an evolution of the overall energy market considering policies adopted from mid-2014

and also other pertinent policy proposals yet to be accepted, which establish new targets for factors such as
reduction of carbon emission, development of renewable energy and improved energy efficiency [37].

3
 ƉĞƌŝŽĚŝŶƚŚĞEĞǁWŽůŝĐŝĞƐ^ĐĞŶĂƌŝŽ͕ƌĞŶĞǁĂďůĞƐŽƵƚƉƵƚŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐŵŽƌĞƚŚĂŶĐŽĂůĂŶĚŐĂƐ ϭϭ
ĐŽŵďŝŶĞĚƚŚƌŽƵŐŚƚŽϮϬϰϬ;&ŝŐƵƌĞϲ͘ϳͿ͘dŚĞLJĂĐĐŽƵŶƚĨŽƌϰϴйŽĨŝŶĐƌĞŵĞŶƚĂůŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶĨƌŽŵ
ϮϬϭϮ ƚŽ ϮϬϰϬ͕ ƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĞůĞĐƚƌŝĐŝƚLJ ŽƵƚƉƵƚ ŽĨ Ăůů ƌĞŶĞǁĂďůĞƐ ƚĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐŝĞƐ ĐŽŵďŝŶĞĚ ϭϮ
ĞdžĐĞĞĚŝŶŐƚŚĂƚŽĨŐĂƐŝŶϮϬϭϰĂŶĚƚŚĂƚŽĨĐŽĂůƚŽǁĂƌĚƐƚŚĞŵŝĚͲϮϬϯϬƐ͘

ChapterFigure
1. Introduction, Context and Purpose ϭϯ
6.7 ‫ ٲ‬World electricity generation by source in the
New Policies Scenario
15 000
ϭϯ
TWh historical projected
Renewables
12 000 Coal 13

9 000
Gas 14

6 000 ϭϲ
Nuclear
3 000 ϭϳ
ΞKͬ/͕ϮϬϭϰ

Oil
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 ϭϴ
Figure 1.1: Worldwide electricity generation forecast by source [37].
Chapter 6 | Power sector outlook 215

This growth is followed by a compelling change in the mix of power sources. Although the use
of coal keeps increasing, its share in the electricity mix decreases considerably. Renewable
sources, hydropower included, almost triple until 2040, and also gas and nuclear have their
participation increased in the mix. As a result, renewable sources tend to surpass coal, turning
into the biggest source of electricity [37, 82] (see figure 1.1).

Nonetheless, these general trends conceal important information about the development
of electricity markets in different regions. Figure 1.2 shows that neither the penetration of
renewable sources nor the reduction of fossil fuel power plants are the same in all regions.
Also, the worldwide fossil fuel share reduction is to be compensated mostly by the adoption
of modern renewable technologies, such as wind, solar PV and others. Simultaneously, hy-
dropower tends to preserve its share, which means that it keeps increasing in terms of absolute
values of installed capacity. Indeed, hydropower has an important role to play in the context
of the modern electricity sector concerning the operational stability of power networks.

1.2 Reliability of Power Networks and the Role of Hydropower

Depending on the source of energy, power plants may present distinct dynamic behaviors.
Thermal power plants (which shall remain as the major contribution to the electricity sector)
have a slow dynamic and are not able to compensate sudden changes in power production or
consumption. On the other hand, modern renewables such as wind and solar PV do not have
guaranteed availability, since they depend on environmental factors. For this reason, they
shall represent a source of disturbances for power networks. Figure 1.3, adapted from [25],
illustrates the high intermittency of wind and solar PV installation in Germany over a period
of seven months in 2010. Despite of an installed capacity of over 36 GW, the maximum peak
power is 20 GW. Also, the volatility of the energy production of both sources is clear.

4
 Figure 6.9 ‫ ٲ‬Share1.2.
of electricity
Reliabilitygeneration by sourceand
of Power Networks andthe
selected
Role ofregion in
Hydropower
the New Policies Scenario ϭ
20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Ϯ
2012 22 720 TWh
World
2040 40 100 TWh
ϯ
2012 5 020 TWh
China
2040 10 730 TWh ϰ
United 2012 4 270 TWh
States 2040 5 210 TWh ϱ

India
2012 1 170 TWh ϲ
2040 3 790 TWh

European 2012 3 260 TWh ϳ

Union 2040 3 740 TWh
ϴ
2012 1 070 TWh
Russia
2040 1 500 TWh
ϵ
2012 1 030 TWh
Japan
2040 1 140 TWh
ϭϬ
Coal Gas Oil Nuclear Hydro Bioenergy Wind Solar PV Other renewables
ϭϭ
Figure 61.2: Share of energy production by source and by region [37].
/ŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚ
ϭϮ
tŽƌůĚǁŝĚĞŝŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚŝŶƚŚĞƉŽǁĞƌƐĞĐƚŽƌŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞĚƐŚĂƌƉůLJĚƵƌŝŶŐƚŚĞϮϬϬϬƐ͕ƌĞĂĐŚŝŶŐ
Consequently, in order to keep the stability and reliability of the power grid, it is opportune to
ĂŶ ĞƐƟŵĂƚĞĚ Ψϲϲϯ ďŝůůŝŽŶ ŝŶ ϮϬϭϯ ʹ ƌŽƵŐŚůLJ ƚǁŽͲĂŶĚͲĂͲŚĂůĨ ƟŵĞƐ ŵŽƌĞ ŝŶ ƌĞĂů ƚĞƌŵƐ
take profit of the intrinsic flexibility of hydropower plants. Indeed, this type of power plant is
ƚŚĂŶŝŶϮϬϬϬĂŶĚĞƋƵĂůƚŽĂďŽƵƚϰϬйŽĨƚŽƚĂůŝŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚŝŶĞŶĞƌŐLJƐƵƉƉůLJŝŶĨƌĂƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞ ϭϯ
ϳ
capable;&ŝŐƵƌĞϲ͘ϭϬͿ͘
of withstandingdŚĞďƵůŬŽĨƚŚŝƐŝŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚ;ĂŶĚĂŶĞǀĞŶůĂƌŐĞƌƐŚĂƌĞŽĨƚŚĞŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞŽǀĞƌ
rapid set-point variations of active and reactive power. Therefore, hy-
dropower plants are able toďƵŝůĚŝŶŐ
ϮϬϬϬͲϮϬϭϯͿ ǁĞŶƚ ƚŽ ƉŽǁĞƌ for
compensate ŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ͗caused
fast variations ĐĂƉŝƚĂůby
ƐƉĞŶĚŝŶŐ ŽŶ ŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶ
renewable sources, thus ϭϯ
ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJĂŵŽƵŶƚĞĚƚŽĂůŵŽƐƚΨϰϭϱďŝůůŝŽŶŝŶϮϬϭϯ͕ĐŽŵƉĂƌĞĚǁŝƚŚΨϮϱϬďŝůůŝŽŶŽĨƐƉĞŶĚŝŶŐ
contributing to frequency and voltage stability of the power grid. In addition, excessive power
ŽŶ ƚƌĂŶƐŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ ĂŶĚ ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ ŶĞƚǁŽƌŬƐ͘ /ŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚ ŝŶ ŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ƉĞĂŬĞĚ Ăƚ 13
production can be stored by pump-storage power plants. Furthermore, small hydropower
ĂƌŽƵŶĚΨϰϰϱďŝůůŝŽŶ;ŝŶƌĞĂůϮϬϭϯƉƌŝĐĞƐͿŝŶϮϬϭϭ͕ĐŽŵďŝŶĞĚƐƉĞŶĚŝŶŐŽŶǁŝŶĚĂŶĚƐŽůĂƌ
plants play a major role in emerging countries, where they are used for rural and township
ĨĂůůŝŶŐďĂĐŬŝŶϮϬϭϮďLJĂƌŽƵŶĚϵйĂŶĚďLJĂŶŽƚŚĞƌϭϬйŝŶϮϬϭϯ͕ďĞĐĂƵƐĞŽĨƐŚĂƌƉĨĂůůƐŝŶ
ƵŶŝƚ ĐŽƐƚƐ
14
electrification of ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ regions
remote ĚŝƐĐŽŶƟŶƵĂƟŽŶ
[69]. ŽĨ ƐƵƉƉŽƌƚ ƉŽůŝĐŝĞƐ ŝŶ ƐŽŵĞ ĐŽƵŶƚƌŝĞƐ͘ /ŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚ ŝŶ
ƐŽůĂƌ Ws ĂĐĐŽƵŶƚĞĚ ĨŽƌ Ϯϰй ŽĨ ƚŽƚĂů ŝŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚ ŝŶ ŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶ͕ ĨŽůůŽǁĞĚ ďLJ ŚLJĚƌŽ ;ϮϬйͿ͕
Nevertheless, the exploitation of hydropower plants to counterbalance constant variations
ϭϲ
of electricity generation and consumption leads to off-design operation.
ϲ͘ഩ'ůŽďĂůƉŽǁĞƌƐĞĐƚŽƌŝŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚƉƌŽƐƉĞĐƚƐǁĞƌĞĂŶĂůLJƐĞĚŝŶĚĞƚĂŝůŝŶƚŚĞƐƉĞĐŝĂůƌĞƉŽƌƚ This
World condition
Energy Investment may
ĂƐĂĨƌĞĞĚŽǁŶůŽĂĚ͘
ϭϳ
provokeOutlook 2014;/͕ϮϬϭϰͿ͕ĂŶĚŝƐĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞĂƚwww.worldenergyoutlook.org/investment/
instabilities or undesirable oscillations, as pulsations originated in the hydraulic
ΞKͬ/͕ϮϬϭϰ

ϳ͘ഩ/ŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚƐ ĨŽƌ ƉŽǁĞƌ ŐĞŶĞƌĂƚŝŽŶ ĂŶĚ dΘ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ĂƌĞ ĂůůŽĐĂƚĞĚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ LJĞĂƌ ŝŶ ǁŚŝĐŚ ƚŚĞ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ŝƐ ĨŝƌƐƚ ŝŶ
system ŽƉĞƌĂƚŝŽŶ͕ŝ͘Ğ͘ƚŚĞLJƌĞĨůĞĐƚ͞ŽǀĞƌŶŝŐŚƚŝŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚĐŽƐƚƐ͘͟/ŶƌĞĂůŝƚLJ͕ŝŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚŝŶŶĞǁĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJǁŝůůďĞƐƉƌĞĂĚŽǀĞƌƚŚĞ
may propagate in the electrical system, deteriorating the dynamic behavior of the
ϭϴ
LJĞĂƌƐƉƌĞĐĞĚŝŶŐƚŚĞĐŽŵƉůĞƚŝŽŶŽĨƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐ͘
power plant. Thus, care must be taken on the parametrization of controllers of hydropower
units, in order to obtain an effective contribution to the stability of power grids.
Chapter 6 | Power sector outlook 217
Turbine governors, automatic voltage regulators (AVR) and power system stabilizers (PSS)
must correctly interact with the rest of the system, either contributing to frequency and voltage
stability or active and reactive power flow. Consequently, their parameter sets must be in
consonance with the operating mode of the power plant.

5
Chapter 1. Introduction, Context and Purpose

35
Renewables installed in Germany until mid-2010 > 36 GW
30
Photovoltaic
Wind
25
Pel (GW)

20

15

10

0
January February March April May June July

Figure 1.3: Intermittency of wind and solar PV in Germany in 2010 [25].

Three different operating modes are common: (i) interconnected operation – when the power
plant is connected to a large power system; (ii) islanded operation – when the power plant and
its surrounding network have a weak connection (low short-circuit power) with the power grid
and with no tie-line connections to neighboring systems; (iii) isolated operation – when the
power plant is responsible for feeding a local network without any connection with a large
power grid.

Considering all these factors, one can readily understand the importance of predicting the
behavior of power plants under various scenarios of the energy market and different oper-
ating modes. This requires precise mathematical models and efficient computational tools.
Furthermore, if the focus is put on the stability of hydropower plants, hydraulic, mechanical,
electrical and regulation elements must be represented properly, so that phenomena arising
from the interaction of these subsystems are correctly represented.

1.3 Concepts on Power System Stability

1.3.1 Physical and Theoretical Definition of Power System Stability

Power system stability has been a topic of major concern in the context of operation of
electrical networks for almost one hundred years, following the expansion of the first electrical
systems feeding metropolitan areas [24, 99]. Ever since then, a number of forms of instability
have come forth as a consequence of the growth of power networks. They have originated
some distinct fields of investigation in the scope of power system stability.

6
 1.3. Concepts on Power System Stability

As defined by the IEEE/CIGRÉ Joint Task Force on Stability Terms and Definitions, “power
system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating condition,
to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with
most system variables bounded so that practically the entire system remains intact” [52].

This physically-based definition means that the system does not necessarily recover its initial
equilibrium state. Indeed, disturbances are likely to cause changes in the topology of the
network, thus modifying voltage levels and power flows. However, the final steady state
operating point must lay inside the rated limits of all devices (transmission lines, transformers,
generators, etc.), so that the new equilibrium point is continuously acceptable. Otherwise,
additional disturbances may happen to the system [4].

These conditions are closely related to the definition of asymptotic stability from dynamic
nonlinear systems theory. According to this definition, an equilibrium point is asymptotically
stable if: (a) all solutions starting at nearby points stay nearby; and (b) all solutions starting at
nearby points not only stay nearby, but also tend to the equilibrium point as time approaches
infinity [48]. The first condition intuitively expresses stability in the sense of Lyapunov. These
concepts are dealt with in depth in chapter 3, section 3.1.

1.3.2 Classification of Power System Stability

Even though power system stability is a single problem, it is convenient to divide it in categories
according to three main criteria [51, 52]:

1. The physical nature of the instability, indicated by the variables in which instability is
manifested;

2. The magnitude of the disturbance, which determines the method of calculation and
prediction of stability;

3. The devices, processes and time span that are taken into account in order to determine
stability.

In the sense of criterion 1, the stability problem may be classified as rotor angular stability,
frequency stability and voltage stability. Regarding aspect 2., the stability problem may be
of small disturbance (signal) or large disturbance (signal) type. And considering criterion 3.,
especially with respect to the time span, it can be defined as a short-term or a long-term
phenomenon. Short-term phenomena happen in a time range of several seconds, whereas
long-term phenomena involve events occurring in a time range up to several minutes.

7
Chapter 1. Introduction, Context and Purpose

Rotor Angular or Synchronous Stability

Rotor angular stability is related to the ability of synchronous machines of an interconnected

power system to remain in synchronism following a given disturbance. Instabilities that may
arise can be of two different forms: aperiodic or nonoscillatory instabilities resulting from a
lack of synchronizing torque, and periodic or oscillatory instabilities resulting from a lack of
damping torque [4, 51, 52].

In general, rotor angular stability deals with phenomena in the time frame of a few seconds up
to a few tens of seconds, being a short-term stability problem.

It is convenient to divide the analysis of rotor angular stability in two subcategories:

• Small-disturbance (or small-signal) rotor angle stability deals with the ability of the
power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to disturbances of small ampli-
tudes, frequently resulting from small variations in power consumption and generation.
A small disturbance means that the system can be linearized around its operating point
without major loss of information so that linear systems analysis techniques can be
applied. As a consequence, small-signal stability is strongly dependent upon the initial
equilibrium point of the system.
Small-disturbance stability is mainly a question of damping of oscillations, which may
be of local or global nature. Local problems are related to a specific part of the system
and involve rotor angle oscillations of a power plant against the rest of the system (local
plant mode oscillations) or oscillations between generators close to each other (inter-
machine or interplant mode oscillations). As a whole, these two types of oscillations are
also known as electro-mechanical mode oscillations and their frequency range is most
commonly of 0.7 to 2.0 Hz.
Local problems may also be caused by the presence of control and regulation ele-
ments, either due to inappropriate tuning of parameters (control mode oscillations)
or to improper interactions with the turbine-generator shaft system (torsional mode
oscillations).
Global problems are related to interactions among large groups of generators, thus
involving an extensive part of the system (interarea mode oscillations). Typically, a very
low frequency mode (0.1 to 0.3 Hz) happens, involving all the generators of the system,
which is basically split into two areas swinging against each other. Also, higher frequency
modes (0.4 to 0.7 Hz) may occur, related to subgroups of generators oscillating against
each other [51].
This method of stability analysis is based on the calculation of eigenvalues and eigen-
vectors of the system. The concepts related to small-signal stability are presented in
more detail in chapter 3.

8
 1.3. Concepts on Power System Stability

• Large-disturbance rotor angle stability or transient stability deals with the ability of the
power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to substantial disturbances,
such as short-circuits in a transmission line or close to a generator. In this case, the
system response undergoes large variations and the stability depends not only upon
the initial equilibrium point, but also upon the duration and the severity of the distur-
bance [52].

Frequency Stability

Frequency stability is related to the ability of a power system to maintain steady frequency after
being subjected to a severe disturbance leading to a considerable imbalance between power
consumption and generation. Essentially, the system must be able to recover equilibrium
between load and generation, with minimum loss of load [52].

Several distinct devices and mechanisms with different time characteristics are involved in fre-
quency instabilities. For this reason, frequency stability is distinguished between short-term
and long-term events. The former involves elements such as protections and generator con-
trols, whereas the latter is related to characteristics of prime movers, boilers and reactors [4].

Voltage Stability

Voltage stability is related to the ability of a power system to keep steady voltage levels at all
buses of the system following a disturbance. As it is the case with rotor angular stability, distur-
bances can be large, such as loss of generation and system faults, or small, e.g. incremental
variations in consumption/generation of power [4].

Phenomena related to voltage stability may be of either short-term or long-term nature. Short-
term voltage stability depends on fast dynamics of components such as HVDC converters,
induction motors and other electronically controlled loads. Long-term voltage stability is
affected by components with slower action, as transformers with tap changers and generator
current limiters [51].

Instabilities may occur in the form of gradual uncontrolled rise or fall of voltages of several
buses of the system, possibly resulting in voltage collapse of a large part of it. The development
of such phenomena can happen over a time range of several minutes and may result in loss of
load, outage of components of the network due to tripping of the protection system and even
loss of synchronism of some generators [52].

Aspects exclusively related to frequency and voltage stability analysis are out of the scope of
the present work, since these are two very specific and broad fields of study.

9
Chapter 1. Introduction, Context and Purpose

Figure 1.4 summarizes the classification and definitions of power system stability. Small-signal
angle stability is highlighted in this figure for the reason that it lies on the major scope of the
present work.

Power System
Stability

Rotor Angular Frequency Voltage

Stability Stability Stability

Small-Signal Transient Small-Signal Large-Signal

Angle Stability Stability Voltage Stability Voltage Stability

Short Term Short Term Long Term Short Term Long Term

Figure 1.4: Classification of power system stability [52].

1.3.3 Interactions Between Hydroelectric Machinery and the Power Grid

Besides the stability issues described in section 1.3.2, other types of disturbances may be
introduced in the power grid coming from interactions with the dynamic behavior of the
energy source subsystems.

Specifically in the case of hydropower plants when used to compensate for constant variations
of power generation and consumption, instabilities or undesirable disturbances may arise.
This may affect the dynamic behavior of the power plant and lead to troublesome interactions
with the grid, as mentioned in section 1.2. The prediction of these probable interactions,
however, depends on the appropriate modeling of both electrical and hydraulic elements.
Results obtained in this way give more precise information about the stability of the system,
from hydraulic and electrical viewpoints [60, 71].

The Francis turbine is the most employed type of hydraulic machine due to its wide application
range. Francis turbine installations are characterized by complex water flow patterns that
develop in the hydraulic machine, which are three-dimensional, rotational and unsteady. As a
result, pressure fluctuations may arise from such a water flow behavior [69].

Indeed, the water flow entering the turbine runner presents a swirly characteristic that is
induced by its passage through the spiral case, stay vanes and guide vanes. The flow leaving
the turbine is nonetheless almost purely axial at the best efficiency point, i.e., the water flow
entering the draft tube presents hardly no swirl at rated operating condition. This is not the

10
 1.3. Concepts on Power System Stability

case, however, when the turbine operates at off-design conditions. At part load operation,
when the flow rate ranges from 50% to 85% of the flow rate at the best efficiency point, there
exists a swirly pattern in the water flow leaving the turbine due to a circumferential component
on its velocity. Consequently, a helical vortex rope is induced in the draft tube, which has a
precession frequency most commonly between 0.2 and 0.4 times the turbine rotational speed
n [1, 22].

Thus, the vortex rope precession characterizes periodic pressure pulsations in the draft tube
that act as an excitation source for the whole system. Chances exist that the system response to
this excitation may be amplified, possibly resulting in intense pressure surges and mechanical
power fluctuations. Such fluctuations in their turn may interact with the power network,
eventually resulting in considerable electrical power swings.

Indeed, the frequency of part load vortex rope pulsations may coincide with electro-mechan-
ical modes frequency, which ranges from 0.7 to 2.0 Hz. Depending on the stiffness of the
power network, the electrical power swings resulting from the resonance of these modes of
oscillation may be detrimental to the dynamic behavior of the generating unit and to the
stability of the local network. This is particularly the case for hydropower plants operating in
islanded and isolated networks.

Figure 1.5 illustrates the part load vortex rope in the draft tube and gives a comparison
between the electro-mechanical modes range and the part load vortex rope pulsation range
for machines with several distinct rotational speeds n. Considering a network rated frequency
of 50 Hz, the corresponding number of pole-pairs of the generator is given in parentheses.

The upper turbine rotational speed value for which vortex rope pulsations may interact with
electro-mechanical modes under a network frequency of 50 Hz is n = 500 rpm (6 pairs of poles
generator). For this rotational speed, which corresponds to a frequency f t ur b = 8.33 Hz, the
lower value of the vortex rope frequency range is f V Rl ow = 1.66 Hz (0.2 · f t ur b ), falling into the

Electro-mechanical modes range

Part load vortex rope pulsations for:
Ÿ n = 500 rpm (6 pole-pairs)
Ÿ n = 333 rpm (9 pole-pairs)
Ÿ n = 300 rpm (10 pole-pairs)
Ÿ n = 200 rpm (15 pole-pairs)
Ÿ n = 150 rpm (20 pole-pairs)
Ÿ n = 120 rpm (25 pole-pairs)
Ÿ n = 107 rpm (28 pole-pairs)
0.7 1.0 2.0 3.0 f [Hz]

Figure 1.5: Part load vortex rope in the draft tube and its pulsation frequency range.

11
Chapter 1. Introduction, Context and Purpose

electro-mechanical frequency range.

Indeed, a generating unit with five pairs of poles in a network with frequency of 50 Hz, which
means a rotational speed n = 600 rpm, has the lower value of the vortex rope frequency range
at f V Rl ow = 2.0 Hz. This corresponds to the maximum possible value of electro-mechanical
modes frequency. It is very unlikely that both vortex rope pulsations and electro-mechanical
modes happen exactly at this boundary point. For this reason, interactions between vortex
rope pulsations and electro-mechanical modes are impropable in this case.

Conversely, the lower turbine rotational speed value for which vortex rope pulsations may
interact with electro-mechanical modes under a network frequency of 50 Hz is n = 107.14 rpm
(28 pairs of poles generator). In this case, the turbine rotational frequency is f t ur b = 1.786 Hz
and the upper value of the vortex rope frequency range is consequently f V Rupp = 0.714 Hz
(0.4 · f t ur b ). This value lies inside the electro-mechanical frequency range.

The same reasoning can be applied considering an electrical network frequency of 60 Hz. In
this case, the upper and lower turbine rotational speed values for which vortex rope pulsations
may interact with electro-mechanical modes are, respectively, n = 514.3 rpm (7 pairs of poles
generator) and n = 105.9 rpm (34 pairs of poles generator).

Several other types of excitation sources may arise from the hydraulic circuit due to water
flow disturbances in Francis turbines. However, part load vortex rope excitation is the single
one described here for the only reason that under its occurrence, due to the frequency range
in which it happens, important resonance phenomena may occur between hydraulic and
electrical systems (for more information regarding excitation sources in Francis turbines,
see [69], chapter 8). Thus, a precise prediction of the natural modes of a hydroelectric unit
permits both: (i) to avoid dangerous power swings, when detected during design phase [83];
and (ii) to attenuate undesirable oscillations only detected on site, after commissioning the
generating unit.

1.4 Description of the Present Work

1.4.1 Purpose

Considering the facts presented in section 1.1, it is clear that the constant evolution of the
power sector, and the challenges originated by a bigger penetration of modern renewable
energy sources create the need for analysis tools, which are appropriate for planning new
installations and better exploiting the existing ones. Such tools must be capable of both:
(i) predicting the dynamic behavior of electrical power networks due to topology changes and
inclusions of new power plants and other elements; and (ii) simulating undesired behaviors

12
 1.4. Description of the Present Work

in order to give enough information for the solution of problems detected during operation.
Moreover, it is important that these tools be at the same time user-friendly, robust and reliable
for coping with power networks with high complexity levels.

In this regard, a powerful simulation software for complex energy systems, called SIMSEN,
has been developed at EPFL. This is a fully modular, user-friendly simulation software first
developed for the analysis of electrical power networks and adjustable speed drives under
transient phenomena [89]. Models for electrical machines, transmission lines, loads, power
electronic devices, mechanical inertias, and control and regulation functions were accordingly
established. Later on, an extension to SIMSEN was proposed (SIMSEN-Hydro), comprising
models of hydraulic elements such as turbines, valves and pipes [69]. Besides providing
time-domain simulation capabilities for complete hydroelectric installations, there exists the
possibility of performing the calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors for hydraulic systems
with Francis turbines using linearized models.

Thus, the main purpose of the present work is to develop a new tool for small-signal stability
analysis of electrical systems to be implemented in SIMSEN, taking advantage of its main
features, which are:

• Treatment of systems with any given topology;

• Easy construction of the topology through the connection and parametrization of all
elements in an user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI);

• Automatic generation of the full set of differential equations of the global system.

The focus is to be put on the small-signal stability analysis of hydropower plants. Therefore,
another goal is to connect the models developed in the framework of the present work to
the existing hydraulic linearized models of SIMSEN, so that all interactions of hydraulic,
mechanical, electrical and control elements can be determined and analyzed.

Given that the method of small-disturbance stability analysis yields information concerning
the stability of the whole system around any operating point (as attested in section 1.3.2),
the results of this work shall be a powerful tool for the detection of instability problems
in hydropower plants, their interaction with the power network and possible solutions for
undesired dynamic behaviors. Moreover, with some treatment of the results, it shall be possible
not only to detect the presence of potential instability modes, but also to identify the elements
of the system that cause the instability and those that are more affected by it.

It is important to observe that small-signal stability analysis taking into account the hydraulic
systems becomes also a long-term problem. Indeed, hydraulic time constants are considerably

13
Chapter 1. Introduction, Context and Purpose

higher than electrical ones. Consequently, hydraulic oscillations may develop in a time frame
of many seconds up to some minutes.

1.4.2 Methodology

Small-signal stability analysis relies on linear (or linearized) models for calculating eigenvalues
and eigenvectors, which give information about the stability of the system under study. There-
fore, in order to fulfill the proposed goals of this work and considering the special interest
in studying the small-signal stability of hydropower plants and the interaction with the grid,
linearized models for several electrical elements comprised in a hydropower plant and in a
network have to be developed.

Figure 1.6 gives a schematic representation of the elements that are necessary in order to
obtain a complete representation, which are: (1) synchronous machine; (2) power transform-
ers; (3) transmission line models; (4) loads (consumers); (5) induction machine (either as
motor or generator); (6) infinite grid representation; (7) automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
models; (8) power system stabilizer (PSS); and (9) mechanical inertia system. The link between
electrical and hydraulic system, which shall establish their interaction, is made through the
mechanical system. Finally, the hydraulic system comprises: (10) reservoirs; (11) surge tanks;
(12) penstock (piping elements); (13) Francis turbine with the corresponding characteristic
curves; and (14) turbine governing system.

Moreover, these models must keep the modularity concept existing in SIMSEN, i.e., any

um
(1) (6)
– (7) (2) (3)
+
uset AVR SM ∞
+ δω
uPSS PSS pel
(8)
(11)
(9)
(4) (4)
(10) (5) IM

(12)

(13)

+ –
set
(14)
TG

Figure 1.6: Elements for the representation of a hydropower plant and the grid.

14
 1.4. Description of the Present Work

topology to be defined by the user comprising these elements must be easy to build in the
GUI, the connection of the elements must be treated automatically and the generation of the
full set of linearized differential equations must be performed with no additional work to the
user.

Therefore, the approach adopted to achieve the proposed goals while respecting these require-
ments is the analytical linearization of the mathematical models of the elements presented in
figure 1.6. These analytical linearized models are then implemented in SIMSEN, yielding a
new small-signal stability tool in this software.

Nevertheless, it is important to observe that all the time-domain electrical models in SIMSEN
are based on a,b,c-phase variables [89]. This differs from traditional models which are based
on the well-known d,q,o-axis representation (Park’s representation). Consequently, in order to
take profit of the modularity of SIMSEN, this characteristic has to be respected also for the
small-signal models. Therefore, a novel approach is presented in the present work for the
analytical development of small-signal models of electrical elements. This approach is based
on a,b,c-phase variables.

1.4.3 Structure of the Document

Following this introductory chapter, this document is organized as follows:

Chapter 2. A description of traditional techniques of eigenvalue calculation and small-signal

stability analysis is presented. Additionally, the most recent publications of eigenanalysis
applied to systems described by multi-physics models are discussed. Special attention is paid
to eigenanalysis of systems containing renewable energy sources.

Chapter 3. Concepts related to eigenanalysis and small-signal stability are explained in detail.
Small-signal stability is associated with the Lyapunov stability concept. Then, an intuitive
example of eigenanalysis is presented, which illustrates clearly how eigenvalues and eigenvec-
tors of a system describe its dynamic behavior. Furthermore, the general eigensolution of a
system is given and its eigenproperties are explained.

Chapter 4. The time-variant (nonautonomous) nature of the time-domain models of SIMSEN

is explained. Considering this characteristic, an extension of eigenanalysis concepts to nonau-
tonomous systems is proposed, founded upon the Floquet Theory. Therewith, a procedure is
developed so as to derive small-signal models based on a,b,c-phase coordinates. This main-
tains compatibility with SIMSEN, thus taking advantage of its main benefits. Subsequently, the
use of this procedure is illustrated by its application to the salient-pole synchronous machine.

Chapter 5. All small-signal models derived through the procedure proposed in the previous

15
Chapter 1. Introduction, Context and Purpose

chapter are introduced and validated. Several illustrative test cases are presented in order to
validate the models. Frequencies and time constants related to the calculated eigenvalues
are validated either through analytical expressions, or through graphical analysis of results
obtained from small-disturbance time-domain simulations. A very good agreement is ob-
tained in all test cases. Thereupon, the small-signal electrical models developed for SIMSEN
are proven to be valid and accurate.

Chapter 6. The hydraulic models existing in SIMSEN are introduced. Modeling principles
applied to piping systems, Francis turbine, surge tanks and turbine governors are explained.
Additionally, the linearization of time-domain hydraulic models is described, highlighting the
peculiarities related to each element.

Chapter 7. A case study of an islanded 75 MW hydropower plant is presented. At first, three

different scenarios are considered for the electrical system. The most critical one is found to
be unstable, due to the very weak connection to the grid. The contribution of a power system
stabilizer (IEEE PSS2B) on damping the unstable eigenmode is analyzed.

Then, eigenanalyses of the hydraulic system without and with turbine governor are performed,
considering a high-order model. The main hydraulic eigenmodes are highlighted and the
influence of the turbine governor over these modes is identified.

Subsequently, the electrical system (considering the most critical scenario without PSS) is
coupled to the hydraulic system with turbine governor, yielding a complete high-order repre-
sentation of the hydropower plant. The interactions between hydraulic and electrical systems
are identified, showing that the speed governor is capable of damping the unstable eigenmode
of the electrical system. The instability is eliminated with an enhanced set of parameters
for the frequency control loop, but it remains badly damped. The PSS is then added to the
system in order to guarantee a better dynamic behavior. Nonetheless, results obtained for the
complete system (with PSS and with the enhanced tuning of the turbine governor) reveal that
hydraulic eigenmodes become far poorly damped, due to adverse interactions between the
turbine governor and the PSS. Finally, a solution is proposed in order to avoid such detrimental
interactions, achieving a good dynamic behavior for the hydropower plant.

Chapter 8. A case study is performed for an existing 1 GW hydropower plant (4 × 250 MW

generating units). Part load operation is considered, so that disturbances due to vortex rope
precession in the draft tube are studied. Initially, the electrical model is validated by comparing
time-domain simulation and eigenanalysis results with on-site measurements.

Therewith, eigenanalyses considering a part load operating point are carried out for the sys-
tem with 1 up to 4 generators synchronized to the grid. The influence of the number of
synchronized units on the electro-mechanical (local and intermachine) modes is assessed.
Mode shapes of local and intermachine modes are presented in order to illustrate how these

16
 1.4. Description of the Present Work

eigenmodes act on the system. Furthermore, the effects of the installation of a power system
stabilizer (IEEE PSS2B) are studied. The intermachine eigenmodes are found to have a fre-
quency very close to the frequency of electrical power swings measured on site.

Subsequently, an eigenanalysis of the high-order model of the hydraulic system is performed,

and the main eigenvalues are presented. Special attention is given to eigenmodes of the draft
tube, since they are likely to interact with vortex rope pulsations. The frequency of the 2nd
elastic mode of the draft tube is also found to be very close to the pulsations measured on
site. Moreover, this eigenmode has a weak damping ratio. Therefore, the risks of interaction
between vortex rope pulsations, draft tube 2nd elastic mode and intermachine modes are
strong.

Thereupon, a complete hydroelectric model for the whole installation is established. The
eigenanalysis of the complete system confirms the proximity of draft tube and intermachine
eigenmodes. Time-domain simulations are then carried out to confirm the interactions. An
excitation source located in the draft tube of generating unit 1 simulates pressure pulsations
due to vortex rope precession. When happening at the frequency of the 2nd mode of the draft
tube, it is verified that these pulsations are amplified and result in significant electrical power
swings. Nevertheless, the amplitudes are considerably reduced if the PSS is active, since it
strongly damps the intermachine eigenmodes.

Chapter 9. The final summary and conclusions are presented in this chapter. Also, the
contributions of the present work are summarized in a specific section. Finally, perspectives
of future developments are outlined.

Appendix A. The linearized equations of the small-signal electrical models developed in the
scope of the present work are presented in this appendix.

17
 State of the Art
2

2.1 Eigenvalues Computation Methods for Small-Signal Stability

Eigenvalue-based analysis is a classic method applied in the study of dynamic systems and
it is the foundation of power system small-signal stability analysis. Based on the state-space
representation of the system, its eigenproperties can be extracted.

The most common alternative to obtain the eigenvalues of the system is the application of
the QR factorization algorithm. This factorization was first proposed by Francis, in 1961 [26],
and it is a very robust algorithm. For the most general cases (unsymmetrical matrices),
given a matrix A ∈ Rn×n , the algorithm computes its real Schur canonical form QT AQ = T,
where Q is an orthogonal matrix (QT Q = I)a . Thus, T is similar to A and is also an upper-
triangular matrix. Consequently, the eigenvalues of A are the diagonal entries of T. Once the
eigenvalues have been found, the eigenvectors can be computed through partitioning and
specific algorithms [30]. The advantages of the QR algorithm are that it has good stability and
considerably fast convergence. Moreover, it achieves the calculation of all eigenvalues of the
system, allowing a full eigenanalysis.

On the other hand, the QR algorithm is incapable of incorporating sparsity techniques. For
a system of order n, the number of floating points operations required is approximately
10n 3 and the use of memory is proportional to n 2 [30]. Consequently, the QR algorithm is
computationally unattractive for systems of very high order, such as large interconnected
power systems. Therefore, its application is frequently limited to systems with several hundred

a In this work, bold-faced type is used to denote vector quantities. Uppercase letters are used to denote general

matrices, whereas lowercase letters denote vectors.

19
Chapter 2. State of the Art

up to a few thousand state variables.

Semlyen and Wang (1988 [93] and 1990 [105]) presented developments in order to incorporate
sparse techniques into the algorithm. Also, Henry et al. proposed in 2002 an improvement by
parallelizing the computation of the QR algorithm, increasing its scalabilty [33].

Geist et al. presented in 1999 the BR eigenvalue algorithm, which is better adapted to comput-
ing eigenvalues of large-scale systems represented by sparse matrices, reducing computation
time and memory requirements [28]. This technique can be preceded by a reduction of the
matrix to a similar small-band Hessenberg form (BHESS), as proposed by Howell and Diaa
in 2005, decreasing the computation time to about one-fifth of the time required by the QR
algorithm to perform the same operation [34].

Ma et al. presented in 2006 the first efforts for the application of the BR algorithm in the context
of small-signal stability [61]. Recently, Zhao et al. (2015) presented further improvements to
the BHESS-BR method in order to overcome numerical instabilities that happened in case
of matrices of very high order [108]. Although these efforts made this method more suitable
to small-signal stability analysis, few applications have been published until the present
time. In fact, even though the BHESS-BR method is more efficient than the QR algorithm in
terms of computation time and memory consumption, it also represents a considerably high
computational cost for large-scale systems. This happens because the number of floating
points operations required is quadratically proportional to the order of the matrix [61].

The computational limitations introduced by the algorithms capable of giving the full eigen-
solution (QR and BR algorithms) led to several developments in the field of eigenvalues
computation for small-signal stability. Indeed, large interconnected power networks may be
represented by several thousands of state variables. Thus, most of the achievements were
based on the interest in reducing computation times, memory requirements and simplifying
the interpretation of results.

Byerly et al. presented in 1982 the AESOPS algorithm (Analysis of Essentially Spontaneous
Oscillations in Power Systems) [11]. It is based on a frequency response analysis to obtain the
eigenvalues associated with the generator rotor oscillations. Consequently, it provided limited
analysis capability. Sauer et al. (1991) proposed later a generalization of this algorithm so that
the computation of various modes, either separately or simultaneously, became possible [91].
Later on, Lam et al. (1994) provided a convergence improvement of the AESOPS algorithm by
using a Newton-Raphson iteration scheme [54].

Another technique developed for the simplification of the eigenanalysis of large power systems
is the Selective Modal Analysis (SMA), proposed by Pérez-Arriaga in 1981 [79]. SMA allows to
compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the natural modes of interest and also determine

20
 2.2. Small-Signal Multi-Physics Models for Stability Assessment

reduced order models related to and containing these modes [80, 81, 102]. Barquin et al. (2002)
proposed a more general formulation of the algorithms for reduced order eigenanalysis [7]. In
this formulation, the reduced order subspaces are updated in each iteration step, improving
the convergence of the algorithm.

The Modified Arnoldi Method (MAM), proposed by Saad in 1981, was another achievement for
the simplication of the eigenvalue problem of large-scale power systems [88]. This algorithm
is an improvement of the method proposed by Arnoldi, in 1951, for the solution of large
unsymmetrical eigenproblems [6]. MAM is based on a reduction technique in which the
matrix whose eigenvalues are to be computed is reduced to an upper Hessenberg matrix [53].
This allows the computation of some eigenvalues of the system around a specified region of the
complex plane, avoiding arithmetic steps involved in the QR transformation. In 1996, Lehoucq
and Sorensen presented the Implicitly Restarted Arnoldi Method (IRAM), with improved
convergence [58, 59]. And the efforts of Dookhitram et al. (2009) led to a new method for
accelerating the convergence of the IRAM [21].

Rommes and Martins proposed two new techniques dedicated to the computation of domi-
nant eigenvalues of large-scale power systems. The Sensitive Pole Algorithm (SPA), presented
in 2008, computes the eigenvalues most sensitive to parameter changes [84]. In 2010, an algo-
rithm based on the Subspace Accelerated Rayleigh Quotient Iteration (SARQI) was developed
for the automatic computation of rightmost eigenvalues of large-scale matrices [85].

2.2 Small-Signal Multi-Physics Models for Stability Assessment

In addition to its long-established use in the framework of large-scale power systems, eige-
nanalysis is a very powerful tool for stability assessment of multi-physics systems, as well
as for tuning and design of controllers and stabilizers. Many recent publications present
such applications on stability assessment of systems that are much less extensive than large
electrical grids.

Kawkabani (2001) derived small-signal expressions for the electromagnetic torque of syn-
chronous generators for the calculation of complex torque coefficients [47]. This method
was used for studying the effects of the variation of voltage regulators gain on the stability of
power plants. The analysis of the influence of supplementary damping added by power system
stabilizers was also performed through this technique. Comparisons with eigenanalysis results
were performed in order to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed approach. This work was
an extension of the method presented by Canay for the study of torsional interactions between
electrical and mechanical systems [12, 13]. Kamwa et al. (2005) applied small-signal assess-
ment techniques in order to perform the tuning of IEEE PSS2B and PSS4B for single-machine

21
Chapter 2. State of the Art

infinite-bus and four-machine two-area systems [45]. Martins and Sanches Bossa (2014)
performed eigenvalues calculation for the design of a new modal stabilizer [64]. Since the
purpose of a modal controller is to act on specific eigenmodes of a system without affecting
the other, the knowledge of the eigenvalues is clearly essential. Beza and Bongiorno (2015)
derived a small-signal model for a two-machine system with static synchronous compensator
with energy storage [8]. This model was applied in the design of an adaptive power oscillation
damping controller.

The interactions of power electronic devices with the electrical network has also been studied
through small-signal analysis. Sun (2009) reviewed different small-signal models and meth-
ods for power electronic devices used in AC distributed power systems, coping with their
time-varying nature [100]. Alonso et al. (2013) performed small-signal analysis of high power
factor AC-DC converters [3]. The small-signal model was derived from the averaged large-
signal representation. Kahrobaeian and Mohamed (2014) assessed the small-signal stability
of medium-voltage converter-based microgrids when impacted by dynamic loads such as
induction motors [44]. A complete small-signal model was proposed and low-, medium- and
high-frequency eigenmodes were identified. Chamorro et al. (2014) performed small-signal
analysis of the Nordic electrical grid in order to analyze the impact of the increasing pene-
tration of renewable energy interfaced by back-to-back voltage source inverters [15]. The
influence of such non-synchronous power sources on the damping of electro-mechanical
modes was assessed for different levels of penetration. Issa et al. (2015) presented a small-
signal model of an islanded microgrid with two inverters for the design of a droop control
under islanding conditions [39]. Wang et al. (2015) applied knowledge from Alonso et al. (ref-
erence [3]) to derive small-signal models for line-side converters of electric locomotives [103].
These models were used to assess underdamped low-frequency oscillations due to the interac-
tion between the grid and the locomotive converters.

Several recent publications presented efforts on modeling renewable energy sources together
with electrical elements, allowing for the analysis of interactions between electrical grids and
hydraulic, wind and solar subsystems.

Geng et al. (2011) applied small-signal models on the study of speed and torque oscillations of
permanent magnet synchronous generators when connected to wind turbines without any
damping devices [29]. The small-signal analysis was used on the design of a generator torque
controller in order to damp these oscillations. Huang et al. (2012) presented a complete model
for wind turbines with direct drive permanent magnet (DDPM) synchronous generators, in-
cluding converters and control scheme [35]. The influence of the controllers’ parameters
was then analyzed for a single-machine system. De Oliveira et al. (2012), concerned with the
improvement of small-signal stability margin of wind farms, studied a supplementary control
loop for wind turbine generators based on doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) [19]. Bu

22
 2.2. Small-Signal Multi-Physics Models for Stability Assessment

et al. (2012) proposed an analytical method for probabilistic analysis of small-signal stability
of power systems when subjected to high penetration of wind power, considering a stochastic
variation of wind generation [10]. He et al. (2013) provided a small-signal stability compar-
ison between three different concepts of wind turbine generators: DFIG, DDPM generator
and squirrel-cage induction generator (SCIG) [32]. The stability of power systems with high
penetration of wind power was also the main interest of this study. Arani and Mohamed
(2015) demonstrated the positive influence of power- and torque-droop controls applied to
DFIG-based wind turbines on the stability of microgrids and weak grids [5]. Jamehbozorg and
Radman (2015) studied the small-signal behavior of a power system containing synchronous
generators, SCIG-based wind power and energy capacitor units, demonstrating the positive
effect of the latter [42].

Small-signal models have also been applied to microgrids containing solar power generation,
more specifically PV installations. Guan et al. (2014) derived a small-signal model of a hybrid
microgrid consisted of a PV station, a small hydropower plant (with simplified representa-
tion) and a battery storage system [31]. Based on this model, the performance of the power
sharing control was analyzed and the influence of the tuning of controller parameters was
demonstrated. Mishra and Ramasubramanian (2015) presented a small-signal model for a
microgrid based on PV generation and diesel engine system, taking into account the presence
of induction motors as a dynamic load [67]. It was demonstrated that the electro-mechanical
oscillation mode of the diesel engine generator tends to become unstable if the power share of
the PV installation is increased. A supplementary controller was then introduced in the PV
control loop in order to overcome this problem.

Regarding eigenanalysis applied to hydropower systems, Kamwa et al. (2002) derived a small-
signal model from a transient stability program (large-disturbance model) of the open-loop
system seen by a hydro-turbine governor [46]. The model was employed to assess the perfor-
mance of three different types of hydro-turbine governors installed in distinct hydropower
plants of the Canadian electrical network. Liu and Liu (2007) presented a comprehensive
small-signal model of a single-machine hydropower plant, including hydraulic elements,
taking into account water compressibility and conduit elasticity [60]. This model was ap-
plied to an existing small hydropower plant located in China, which experienced oscillatory
instabilities since its installation. Different types of interaction were identified and typical
oscillation modes were distinguished. Besides electro-mechanical and control oscillation
modes, the water elasticity mode and the mechanic-water mode were classified. The first one
happened due to the conduit elasticity, whereas the second one was due to the interaction
between the conduit and the mechanical system. The eigenanalysis pointed out a way to
overcome oscillatory instabilities encountered on site by changing the PSS and voltage regu-
lator parameters. Furthermore, Liu and Liu demonstrated the importance of multi-physics

23
Chapter 2. State of the Art

models for the analysis of small-signal behavior of hydropower plants. Zhou and Wang (2008)
performed eigenanalysis to study the effect of pipe elasticity on the stability of low frequency
oscillation modes [109]. The importance of adopting high-order elastic models for the hy-
draulic system was stressed out in order to correctly predict interactions between hydraulic
and electro-mechanical oscillation modes. Chompoobutrgool et al. (2012) presented a rather
accurate, although simplified, model for hydro turbines and governor and demonstrated the
importance of careful modeling by performing eigenanalysis of the Nordic power grid [17].
Silva et al. presented in 2012 a complete small-signal model of a hydropower plant to analyze
speed governor contributions under load rejection conditions [96]. The small signal modeling
of electrical elements was based on a,b,c-phase variables. Later, Silva et al. proposed in 2014
a generalization of the modeling presented in the work of 2012 and applied it to derive fully
modular models to the small-signal stability analysis of an islanded hydropower plant [95].
The same modeling concept was applied by Alligné et al. further in 2014 for the forced response
analysis of hydroelectric systems [2]. Sarmadi and Venkatasubramanian (2015) presented
in a recent publication the effects of resonance of inter-area oscillation modes with forced
oscillations coming from the hydraulic circuit, particularly from vortex rope pulsations [90].
The interactions of such pulsations with local and inter-area mode are studied through a
two-area system in which a forced oscillation simulating a vortex rope pulsation is introduced.
Small-signal stability analysis is carried out in order to identify eigenmode frequencies and
shapes. Poorly damped oscillation modes likely to interact with vortex rope pulsations were
identified, indicating risks of resonance.

It is important to point out that even though all these efforts are of great value, they present
an important limitation. In general, they are solutions designed for a specific problem or
task. This means that any change in the topology of the systems, such as inclusion of new
generating units or addition of loads, cannot be done in a modular way. In other words, every
modification requires further efforts in order to adapt the mathematical description of the
system, which may be a time-consuming task.

2.3 Power Systems Softwares with Eigenanalysis Capabilities

A number of power system simulation toolboxes and professional softwares incorporate
eigenanalysis capabilities at the present time, namely: PacDyn [14]; DIgSILENT PowerFac-
tory [20]; ETAP small-signal stability module [23]; PST (a toolbox based on MATLAB m-files)
combined with MatNetFlow and MatNetEig [18, 50]; PSAT (also a MATLAB/Simulink-based
toolbox) [65, 66]; NEPLAN® with a small-signal stability module [68]; DSATools™ with SSAT
(small-signal analysis tool) [78, 104]; Mudpack [92]; PSS®E with the eigenvalue and modal
analysis (NEVA) module [94]; Simpow® [97]; and EUROSTAG® (only eigenvalues computa-
tion) with the HERCULES add-on, which incorporates small-signal analysis functions [101].

24
 2.4. Eigenanalysis Capabilities in SIMSEN

Persson et al. (2003) analyzed the linearization methods used in PSS®E and Simpow® [77].
Eigenvalue calculations were performed for two distinct cases and the results were compared.
Whereas Simpow® uses an analytical linearization method, PSS®E uses a numerical lineariza-
tion routine, which is based on disturbing the state vector to obtain the linearized state matrix.
The size of this disturbance was proven to play an important role on the precision of the results.
The extraction of eigenvalues in both programs was performed with the QR algorithm.

Kaberere et al. (2005) provided a comparison between four industrial-grade power system
simulation tools: DIgSILENT PowerFactory, PST, PSS®E and EUROSTAG® [43]. Besides the
linearization (analytical or numerical) and eigenvalues calculation methods (QR algorithm in
all cases), components modeling and software flexibility were also compared. This comparison
was based on the small-signal stability analysis of a classic two-area power system.

It is noteworthy that most of these computer programs are designed to the analysis of large-
scale power systems. The components modeling in all of these tools neglect the transients of
the network and of the rotating machines’ stator, since the focus is put on electro-mechanical
oscillation modes. Additionally, the modeling of the whole system is based on the d,q,o-axis
representation (Park’s representation).

2.4 Eigenanalysis Capabilities in SIMSEN

At the time of the proposal of the present work, the advanced version of SIMSEN incorporated
eigenanalysis capabilities only for hydraulic circuits including reservoirs, pipes, Francis tur-
bines with rotating inertia and PID turbine governors. The linearized models were developed
and validated by Alligné (2011) [1], based on hydroacoustic models presented by Nicolet
(2007) [69]. The analytical linearization method was employed.

The calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors is performed through the QR algorithm, which
is perfectly suitable to SIMSEN purposes. Additionally, SIMSEN includes an eigenmodes
visualization tool, which processes the results in order to provide static and dynamic plots the
mode shapes.

25
 Part II

Theoretical Approach

27
 Small-Signal Stability
3

3.1 Lyapunov Stability

As mentioned in chapter 1, section 1.3.1, the physically-based definition of power system
stability proposed by the IEEE/CIGRÉ Joint Task Force on Stability Terms and Definitionsa is
closely related to stability in the sense of Lyapunov. The following theorem combines the
definitions of stability in the sense of Lyapunov for nonautonomous, autonomous and linear
time-invariant systems.

Theorem (Lyapunov stability [48]). Consider the nonautonomous dynamical system defined
as ẋ = f (t , x). Let x(t 0 ) = x 0 be an equilibrium point for this system, and D ⊂ Rn a domain
containing x 0 . Let V (t , x) : [0, ∞) × D → R be a continuously differentiable function such that

W1 (x) ≤ V (t , x) ≤ W2 (x)
∂V (t , x)
+ ∇V (t , x) · f (t , x) ≤ 0
∂t

for all t ≥ 0 and x ∈ D, where W1 (x) and W2 (x) are continuous positive definite functions on
D. Then, x 0 is uniformly stable, that is, the equilibrium point is stable for any time t 0 .

Moreover, if

∂V (t , x)
+ ∇V (t , x) · f (t , x) ≤ −W3 (x)
∂t

a “Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to

regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables
bounded so that practically the entire system remains intact” [52].

29
Chapter 3. Small-Signal Stability

for all t ≥ 0 and x ∈ D, where W3 (x) is a continuous positive definite function on D. Then, x 0
is uniformly asymptotically stable.

In other words, it is possible to say that the equilibrium x 0 = x(t 0 ) of ẋ = f (t , x) is

• Stable if, for each ε > 0, there is δ = δ(ε, t 0 ) > 0 such that kx 0 k < δ ⇒ kx(t )k < ε ;

• Uniformly stable if, for each ε > 0, there is δ = δ(ε) > 0 such that kx 0 k < δ ⇒ kx(t )k < ε ;

• Unstable if it is not stable;

• Asymptotically stable if it is stable and there is a positive constant c = c(t 0 ) such that
x(t ) → x 0 as t → ∞, for all kx 0 k < c ;

• Uniformly asymptotically stable if it is uniformly stable, asymptotically stable and c is

independent of t 0 .
Figure 3.1 gives a geometric interpretation of Lyapunov stability and asymptotic stability for a
two-dimensional system.

Now, consider the autonomous (time-invariant) dynamical system ẋ = f (x). Let x 0 be an

equilibrium point and D ⊂ Rn be a domain containing x 0 . Let V (x) : D → R be a continuously
differentiable function such that V (x 0 ) = 0 and V (x) > 0.
• If V̇ (x) = ∇V (x) · f (x) ≤ 0, then x 0 is a stable equilibrium point;

• If V̇ (x) < 0, then x 0 is asymptotically stable.

Finally, consider the linear time-invariant (LTI) dynamical system ẋ(t ) = A · x(t ). The equilib-
rium point x(t 0 ) = x 0 is
• Stable if all eigenvalues (λi ) of A satisfy ℜ{λi } ≤ 0 ;

• Unstable if it is not stable;

• Asymptotically stable if all eigenvalues of A satisfy ℜ{λi } < 0.

x2 x2

x(t)
δ δ
ε c ε
x1 x1
0 0
x(t) = x0
x0

Figure 3.1: Interpretation of Lyapunov stability (left) and asymptotic stability (right) [56].

30
 3.2. Eigenanalysis: An Intuitive Example

This last definition, related to LTI systems, is the one traditionally applied in small-signal
stability analysis. In the next section, an intuitive example is presented to demonstrate how
eigenvalues and eigenvectors relate to the dynamic behavior of a LTI system.

3.2 Eigenanalysis: An Intuitive Example

In order to illustrate how the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a system can describe its dynamic
behavior, it is useful to present a practical, intuitive, simple exampleb . It consists in a real
model describing the survival of spotted owls living in the North-American forests in the
Pacific Northwest region.

In 1990, environmentalists realized that the spotted owl was threatened with extinction if the
old-growth forests were not preserved. Logging activities had been happening for years, slowly
reducing the area of the owl’s habitat. In order to better understand the issue, mathematical
ecologists studied the life cycle of the species, dividing the life cycle of the spotted owl into
three stages: juvenile (up to 1 year old), subadult (1 to 2 years) and adult (over 2 years). The
owls begin to breed as adults, live for up to 20 years and each owl pair requires 1000 hectares
for its exclusive home territory.

Demographic studies demonstrated that in the year t + 1, the number of new juvenile owls
(αn j ) is equal to 33% of the number of adults in year t . Although 60% of the juvenile owls lived
long enough to become subadults (β j s ), only 30% of these survive the search for a new home
territory (βst ). Thus, only 18% of the juvenile owls of year t become subadults in year t + 1.
Finally, 71% of the subadults (γsa ) and 94% of the adults (γaa ) of year t survive to be counted
as adults in year t + 1.

Accordingly, the following mathematical model, using the matrix form ẋ(t ) = A · x(t ), can be
used to describe the life cycle of the spotted owls:
    
ẋ j (t ) −1 0 αn j x j (t )
∀t ∈ N
    
 ẋ s (t )  =  β j s · βst −1 0   x s (t )  , (3.1)
    
ẋ a (t ) 0 γsa −1 + γaa x a (t )

where x j (t ), x s (t ) and x a (t ) are, respectively, the number of juvenile, subadult and adult owls,
and
 
−1 0 0.33
 
A=
 0.18 −1 0 

0 0.71 −0.06

b Adapted from D. C. Lay, Linear Algebra and its Applications, 4th ed., chap. 5, pp. 265–266,307–309 [57].

31
Chapter 3. Small-Signal Stability

The eigenvalues (λi ) and right eigenvectors (vi ) of the matrix A are approximately:

λ1 = −1.02 + j 0.21 ; vT1 = [ 0.68 − 0.06 − j 0.59 − 0.05 + j 0.43 ]

λ2 = −1.02 − j 0.21 ; vT2 = [ 0.68 − 0.06 + j 0.59 − 0.05 − j 0.43 ]
λ3 = −0.02 ; vT3 = [ 0.32 0.06 0.95 ]

The general solution of ẋ(t ) = A · x(t ) has the form:

x(t ) = c 1 e λ1 t v1 + c 2 e λ2 t v2 + c 3 e λ3 t v3 (3.2)

where c i = wi · x(t 0 ) depends on the initial conditions x(t 0 ) and the (row) left eigenvectors wi .

Given that all eigenvalues have negative real parts, the mathematical ecologists could conclude
that, based on this model, the spotted owls were faded to extinction. The only hope for them
would be the reduction of logging activity.

Indeed, if old-growth forests were preserved so that 50% of the new subadult owls could survive
the search for a new home territory, the (2,1)-entry of matrix A in equation (3.1) would be 0.3
instead of 0.18. In this case, the resulting eigenvalues and right eigenvectors are approximately:

λ1 = −1.03 + j 0.26 ; vT1 = [ −0.08 + j 0.58 0.66 − 0.45 − j 0.12 ]

λ2 = −1.03 − j 0.26 ; vT2 = [ −0.08 − j 0.58 0.66 − 0.45 + j 0.12 ]
λ3 = 0.09 ; vT3 = [ 0.31 0.09 0.95 ]

From equation (3.2), one can easily conclude that there is a chance for the spotted owls.
As t → ∞, the first two terms tend to zero, whereas the last one increases. Thus, the owl
population has a long-term exponential growth rate determined by λ3 . Moreover, v3 describes
the final distribution of the owls by life stage, when the population comes to a balance: for
each 95 adults (70%), there will be 31 juveniles (23%) and 9 subadults (7%).

In brief, it is possible to deduce that the real part of the eigenvalues describes the exponential
growth/decay, whereas the imaginary part determines the frequency of oscillation. The right
eigenvectors define the proportional distribution of the quantities that will be reached in the
long term, and the left eigenvectors determine the share of the initial conditions influencing
each eigenmode.

3.3 Concepts on Small-Signal Stability

In small-signal stability analysis, disturbances are considered to be sufficiently small so that the
system can be linearized around an operating point defining its initial conditions. Moreover,

32
 3.3. Concepts on Small-Signal Stability

given that the electrical components are modeled based on the d,q,o-axis representation (Park’s
representation), all the models are time-invariant. Thus, after linearization, the definition of
Lyapunov stability for LTI systems, given on page 30, can be applied. The eigenproperties are
obtained from the linearized state-space representation of the system.

3.3.1 Linearized State-Space Representation

Any autonomous dynamical system can be described by a set of n nonlinear first-order

ordinary differential equations, known as the state equations. The time derivative of each
state variable is expressed as a function of the n state variables x 1 (t ), ..., x n (t ) (contained in the
state vector x(t ) ∈ Rn ) and the p system inputs u 1 (t ), ..., u p (t ) (contained in the input vector
u(t ) ∈ Rp ). In the general case, the form of the state equations is:



 ẋ 1 (t ) = f 1 [x(t ), u(t )]


ẋ 2 (t ) = f 2 [x(t ), u(t )]

.. (3.3)
.





 ẋ (t ) = f [x(t ), u(t )]
n n

Moreover, the outputs of the system are described by a set of q equations also expressed as a
function of the state variables and the system inputs:

 y 1 (t ) = g 1 [x(t ), u(t )]




y 2 (t ) = g 2 [x(t ), u(t )]

.. (3.4)
.





 y (t ) = g [x(t ), u(t )]
q q

The system model may as well be summarized in vector notation as:


 ẋ(t ) = f [x(t ), u(t )]
(3.5)
 y(t ) = g [x(t ), u(t )]

The linearization of the system of equations (3.5) is performed through first-order Taylor
expansions (neglecting the terms of higher order) applied to all the n state equations and q
output equations [62], as follows:

∂ f i ¯¯ ∂ f i ¯¯ ∂ f i ¯¯ ∂ f i ¯¯
 ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
∆ẋ i = ∆x 1 + · · · + ∆x n + ∆u 1 + · · · + ∆u p


∂x 1 ¯0 ∂x n ¯0 ∂u 1 ¯0 ∂u p ¯0




(3.6)
∂g j ¯ ∂g j ¯ ∂g j ¯ ∂g j ¯
 ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯

 ∆y j = ∆x 1 + · · · + ∆x n + ∆u 1 + · · · +

 ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ∆u p
∂x 1 ¯0 ∂x n ¯0 ∂u 1 ¯0 ∂u p ¯0


for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n and j = 1, 2, . . . , q.

33
Chapter 3. Small-Signal Stability

The partial derivatives of f i [x(t ), u(t )] and g i [x(t ), u(t )] are evaluated at the equilibrium point,
yielding a system of equations with constant linear coefficients that can be expressed in vector
notation as:

 ∆ẋ(t ) = A` · ∆x(t ) + B` · ∆u(t )
(3.7)
 ∆y(t ) = C · ∆x(t ) + D · ∆u(t )
` `

The system of equations (3.7) gives the linearized state-space representation of a dynamical
system, where:
 ¯ ¯   ¯ ¯ 
∂ f 1 ¯¯ ∂ f 1 ¯¯ ∂ f 1 ¯¯ ∂ f 1 ¯¯
∂x 1 ¯ ··· ∂x n ¯ ∂u 1 ¯ ··· ∂u p ¯
0 0 0 0
   
.. .. .. ..
   
A` = 
 .. 
, A ∈ Rn×n ; B` = 
 .. , B` ∈ Rn×p

 .¯ . .¯  `  .¯ . .¯ 
∂ f n ¯¯ ∂ f n ¯¯ ∂ f n ¯¯ ∂ f n ¯¯
   
∂x 1 ¯ ··· ∂x n ¯ ∂u 1 ¯ ··· ∂u p ¯
0 0 0 0

 ¯ ¯   ¯ ¯ 
∂g 1 ¯¯ ∂g 1 ¯¯ ∂g 1 ¯¯ ∂g 1 ¯¯
∂x 1 ¯ ··· ∂x n ¯ ∂u 1 ¯ ··· ∂u p ¯
0 0 0 0
   
.. .. .. ..
   
C` = 
 .. , C` ∈ Rq×n ;

D` = 
 .. , D` ∈ Rq×p

 .¯ . .¯   .¯ . .¯ 
 ∂g q ¯¯ ∂g q ¯¯   ∂g q ¯¯ ∂g q ¯¯ 
∂x 1 ¯ ··· ∂x n ¯ ∂u 1 ¯ ··· ∂u p ¯
0 0 0 0

The matrices A` (state matrix) and B` (input matrix) are properties of the system and relate
to the system structure and elements. The matrices C` (output matrix) and D` (feedforward
matrix) depend on the particular choice of output variables. For most physical systems, the
outputs are not directly dependent on the inputs, reason for which commonly D` = 0.

3.3.2 Eigensolution of the Linearized System

The free motion of the linearized system is described by:

∆ẋ(t ) = A` · ∆x(t ) (3.8)

The linearized state matrix A` characterizes the dynamic behavior of the whole system. There-
fore, from its eigenvalues it is possible to predict the small-signal stability of the equilibrium
point corresponding to the linearized system.

The eigensolution of the system can be obtained as follows [63]. Consider a column vector v of
dimension n × 1. The eigenvalues of A` are defined as the scalar λ that satisfies the nontrivial
solution of the equation:

A` · v = λ v → (A` − λ I) · v = 0 (3.9)

34
 3.3. Concepts on Small-Signal Stability

where I is the n-dimensional identity matrix. For a nontrivial solution (v 6= 0), this means that:

¯A` − λ I¯ = 0
¯ ¯
(3.10)

The expansion of the characteristic equation (3.10) yields the characteristic polynomial of A` ,
whose n roots are also the n eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn of A` . The eigenvalues may be either
purely real or complex. In most of the cases A` is real, which means that complex eigenvalues
appear in conjugate pairs of the form σ ± j ωd . The pulsation ωd represents the damped
frequency of the eigenmode. The inverse of the attenuation σ defines the time constant of the
decay/growth of the response. Two characteristics of the eigenmode can be determined from
these coefficients: the frequency of oscillation ( f ) and the damping ratio (ζ), as follows:

ωd
f = (3.11)
2π
σ
ζ = −q (3.12)
σ2 + ω2d

The eigenmode is said to be over-damped if ζ > 1, critically damped if ζ = 1, under-damped if

0 < ζ < 1, or undamped if ζ = 0. However, if ζ < 0, that is, if σ > 0, the eigenmode is unstable.
This means that once this mode is excited by any small disturbance, the system cannot recover
its equilibrium. This corresponds to the definition of Lyapunov stability for LTI systems, given
on page 30, which states that instabilities are characterized by eigenvalues with positive real
parts (ℜ{λi } > 0).

For each eigenvalue λi there is a corresponding eigenvector vi that satisfies equation (3.9).
This is the right eigenvector of A` associated with λi . Furthermore, it is possible to define the
corresponding left eigenvector wi , which is a row vector that must satisfy the relation:

wi · A` = λi wi (3.13)

In principle, left and right eigenvector are not uniquely defined. Hence, they are usually
normalized in such a way that [51, 86]:

wi · vi = 1 (3.14)

On the other hand, left and right eigenvectors related to two distinct eigenvalues are orthogo-
nal, that is:

wi · v j = 0 (3.15)

35
Chapter 3. Small-Signal Stability

It is suitable to express equations (3.9) and (3.13) in matrix notation, as follows:

A` · V = V · Λ (3.16)
W · A` = Λ · W (3.17)

where

Λ = diag (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn ) , Λ ∈ Rn×n

V = [ v1 v2 · · · vn ] , V ∈ Rn×n
¤T
W = wT1 wT2 · · · wTn , W ∈ Rn×n
£

From equations (3.16) and (3.17) it is possible to conclude that:

W = V −1 (3.18)

This corresponds to what is stated by equations (3.14) and (3.15).

Proof. Right- and left-multiplication of equation (3.16) by the inverse of matrix V, as follows:

V −1 · A` · V · V −1 = V −1 · V · Λ · V −1

yields:

V −1 · A` = Λ · V −1

This relation fulfills the condition expressed in equation (3.17). This means that V −1 is a matrix
whose rows are the left eigenvectors of A` , proving that relation (3.18) is true.

Finally, it is easy to verify that the time-domain solution of the free motion equation (3.8) can
be given as a function of the initial conditions, and the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrix
A` , as follows [51, 86]:

n
∆x(t ) = [wi · ∆x(t 0 )] vi e λi t
X
(3.19)
i =1
| {z }
ci

where ∆x(t 0 ) is the disturbance at instant zero. The constants c i = wi · ∆x(t 0 ) represent the
magnitude of the excitation of the i-th mode resulting from the initial disturbance ∆x(t 0 ) [51].

Equation (3.19) corresponds to the expression (3.2), presented in section 3.2. Some con-
clusions can be drawn from equation (3.19) that confirm the statements and inferences of
section 3.2:

36
 3.3. Concepts on Small-Signal Stability

• The free motion response is a linear combination of n dynamic modes related to the n
eigenvalues of matrix A` ;

• The left eigenvectors wi determine the weight of the initial conditions in each mode,
that is, the magnitude of excitation of each mode resulting from the initial conditions;

• The right eigenvectors vi determine the activity or the proportional action of the state
variables in each mode. In other words, the right eigenvectors represent the mode
shape;

• The eigenvalues λi determine the exponential decrease/growth of the response. In case

of complex eigenvalues, the response is oscillatory with frequency determined by ℑ{λi }
and amplitude exponential decrease/growth determined by ℜ{λi };

• Although a specific eigenmode can be unstable (ℜ{λi } > 0), it might not be excited by a
certain disturbance. Nevertheless, the system is still considered unstable since another
combination for the vector ∆x(t 0 ) can excite the unstable mode.

3.3.3 Participation Factors

Although eigenvalues give information on system stability and eigenvectors permit to have
an indication of the shape of modes, the analysis of results is not always straightforward,
especially when the studied systems are of considerable size and complexity. Another difficulty
arises from the fact that eigenvectors depend on the units and on the scaling of the state
variables [51].

A clearer notion of the relationship between state variables and eigenmodes can be obtained
by the calculation of the participation factors as follows [81, 102]:

p j i = wi j v j i (3.20)

where v j i (w i j ) is the j-th entry of the right (left) eigenvector corresponding to the i-th mode.

The participation factor p j i is a dimensionless quantity which denotes the relative involvement
of the j-th state variable in the i-th mode, and vice-versa [81]. Considering the condition
expressed by equation (3.14), it is possible to write:

n
X n
X
p ji = p ji = 1 (3.21)
j =1 i =1

Frequently, p j i is a complex number. However, for representation purposes, only its magni-
tude |p j i | is used.

An interesting property of participation factors is that it is possible to define the global partici-

37
Chapter 3. Small-Signal Stability

pation factor of a subsystem S (represented by k states) in one mode i [86]:

¯ ¯
¯X k ¯
p Si =¯ p ji ¯ (3.22)
¯ ¯
¯ j =1 ¯

The calculation of participation factors can be very useful when the system has poorly damped
or unstable modes. It gives an indication of instability sources, since they will point out
precisely which are the state variables influencing the mode. This way, it is possible to act
directly on the root of the problem, facilitating the definition of stabilizer parameters or
locations, for instance. Moreover, participation factors play a major role in Selective Modal
Analysis (SMA), as mentioned in chapter 2, section 2.1.

3.3.4 Eigenvalue Sensitivity

Eigenvalue sensitivity corresponds to the rate of change of a given eigenvalue λi with respect
to a specific system parameter γ. By right-multiplying equation (3.13) by vi and taking into
account that the normalization given by equation (3.14) is respected, it gives [62]:

λi = wi · A` · vi (3.23)

Then, the sensitivity of λi with respect to a parameter γ is:

∂λi ∂A`
= wi · · vi (3.24)
∂γ ∂γ

If the sensitivity of interest is relative to an entry a j k of matrix A` , then:

∂λi ∂A`
= wi · · vi = w i j v ki (3.25)
∂a j k ∂a j k

If a diagonal entry a j j is considered, the eigenvalue sensitivity corresponds to the participation

factor of the j-th state variable in the i-th eigenvalue [74], as defined in equation (3.20):

∂λi
= wi j v j i = p j i (3.26)
∂a j j

3.3.5 Eigenanalysis and Transfer Functions

Despite the fact that the state-space representation describes the system in terms of its whole
internal and external behavior, it is sometimes useful to represent the system in a simpler
way, regarding the input/output behavior. For this purpose, it is possible to derive the transfer
function of a system from its state-space representation. Considering a single-input single-

38
 3.3. Concepts on Small-Signal Stability

output system whose output is not a direct function of the input, the linearized state-space
representation given in the system of equations (3.7) can be rewritten as follows:

∆ẋ(t ) = A` · ∆x(t ) + b` ∆u(t ) (3.27)

∆y(t ) = c` · ∆x(t ) (3.28)

And in the frequency domain:

s ∆X(s) = A` · ∆X(s) + b` ∆U (s) → ∆X(s) = (s I − A` )−1 · b` ∆U (s) (3.29)

∆Y (s) = c` · ∆X(s) (3.30)

By replacing equation (3.29) in equation (3.30), it is possible to obtain the transfer function
G(s), defined as:

∆Y (s)
G(s) = = c` · (sI − A` )−1 · b` (3.31)
∆U (s)

It can be shown that the expansion of G(s) in partial fractions yields (see [51], pp. 719-721):

R1 R2 Rn
G(s) = + +···+ (3.32)
s − λ1 s − λ2 s − λn

where the residues of G(s) are given as R i = c` · vi · wi · b` . Moreover, equation (3.32) shows
that the poles of G(s) are given by the eigenvalues of A` .

Now that the basic concepts of small-signal stability have been presented, the development
of models for an eigenanalysis tool in the environment of SIMSEN can be tackled. The next
chapter presents the approach developed in order to derive small-signal stability models for
electrical elements based on the time-domain models of SIMSEN, whereas chapter 6 describes
the already existing hydraulic models.

39
 Small-Signal Modeling of Electrical Elements
4

4.1 Time-Domain Models of Electrical Elements in SIMSEN

In order to develop small-signal models which maintain compatibility with the principles
of operation of SIMSEN, they must be derived based on the existing time-domain models.
Keeping this compatibility means taking advantage of the benefits of SIMSEN, i.e.:

• Treatment of systems with any given topology;

• Easy construction of the topology through the connection and parametrization of all
elements in an user-friendly GUI;

• Automatic generation of the full set of differential equations of the global system.

On the other hand, it also means respecting the principles of modeling, the state variables and
equations that represent each element.

As mentioned in chapter 1, section 1.4.2, all the time-domain electrical models in SIMSEN are
based on a,b,c-phase variables. This has an important consequence from the viewpoint of
eigenanalysis.

When represented in a,b,c-phase coordinates, rotating electrical machines are nonautono-

mous systems. In other words, this means that the state equations depend not only on the
inputs and state variables themselves, but also on the time: ẋ = f(t , x, u). Consequently, the
free motion of the system (when u = 0) is also a function of time.

Indeed, the mutual inductances between stator and rotor windings of rotating electrical
machines depend on the angular position of the rotor θ, which in its turn depends on time.

41
Chapter 4. Small-Signal Modeling of Electrical Elements

Laa

L
Lh2

θ
0 π/2 π

Figure 4.1: Self-inductance for phase a of a salient-pole synchronous machine [16].

Moreover, in the specific case of salient-pole synchronous machines, mutual inductances

between stator windings and also their self-inductances depend on θ.

Figure 4.1 represents the variation of the self-inductance L aa of stator phase a as a function of
the rotor angular position θ. It can be decomposed in a constant mean value L, and a periodic
oscillating component of amplitude L h2 and frequency equal to the double of the angular
frequency of the rotor. This periodic variation is due to the anisotropy of the salient-pole
synchronous machine rotor, which is illustrated in figure 4.2.

This being said, it is important to bear in mind that the Lyapunov stability criterion based on
eigenvalues is applicable exclusively to LTI systems, as it was discussed in chapter 3, section 3.1.
Consequently, for small-signal stability analysis purposes, it is not enough to linearize the
time-domain models of SIMSEN. This procedure would only produce linear time-variant (LTV)

Axis of the
excitation winding f
a

c’
θ
f b’
Axis of the
stator phase a
b f’
c

a’

Figure 4.2: Simplified representation of a salient-pole synchronous machine [16].

42
 4.2. Extension of Eigenanalysis Concepts to Nonautonomous Systems

systems, whose eigenvalues do not straightforwardly define the stability of the system. Indeed,
it is possible that LTV are stable when they present positive real part eigenvalues, as well as
unstable even though all eigenvalues have negative real parts [73].

Therefore, since the time-domain models of electrical elements available in SIMSEN are
nonautonomous systems, they require more treatment than a simple linearization so as to be
applied in small-signal stability analysis.

4.2 Extension of Eigenanalysis Concepts to Nonautonomous

Systems
The concepts of stability of nonautonomous systems given by the Lyapunov’s stability theorem,
as presented in chapter 3, section 3.1, are based on the definition of boundary functions
W1,2,3 (x) and the energetic function V (t , x).

Such way of defining the stability of a system has significant conceptual value. However, it has
little computational significance, as Lyapunov’s theorem does not give any information on
how to define V (t , x). In practice, it is impossible to derive an expression for V (t , x), especially
for complex systems such as power systems.

Considering LTV systems, which have the form ẋ(t ) = A(t ) · x(t ), a number of concepts have
been proposed to inspect the stability, such as dynamic eigenvalues, specific decomposition
methods and Ricatti equation taking the role of the characteristic equation [73]. However,
the interpretation of the results requires more mathematical efforts and digress from the
traditional eigenanalysis. This is not the objective of this work, since it aims at developing an
eigenanalysis tool for SIMSEN which is uncomplicated and user-firendly.

Finally, considering linear periodic (LP) systems, for which A(t + T ) = A(t ), it is possible to
determine the stability using the Floquet Theory [87]. This theory states that every LP system
can be reduced to a LTI system of the form:

ż(t ) = R · z(t ) (4.1)

by way of a stability preserving variable change defined as:

x(t ) = L(t ) · z(t ) (4.2)

where L(t ) is a continuously differentiable, uniformly bounded, invertible, periodic ma-

trix [110]. By respecting these criteria, L(t ) can be defined as a Lyapunov transformation,
which is a coordinate transformation (or variable change) that preserves stability.

43
Chapter 4. Small-Signal Modeling of Electrical Elements

The transformed state matrix R is given by:

R = L−1 (t ) · A(t ) · L(t ) − L̇(t )

£ ¤
(4.3)

According to the Floquet Theory, stability properties of the original T -periodic state equation
are equivalent to stability properties of the LTI system represented by equation 4.1 [87]. This
means that the eigenvalues of R, known as the Floquet characteristic exponents, can be used to
determine system stability according to the following theorem.

Theorem (Floquet Theory [87, 110]). A LP system is exponentially asymptotically stable if,
and only if, all Floquet characteristic exponents have negative real parts.

Consequently, the eigenanalysis concepts presented in chapter 3 can be extended to nonau-

tonomous, linear periodic systems by applying the Floquet Theory.

4.3 Small-Signal Electrical Models for SIMSEN based on

a,b,c-Phase Coordinates
As mentioned in section 4.1, the nonautonomous characteristic of the electrical models
available in SIMSEN is due to the time-variant behavior of rotating machines parameters.
Nevertheless, the varying components have a periodic characteristic, as illustrated in figure 4.1.

Therefore, the Floquet Theory can be applied to these models in order to derive small-signal
models which are compatible with SIMSEN characteristics. This means that the state variables
of the small-signal models must correspond to those of the already existing time-domain
models, i.e., the physical a,b,c-phase variables coordinates. This is a crucial criterion to be
respected, since it will allow for the determination of the linearized matrices automatically
from the circuits built in the SIMSEN GUI. In other words, this means taking advantage of the
benefits of SIMSEN, previously listed in section 4.1.

In this regard, a procedure must be followed so as to derive the small-signal models based on
a,b,c-phase coordinates. This procedure is illustrated in figure 4.3.

The inputs are the time-domain electrical models available in SIMSEN that are to be linearized.
The outputs are the corresponding small-signal models based on a,b,c-phase coordinates. All
small-signal models must be derived following the same procedure in order to guarantee a
compatible connection between all elements.

This procedure is divided into three steps, which are explained in the following. Its application
is illustrated further, in section 4.4.

44
 4.3. Small-Signal Electrical Models for SIMSEN based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

SIMSEN Park’s
d,q,o-model
a,b,c-model transformation
SIMSEN Environment

Analytical
2
linearization
3

Small-signal Inverse Linearized

a,b,c-model transformation d,q,o-model

Figure 4.3: Procedure flowchart for determination of small-signal models for SIMSEN.

Step 1: Transformation of SIMSEN nonautonomous models in time-invariant models

The first step is to transform the a,b,c-phase coordinates time-domain models in time invariant
models. This can be achieved through the well-known Park’s transformation, which preserves
the steady-state phase quantities and can be applied to voltages, currents and flux linkages. It
is defined as:
µ ¶ µ ¶
2π 2π
 
 cos θ cos θ −
3
cos θ +
3 
 
 
2 
µ ¶ µ ¶
2π 2π

P =  − sin θ − sin θ − − sin θ + (4.4)
 

3 
 3 3 

 
 1 1 1 
2 2 2

where θ is the angular position of the rotor.

The relation between d,q,o-coordinates and a,b,c-coordinates state variables is:

xdqo = P · xabc (4.5)

Matrix P is continuously differentiable, uniformly bounded, invertible and periodic. Therefore,

it can be classified as a Lyapunov transformation. Indeed, it is well-known that the Park’s
transformation preserves the stability of the system, that is, the system is equally stable either
if it is seen from the a,b,c-phase coordinates or from the Park’s representation (d,q,o-axis
representation).

45
Chapter 4. Small-Signal Modeling of Electrical Elements

It is important to note that the matrix representation used in SIMSEN differs from the tra-
ditional state-space representation presented in chapter 3. Each element in SIMSEN cor-
responds to an independent subsystem that is fully represented by a system of first-order
differential equations, which can be described under matrix form as [89]:

A · ẋabc = B · xabc + C (4.6)

It is worth pointing out that the matrices A, B and C presented here are not the same as those
used in the state-space representation. From this point on any refences to A, B or C are related
to the matrices of the formulation used in SIMSEN. The linearized matrices are followed by
the "`" subscript.

The formulation presented in equation (4.6) is kept even after the Park’s transformation.
Considering the inverse of relation (4.5) and substituting it in equation (4.6) yields:

Adqo · ẋdqo = Bdqo · xdqo + Cdqo (4.7)

with

Adqo = A · P−1
Bdqo = B · P−1 − A · Ṗ−1
Cdqo = C

Step 2: Analytical linearization of the time-invariant models

The models based on d,q,o-axis representation are time-invariant models. Once they are
linearized, the eigenanalysis concepts presented in chapter 3, section 3.3 can be applied.

The analytical linearization is achieved through first-order Taylor expansions applied to the
state equations of the system, as described in section 3.3.1, equation (3.6). This procedure
yields a system of the following form:

A`dqo · ∆ẋdqo = B`dqo · ∆xdqo + C` (4.8)

At this stage, the eigenvalues could be extracted from the d,q,o-state matrix, given by:

A−1
`dqo · B`dqo

Nevertheless, another step is needed in order to adapt the state variables to those used in
SIMSEN.

46
 4.3. Small-Signal Electrical Models for SIMSEN based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

Step 3: Coordinates inverse transformation of the linearized time-invariant models

Even though the first two steps of this procedure are classical operations in the field of electrical
systems and rotating machines, they are not enough to yield small-signal models which are
suitable for SIMSEN.

Consequently, an inverse transformation is necessary and must be judiciously determined.

This transformation ought to be a Lyapunov transformation in the sense that it must preserve
the stability of the system. Moreover, it has to perform a state variable transformation to
adapt the models back to SIMSEN so that the connection of the elements remain modular,
independently of the topology of the system.

At first glance, the inverse Park’s transformation P−1 would seemingly be an elementary choice
capable of conforming to the needed criteria. But if this transformation is applied as such, a
problem remains. Although it preserves system stability and transforms the state variables
back to those used in SIMSEN, modularity is not guaranteed. This happens because the
inverse Park’s transformation when applied to linearized d,q,o-models produce inappropriate
crossed terms between different elements of the system.

In order for modularity to be kept, crossed terms may exist specifically on the interfaces of the
electrical, mechanical, hydraulic and regulation subsystems. These interfaces are either the
regulation blocks or the rotating inertias.

In the first case, the crossed terms are related to the inputs coming from the electrical subsys-
tem (for voltage regulator and stabilizers) or from the mechanical and hydraulic subsystems
(for turbine governors). Also, the regulators outputs introduce crossed terms with the regulated
elements.

In the case of rotating inertias, the crossed terms exist due to the momentum equation that
describes the dynamics of the angular speed ωm of the rotating parts:

J d ωm X l i near i zat i on J d ∆ωm

= T = T t ur b + Tem −−−−−−−−−−−→ = ∆T t ur b + ∆Tem (4.9)
Pp d t Pp d t

where J is the total moment of inertia of the rotating parts, P p is the number of pairs of
poles of the generator, T t ur b is the turbine torque and Tem is the electromagnetic torque
of the generator. The cross-influence of the hydraulic and the electrical subsystems on the
mechanical one is evidenced by equation (4.9).

Consequently, in order to obtain models which have coherent terms that guarantee modularity,
the inverse transformation must be developed based on the inverse Park’s transformation, as
explained in the following.

47
Chapter 4. Small-Signal Modeling of Electrical Elements

From equation (4.5), it is possible to define the inverse Park’s transformation as:

xabc = P−1 · xdqo (4.10)

This transformation is only applicable to non-linearized systems. But in order to properly

transform the linearized state variables, it is required to linearize equation (4.10) as follows:

∂xabc ¯¯ ∂xabc ∂P−1 ¯¯

¯ µ ¶¯
∆xabc = · ∆xdqo + · ∆θ
∂xdqo ¯0 ∂P−1 ∂θ ¯0

Finally, it yields the only inverse transformation capable of consistently producing small-signal
electrical models based on a,b,c-phase variables:

∂P−1
µ ¶¯
∆xabc = P−1 ¯0 · ∆xdqo + · xdqo ¯¯ ∆θ
¯ ¯
(4.11)
∂θ 0

Or, under matrix form:

     
∆x a cos θ0 − sin θ0 1 ∆x d
     
   µ ¶ µ ¶   
2π 2π
     
  cos θ0 − θ
     
 ∆x b

= − sin 0 − 1  ·  ∆x q
  
   3 3  


     
   µ ¶ µ ¶   
2π 2π
cos θ0 + − sin θ0 +
     
∆x c 1 ∆x o
3 3

   
sin θ0 cos θ0 0 xd 0
   
 µ ¶ µ ¶   
2π 2π
   
 sin θ0 − θ
   
− cos 0 − 0  ·  x q0
 
 ∆θ

(4.12)
 3 3   
   
 µ ¶ µ ¶   
2π 2π
sin θ0 + cos θ0 +
   
0 x o0
3 3

Only the application of this transformation to the linearized d,q,o-coordinates models converts
them into a,b,c-phase coordinates small-signal models adapted to SIMSEN, while preserving
system stability and respecting the modularity requirement.

4.4 Proposed Modeling Procedure Applied to the Salient-Pole

Synchronous Machine
For the purpose of illustrating step by step the procedure described in section 4.3, an example
is presented in this section. The linearization and inverse transformation of the synchronous

48
 4.4. Proposed Modeling Procedure Applied to the Salient-Pole Synchronous
Machine

machine is performed.

For the sake of clarity and ease of reading, only the development for the equation of the voltage
of stator phase a is presented. The full set of equations of the SIMSEN small-signal model for
the salient-pole synchronous machine is presented in appendix A, section A.1.

Step 1: Transformation of a,b,c-phase coordinates model in d,q,o-coordinates model

Applying the Park’s transformation to the a,b,c-phase coordinates model of the synchronous
machinea yields the well-known Park’s model:

d id di f d iD
− ωm L q i q + LQa i Q
¡ ¢
ud = R s i d + L d +Lf a + LD a (4.13)
dt dt dt

d iq d iQ
+ ωm L d i d + L f a i f + L D a i D
¡ ¢
uq = Rs i q + L q + LQa (4.14)
dt dt

d io
uo = R s i o + L o (4.15)
dt

3 d id di f d iD
uf = Rf if + Lf a +Lf + LD f (4.16)
2 dt dt dt

3 d id di f d iD
0 = RD i D + LD a + LD f + LD (4.17)
2 dt dt dt

3 d iq d iQ
0 = RQ i Q + LQa + LQ (4.18)
2 dt dt

where quantities with the subscripts d are related to the direct axis (d -axis), q to the quadrature
axis (q-axis) and o to the zero phase-sequence axis. The subscript s refers to stator winding
parameters, f to the excitation (field) winding, D to the equivalent damper winding in the
d -axis and Q to the equivalent damper winding in the q-axis.

Step 2: Analytical linearization of the d,q,o-coordinates model

As the second step, the procedure presented in chapter 3, section 3.3 is applied to equa-
tions (4.13)–(4.18). It yields:

a For the detailed a,b,c-phase coordinates model, please see J. Chatelain, Machines Electriques, chap. 7, pp. 340-

341 [16].

49
Chapter 4. Small-Signal Modeling of Electrical Elements

d ∆i d d ∆i f d ∆i D
∆u d = R s ∆i d + L d +Lf a + LD a − ωm0 L q ∆i q − ωm0 LQa ∆i Q
dt dt dt (4.19)
− L q i q0 + LQa i Q0 ∆ωm
¡ ¢

d ∆i q d ∆i Q
∆u q = R s ∆i q + L q + LQa + ωm0 L d ∆i d + ωm0 L f a ∆i f + ωm0 L D a ∆i D
dt dt (4.20)
− L d i d 0 + L f a i f 0 + L D a i D0 ∆ωm
¡ ¢

d ∆i o
∆u o = R s ∆i o + L o (4.21)
dt

3 d ∆i d d ∆i f d ∆i D
∆u f = R f ∆i f + Lf a +Lf + LD f (4.22)
2 dt dt dt

3 d ∆i d d ∆i f d ∆i D
0 = R D ∆i D + LD a + LD f + LD (4.23)
2 dt dt dt

3 d ∆i q d ∆i Q
0 = RQ ∆i Q + LQa + LQ (4.24)
2 dt dt

Considering steady-state initial conditions: i D0 = 0 and i Q0 = 0.

Step 3: Inverse transformation to a,b,c-phase coordinates applied to the stator phase a

From the inverse transformation defined in the previous section, described by equation (4.12),
it is possible to write:

∆u a = ∆u d cos θ0 − ∆u q sin θ0 + ∆u o − u d 0 sin θ0 + u q0 cos θ0 ∆θ

¡ ¢
(4.25)

By introducing equations (4.19)–(4.24) in equation (4.25), and considering the following

linearized relations:

· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
∆i d = ∆i a cos θ0 + ∆i b cos θ0 − + ∆i c cos θ0 + + i q0 ∆θ
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
∆i q = − ∆i a sin θ0 + ∆i b sin θ0 − + ∆i c sin θ0 + − i d 0 ∆θ
3 3 3

1
∆i o = (∆i a + ∆i b + ∆i c )
3

After some analytical manipulations:

50
 4.4. Proposed Modeling Procedure Applied to the Salient-Pole Synchronous
Machine
¤ L o d ∆i a
½ ¾
2£
∆u a = L d cos2 θ0 + L q sin2 θ0 +
3 3 dt

L o d ∆i b
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸ ¾
2 2π 2π
+ L d cos θ0 cos θ0 − + L q sin θ0 sin θ0 − +
3 3 3 3 dt

L o d ∆i c
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸ ¾
2 2π 2π
+ L d cos θ0 cos θ0 + + L q sin θ0 sin θ0 + +
3 3 3 3 dt

d ∆i f d ∆i D d ∆i Q
+ L f a cos θ0 + L D a cos θ0
+ LQa sin θ0
dt dt dt
h ωm0 ¡ i
L d − L q sin (2θ0 ) ∆i a
¢
+ Rs −
3
(4.26)
" ¶ p #
ωm0 ¡
µ
2π 3¡
L d + L q ∆i b
¢ ¢
− L d − L q sin 2θ0 − +
3 3 2
" ¶ p #
ωm0 ¡
µ
2π 3¡
L d + L q ∆i c
¢ ¢
− L d − L q sin 2θ0 + −
3 3 2

− ωm0 L f a sin θ0 ∆i f − ωm0 L D a sin θ0 ∆i D − ωm0 LQa cos θ0 ∆i Q

+ L d − L q i q0 cos θ0 − i d 0 sin θ0 − L f a i f 0 sin θ0 ∆ωm

£¡ ¢¡ ¢ ¤

+ R s i q0 + ωm0 L q i d 0 − u q0 cos θ0 + R s i d 0 − ωm0 L d i q0 − u d 0 sin θ0 ∆θ

£¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¤

Now, it is possible to adapt the initial conditions and simplify the last two terms of equa-
tion (4.26) considering that:
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
id0 = i a0 cos θ0 + i b0 cos θ0 − + i c0 cos θ0 +
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
i q0 = − i a0 sin θ0 + i b0 sin θ0 − + i c0 sin θ0 +
3 3 3

and

d id0 d id0
ud 0 = R s i d 0 + L d − ωm0 L q i q0 ; with =0
dt dt
=⇒ R s i d 0 − u d 0 = ωm0 L q i q0

d i q0 d i q0
u q0 = R s i q0 + L d + ωm0 L d i d 0 + ωm0 L f a i f 0 ; with =0
dt dt
=⇒ R s i q0 − u q0 = −ωm0 L d i d 0 − ωm0 L f a i f 0

51
Chapter 4. Small-Signal Modeling of Electrical Elements

Finally, it yields for the phase a:

¤ Lo d ∆i a
½ ¾
2£
∆u a = L d cos2 θ0 + L q sin2 θ0 +
3 3 dt

L o d ∆i b
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸ ¾
2 2π 2π
+ L d cos θ0 cos θ0 − + L q sin θ0 sin θ0 − +
3 3 3 3 dt

L o d ∆i c
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸ ¾
2 2π 2π
+ L d cos θ0 cos θ0 + + L q sin θ0 sin θ0 + +
3 3 3 3 dt

d ∆i f d ∆i D d ∆i Q
+ L f a cos θ0 + L D a cos θ0
− LQa sin θ0
dt dt dt
h ωm0 ¡ i
L d − L q sin (2θ0 ) ∆i a
¢
+ Rs −
3
" ¶ p #
ωm0 ¡
µ
2π 3¡
L d + L q ∆i b
¢ ¢
− L d − L q sin 2θ0 − +
3 3 2
(4.27)
" ¶ p #
ωm0 ¡
µ
2π 3¡
L d + L q ∆i c
¢ ¢
− L d − L q sin 2θ0 + −
3 3 2

− ωm0 L f a sin θ0 ∆i f − ωm0 L D a sin θ0 ∆i D − ωm0 LQa cos θ0 ∆i Q

½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2¡ ¢ 2π 2π
− L d − L q i a0 sin (2θ0 ) + i b0 sin 2θ0 − + i c0 sin 2θ0 +
3 3 3
¾
+ L f a i f 0 sin θ0 ∆ωm

½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2¡ 2π 2π
− ωm0
¢
L d − L q i a0 cos (2θ0 ) + i b0 cos 2θ0 − + i c0 cos 2θ0 +
3 3 3
¾
+ L f a i f 0 cos θ0 ∆θ

The complete small-signal model of the salient-pole synchronous machine based on a,b,c-
phase coordinates is composed of three stator equations, three rotor equations (for the ex-
citation and the two equivalent damper windings), plus two mechanical equations related
to angular speed and angular position of the rotor. The full set of equations can be found in
appendix A, section A.1.

The same procedure is applied to all elements for which a small-signal stability model is
to be developed. The detailed equations corresponding to each element are presented in
appendix A. In chapter 5, these models are introduced and validated.

52
 Validation of the Small-Signal Models
5

5.1 Small-signal Electrical Models Based on a,b,c-Phase

Coordinates
In this chapter, all the small-signal models based on a,b,c-phase coordinates are introduced
and validated. All these models were developed through the analytical method presented in
chapter 4.

Besides presenting the calculation of the eigenvalues, a validation is performed based either
on comparisons with time-domain simulation results or on analytical demonstrations of the
origin of the eigenmodes.

As previously stated, the detailed equations of each model are presented in appendix A.

5.2 Construction of System Matrices in SIMSEN

Before presenting any results, it is important to briefly understand how the procedures of
SIMSEN perform the construction of the system matrices. In SIMSEN, three-phase elements
are subsystems described by three individual differential equations, one for each phase. When
such elements are interconnected to form a global system, the generation of the matrices
describing the full set of differential equations is accomplished through a specific algorithm
which reuses the models of each element to translate the topology of the circuit, based on a
connection lista .
a For further details, please see A. Sapin, Logiciel Modulaire pour la Simulation et l’Etude des Systèmes

d’Entraînements et des Réseaux Electriques, chap. 2, pp. 8,16–19 [89].

53
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

ia

uab 3-phase
ib
element
(with floating neutral)
uca ic – ia – ib

Figure 5.1: Current loops construction in SIMSEN.

If the three-phase elements have floating neutral points, this algorithm performs a simplifica-
tion. Indeed, in this case one of the currents is linearly dependent on the others: i c = −i a − i b .
Consequently, this state variable can be eliminated and phase-to-phase voltage equations are
used, as illustrated in figure 5.1. The order of the matrices describing the global system is then
reduced.

From the viewpoint of eigenanalysis, this has no major consequence on the results. The
elimination of the redundant variable only leads to the elimination of one equally redundant
eigenmode. It was verified that the eliminated eigenmode is always purely real, negative, and
corresponds to the time constant related to the leakage inductances of the corresponding
elements. This eigenmode gives no relevant information about the global system small-signal
stability.

5.3 Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine

In order to exemplify and validate the small-signal model derived for the salient-pole syn-
chronous machine, an example is presented and the results are discussed. In this example,
the synchronous machine (with constant excitation voltage) is connected to an infinite bus, as
illustrated in figure 5.2. The machine ratings are presented in table 5.1

The parameters of the machine are those from its equivalent circuit based on the d,q-axis
representation, depicted in figure 5.3. For this example, the parameters are presented in
table 5.2.

SM

Figure 5.2: Synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus.

54
 5.3. Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine

Table 5.1: Synchronous machine ratings.

Rated apparent power SN 83.0 (MVA)

Rated voltage UN 17.5 (kV)
Rated frequency fN 50 (Hz)
Number of pairs of poles Pp 5 (–)
No-load excitation current I f δ0 578.3 (A)

id rs jxσd jxσDf jxσf rf if iq rs jxσq

iD iQ
id + if + iD iq + iQ
jxσD jxσQ
ud jxad uf uq jxaq
rD rQ

Figure 5.3: Direct- (left) and quadrature-axis (right) equivalent circuit for the synchronous
machine.

Table 5.2: Parameters of the synchronous machine.

Resistance of stator winding rs 1.81 · 10−3 (p.u.)

Leakage reactance of stator winding x σs 0.112 (p.u.)
Magnetizing reactance in the d –axis x ad 1.027 (p.u.)
Mutual reactance between excitation and damper D x σD f −0.021 (p.u.)
−4
Resistance of excitation winding rf 4.97 · 10 (p.u.)
Leakage reactance of the excitation winding xσ f 0.1968 (p.u.)
Resistance of the equivalent damper winding D rD 0.0101 (p.u.)
Leakage reactance of the damper winding D x σD 0.0829 (p.u.)
Magnetizing reactance in the q–axis x aq 0.6020 (p.u.)
Resistance of the equivalent damper winding Q rQ 0.0161 (p.u.)
Leakage reactance of the damper winding Q x σQ 0.0779 (p.u.)
3
Inertia of rotating parts Jg 168.3 · 10 (kg · m2 )

55
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

The mechanical part is represented by one rotating mass. The inertia J g is also given in
table 5.2. This subsystem is described by two differential equations, related to the angular
speed ∆ωm and angular position ∆θ:

J g d ∆ωm
= ∆T t ur b + ∆Tem (5.1)
Pp d t
d ∆θ
= ∆ωm (5.2)
dt

Consequently, the synchronous machine – infinite bus system is represented by eight differ-
ential equations. Nevertheless, as explained in section 5.2, the equation and state variable
related to the stator phase c are eliminated.

The eigensolution of the system at rated operating conditions yields seven eigenvalues of the
form λi = σ ± j ωd . More precisely, two pairs of complex conjugate and three purely real
eigenvalues are obtained. The results are given in table 5.3.

Real and imaginary parts are presented separately. In addition, the damping time constant τ
(τ = 1 |σ|), the damping ratio ζ and the frequency f are calculated based on equations (3.11)
±

and (3.12), given on page 35. Furthermore, the dominant state variables are indicated. They
were identified using participation factors calculated according to the concept presented
in section 3.3.3. However, the numerical values are not given here in order to simplify the
interpretation of the results. The dominant states indicated in table 5.3 are those that presented
higher values of participation factor related to each eigenvalue.

The first pair of eigenvalues can be identified as the local mode. It has a frequency that lies
in the range of electro-mechanical mode oscillations (0.7 to 2 Hz). Moreover, the dominant
states are the stator currents and the mechanical variables. This corresponds to the effect of
the local mode which is related to rotor angle oscillations of the generator against the network.
It is important to note that the frequency of this mode depends strongly on the operating

Table 5.3: Eigenproperties of the synchronous machine – infinite bus system.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −2.942 10.34 0.340 27.4 1.646 ∆ωm , ∆θ, ∆i abc
3, 4 −3.484 314.0 0.287 1.11 49.97 ∆i abc
5 −25.83 − 0.039 100 − ∆i Q , ∆i abc
6 −20.59 − 0.049 100 − ∆i D , ∆i abc
7 −0.418 − 2.392 100 − ∆i f , ∆i abc

56
 5.3. Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine

point of the machine.

Furthermore, it is also interesting to observe that the damping time constant of this eigenmode
(τ = 0.340 s) is related to the equivalent damper winding D. Indeed, this value of τ is very
close to the short-circuit time constant of the equivalent damper winding D (TD ), which is
equal to 0.344 secondsb .

The effect of this eigenmode can be observed through a time-domain simulation once the
system is disturbed. Figure 5.4 presents the electrical power fluctuation following a +5%
step on the external torque applied to the rotorc . In the oscillating behavior it is possible to
graphically identify a frequency f = 1.654 Hz, which confirms the result presented in table 5.3
with a very strong agreement. Additionally, it is possible to determine a decaying envelope
calculated from two peaks of the oscillating power. The determination of this envelope
yields an attenuation σ = −2.91. This means τ = 0.344 s which is equal to the short-circuit
time constant of the equivalent damper winding D (TD ), thus in good agreement with the
eigenanalysis result.

The second pair of eigenvalues (pair 3,4) is clearly related to the frequency of the network.
Consequently, the dominant states are the stator currents. Additionally, for these eigenvalues
τ = 0.287 s, which is very close to the armature short-circuit time constant T a = 0.289 s.

The eigenvalue number 5 is a purely real eigenvalue which is closely related to the equiv-
alent damper winding Q, but also to the stator windings. Its corresponding time constant
(τ = 0.039 s) is relatively close to the subtransient short-circuit time constant in the q-axis
T q00 = 0.034 s.

The eigenvalue number 6 is of similar nature. It is strongly related to the equivalent damper
winding D and to the stator windings to a less extent. In this case, τ = 0.049 s is relatively close
to the subtransient short-circuit time constant in the d -axis Td00 = 0.044 s.

The last eigenvalue is strongly related both to the field winding and to the stator windings. Its
damping has a time constant τ = 2.392 s which cannot be directly compared to any individual
time constant of the machine. Nevertheless, it can be clearly observed through time-domain
simulation results. This eigenmode appears on the exponential decrease of the aperiodic
component happening on the excitation current after the disturbance, as it can be seen in
figure 5.5. Besides the oscillation caused by the local mode, which is quickly damped, it is
easy to observe the exponential decrease of the excitation current. From two reference points

b For details on how the time constants of the synchronous machine can be determined, please see J. Chatelain,

Machines Electriques, chap. 7, pp. 389-391 [16].

c According to the sign convention used in SIMSEN, negative power means generated (delivered) power. In order

to better visualize the local mode and its envelope, the curves of electrical power are presented in this chapter with
a negative sign (−p el ).

57
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

1.00
Electrical power
Envelope with τ = 0.344 s
0.98 Ref. points for envelope

σ = –2.91
0.96 f = 1.654 Hz
– p (p.u.)
el

0.94

0.92

0.90

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

t (s)

Figure 5.4: Power fluctuation due to the local mode oscillation.

1.84
Excitation current
Exp. decrease with τ = 2.406 s
1.83 Ref. points for envelope

1.82 σ = –0.416
i (p.u.)
f

1.81

1.80

1.79
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t (s)

Figure 5.5: Damping of the excitation current related to the corresponding eigenvalue.

58
 5.4. Wound-Rotor Induction Machine

taken from the curve, a time constant τ = 2.404 s (σ = 0.416), confirming the last eigenmode.

5.4 Wound-Rotor Induction Machine

The small-signal model of the wound-rotor induction machine is composed of eight differ-
ential equations: three for the a,b,c-phases of the stator, three for the A,B,C-phases of the
rotor and the two mechanical equations, related to the angular speed and position previously
described.

In this example, an induction generator with a star-star (Y-Y ) connection and short-circuited
rotor windings is considered connected to an infinite bus, as depicted in figure 5.6. The ratings
of the machine are presented in table 5.4.

IM

Figure 5.6: Induction machine connected to an infinite bus.

Table 5.4: Induction machine ratings.

Rated apparent power SN 83.0 (MVA)

Rated voltage UN 18.0 (kV)
Rated frequency fN 60 (Hz)
Number of pairs of poles Pp 8 (–)
Stator-rotor turns ratio µ 0.598 (–)

The parameters of the machine are those from its equivalent circuit, illustrated in figure 5.7.
For this example, the parameters are presented in table 5.5 (obtained from [75]).

The eigensolution of the system at rated voltage and 40% load operating condition yields five
eigenvalues, 2 pairs of complex conjugate and 1 purely real eigenvalue. The results are given
in table 5.6.

The first pair of eigenvalues correspond to the local mode. It is mostly related to the rotor
oscillations against the network, but it also relates to the stator and rotor quantities. It can be
observed through a time-domain simulation in which the external torque applied to the rotor
is disturbed by a +5% step. The mechanical power fluctuations correspond to the action of the

59
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

is rs jxσs jx'σr

i'r
r'r
us jxhs
s

Figure 5.7: Equivalent circuit of the induction machine.

Table 5.5: Parameters of the induction machine.

Resistance of stator windings rs 1.744 · 10−3 (p.u.)

Leakage reactance of stator windings x σs 0.2604 (p.u.)
Magnetizing reactance x hs 4.198 (p.u.)
Resistance of the rotor windings r r0 2.015 · 10−3 (p.u.)
0
Leakage reactance of rotor windings x σr 0.2721 (p.u.)
3
Inertia of rotating parts Jg 279.4 · 10 (kg · m2 )

local mode and are depicted in figure 5.8. It is possible to identify a frequency of oscillation
f = 0.963 Hz and an envelope that decreases exponentially with a time constant τ = 1.270 s
(σ = −0.787). This is in very good agreement with the properties of the local mode calculated
through the small-signal model.

The second pair of eigenvalues correspond to the frequency of the network (60 Hz), and
is directly related to the stator currents. The time constant related to these eigenvalues
(τ = 0.785 s) is the transient short-circuit time constant of the stator windings T s0 = 0.785 sd .

Finally, the eigenvalue number 5 describes a non-oscillatory exponential decrease with τ =

0.728 s. The effect of this eigenvalue can be observed in the behavior of the consumed reactive
power, presented in figure 5.9. Besides the oscillating effect of the local mode, it is possible

d For details on how the time constants of the induction machine can be determined, please see J. Chatelain,

Machines Electriques, chap. 6, pp. 300-305 [16].

Table 5.6: Eigenproperties of the induction generator machine – infinite bus system.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −0.781 6.073 1.280 12.76 0.967 ∆i abc,ABC , ∆ωm , ∆θ
3, 4 −1.274 377.0 0.785 0.338 60.0 ∆i abc
5 −1.374 − 0.728 100 − ∆i abc,ABC

60
 5.4. Wound-Rotor Induction Machine

Mechanical power
0.44 Envelope with τ = 1.27 s
Ref. points for envelope

0.43 σ = –0.787
f = 0.963 Hz
pmec (p.u.)

0.42

0.41

0.40

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t (s)

Figure 5.8: Power fluctuation on induction generator due to the local mode oscillation.

0.338
Consumed reactive power
Exp. decrease with τ = 0.732 s
0.336
Ref. points for envelope

0.334

0.332 σ = –1.365
q (p.u.)

0.330

0.328

0.326

0.324

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t (s)

Figure 5.9: Exponential damping of the aperiodic component in the reactive power.

61
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

to see that there is an aperiodic component which fades away exponentially. The points
describing this component are obtained by taking the mean value between the upper and
lower envelopes of the curve. This exponential behavior has a time constant τ = 0.732 s
(σ = −1.365), validating the calculated eigenvalue.

5.5 Power Transformers

The small-signal model for power transformers are basically composed of six equations, one
for each phase (state variables ∆i abc1 and ∆i abc2 , respectively for primary and secondary
sides). If there is a delta connection, then a supplementary equation is added, related to the
circulating current in the delta (∆i ∆ ). The transformer connections available are the vector
groups Yy0, Yd5 and Yd11.

In order to illustrate and validate the small-signal model of the transformer, an example is
presented. Basically, the example of section 5.3 is modified to introduce a transformer of
vector group Yd5 between the synchronous machine and the infinite bus, as presented in
figure 5.10. The ratings of the transformer are given in table 5.7.

The parameters required for the transformer are those from its equivalent circuit, depicted in
figure 5.11. The parameters used in this example are presented in table 5.8.

Before performing the eigenvalues calculation of the system presented in figure 5.10, it’s
interesting to calculate the eigenvalues of the transformer alone, so that they can be better
identified. The results of this calculation are presented in table 5.9. Differently from the
rotating machines, the eigenvalues of the transformer alone are independent of any initial
conditions.

SM

Figure 5.10: Yd5-transformer – generator – infinite bus system.

Table 5.7: Power transformer ratings.

Rated apparent power SN 84.0 (MVA)

Rated primary voltage UN 1 220.0 (kV)
Rated secondary voltage UN 2 17.5 (kV)
Rated frequency fN 50 (Hz)

62
 5.5. Power Transformers

i1 r1 jxσ1 jx'σ2 r'2 i'2

u1 jxh1 u'2

Figure 5.11: Equivalent circuit of a power transformer.

Table 5.8: Parameters of the Yd5 power transformer.

Short-circuit resistance (r 1 + r 2 ) r cc 3.0 · 10−3 (p.u.)

Short-circuit reactance (x σ1 + x σ2 ) x cc 0.14 (p.u.)
Three-phase magnetizing reactance x h1 5.0 (p.u.)

The first two pairs present a frequency of exactly 50 Hz. It is important to note that this
frequency does not have a physical meaning in the case of the transformer alone. It appears
as a consequence of the linearization procedure. Indeed, the linearization is applied on the
models at a stage where they are represented in the d,q,o-axis system (Park’s representation).
In order to maintain compatibility with the models of rotating machines, the d,q,o-axis system
is a rotating reference frame for all elements (including transformers, lines, loads, etc.). The
frequency of 50 Hz that appears in eigenvalues 1 to 4 is the rotational frequency of the reference
frame in which the models were linearized. On the other hand, the real part of all eigenvalues
are directly related to the parameters of the transformer.

The first pair has a time constant τ = 21.37 s. This is equal to the time constant related to the
magnetizing inductance of the transformer. This time constant can be obtained when the
equivalent circuit is seen from the magnetizing branch with both terminals short-circuited,
as illustrated in figure 5.12. The magnetizing time constant Th1 of the transformer can be
calculated as:

Table 5.9: Eigenproperties of the power transformer.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −0.0468 314.16 21.37 0.015 50.0 ∆i abc1,abc2
3, 4 −6.732 314.16 0.149 2.14 50.0 ∆i abc1,abc2
5 −6.732 − 0.149 100 − ∆i ∆

63
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

r1 jxσ1 jx'σ2 r'2 jxh1

jxh1 r1 r'2

jxσ1 jx'σ2

Figure 5.12: Equivalent circuit of the transformer seen from the magnetizing branch.

Table 5.10: Eigenproperties of the transformer – generator – infinite bus system.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −1.423 8.738 0.703 16.0 1.391 ∆ωm , ∆θ, ∆i abc2
3, 4 −4.967 314.02 0.201 2.14 49.98 ∆i abc2
5, 6 −0.0643 314.16 15.55 0.020 50.0 ∆i abc1,abc2
7 −18.74 − 0.053 100 − ∆i Q , ∆i abc2
8 −16.58 − 0.060 100 − ∆i D , ∆i abc2
9 −6.732 − 0.149 100 − ∆i ∆
10 −0.292 − 3.425 100 − ∆i f , ∆i abc2

x σ1 x σ2
x h1 +
x σ1 + x σ2
Th1 = r1 r2 = 21.37 s (5.3)
ωN
r1 + r2

The second pair and the last eigenvalue have the same time constant τ = 0.149 s. The difference
between them is that the second pair is related to the primary and secondary currents, whereas
the last eigenvalue is related to the circulating current in the delta. This value of τ is equal to
the short-circuit time constant of the transformer Tcc , which can be analytically determined as:

x cc x σ1 + x σ2
Tcc = = = 0.149 s (5.4)
ωN r cc ωN (r 1 + r 2 )

Now that the eigenvalues of the transformer are validated, it can be applied to the example
illustrated in figure 5.10. The same operating conditions of the case presented in section 5.3
are considered here. The results are presented in table 5.10.

It is possible to notice that the introduction of the transformer adds three eigenvalues (num-
bers 5, 6 and 9) compared to the example of section 5.3 (see table 5.3). This is due to the
windings of the primary side of the transformer and to the delta connection of the secondary

64
 5.6. RL and RLC Loads

side.

Most remarkably, the inclusion of the transformer shifts the eigenvalues already present in
the first example (see table 5.3). This shift makes the system less stiff (damping ratios are
reduced). This is indeed logical since the stiffness of this system is due to the infinite bus.
The transformer increases the electrical distance between the bus and the generator, which
makes it slightly less stable. Without the presence of any regulator, the inclusion of other series
elements between the infinite bus and the machine would make it increasingly less stable,
tending to make the local mode (pair 1,2) unstable in an extreme case. The other eigenvalues
are also shifted indicating that the time constants of the synchronous machine and of the
transformer combine together when these two elements are connected.

It is possible to confirm the eigenmodes calculated for this case as it was done in the first
example. However, since these modes keep the same nature, the validation procedure is not
duplicated here in order to avoid repetition.

5.6 RL and RLC Loads

Electrical loads are modeled by RL and RLC elements. The parameters of the load (values
of R L , L L and C L ) can be given either directly or indirectly through the specification of an
operating point of active and reactive power. In this case, the parameters are calculated by the
initialization procedure.

The RL model is composed of three state equations, one for each phase, the last one being
eliminated as explained in section 5.2. Thus, it yields two eigenvalues which are the inverse
of the time constant τ = L L /R L of a RL circuit. It is relevant to note that these values present
also the frequency of the reference frame, as it was the case for the power transformers (this
specific frequency has no physical meaning).

The RLC model is represented by six state equations: three related to the phase currents (∆i abc )
and three to the capacitor voltages (∆uC abc ). After the elimination of the third phase current,
five eigenvalues are obtained.

As a simple illustration, a three phase RLC load connected to a voltage source is considered,
as depicted in figure 5.13. The parameters of the load are given in table 5.11. The results of
the eigensolution of this elementary system are given in table 5.12. Even though it is a simple
example, the interpretation of the results is nonetheless important.

The first two pairs correspond to the two RLC loops formed in SIMSEN. These are oscillatory
modes due to the resonance between the inductive and capacitive elements. However, the
frequency of these modes is somewhat masked due to the reference frame. The values ob-

65
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

Table 5.11: Parameters of the RLC load.

Resistance RL 0.90 (Ω)

Inductance LL 320.0 (mH)
Capacitance CL 18.0 (mF)
Voltage U 17.5 (kV)
Frequency fN 50 (Hz)

Table 5.12: Eigenproperties of the RLC load.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −1.406 301.06 = 314.16 − 13.1 0.711 0.810 2.085 ∆i abc , ∆uC abc
3, 4 −1.406 327.26 = 314.16 + 13.1 0.711 0.810 2.085 ∆i abc , ∆uC abc
5 0 − − − − ∆uC c

tained (301.06 and 327.26 rad/s) are a combination of the real damped frequency ωd with the
frequency of the reference frame ωa . The actual damped frequency is obtained as follows:

ωd1,2 = −ωλ1,2 + ωa
ωd3,4 = +ωλ3,4 − ωa

This results in ωd = 13.1 rad/s, reason for which this value is highlighted in boldface type in
table 5.12. Additionally, the values of ζ and f are calculated based on this value of ωd .

Both values of σ and ωd can be confirmed analytically. For a RLC circuit, the attenuation σ
and the natural (resonance) frequency ω0 can be calculated based on the parameters of the
system, yielding the following results:

RL
σ= = 1.406 Np/s
2L L
1
ω0 = p = 13.176 rad/s
LL CL

RL LL CL

Figure 5.13: RLC load.

66
 5.6. RL and RLC Loads

Consequently, the damped frequency is:

q
ωd = ω20 − σ2 = 13.101 rad/s

This is an analytical confirmation of the results presented in table 5.12.

It is also possible to observe the effect of the resonance frequency and its damping through a
time-domain simulation which allows for validating the results. A step increase of 5% on the
voltage feeding the load makes the amplitude of the currents oscillate.

Figure 5.14 presents the phase a current for which an oscillating envelope can be determined.
This envelope has an oscillation frequency equal to the resonance frequency. Moreover, it
is possible to identify the damping and the time constant of the mode as it was done in the
previous examples. A very good agreement is found between the eigenvalue results , the
analytical calculation and the time-domain simulation.

Line current of phase a

0.92 Sinusoidal envelope of the amplitude
Exponential envelope with τ = 0.71 s
Ref. points for the exp. envelope
0.90
ia (p.u.)

0.88

σ = –1.408
0.86
f = 2.09 Hz

0.84

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0

t (s)

Figure 5.14: Sinusoidal envelope and its exponential damping for a RLC load.

Finally, the last eigenvalue is zero. This happens due to the fact that the state variable ∆i c is
eliminated in the construction of the matrices. The state equation related to the capacitor
voltage is:

d ∆uC c
CL = ic
dt

67
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

Since i c = −i a − i b , there is a linear dependency between this equation and the other capacitor
voltage equations. This causes the pure zero eigenvalue, which has no physical meaning and
does not indicate any unstable condition.

5.7 Transmission Lines

Two models of transmission lines are developed for small-signal stability: (i) a resistive-induc-
tive (RL) model, convenient for the representation of short transmission lines (with lengths up
to 80 km); and (ii) the π-section model, suitable for the representation of medium transmission
lines (with lengths between 80 km and 160 km).

The RL model corresponds to a three-phase resistive-inductive element as depicted in fig-

ure 5.15. This element is represented by three state variables(∆i abc ) and three corresponding
state equations which describe the voltage drop between the two terminals of each phase.
When applied in a circuit, this element introduces a time constant τ = L t l R t l which com-
±

bines with the time constants of other elements in the same current loop, thus influencing
the damping of some eigenmodes. This model will be applied in the example presented in
the next section (see section 5.8). Moreover, for the purpose of studying the small-signal
stability of hydroelectric power plants, the RL model is sufficient to conveniently represent
the connection of the generator (or its step-up transformer) to the power grid.

ia Rtl Ltl

ib
uabc,1 uabc,2
ic

Figure 5.15: Resistive-inductive transmission line.

For specific cases when the representation of network parts with longer lines requires more
precision, it is possible to apply the π-section transmission line element. In SIMSEN, this
element takes into account the RL elements (R t l , L t l ), including mutual inductances (L t l m ),
single-phase and phase-to-phase capacitances (C φn and C φφ , respectively), as depicted in
figure 5.16.

An important point to observe regarding this model is that in order to keep the formulation
presented in equation (4.6), on page 46, residual inductances (L r es ) are added in series with
the capacitive elements. This increases the order of the model to 27. The value of these
inductances is determined based on the value of the capacitances as well as on the integration

68
 5.7. Transmission Lines

ia1 Rtl Ltl ia2

iCab1 iCab2
ib1 Cϕϕ Ltlm Cϕϕ ib2
uabc,1 uabc,2
iCbc1 iCca1 iCbc2 iCca2
ic1 Ltlm ic2

iCa1 iCb1 iCc1 iCa2 iCb2 iCc2

C ϕn Cϕn

Figure 5.16: Three-phase scheme of a π-section transmission line element.

time step T st ep configured for time-domain simulations, as follows:

¡ ¢2
0.5 T st ep
L r es = (5.5)
C

Consequently, if the eigenvalues of the π-section model alone are calculated, the LC branches
yield resonance frequencies without any physical meaning, which are equal to:

1 2
ω0 = p −→ ω0 = (5.6)
L r es C T st ep

This value is the same, regardless of the line parameters. Thus, it has no relation with the
physical representation of transmission lines.

Nonetheless, the value of these residual inductances is small enough to be generally negligible
when the π-section model is combined with other circuit elements that are essentially induc-
tive. This means that when the π-section small-signal model is connected together with other
elements, the interaction between the true inductive parts with the capactive characteristic
of the line will be correctly represented (still, it is necessary to compensate for the reference
frame frequency, as explained in section 5.6).

A simple way to validate the small-signal model of the π-section transmission line is to connect
it to a basic RL load and extract the eigenvalues. The validation of the results can be achieved
as it was done for the RLC load in section 5.6. The validation procedure must be applied
repeatedly for each LC or RLC loop. However, this is not presented here in order to avoid
repetition.

69
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

5.8 Voltage Regulators

The small-signal models developed for automatic voltage regulators are available under two
different configurations (implemented in two distinct modules): (i) the IEEE ST1A voltage
regulator, as proposed by the standard IEEE Std 421-5 [38]; and (ii) a model based on the
Unitrol® regulator, a commercial AVR broadly known and used worldwide.

The block diagram of the ST1A voltage regulator is presented in figure 5.17. Besides the
standard structure proposed by IEEE, a filter is added to the input VC so that it corresponds
to the filtered value of the measured voltage u m of the regulated machine. In the context of
small-signal stability, limitations and discrete elements cannot be taken into account. For
this reason, they are represented in gray. After neglecting such elements, the small-signal
model of the ST1A regulator is described by five time-domain state equations. Moreover, the
linearized expression of the input (∆u m ) is given as a function of the state variable of the
regulated machine. These expressions are given in appendix A, section A.6.

The other possible configuration corresponds to the model of the commercial voltage regulator
Unitrol®, which has been used in several power plants around the world. Its block diagram is
presented in figure 5.18. Once again, the elements not taken into account in the small-signal
model are represented in gray. The small-signal model of this regulator is described by four
time-domain state equations. The analytical description of the input (∆u m ) is the same as for
the ST1A regulator.

In order to illustrate the use of a voltage regulator model, an example is presented based on
the test case carried out in section 5.3. A short transmission line (represented by the RL model)
is added and the synchronous generator is regulated by the second configuration of AVR. This
system is presented in figure 5.19. The parameters and operating point of the generator are
kept unchanged, whereas the parameters of the line and the voltage regulator are given in
table 5.13.

The results obtained from the eigensolution of this system are presented in table 5.14.

VS VUEL VUEL VS VUEL

um 1 VC – HV (1+ sTC) (1+ sTC1) KA HV LV EFD

1+ sTR GATE (1+ sTB) (1+ sTB1) 1+ sTA GATE GATE
– –

sKF VOEL
Vset 1+ sTF
KLR IFD
–
0 ILR

Figure 5.17: IEEE ST1A voltage regulator.

70
 5.8. Voltage Regulators

uset (1+ sT1) (1+ sT3) 1 ureg

k
– (1+ sT2) (1+ sT4) 1+ sTst
ug
1 uC1 uC2
1+ sTms

um

Figure 5.18: Block diagram of the Unitrol® voltage regulator.

Rtl Ltl

uset
SM AVR
–
um

Figure 5.19: Example of synchronous generator with automatic voltage regulator.

Table 5.13: Parameters of RL transmission line and voltage regulator.

Element Parameters
R t0 l 0.03 (Ω/km)
Transmission line L 0t l 0.70 (mH/km)
l 5.0 (km)
k 250 (–)
T1 0.10 (s)
T2 0.02 (s)
Voltage Regulator
T3 1.0 (s)
T4 5.0 (s)
Tms 0.04 (s)
T st 0.005 (s)

71
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

Table 5.14: Eigenproperties of the system with AVR and short transmission line.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −19.74 6.678 0.051 94.7 1.063 ∆i D , ∆i f , ∆u g , ∆uC 1
3, 4 −0.790 7.748 1.266 10.1 1.233 ∆ωm , ∆θ, ∆i abc
5, 6 −28.92 313.64 0.035 9.18 49.92 ∆i abc
7 −200.77 − 0.005 100 − ∆u r eg
8 −47.82 − 0.021 100 − ∆i f , ∆i D , ∆uC 1
9 −14.21 − 0.070 100 − ∆i Q , ∆i abc
10 −2.152 − 0.465 100 − ∆i abc , ∆i f , ∆uC 2
11 −1.516 − 0.660 100 − ∆i abc , ∆i f , ∆uC 1

It is possible to see that the presence of the AVR not only introduces new eigenvalues, but
also generates interactions that give origin to a different oscillatory eigenmode (pair 1,2).
It corresponds to the control mode oscillations which are strongly damped. Due to such a
high damping ratio, it is not possible to observe the effects of this eigenmode through time-
domain simulations. Such a strong damping indicates that the tuning of the AVR parameters
is satisfactory, even though this is not an issue in question here. Nevertheless, it is interesting
to observe that control modes can become less stable if the regulator is not well tuned.

The presence of the short line also influences the stability of the system. Whereas the damping
of the 50 Hz component increases, the local mode (pair 3,4) gets less damped. This is a
consequence of the fact that the line decouples the generator from the infinite grid, increasing
the electrical distance between both. Moreover, the local mode frequency is also shifted. This
indicates that both damping and frequency of the local mode depend on the topology of the
system, on whether regulating elements are present or not and on how they are tuned.

The action of the local mode can once again be observed through a time-domain simulation in
which a +5% disturbance is applied to the external torque. Figure 5.20 presents the behavior
of the electrical power as well as the frequency of oscillation and the damping time constant
obtained graphically. Once again it is possible to conclude that a good agreement is obtained
between the properties extracted through the eigenvalues calculation and those from the
time-domain simulation of a small disturbance.

Finally, the purely real eigenvalues correspond to combinations of time constants of the
elements, indicating other forms of interaction that do not represent any risk of instability.
The eigenvalue number 7 can be particularly identified as the inverse of the time constant T st
from the voltage regulator. The others cannot be directly related to specific parameters of the
system.

72
 5.9. Power System Stabilizer

1.00 Electrical power

Envelope with τ = 1.322 s
Ref. points for envelope
0.98
σ = –0.757
f = 1.236 Hz
0.96
– pel (p.u.)

0.94

0.92

0.90
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
t (s)

Figure 5.20: Electrical power pulsation of the system with AVR and short transmission line.

5.9 Power System Stabilizer

A small-signal model was developed for the power system stabilizer IEEE PSS2B, proposed
by the standard IEEE Std 421-5 [38]. Besides the standard structure, the implementation of
this model in SIMSEN includes a filter for each input, as it can be seen in figure 5.21. This
model is described either by fourteen or fifteen time-domain state equations, depending on
the values of the parameters M and N . In SIMSEN, these parameters can assume either the
values M = 4, N = 1; or M = 5, N = 1; or M = 2, N = 2.

Based on the example presented in section 5.5, page 62, a new example is proposed which
includes the PSS2B and the same AVR model presented in the previous section, as depicted in
figure 5.22. The parameters and operating point previously used are kept unchanged. The

δω 1 sTw1 sTw2 1 1+ sT8

N
1+ sT1 1+ sT3 uPSS
Ks1
1+ sTω 1+ sTw1 1+ sTw2 1+ sT6 (1+ sT9)M – 1+ sT2 1+ sT4

Ks3

pel 1 sTw3 sTw4 Ks2

1+ sTp 1+ sTw3 1+ sTw4 1+ sT7

Figure 5.21: IEEE PSS2B power system stabilizer with filtered inputs.

73
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

δω
PSS2B
uPSS
pel
uset
SM AVR
–
um

Figure 5.22: Example of synchronous generator with AVR and PSS2B.

Table 5.15: Parameters of the PSS2B.

K s1 1.00 (–)
K s2 1.02 (–)
K s3 1.00 (–)
−4
Tω 1.00 · 10 (s)
Tp 1.25 · 10−2 (s)
T w1...4 4.965 (s)
T1 0.180 (s)
T2 0.025 (s)
T3 0.330 (s)
T4 0.180 (s)
−4
T6 1.00 · 10 (s)
T7 5.00 (s)
T8 0.500 (s)
T9 0.100 (s)
M 5 (–)
N 1 (–)

parameters used for the PSS2B are presented in table 5.15.

It is important to mention that in this illustrative case, the gain of the PSS (K s1 ) is intentionally
set to a low value. In this way, it will still be possible to observe at least the local mode
oscillations through a disturbed time domain simulation, so that it can validate the eigenvalues
results.

The results obtained from the eigensolution of this system are extensively presented in ta-
ble 5.16. Where the dominant states are identified as "PSS", it means that internal variables of
the PSS are dominant. The specific variable ∆u P SS corresponds to the output of the stabilizer.

The PSS introduces fifteen state variables in the system. The interpretation of the complete

74
 5.9. Power System Stabilizer

Table 5.16: Eigenproperties of the system with PSS, AVR and step-up transformer.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −0.206 0.0015 4.854 100 2.4 · 10−6 PSS
3, 4 −42.34 0.250 0.024 100 0.040 ∆i f , ∆i D , PSS
5, 6 −1.270 0.692 0.787 87.8 0.110 ∆i f , ∆ωm , ∆uC 1,2
7, 8 −18.83 2.341 0.053 99.2 0.373 PSS
9, 10 −7.221 6.061 0.138 76.6 0.965 PSS, ∆i Q , ∆ωm
11, 12 −20.72 7.587 0.048 93.9 1.208 PSS, ∆i f , ∆i D , ∆ωm
13, 14 −1.961 8.357 0.510 22.8 1.330 PSS, ∆ωm , ∆θ, ∆i abc2
15, 16 −4.897 314.03 0.204 1.56 49.98 ∆i abc2
17, 18 −0.065 314.16 15.38 0.021 50.00 ∆i abc1,abc2
−4
19 −10000 − 10 100 − PSS
20 −10000 − 10−4 100 − PSS
21 −200.3 − 0.005 100 − ∆u r eg
22 −82.74 − 0.012 100 − PSS, ∆i f , ∆i D
23 −10.00 − 0.100 100 − ∆u P SS , ∆uC 1
24 −6.732 − 0.149 100 − ∆i ∆
25 −5.676 − 0.176 100 − PSS, ∆ωm
26 −5.505 − 0.182 100 − PSS, ∆ωm
27 −0.2014 − 4.965 100 − PSS
28 −0.2014 − 4.965 100 − PSS
29 −0.1924 − 5.198 100 − PSS

list of eigenvalues may become an intricate task. Nonetheless, the indication of the dominant
states through the computation of participation factors proves to be very useful.

Indeed, it is possible to see that several of the new eigenvalues are almost exclusively related
to internal variables of the PSS and have no significant interaction with the rest of the system.
Furthermore, they are either purely real or at least very well damped with a very low frequency.

On the other hand, the presence of the PSS causes the rise of new control modes. Since the
PSS gain has a low value in this example, these modes do not represent any risk to the stability
of the system. However, in real cases the gain is usually set to high values with the aim to damp
inter-area and local oscillations. This decreases the damping of control modes and, in extreme
cases, they might become unstable.

Finally, it is interesting to verify the local mode (pair 13,14). When confronted to the value

75
Chapter 5. Validation of the Small-Signal Models

obtained in the case without AVR and PSS, in table 5.10, page 64 (λ = −1.423 ± j 8.738, with
ζ = 16%), it is easy to see that even with a low gain the PSS acts positively, increasing the
damping ratio. Additionally, the frequency undergoes a slight shift.

A time-domain simulation similar to those performed previously allows for the confirmation
of these values. The results from the eigenvalues calculation with the model of the PSS are
compliant with the properties extracted from the time-domain results, presented in figure 5.23.

1.00 Electrical power

Envelope with τ = 0.509 s
Ref. points for envelope
0.98
σ = –1.963
f = 1.354 Hz
0.96
– p (p.u.)
el

0.94

0.92

0.90
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
t (s)

Figure 5.23: Electrical power pulsation with AVR and PSS.

The implementation of these small-signal stability models in SIMSEN allow for the eigen-
analysis of systems of much higher complexity. The coupling of the models described in this
chapter with small-signal models of hydraulic elements in the same tool is a powerful asset for
coherent and comprehensive analyses of hydropower plants and systems.

76
 Modeling of Hydraulic Elements
6

6.1 General
This chapter introduces the principle of modeling of the main hydraulic elements available
in SIMSEN. The development of the time-domain models was in reference [69], whereas the
linearized models derived from them were proposed in reference [1]. Only the main aspects
and models that were used in the present work are presented here in a compact form. For
further details, please refer to references [1, 69].

6.2 Hydroacoustic Model of a Pipe

Hydroacoustic modeling is the base of the hydraulic models of SIMSEN. The principle of mass
and momentum conservation is applied to describe the dynamic behavior of a pipe filled with
water. The water flow is considered to be one-dimensional, given that transversal lengths can
be neglected when compared to longitudinal lengths of hydraulic installations. Moreover, it is
assumed that the flow is normal to the cross section of the pipe, and the pressure, the density
and the flow velocity are uniform in a given cross section [69].

Considering an elementary pipe of length dx (see figure 6.1), the two equations describing its
dynamic behavior, based on the conservation of mass and momentum, are [107]:

∂h 1 ∂Q λ|Q|

+ + Q =0


 ∂x g A ∂t 2g D A 2


(6.1)

 ∂h a 2 ∂Q
+ =0


∂t g A ∂x


77
Chapter 6. Modeling of Hydraulic Elements

Piez
ome
pi tric
Line
ρg
Qi pi+1
ρg
hi
hi+1
Qi+1
zi dx zi+1
Datum

Figure 6.1: Model of a pipe of length dx [69].

where h is the piezometric head (given in meters of water column above a given datum), g is
the gravitational acceleration, A is the cross section of the pipe, Q is the water discharge, λ is
the local loss coefficient, D is the pipe diameter, and a is the wave speed of the water in the pipe.
For the determination of the system of hyperbolic partial differential equations (6.1), it must be
considered that there are no vertical displacements of the pipe and that the convective terms
related to the transport phenomena can be neglected with respect to propagative terms [69].
This is true due to the fact that hydroacoustic phenomena are caracterized by high wave
±
speeds a and low flow velocities c (c = Q A).

The solution of equations (6.1) is obtained through an analogy with the telegraphist’s equations,
used in the study of electromagnetic wave propagation in conductors and transmission
lines [41, 76, 98]. These equations are given below:

∂u 0 ∂i

0
 ∂x + L e ∂t + R e i = 0



(6.2)
 ∂u 1 ∂i
=0

 + 0
∂t C e ∂x


where L 0e , R e0 and C e0 are, respectively, the lineic inductance, resistance and capacitance.

The analogy between the equation sets (6.1) and (6.2) is related to the fact that both systems
are characterized by a potential state variable (h and u) and a flow rate state variable (Q and
i ). Thus, it is possible to identify the lineic hydroacoustic resistance R h0 , inductance L 0h and
capacitance C h0 , which are defined as follows:

λ|Q|
R h0 = (6.3)
2g D A 2
1
L 0h = (6.4)
gA
gA
C h0 = (6.5)
a2

78
 6.2. Hydroacoustic Model of a Pipe

The hydroacoustic resistance R h0 is related to the head losses through the pipe, the inductance
L 0h is related to inertia effects of the water and the capacitance C h0 is related to storage effects
due to pressure [69].

The hydroacoustic model represented by the system of equations (6.1) can then be rewritten
as:

∂h ∂Q

 + L 0h + R h0 (Q)Q = 0
 ∂x ∂t


(6.6)
 ∂h 1 ∂Q
+ 0 =0


∂t C h ∂x


Furthermore, it is important to consider the viscoelastic behavior of the pipe due to energy
dissipation during the deflection of the wall, in order to estimate pressure fluctuations and
system stability with more accuracy. This additional dissipation is represented by a resistance
in series with the capacitance C h0 . This viscoelastic resistance R ve accounts for both fluid and
pipe viscoelasticity and is calculated as [1]:

µeq
R ve = (6.7)
A ρ g dx

where µeq is the equivalent viscoelastic damping of the fluid and the pipe wall and ρ is the
density of the fluid.

It can be shown that for a pipe segment of length dx, this model may be represented by an
equivalent T-shaped electric circuit (see [69], pp. 42–43) as presented in figure 6.2, where:

R h = R h0 dx ; L h = L 0h dx ; C h = C h0 dx

Finally, the equivalent circuit of figure 6.2 is described by the following set of three ordinary
differential equations:

d h i +1/2
Ch = Q i −Q i +1






 dt

 L dQ
 µ
Rh
¶
h i
= −h i +1/2 − + R ve Q i + R ve Q i +1 + h i (6.8)

 2 dt 2



 L h dQ i +1 Rh
 µ ¶
= h i +1/2 + R ve Q i − + R ve Q i +1 − h i +1



2 dt 2

For a pipe of length l , the modeling is done by considering a series of n pipes of length dx.
The number of elements n in which the pipe is discretized influences directly the results.
Increasing n improves the accuracy of calculation of the natural frequencies of the pipe [1, 69].
Spatial and temporal discretisation are linked through the so-called Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy

79
Chapter 6. Modeling of Hydraulic Elements

Rh / 2 Lh / 2 Lh / 2 Rh / 2

hi+1/2 Ch
hi Qi Qi+1 hi+1
Rve

Figure 6.2: Equivalent scheme of a pipe of length dx [69].

condition (CFL condition) and based on Courant number C r [107]:

a · dt
Cr = ≤1
dx

where dt is the integration time step.

6.3 Francis Turbine Model

Francis turbines are able of converting both potential and kinetic energy of water into me-
chanical work (reaction turbines). Structurally, the rotor of a Francis turbine has fixed blades
and the water flow is controlled by the guide vanes.

As flow developing in hydraulic machines is very complex, no analytical model is available

to represent its dynamic behavior over the four possible quadrants of operation. Therefore,
reduced scale model test data are used to model hydraulic machines through a quasi-static
approach.

From the viewpoint of an equivalent electric model, the turbine is represented by a pressure
source, which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical work. A series equivalent inductance
L t is used to represent water inertia effects. It is calculated as:

l eq
Lt = (6.9)
g Ā

where l eq is the turbine equivalent length and Ā is the turbine mean cross section. In addition,
a series resistance R t is used to ensure zero discharge when the guide vanes are fully closed.
The equivalent pressure source of the turbine H t = H t (y, Ω,Q i ) is driven by the turbine charac-
teristic, which is a function of the guide vanes opening (GVO) y, the angular rotational speed
Ω Ω = 2π
¡ ¢
60 n and the discharge Q i [69].

Figure 6.3 presents an example of Francis turbine characteristic curves. These curves are
determined in terms of the speed factor N11 , discharge factor Q 11 and torque factor T11 , which

80
 6.3. Francis Turbine Model

0.6 1600
Discharge factor Q11 (m1/2/s) y = 1.00
0.4 1200

Torque factor T11 (N/m3)

y = 0.92
0.2 y = 0.82
800
y = 0.68
0.0 400 y = 0.54
y = 0.40
-0.2 0 y = 0.28
-0.4 -400 y = 0.18
y = 0.08
-0.6 -800 y = 0.00
-0.8 -1200
-1.0 -1600
-200 0 200 400 -200 0 200 400
Speed factor N11 (rpm.m1/2) Speed factor N11 (rpm.m1/2)

Figure 6.3: Turbine characteristics for different guide vane opening values.

are defined as:

n D ref Qi T t ur b
N11 = ; Q 11 = ; T11 = 3
2
p
H t ur b D ref H t ur b D ref H t ur b

where n is the rotational speed, D ref is the reference diameter of the turbine, H t ur b is the net
head, Q i is the discharge and T t ur b is the turbine torque.

Figure 6.4 presents the model and the equivalent electric circuit representing the Francis
turbine. This circuit is described by the following differential equation:

dQ i
Lt = −R t Q i − H t (y, Ω,Q i ) + H I − H I¯ (6.10)
dt

The full description of the Francis turbine is achieved with the momentum equation, which
describes the dynamics of the angular rotational speed Ω of the rotating parts:

dΩ X
J = T = T t ur b + Tem (6.11)
dt

where J is the moment of inertia of the rotating parts, T t ur b = T t ur b (y, Ω,Q i ) is the turbine

Hydraulic grade line

pI Hturb Rt Lt Ht (y,Ω,Qi)
ρg Ω y pI
HI Qi ρg
HI HI Qi HI
zref
Datum

Figure 6.4: Francis turbine model (left) and equivalent scheme (right) [69].

81
Chapter 6. Modeling of Hydraulic Elements

torque, as previously defined, and Tem is the electromagnetic torque of the generator, as
defined in chapter 4. As it can be seen in figure 6.3, the turbine torque also depends on the
guide vanes opening (GVO) y, the angular rotational speed Ω and the discharge Q i .

6.4 Model of a Surge Tank

The surge tank is a structure used to protect the hydraulic circuit against waterhammer effect.
It functions as a free surface for wave reflection, whose water level depends on the discharge
time history [69]. The variations of piezometric head h c are related to the stored discharge
Q c , which evidences a capacitive behavior. Thus, the equivalent capacitance of a surge tank
C ST is directly its cross section which is a function of the elevation. Also, the stored discharge
is the difference between the upstream Q STi and downstream Q STi +1 discharges. In addition,
the flow Q c of the surge tank undergoes head losses due to cross section changes and to a
diaphragm commonly placed at the surge tank inlet, which is used to increase damping. These
head losses h d are represented by a resistance R d (Q c ) which is a function of the discharge [69].

Figure 6.5 depicts the electric equivalent circuit that represents the resistive-capacitive behav-
ior of a surge tank. Equation (6.12), obtained as follows, describes this behavior.

h ST = h c + h d

hd = Rd Q c
d hc
Q c = Q STi −Q STi +1 = C ST
dt

Finally:

d hc
R d C ST = h ST − h c (6.12)
dt

Piezometr QST i QST i+1

ic line
Qc
hd
Rd hd

hST Qc hST
hc
CST hc
QST i QST i+1
Datum

Figure 6.5: Surge tank model (left) and equivalent scheme (right) [69].

82
 6.5. Model of the Turbine Governor

6.5 Model of the Turbine Governor

The turbine governor is a regulation device that acts on the guide vanes in order to control
either rotational speed, output power, water discharge or, in some cases, reservoir water level.
Consequently, the turbine governor input varies according to the regulated quantity.

From the modeling point of view, it can be characterized by the series representation of a PID
regulator with filtered input, whose transfer function G t g (s) is as follows:

Y (s) 1 + s Ti 1 + s Td
G t g (s) = = Kp · · (6.13)
X (s) s Ti 1+ s Tf

where X (s) is the frequency domain input, Y (s) is the frequency domain output that acts
on the guide vanes, K p is the proportional gain, Ti is the integral time constant, Td is the
derivative time constant and T f is the filter time constant. The block diagram for this transfer
function is represented in figure 6.6.

1
sTd
sTi
xset x 1 y
Kp
– – sTf

xm

Figure 6.6: Turbine governor block diagram.

In SIMSEN, the time-domain behavior of this block diagram is described by the following set
of equations, where x is the input, y 1 and y 2 are implicit state variables of the regulator, and y
is the output:

d y1

Tf = x − y1


dt







 d y2

Ti = y − y2 (6.14)

 dt



Td − T f Td − T f

 µ ¶

 y = Kp 1 + x − Kp y1 + y2


Tf Tf

6.6 Linearization of the Hydraulic Models

The linearization of the time-domain hydraulic models is done through first-order Taylor
expansions, as described in section 3.3.1, equation (3.6). Considering the equivalent models
presented in the previous sections, the mathematical representation of hydraulic elements

83
Chapter 6. Modeling of Hydraulic Elements

presents less nonlinearities than electrical machines. These nonlinearities are mostly related
to the proportionality of hydraulic resistances to the discharge Q i . Other nonlinearities are
related to the characteristic curves of the Francis turbine.

Considering the model of the pipe represented by the set of equations (6.8), the nonlinearity is
due to the square exponent of the flow rate in the following term [1]:

Rh 1 λdx
∆Hr = Qi = |Q i |Q i
2 2 2g D A 2

Under small disturbances, it is possible to consider that the direction of the water flow does
not change (Q i > 0). Thus, the multiplication |Q i |Q i becomes Q i2 [60]. So:

R h∗
∆Hr = Q i2
2

with

λdx Rh
R h∗ = 2
=
2g D A |Q i |

Finally, the linearized set of equations for a viscoelastic pipe of length dx is:

d ∆h i +1/2


 Ch = ∆Q i − ∆Q i +1
dt







L h d ∆Q i


= −∆h i +1/2 − R h∗ ¯Q i ¯0 + R ve ∆Q i + R ve ∆Q i +1 + h i ¯0
¡ ¯ ¯ ¢ ¯
(6.15)
 2 dt





 L h d ∆Q i +1 = ∆h i +1/2 + R ve ∆Q i − R ∗ ¯Q i +1 ¯ + R ve ∆Q i +1 − h i +1 ¯



 ¡ ¯ ¯ ¢ ¯
h 0 0
2 dt

Regarding the Francis turbine, the equivalent hydraulic resistance introduces a nonlinearity
related to the square of the discharge Q i , in the same way as for the viscoelastic pipe. Further-
more, there are nonlinearities related to the pressure source H t (y, Ω,Q i ) and to the torque
T t (y, Ω,Q i ) [1]. The linearization of these quantities is given by:

∂H t ¯¯ ∂H t ¯¯ ∂H t ¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯
∆H t = ∆Q i + ∆Ω + ∆y
∂Q i ¯0 ∂Ω ¯0 ∂y ¯0

∂T t ¯¯ ∂T t ¯¯ ∂T t ¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯
∆T t = ∆Q i + ∆Ω + ∆y
∂Q i ¯0 ∂Ω ¯0 ∂y ¯0

Thus, the linearized set of equations for the Francis turbine is:

84
 6.6. Linearization of the Hydraulic Models

d ∆Q i ∂H t ¯¯ ∂H t ¯¯ ∂H t ¯¯
 µ ¯ ¶ ¯ ¯
∗
∆Q i − ∆Ω − ∆y + h I ¯0 − h I¯¯0
¯ ¯ ¯
Lt = −2R t Q i 0 −

 ¯
∂Q i 0 ∂Ω 0 ∂y 0



 dt ¯ ¯ ¯
(6.16)
d ∆Ω ∂T t ¯¯ ∂T t ¯¯ ∂T t ¯¯

 ¯ ¯ ¯
∆Q ∆Ω ∆y + ∆Tem


 J = i + +
dt ∂Q i ¯0 ∂Ω ¯0 ∂y ¯0


with

Rt
R t∗ =
|Q i |

Therefore, the Francis turbine presents nonlinearities not only related to the resistance term,
but also to the turbine characteristics. For this reason, the calculation of the six gradients of
system of equations (6.16) is a fundamental task.

In the case of unregulated turbines, the guide vanes opening remain constant and are not
a state variable of the system. Therefore, the gradients related to it are not included in the
linearized matrix. Moreover, the linearized electromagnetic torque ∆Tem is obtained from
the electrical machine model. If only the hydraulic circuit is represented, the electromagnetic
¯
torque is considered to be a constant value Tem ¯ . 0

Finally, concerning the surge tank model, the only nonlinearity is also related to the resistance
term which introduces a quadratic proportionality relative to the discharge. Consequently,
the linearization of this term is identical to the resistance term related to the pipe model. By
applying the same principle to the equations presented in section 6.4, the resulting linearized
model of the surge tank is:

¡ ∗ ¯ ¢ d ∆h c
= h ST ¯0 − ∆h c
¯
2R d Q c ¯0 C ST (6.17)
dt

with

Rd
R d∗ =
|Q c |

The use of hydraulic models for a complete representation of hydropower plants allows for a
better determination of the eigenmodes of the system. This is very important in cases where
the interactions between the subsystems must be studied, such as output power fluctuations
due to the influence of hydraulic phenomena.

85
 Part III

Case Studies

87
 Stability Issues and Solutions for an
7
Islanded Hydropower Plant

7.1 Introduction
In a number of countries, the lack of essential electricity infrastructure weakens social and
economic development. Plus, reliability and availability are a major issue for the minority that
has electricity supply. In many cases, however, such countries have sufficient energy potential
to be exploited so that the electricity needs can be met. In sub-Saharan Africa, for example,
hydropower accounts for one-fifth of today’s power supply, but less then 10% of the estimated
technical potential have been exploited [36].

Most frequently, using such hydroelectric potential requires the installation of power plants
in remote areas, where the connection with large-scale power grids is nonexistent or at least,
very weak. Therefore, hydropower plants installed in such conditions must be capable of
withstanding isolated or islanded operation modes. As mentioned in chapter 1, section 1.2,
islanded operation is the condition when the power plant and its surrounding network have a
weak connection (low short-circuit power) with the power grid, and with no tie-line connec-
tions to neighboring systems. Isolated operation happens when the power plant is responsible
for feeding a local network without any connection with a large power grid.

The aim of this chapter is to present a case study that illustrates stability issues for islanded
hydropower plants, and how regulation systems such as turbine governors and power system
stabilizers may contribute to better performance and dynamic behavior. Moreover, this
chapter demonstrates how electrical, hydraulic, mechanical and control subsystems may
interact sometimes in a positive sense, sometimes in an adverse way.

For this purpose, a hypothetical system is proposed in which a hydropower plant runs under

89
Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

islanded operation mode, due to weak connections with the electrical network. Different
scenarios are possible and the most critical one is analyzed. This system is described hereafter.

7.2 Case Study Description

The system studied in this chapter is a 75 MW hydropower plant which operates under islanded
condition. Figure 7.1 presents the layout of this system. The electrical and hydraulic parts,
with corresponding control elements, are described in the following subsections.
um Power grid
– UN = 220 kV
uset AVR
δω Feeder 1
Ssc1 = 100 MVA
uPSS PSS pel

Feeder 2
Ssc2 = 150 MVA

nset – nturb

TG

Figure 7.1: Layout of the islanded hydroelectric power plant.

7.2.1 Electrical Subsystem

The electrical part of the power plant is constituted of an 83 MVA salient-pole synchronous
generator connected to a 220 kV/17.5 kV Yd5 step-up transformer. The generator is equipped
with the ABB Unitrol® excitation system as voltage regulator (see figure 5.18), and there is the
possibility of putting into service a power system stabilizer of type IEEE PSS2B (see figure 5.21).

This power plant is connected to the grid by two parallel feeders but this connection is weak.
Feeder 1 has a short-circuit power S sc1 = 100 MVA, whereas the feeder 2 has S sc2 = 150 MVA.
Therefore, the short-circuit power on the point of connection is 250 MVA in the best case, i.e.,
as long as both feeders are energized. Such a low value of short-circuit power can result in
poorly damped electro-mechanical mode oscillations.

Table 7.1 presents the main parameters of the electrical elements of this installation. The
parameters of voltage regulator and PSS are given further, in table 7.3.

90
 7.2. Case Study Description

Table 7.1: Main parameters of the electrical installation.

Element Ratings / Parameters

S N = 83 MVA
U N = 17.5 kV
f N = 50 Hz
Generator
P p = 5 (number of pairs of poles)
I f δ0 = 578.3 A
J g = 160.3 · 103 kg · m2
Stator windings connection: Y
S N = 84 MVA

Step-up transformer U N 1 = 220 kV

U N 2 = 17.5 kV
Vector group: Yd5
S sc = 250 MVA (total short-circuit power)
Power grid U N = 220 kV
f N = 50 Hz

7.2.2 Hydraulic Subsystem

The hydraulic installation is composed of an upstream reservoir, an 1100 meter long penstock
feeding a 75 MW Francis turbine, followed by an 100 meter long tailrace tunnel and a lower
reservoir. The main parameters of this system are presented in table 7.2.

The penstock is discretized in twenty elements, whereas the tailrace tunnel is represented
by five pipe elements. The discretization of the piping system follows the CFL condition,
explained in chapter 6, section 6.2. Additionally, the turbine characteristic curves are taken
into account.

Consequently, this high order model takes into account effects of water hammer, mass oscilla-
tion, and transient behavior of the turbine in the four quadrants, linked to the corresponding
rotating inertia.

Furthermore, the hydraulic system is equipped with a turbine governor. Since the connection
to the grid is weak, it can run as a speed/frequency regulator, thus contributing to the frequency
stability of the system. The frequency regulator used is a PID regulator such as presented in
figure 6.6. The corresponding parameters are given in table 7.3.

91
Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

Table 7.2: Main parameters of the hydraulic installation.

Element Dimensions
Reservoir Ho = 330 m (gross head)
L = 1100 m
Penstock D = 3.0 m
a = 1100 m/s
P N = 75 MW
n N = 600 rpm
Francis turbine
H N = 314.2 m
ν = 0.298 (specific speed)
J t = 8.0 · 103 kg · m2
L = 100 m
Tailrace tunnel D = 3.5 m
a = 1000 m/s
K sh = 1.26 · 108 Nm/rad (torsional stiffness)
Coupling shaft
µsh = 5.0 · 103 Nms/rad (viscous damping)

Table 7.3: Parameters of the control and regulation elements.

Element Parameters
K p = 1.0
Turbine governor
T f = 0.5 s Ti = 3.7 s Td = 1.0 s
k = 150
Voltage regulator T1 = 0.1 s T2 = 0.02 s T3 = 1.22 s
T4 = 5.0 s Tms = 0.04 s T st = 0.005 s

M =5 N =1
K s1 = 20 K s2 = 0.625 K s3 = 1.0
Stabilizer (PSS) Tω = 0.1 ms T p = 12.5 ms T w1...4 = 4.96 s
T1 = 0.15 s T2 = 0.09 s T3 = 0.15 s
T4 = 0.09 s T6 = 0.1 ms T7 = 5.0 s
T8 = 1.05 s T9 = 0.21 s

92
 7.3. Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System

7.2.3 Possible Scenarios

Considering possible outages of the feeders and the unreliability of weak power grids, three
scenarios are proposed:

1. Regular scenario – both feeders are operational and the short-circuit power is, conse-
quently, 250 MVA;

2. Intermediate scenario – connection with feeder 1 is lost. The power plant remains
synchronized only to feeder 2, with 150 MVA of short-circuit power. Thus, the system is
less rigid;

3. Critical scenario – feeder 2 is out of service and the connection with feeder 1 only
guarantees 100 MVA of short-circuit power. This is the most demanding condition for
the operation of this power plant.

Due to the low short-circuit power, in all these scenarios the power plant is considered to run
under islanded operation condition. Eigenanalyses performed in the following section for the
three cases indicate if these scenarios are stable or not. Instabilities are amended through the
introduction of stabilizing signal from a power system stabilizer.

Further, in section 7.4, the main hydraulic eigenmodes are presented. And finally, in sec-
tion 7.5, eigenanalysis of the most critical scenario is performed considering the complete
representation of the hydroelectric system. Interactions between hydraulic, electrical and
control parts are pointed out.

7.3 Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System

The eigenanalysis of the electrical system is carried out considering an over-excited, full load
operation of the power plant, with power factor equal to 0.90. This means: u = 1.04 p.u.,
p el = −0.90 p.u. and q = −0.436 p.u a . The system is considered first without PSS, which will
be applied later in order to enhance the small-signal stability of the power plant.

7.3.1 The Regular Scenario

As stated previously, the regular scenario corresponds to the condition when the power plant
is connected to the grid through both feeders, meaning a 250 MVA short-circuit power. The
results of the eigensolution of the system under this configuration are given in table 7.4.
a As stated in chapter 5, section 5.3, according to the sign convention used in SIMSEN, negative power means

generated (delivered) power. In order to keep consistency with the other parts of this document, the curves of
electrical power are presented in this chapter with a negative sign (−p el ).

93
Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

Table 7.4: Eigenvalues of the electrical system considering the regular scenario.

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Control mode −19.5 ± j 5.21 96.6 0.829
Electro-mechanical local mode −0.37 ± j 6.75 5.47 1.074
Stator windings −9.55 ± j 314.04 3.04 49.98
Transformer magnetizing branch −0.17 ± j 314.16 0.05 50.0
Voltage regulator −200.6 100 −
Voltage regulator and rotor windings −48.2 100 −
Damper windings −13.0 100 −
Generator windings and regulator −2.39 100 −
Generator windings and regulator −1.02 100 −

The characteristics of all eigenvalues were described in a detailed way in chapter 5, and will
not be individually analyzed anew.

It is particularly important to observe that the electro-mechanical local mode is relatively

poorly damped. This is due to the weak network. Nonetheless, this represents the best case.
With lower short-circuit powers in the other scenarios, this eigenmode tends to be even less
damped.

7.3.2 The Intermediate Scenario

If the connection with feeder 1 is lost, the short-circuit power drops to 150 MVA. Table 7.5
presents the results of the eigensolution of the system under this condition.

Whereas most of the eigenvalues undergo slight modifications, the local mode clearly ap-
proaches the limit of stability, with a very weak damping ratio (ζ). This indicates that the
critical scenario, the most severe one, shall present instabilities. This is confirmed in the
following subsection.

7.3.3 The Critical Scenario

Considering now a 100 MVA short-circuit power, the results presented in table 7.6 confirm the
expectation that this condition would result in instabilities. The local mode becomes unstable
which means that any small disturbance is sufficient to break the balance of the system.

A time-domain simulation permits to confirm these findings. Figure 7.2 shows that by applying

94
 7.3. Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System

Table 7.5: Eigenvalues of the electrical system considering the intermediate scenario.

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Control mode −19.1 ± j 5.27 96.4 0.839
Electro-mechanical local mode −0.06 ± j 5.78 1.04 0.920
Stator windings −10.6 ± j 314.06 3.37 49.98
Transformer magnetizing branch −0.17 ± j 314.16 0.05 50.0
Voltage regulator −200.6 100 −
Voltage regulator and rotor windings −48.2 100 −
Damper windings −12.0 100 −
Generator windings and regulator −2.91 100 −
Generator windings and regulator −0.98 100 −

Table 7.6: Eigenvalues of the electrical system considering the critical scenario.

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Control mode −18.8 ± j 5.29 96.3 0.841
Electro-mechanical local mode 0.16 ± j 4.90 −3.26 0.780
Stator windings −11.4 ± j 314.08 3.63 49.99
Transformer magnetizing branch −0.18 ± j 314.16 0.06 50.0
Voltage regulator −200.7 100 −
Voltage regulator and rotor windings −48.1 100 −
Damper windings −11.2 100 −
Generator windings and regulator −3.37 100 −
Generator windings and regulator −0.95 100 −

95
Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

a positive 5% step on the external torque of the rotating inertia representing the generator
rotor, the oscillations are slowly damped in the regular scenario. In the intermediate one, the
damping is imperceptible; the system is at the limit of stability. And in the critical scenario, the
system is not capable of damping the oscillations of the rotor, resulting in power fluctuations
that grow continually. For the three cases, the frequency of oscillation corresponds to the
frequencies of the local modes identified through the eigenanalysis.

Regular scenario
1.1 Interm. scenario
Critical scenario
– p (p.u.)

1.0
el

0.9

0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s)

Figure 7.2: Electrical power behavior for different values of short-circuit power.

In general, it is possible to conclude that besides the local mode, the other eigenvalues are not
significantly affected by reduction of short-circuit power.

7.3.4 Contribution of the PSS to the Stability of the Local Mode

In order to cope with unstable or badly damped electro-mechanical modes and enhance
the stability of the power plant, power system stabilizers are a suitable solution. In order
to illustrate the effects of the PSS, the critical scenario is considered, since it is unstable.
Enhancing the stability of the power plant for the worst condition will also make it more stable,
for the cases with a higher level of short-circuit power.

A power system stabilizer of type IEEE PSS2B is thus added to the system. The set of parameters
used for the stabilizer, presented in table 7.3, was established based on the parameters given
in reference [45]. They were, nevertheless, adapted for this specific case.

The eigenvalues of the system are recalculated for different values of gain K s1 , ranging
from 0 to 50. As shown in chapter 5, section 5.9, new control modes appear when the PSS
is added. Nevertheless, in this case they are not significant, since they have high damping
ratios (ζ).

96
 7.3. Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System

Table 7.7 summarizes the results for the local mode with different values of K s1 . Figure 7.3
depicts a root locus representation of these results. It is possible to see that with K s1 = 2.775
the limit of stability is reached. A gain K s1 = 20 adds sufficient damping to the local mode and
is the value chosen for the setting of the PSS. Although higher values could be adopted, this
is not necessary. Moreover, stabilizers with excessively high gains are more likely to induce
harmful undesired interactions. Therefore, K s1 = 20 seems a good compromise.

Table 7.7: Evolution of the local mode with the PSS gain, considering the critical scenario.

Value of K s1 Local mode ζ (%) f (Hz)

0.0 0.16 ± j 4.90 −3.26 0.780
1.0 0.10 ± j 4.92 −2.03 0.783
2.775 0.0 ± j 4.95 0.0 0.788
5.0 −0.13 ± j 5.00 2.60 0.796
10.0 −0.44 ± j 5.10 8.60 0.812
20.0 −1.10 ± j 5.32 20.2 0.847
30.0 −1.80 ± j 5.56 30.8 0.885
40.0 −2.51 ± j 5.79 39.8 0.922
50.0 −3.21 ± j 5.91 47.7 0.941

6 ζ = 15% ζ = 5%

4 Ks1 = 0.0
Ks1 = 1.0
2 Ks1 = 2.775
Ks1 = 5.0
ℑ{λ} = ωd

0 Ks1 = 10.0
Ks1 = 20.0
−2 Ks1 = 30.0
Ks1 = 40.0
−4 Ks1 = 50.0

−6

−3.5 −3.0 −2.5 −2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0

ℜ{λ} = σ

Figure 7.3: Evolution of local mode with the PSS gain K s1 , considering the critical scenario.

97
Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

The complete list of eigenvalues of the electrical system (considering the critical scenario),
after the final setting of the PSS, is given in table 7.8.

Besides, it is possible to confirm the better small-signal stability of the system once again
through a time-domain simulation of the same nature as the previous one. Figure 7.4 illustrates
the effect of the PSS over the local mode. The previously unstable system is now capable of
operating under the most critical condition with a good performance in terms of small-signal
stability.

Table 7.8: Eigenvalues of the electrical system considering the critical scenario, with PSS
(K s1 = 20).

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Control mode (PSS) −6.50 ± j 1.55 97.3 0.247
Control mode (PSS) −2.87 ± j 2.01 81.9 0.320
Control mode (AVR and PSS) −14.4 ± j 4.58 95.3 0.729
Electro-mechanical local mode −1.10 ± j 5.32 20.2 0.847
Stator windings −11.4 ± j 314.08 3.63 49.99
Tansformer magnetizing branch −0.18 ± j 314.16 0.06 50.0
Power system stabilizer −10000 100 −
Power system stabilizer −10000 100 −
Voltage regulator −200.7 100 −
Power system stabilizer −81.4 100 −
Voltage regulator and rotor windings −47.2 100 −
PSS, excitation and damper windings −17.5 100 −
Damper windings −11.4 100 −
Power system stabilizer −10.5 100 −
Power system stabilizer −6.20 100 −
Power system stabilizer −1.97 100 −
Generator windings and AVR −1.00 100 −
PSS and rotating mass −0.24 100 −
Power system stabilizer −0.20 100 −
Power system stabilizer −0.20 100 −
Power system stabilizer −0.19 100 −
PSS and rotating mass −0.18 100 −

98
 7.4. Eigenanalysis of the Hydraulic System

1.1
without PSS
with PSS
1.0
– pel (p.u.)

0.9

0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s)

Figure 7.4: Electrical power response without and with PSS (K s1 = 20), in the critical scenario.

7.4 Eigenanalysis of the Hydraulic System

The eigenvalues calculation of the hydraulic system permits to identify the eigenmodes that
are more relevant to this analysis, i.e., those that are most likely to interact with the generator
and with the grid. Therefore, the eigenanalysis performed in this section takes into account
the hydraulic subsystem as described in section 7.2.2. The operating point considered here
matches the one for which the calculations of the previous section were performed. This
means that the Francis turbine runs under full load condition.

A reduced list of eigenvalues of the hydraulic system is presented in table 7.9. Since the
representation of this system has a relatively high order (due to the spatial discretization of
the piping system), the extensive list of eigenvalues is not given here. Only the most relevant
modes are presented.

The results are presented for the system without and with active turbine governor in order to

Table 7.9: Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydraulic system.

Nature of the without turbine governor with turbine governor

eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz) λ ζ (%) f (Hz)
Hydromechanical −0.207 100 − −0.48 ± j 0.79 51.9 0.125
Penstock 1st elastic −1.10 ± j 2.68 38.0 0.427 −1.14 ± j 3.43 31.5 0.546
Penstock 2nd elastic −0.77 ± j 5.52 13.8 0.879 −0.98 ± j 5.71 16.9 0.909
Penstock 3rd elastic −0.49 ± j 8.46 5.78 1.346 −0.56 ± j 8.50 6.57 1.353
Penstock 4th elastic −0.25 ± j 11.33 2.21 1.803 −0.26 ± j 11.35 2.29 1.806

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Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

ease the identification of the hydraulic eigenmodes. As it can be seen, the activation of the
frequency control loop alters the eigenvalues, especially those with lower frequency values.

The hydromechanical mode corresponds to the interaction between the rotating inertia of
the turbine and the inertia of the water flow through the penstock. The other four modes
indicated in table 7.9 are related to the elastic characteristic of the penstock.

The spatial discretization of the piping system allows for the representation of the hydraulic
mode shapes also in a spatial form. From such representation, it is possible to observe how the
effect of each mode is distributed along the elements of the hydraulic installation. Figure 7.5
depicts the mode shapes of all eigenvalues given in table 7.9 (for detailed information on the
characteristics and behavior of these eigemodes, please see reference [70]).

(a) Hydromechanical mode (b) Penstock 1st elastic mode (c) Penstock 2nd elastic mode

(d) Penstock 3rd elastic mode (e) Penstock 4th elastic mode

Figure 7.5: Most relevant hydraulic mode shapes.

In order to guarantee that hydraulic modes do not affect the dynamic behavior of the electrical
system, and vice-versa, it is important to go further on the analysis. A complete hydroelectric
model is necessary for this purpose.

7.5 Eigenanalysis of the Complete Hydroelectric System

The construction of the complete hydroelectric model is achieved by combining the electrical
and hydraulic models studied in the previous sections. The electrical system is considered to
be in the critical scenario (S sc = 100 MVA). At first, the PSS is not taken into account so that the
contribution of the hydraulic system to damping the unstable local mode can be assessed. The
PSS is added further to the system and its interaction with other elements is then evaluated.

The interface between hydraulic and electrical subsystems lies in the mechanical coupling
between turbine and generator inertias, through coupling shaft. Consequently, interactions
between hydraulic and electrical subsystems are related to interactions between the mechan-

100
 7.5. Eigenanalysis of the Complete Hydroelectric System

ical and the electromagnetic torques. It is known that the mechanical system behaves as a
low-pass filter because of the high value of inertia of the generator [71, 95]. Consequently,
interactions between the hydraulic and electrical elements are expected to happen at a low
frequency range.

7.5.1 Interactions between the Hydraulic and the Electrical Subsystems

Table 7.10 presents the results of the eigensolution of the hydroelectric system with turbine
governor but without PSS. Only the most relevant eigenvalues are given. Hydraulic and
electrical subsystems interact in such a way that the main eigenvalues of the global system are
all modified. As expected, this interaction happens in the low frequency range. For eigenvalues
with frequencies higher than 2 Hz, no significant change occurs.

Table 7.10: Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system with turbine governor,
without PSS.

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Hydromechanical mode −1.69 100 −
st
Penstock 1 elastic mode −0.80 ± j 2.62 29.2 0.417
Penstock 2nd elastic mode −0.84 ± j 6.13 13.6 0.976
Penstock 3rd elastic mode −0.60 ± j 8.54 7.00 1.359
Penstock 4th elastic mode −0.27 ± j 11.35 2.38 1.806
Electro-mechanical local mode 0.056 ± j 4.82 −1.16 0.767
Mechanical torsional mode −2.58 ± j 131.93 1.96 21.00

The hydromechanical eigenmode experiences an important change. In the global represen-

tation, it is no longer an oscillatory mode, differently from the expected behavior estimated
from the purely hydraulic model with turbine governor (see table 7.9).

The inclusion of the electrical model also shows that the first two elastic modes of the pen-
stock are actually slightly less damped. Moreover, the frequency of the 1st elastic mode is
considerably modified. In the case of the 2nd elastic mode, the frequency shift is smaller. On
the other hand, the changes experienced by the 3rd and 4th elastic modes are considerably
less significant. Although their damping ratio (ζ) is increased, the increment is minor. The
frequency shift is also weak. Indeed, as the frequency of the eigenvalue approaches 2 Hz, less
significant are the modifications caused by interactions with the electrical subsystem.

It is also possible to see that the local mode remains unstable. Nonetheless, the inclusion of
the hydraulic model in the global representation shows that the hydraulic subsystem gives

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Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

a contribution in the sense of damping this eigenmode. The damping ratio, which was
−3.26% with the purely electrical representation (see table 7.6), is actually equal to −1.16%.
This indicates that the hydraulic system is capable of adding some damping to the local
mode. Moreover, it is probable that this contribution is stronger if the tuning of the frequency
regulator is better adapted to the islanded condition of the power plant. This is done in the
next subsection, with a new set of parameters for the turbine governor.

The instability of the local mode affects not only the electrical subsystem, but also the hydraulic
installation. This can be confirmed through a time-domain simulation in which a step increase
of 5% is applied on the external torque of the turbine rotating inertia. Figure 7.6 illustrates
the dynamic behavior of both the purely hydraulic and the complete hydroelectric models.
Whereas the hydraulic model suggests that the system is stable, the complete representation
of the system shows that, in reality, the instability of the local mode propagates throughout the
whole system. It can be verified that turbine net head and torque present unstable oscillations
at the frequency of the local mode.

Turbine net head (hydraulic)

1.10 Turbine net head (hydroelectric)
Turbine torque (hydraulic)
hturb , tturb (p.u.)

Turbine torque (hydroelectric)

1.05

1.00

0 5 10 15 20
t (s)

Figure 7.6: Turbine net head and torque for the hydraulic and hydroelectric models.

Finally, since the rotors of turbine and generator are represented by individual rotating masses,
a new eigenmode appears in the results. It corresponds to the torsional mode between the
two rotating inertias. This eigenvalue depends on the characteristics of the coupling shaft as
well as on the values of inertia of both rotating masses.

7.5.2 Contribution of the Turbine Governor to the Stability of the Local Mode

As mentioned in the previous subsection, the results of the global model indicate that the
hydraulic elements contribute to damp the local mode oscillations, at least for the operating
point considered in this analysis. Moreover, if the tuning of the turbine governor is better

102
 7.5. Eigenanalysis of the Complete Hydroelectric System

adapted for a more stable behavior under islanded operation, the contribution of the hydraulic
subsystem can be enhanced.

Generally, increasing the integration time constant of the PID controller yields a more stable
dynamic behavior. On the other hand, this has the effect of deteriorating the performance
of the controller. In other words, although the stability is increased, the peak values of the
first cycles of oscillation are bigger. Therefore, a good compromise between stability and
performance must be found. For a stable islanded operation, the increase of the integration
time constant must be particularly substantial.

Furthermore, for stabilizing the local mode in this case, it is also necessary to increase the
derivative time constant. The derivative term of the PID controller tends to rapidly counter-
weight speed deviations. Thus, the controller can better contribute to damp the deviations
caused by local mode oscillations with a higher derivative time constant. The proportional
gain is also increased in order to boost the contribution of the turbine governor to the small-
signal stability of the global system. Further details on tuning of hydraulic turbine regulators
can be found in references [51, 106].

For the case of the hydropower plant studied in this chapter, the following enhanced tuning
for the turbine governor is sufficient to make the local mode stable. Even though the initial
tuning of the turbine governor is considerably modified (see table 7.3), the parameters of the
enhanced tuning stay in a reasonable, realistic range considering islanded operation:

K p = 2.3 ; T f = 0.35 s ; Ti = 25 s ; Td = 2.95 s.

Table 7.11 presents the results of the most relevant eigenmodes when calculated with the
enhanced tuning of turbine governor.

Table 7.11: Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system with enhanced tuning of
turbine governor, without PSS.

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Hydromechanical mode −1.11 ± j 0.63 87.0 0.100
st
Penstock 1 elastic mode −0.10 ± j 2.44 4.09 0.388
Penstock 2nd elastic mode −0.31 ± j 7.50 4.13 1.194
Penstock 3rd elastic mode −0.97 ± j 10.10 9.56 1.608
Penstock 4th elastic mode −0.66 ± j 11.58 5.69 1.843
Electro-mechanical local mode −0.026 ± j 4.72 0.55 0.751
Mechanical torsional mode −13.42 ± j 156.1 8.56 24.84

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Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

These results confirm the expectation of damping the local mode through the turbine governor.
Indeed, the enhancement proposed for the frequency control loop tuning makes the local
mode stable, despite the low value of damping ratio. Nonetheless, besides eliminating the
instability, the action of the turbine governor has some negative effects. This new tuning
considerably decreases the damping ratio of the 1st and 2nd elastic modes of the penstock.

On the other hand, the 3rd and 4th elastic modes become slightly better damped. It is also inter-
esting to observe that especially the 2nd and 3rd penstock eigenmodes undergo considerable
frequency shifts, suffering strong distortions in their shapes. This renders the interpretation of
the eigenmodes more intricate.

Additionally, the hydromechanical mode turns into an oscillatory eigenmode again, with a
strong damping ratio. Finally, the action of the turbine governor over the torsional mode is
remarkable. The increase of both damping ratio and frequency is considerable.

In order to verify the interactions between hydraulic and electrical subsystems, a calculation
of participation factors is performed. Given the relatively high order of this system, a novel
didactic form to present the participation matrix is proposed here, by using a graphical
representation through a color map.

Figure 7.7 gives such representation in which the participation factors are normalized by
column so that the highest value in each column is 1. The eigenmodes are distributed along
the horizontal axis and identified by numbers, according to their nature indicated in the legend
of the figure. The state variables are distributed along the vertical axis and are separated by
groups identified by distinct letters, also described in the legend of the figure.

It can be seen that the low-order penstock elastic eigenmodes (numbers 02 and 05 to 07) have
a considerable degree of interaction with the mechanical variables (group H). This is also the
case for the hydromechanical mode (number 01). It is interesting to observe these eigenmodes
interact also with the electrical system (variables of groups D and E). On the other hand, the
influence of higher-order modes of the penstock (number 08) stays confined in the hydraulic
installation (variables of groups A, B and F).

It is also possible to observe that, in this case, the eigenmodes related to the tailrace (num-
ber 09) have their influence limited to the lower part of the hydraulic installation, i.e., turbine
and lower reservoir – group A – and tailrace tunnel – groups C and G.

Additionally, the interaction of the local mode (number 03) with all the system is clearly
demonstrated in figure 7.7, since it participates in almost all groups of state variables. Con-
versely, the control mode (number 04), which is due to the voltage regulator and is highly
damped, influences only the rotor currents (group E) and the regulator variables (group I).

104
 7.5. Eigenanalysis of the Complete Hydroelectric System

1.0
A

0.9

B
0.8

0.7
C
State variable groups

D 0.6

E
0.5

0.4
F

0.3

G 0.2

H
0.1
I
J 0.0
01 02 07 08 09 10 11 12
03 05 06
04
Eigenmodes

Meaning of the state variables groups: Nature of eigenmodes:

A Turbine and reservoirs discharges 01 Hydromechanical mode

B Penstock discharges 02 Penstock 1st elastic mode
C Tailrace tunnel discharges 03 Electro-mechanical local mode
D Generator stator and grid currents 04 Control mode
E Generator rotor currents 05 Penstock 2nd elastic mode
F Penstock heads 06 Penstock 3rd elastic mode
G Tailrace tunnel heads 07 Penstock 4th elastic mode
H Mechanical masses speed and angle 08 Penstock higher-order elastic modes
I Voltage regulator state variables 09 Tailrace tunnel elastic modes
J Turbine governor state variables 10 Mechanical torsional mode
11 Stator and grid modes (50 Hz)
12 Purely real eigenvalues

Figure 7.7: Participation factors color map plot for the hydroelectric system, with enhanced
tuning of turbine governor, without PSS.

105
Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

As an illustration, figures 7.8 and 7.9 show the effect of the new tuning of the turbine governor
over the dynamic behavior of the system. Once again, a 5% step is applied to the external
torque of the turbine rotating inertia.

It is possible to confirm that the instability of the local mode is eliminated, but it remains badly
damped. Therefore, the use of a PSS is still necessary to enhance the small-signal stability of
the power plant.

Turbine net head (initial tuning)

1.10 Turbine net head (enhanced tuning)
Turbine torque (initial tuning)
hturb , tturb (p.u.)

Turbine torque (enhanced tuning)

1.05

1.00

0 5 10 15 20
t (s)

Figure 7.8: Turbine net head and torque with initial and enhanced tuning of the governor.

with initial tuning

1.1 with enhanced tuning
– pel (p.u.)

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7
0 5 10 15 20
t (s)

Figure 7.9: Electrical power response with initial and enhanced tuning of the governor.

7.5.3 Interaction between the Turbine Governor and the PSS

Considering the last results, the PSS is added back to the system in order to finally guarantee a
better dynamic behavior. The parameters for the PSS are the same as used previously, and the
enhanced tuning of the turbine governor is maintained.

106
 7.5. Eigenanalysis of the Complete Hydroelectric System

Table 7.12 presents the results of the most relevant eigenmodes calculated for this case. Clearly,
the interaction between the turbine governor and the PSS results in some conflicting effects
that are detrimental to the dynamic behavior of the system.

Whereas the damping ratio of the local mode is greatly increased, the penstock 1st elastic
mode experiences a drastic reduction of damping, approaching the limit of stability. Besides
the damping ratio decrease already caused by the enhanced tuning of the governor in the
previous case, the PSS adds some destabilizing effects to this eigenmode. This is a precarious,
undesirable condition, since disturbances could result in significant pressure oscillations,
causing substantial mechanical torque pulsations, finally resulting in electrical power swings
that could be harmful both to the hydropower plant and to the weak power grid.

Table 7.12: Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system with enhanced tuning of
turbine governor, with PSS (K s1 = 20).

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Hydromechanical mode −0.58 ± j 0.96 51.7 0.153
Penstock 1st elastic mode −0.025 ± j 2.07 1.21 0.329
Penstock 2nd elastic mode −0.18 ± j 4.74 3.79 0.754
Penstock 3rd elastic mode −0.33 ± j 7.54 4.37 1.200
Penstock 4th elastic mode −0.69 ± j 11.55 5.96 1.838
Electro-mechanical local mode −2.77 ± j 5.78 43.2 0.920
Mechanical torsional mode −13.42 ± j 156.1 8.56 24.84

Consequently, the problem must be solved by adopting a different set of parameters either for
the turbine governor or for the PSS. A plausible solution is to decrease the contribution of the
governor so that the penstock eigenmodes are less affected, while ensuring sufficient damping
of the local mode oscillations and a satisfactory dynamic behavior of the whole installation.
One possibility to achieve this goal is to set the turbine governor back to its initial tuning,
recalled hereafter:
K p = 1.0 ; T f = 0.5 s ; Ti = 3.7 s ; Td = 1.0 s.

Since under this set up the effect of the turbine governor over the whole system was more
conservative, the tendency is that the hydraulic modes regain a more stable condition, with
the PSS playing the major role of damping the local mode.

Table 7.13 presents the most relevant eigenvalues of the global system, considering this new
set up of regulators. These results show that a more cautious tuning of the turbine governor
reduces the adverse interactions with the PSS, leading to an overall more stable system.

107
Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

Table 7.13: Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system with initial tuning of turbine
governor (K p = 1.0 ; T f = 0.5 s ; Ti = 3.7 s ; Td = 1.0 s), with PSS (K s1 = 20).

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Hydromechanical mode −1.01 ± j 0.78 79.1 0.124
Penstock 1st elastic mode −0.55 ± j 2.29 23.4 0.364
Penstock 2nd elastic mode −0.55 ± j 4.82 11.3 0.767
rd
Penstock 3 elastic mode −0.61 ± j 8.53 7.13 1.358
Penstock 4th elastic mode −0.27 ± j 11.35 2.38 1.806
Electro-mechanical local mode −3.41 ± j 4.81 57.8 0.766
Mechanical torsional mode −2.58 ± j 131.93 1.96 21.00

Time-domain simulations of the same nature as the previous ones are carried out, in order to
illustrate the better dynamic behavior of the system under this last configuration. It is clear in
figures 7.10 and 7.11 that the system has a better dynamic behavior if the turbine governor has
a more conservative tuning, when the PSS is active.

Furthermore, it is easy to see the consequences of the badly damped 1st elastic mode of the
penstock. Indeed, pressure pulsations are converted into undesirable electrical power swings.

The solution presented here in order to solve the problem originated by detrimental inter-
actions between regulators, hydraulic and electrical elements is one among several other
possibilities. Certainly, other plausible solutions exist with different parameters tuning for the
turbine governor, PSS and also the voltage regulator, which was not modified along this study.

1.10
Turbine net head (initial tuning, with PSS)
1.08 Turbine net head (enhanced tuning, with PSS)
Turbine torque (initial tuning, with PSS)
hturb , tturb (p.u.)

1.06 Turbine torque (enhanced tuning, with PSS)

1.04

1.02

1.00

0.98
0 5 10 15 20
t (s)

Figure 7.10: Turbine net head and torque with initial and enhanced tuning of the governor,
with PSS.

108
 7.6. Concluding Remarks

0.96

– pel (p.u.) 0.94

0.92
with initial tuning and PSS
with enhanced tuning and PSS
0.90
0 5 10 15 20
t (s)

Figure 7.11: Electrical power response with initial and enhanced tuning of the governor, with
PSS.

7.6 Concluding Remarks

This case study allowed to apply the small-signal models developed in the present work to
the study of the dynamic behavior of hydropower plants subjected to islanded operation
condition, due to weak connections with the network.

For the electrical model, three problematic scenarios were considered in which electro-
mechanical local mode oscillations were badly damped. In the most critical case, the power
grid was not stiff enough to withstand the oscillations, resulting in an unstable system.

A power system stabilizer of type IEEE PSS2B was then employed in order to overcome the
unstable condition of the most critical scenario. The influence of the PSS gain over the local
mode was studied in order to obtain a stable condition, with the most convenient setting.

Then, an eigenanalysis of the hydraulic system was carried out in order to identify the most
relevant hydraulic eigenmodes. It was also possible to observe how the frequency control loop
of the turbine governor modifies the low-frequency modes of the penstock.

Thereupon, it was possible to combine electrical and hydraulic models in order to build
the complete high-order model of the hydropower plant. Results obtained from this global
model, first without PSS, demonstrated that the system remained unstable, even though the
eigensolution of the purely hydraulic system did not indicate any instability. Nevertheless, it
was shown that the effects of the unstable local mode propagate to the hydraulic installation,
resulting in undamped pressure fluctuations.

On the other hand, the complete representation of the power plant showed that the hydraulic
installation had a positive influence on the damping of the local mode. This observation led
to a modification of the turbine governor tuning to an enhanced set of parameters, more

109
Chapter 7. Stability Issues and Solutions for an Islanded Hydropower Plant

appropriate for islanded operation. It was also observed that this new set of parameters made
the 1st elastic eigenmode of the penstock less damped. But it also permitted the stabilization
of the unstable local mode.

Although stable, the local mode remained badly damped, reason for which the PSS was added
to the complete hydroelectric model. Nevertheless, the effect was adverse. Whereas the local
mode became well damped, interactions between turbine governor and PSS led to a drastic
destabilization of the 1st mode of the penstock. Badly damped oscillations due to this mode
appeared to influence not only the hydraulic circuit, but also the electrical system, since
pressure fluctuations resulted in mechanical torque oscillation, which induced considerable
power swings.

Therefore, it is possible to conclude that significant interactions may happen between hy-
draulic, electrical and control elements that may induce undesirable dynamic behavior of
the system, such as badly damped or even undamped modes of oscillation. These adverse
interactions cannot be anticipated with partial models, like purely hydraulic or purely elec-
trical representations. Consequently, comprehensive, multi-physics small-signal models are
necessary for a complete assessment of the real small-signal stability of a hydropower plant.

110
 Power Fluctuations in an Existing
8
Hydropower Plant

8.1 Introduction
As mentioned in chapter 1, section 1.3.3, part load operation of Francis turbines is a condition
likely to cause periodic pressure pulsations due to vortex rope precession in the draft tube.
The frequency of this pulsating behavior is most commonly between 0.2 and 0.4 times the
turbine rotational speed. Such phenomenon may also induce torque fluctuations in the
mechanical system that may interact with the generator and the power system, possibly
leading to significant electrical power swings [49, 83]. This is particularly true if the frequency
of the vortex rope precession coincides with the frequency of the electro-mechanical modes
related to the power plant [22, 69]. Furthermore, if the hydropower plant operates in islanded
or isolated networks these power swings may be very detrimental to the dynamic behavior of
the power plant and of the local network.

The purpose of this chapter is to present a case study that illustrates the effects of pressure
pulsations due to vortex rope precession on the draft tube of Francis turbines. The investi-
gated system is an existing 1 GW hydropower plant (4 × 250 MW Francis turbines) which was
previously analyzed in references [69] and [72].

Whereas these works proposed a methodology for the assessment of part load resonance risk
based on time-domain simulation, the eigenanalysis approach is used here. Furthermore,
the electro-mechanical modes are identified not only for one single generator, but also for
cases where a different number of generators are connected to the grid. Another important
difference is that the grid is not considered here as an infinite bus. This allows for a more
precise representation of the dynamic behavior of the electrical system.

111
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

Moreover, a specific value is calibrated for the draft tube wave speed a to match simulations
and calculations to on-site measurements. In practice, the determination of the wave speed is
a challenging task that requires specific knowledge which is out of the scope of the present
work [55]. Therefore, the wave speed is considered to be a constant parameter.

8.2 Case Study Description

The hydropower plant studied in this chapter is composed of 4×250 MW generating units. The
layout of the power plant is presented in figure 8.1. The electrical and hydraulic subsystems
are described in the following subsections.

PSS Power grid

uset
AVR Ssc = 1750 MVA
– UN = 500 kV
nset –
TG

Surge tank

Gallery Pe
ns
to
ck

Figure 8.1: Layout of the hydroelectric powerplant [72].

8.2.1 Electrical Model

The electrical subsystem of the power plant is constituted of 4 × 281.5 MVA synchronous
generators connected to four corresponding 500 kV/18 kV Yd5 step-up transformers. The ABB
Unitrol® excitation system (see figure 5.18) is applied as voltage regulator and a power system
stabilizer of type IEEE PSS2B (see figure 5.21) is available. The four machines are connected to
the power grid through two parallel transmission lines. The model used to represent these
lines is the RL model. The main parameters of the electrical elements are given in table 8.1.

112
 8.2. Case Study Description

Table 8.1: Main parameters of the electrical installation.

Element Ratings / Parameters

S N = 281.5 MVA
U N = 18 kV
f N = 50 Hz
Generator
P p = 9 (number of pairs of poles)
I f δ0 = 777 A
J g = 2.25 · 106 kg · m2
Stator windings connection: Y
S N = 281.5 MVA

Step-up transformer U N 1 = 500 kV

U N 2 = 18 kV
Vector group: Yd5
R t l = 2.8 Ω
Transmission line
L t l = 120 mH
S sc = 1750 MVA (short-circuit power)
Power grid U N = 500 kV
f N = 50 Hz

The short-circuit power of the grid (S sc ) is actually an unknown parameter in this study. The
value presented in table 8.1 was deduced from comparison between measurements and
simulation results and is validated further, in section 8.3.

8.2.2 Hydraulic Model

The hydraulic installation comprises an 1485 meter long gallery, a surge tank with variable
cross section, an 1396.5 meter long penstock and a manifold feeding 4 × 250 MW Francis
turbines. The main parameters of the system are presented in table 8.2.

The penstock is discretized in 116 elements, whereas the draft tube is represented by two pipe
elements. The discretization of the penstock and piping system respects the CFL condition,
explained in chapter 6, section 6.2. Moreover, the turbine characteristic curves are taken
into account. Therefore, this high order model takes into account effects of water hammer,
mass oscillation, and transient behavior of the turbine in the four quadrants, linked to the
corresponding rotating inertia.

In order to simplify the identification of the hydroelectric interactions in the eigenanalysis,

the turbine governor is not taken into account in the model.

113
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

Table 8.2: Main parameters of the hydraulic installation.

Element Dimensions
L = 1485 m
Gallery D = 9.2 m
a = 1200 m/s
Surge tank A ST = 133 m2 (mid tank section)
L = 1396.5 m
Penstock D = 8.8 / 7.15 m
a = 1200 m/s
L = 25 m
Draft tube
a = 56 m/s (with vortex rope)
P N = 250 MW
n N = 333.3 rpm
Francis turbine
H N = 352 m
ν = 0.22 (specific speed)
J t = 1.71 · 105 kg · m2
K sh = 3.61 · 108 Nm/rad (torsional stiffness)
Coupling shaft
µsh = 6.7 · 103 Nms/rad (viscous damping)

8.2.3 Problems Encountered During Operation

During the operation of the power plant at part load condition, undesirable electrical power
swings were detected. It was assumed that such oscillations were due to interactions of the
electrical system with draft tube vortex rope. For this turbine (which has a rotation speed
n = 333.3 rpm), the frequency range of part load vortex rope pulsation is 1.11 to 2.22 Hz.
This matches the typical range of electro-mechanical modes (0.7 to 2.0 Hz). Therefore, such
interaction is likely to occur. It depends, however, on the operating point of the generators
and on the topology of the electrical system, since these two factors influence the frequency
and damping of the electro-mechanical modes.

On-site measurements during part load operation (p el = −0.426 p.u.) allowed to record the
pulsating behavior. Figure 8.2 gives an example of it during the operation of one single unit
with active PSS, under part load condition. The low peak-to-peak amplitude can be associated
to the damping contribution of the stabilizer. Although the frequency of oscillation is not
constant, it is possible to graphically estimate that it varies around the value of 1.34 Hz,
approximately. Through eigenvalues calculation of the hydraulic system, it shall be possible to
confirm this value. This is done in section 8.5.

114
 0 2 4 6 8 10

20
-0.340

Q MACH RELATIVE
U CTRL OUT CH
-0.342
18
Q = -0.346 x 280 = -97Mvars
-0.344
16
-0.346
14
-0.348 8.3. Validation of the Electrical Model
12
-0.350

0.45
0.45
RELATIVE
– pel RELATIVE
(p.u.) 0.400 f ≈ 1.34 Hz
0.44
0.44
0.375 Δpel = 1.1%
P = 0.428 x 280 = 120MW
0.43
0.43
0.350
PUMACH
EXC

0.42
0.42
0.325

0.41
0.41
0.300
00 22 44 66 88 10
10

-0.340
t (s)
Time in seconds
Q MACH RELATIVE

-0.342 Figure 8.2: Electrical power swing recorded on-site with active PSS.
Q = -0.346 x 280 = -97Mvars
-0.344
-0.346
-0.348
Before doing so, however, the parameters of the electrical model are validated in section 8.3
-0.350
through comparison with on-site measurements. Then, eigenanalyses are performed to deter-
mine the electro-mechanical eigenmodes of the electrical system under different topologies
U EXC RELATIVE

0.400
(1, 2,0.375
3 or 4 generators synchronized to the grid, with and without PSS).
0.350

0.325
8.30.300Validation of the Electrical Model
0 2 4 6 8 10
In order to validate the parameters of the Time
electrical model, time-domain simulations are
in seconds

compared to on-site measurements, which were performed in order to validate the tuning
of both voltage regulator and PSS. During these tests, only one machine was synchronized
to the grid. The disturbance applied to the system is a ±2% step on the set-point of the
voltage regulator. The reaction of the system is observed on the active (P el ) and reactive (Q)
powersa , compensated frequency ( f comp – derived from the rotational speed of the generator),
excitation voltage (u f ) and PSS output (u P SS ), in case it is active.

At first, the system is tested with inactive PSS. Figure 8.3 presents measurement and time-
domain simulation results. The very good agreement that can be observed in this com-
parison validates the model, including the proposed short-circuit power of the network
(S sc = 1750 MVA). It is easy to observe the action of the local mode oscillations. Due to
the relatively low short-circuit power of the grid, these oscillations take some time to be
damped.

To verify the characteristics of the local mode, it is possible to perform the calculation of eigen-
values for this system considering the same operating point of measurements: u = 0.969 p.u.,
p el = −0.85 p.u. and q = −0.02 p.u.

The extensive list of eigenvalues is presented in table 8.3. Real and imaginary parts are
presented separately. In addition, the damping time constant τ (τ = 1 |σ|), the damping
±

a As stated in chapter 5, section 5.3, according to the sign convention used in SIMSEN, negative power means

generated (delivered) power. In order to adapt simulation to measurement results, the curves of electrical power
are presented in this chapter with a negative sign (−P el ,−Q).

115
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

250
On-site measurement Simulated
– Pel (MW)

245
240
235
230

30
– Q (Mvar)

20

10

50.03
fcomp (Hz)

50.01

49.99

49.97

400
300
uf (V)

200
100
0
–100
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 8.3: On-site measurement versus time-domain simulation, without PSS.

ratio ζ and the frequency f are calculated based on equations (3.11) and (3.12). Furthermore,
the dominant state variables are indicated. They were identified using participation factors
calculated according to the concept presented in section 3.3.3. For more information on the
meaning of the state variables, please refer to chapter 5, sections 5.3, 5.5 and 5.8.

The characteristics of all eigenmodes are not discussed here, since the nature of each one was
already explained in chapter 5. It is however important to mention that the pair of eigenvalues
5, 6 is related to the presence of the power transformer. Its low real part is due to the fact that
the magnetizing reactance of the transformer is approximated by a high relative value, which

116
 8.3. Validation of the Electrical Model

Table 8.3: Eigenproperties of the system with a single machine, without PSS.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −0.524 7.687 1.908 6.80 1.223 ∆ωm , ∆θ, ∆i abc2 , ∆i f
3, 4 −23.01 314.02 0.043 7.31 49.98 ∆i abc2
5, 6 −0.003 314.16 333.3 0.001 50.0 ∆i abc1,abc2
7 −218.6 − 0.0046 100 − ∆u g , ∆u r eg , ∆i f
8 −178.3 − 0.0056 100 − ∆u g , ∆u r eg , ∆i f
9 −92.40 − 0.011 100 − ∆i ∆
10 −40.00 − 0.025 100 − ∆uC 2
11 −14.08 − 0.071 100 − ∆i D
12 −5.562 − 0.180 100 − ∆i abc , ∆i f , ∆i Q
13 −2.225 − 0.449 100 − ∆i f , ∆θ, ∆uC 1
14 −1.105 − 0.905 100 − ∆i f , ∆uC 1

does not have any considerable influence on the dynamical behavior of the system.

It is interesting to focus on the local mode (pair 1, 2) which is the dominant one, as it was ob-
served in figure 8.3. From the time-domain behavior, it is possible to validate the properties of
this eigenmode. Figure 8.4 presents the behavior of the active power after the first disturbance.

250
Electrical power
Envelope with τ = 1.89 s
Ref. points for envelope
245
– P (MW)

240
el

σ = –0.529
235
f = 1.23 Hz

230
0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s)

Figure 8.4: Frequency and attenuation time constant from time-domain results, without PSS.

117
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

It is possible to graphically extract from it the oscillating frequency f , the attenuation σ and
the damping time constant τ. The good match with the eigenvalues result permits to affirm
that a very good agreement exists between measurements, time-domain and small-signal
models.

It is also relevant to validate the electrical model including the power system stabilizer. In
order to perform the same type of validation as in the case without PSS, field data is used from
a test of the same nature, including also the stabilizer with reduced gain.

Figure 8.5 presents measurement and time-domain simulation results for this case. Once
again, the very good agreement that can be observed in this comparison validates the model
with the PSS. The action of the local mode oscillations remains considerable due to the low
setting of the PSS gain in this case.

As in the previous case, the calculation of the eigenvalues of the system containing the
PSS is performed considering the same operating point of measurements: u = 0.987 p.u.,
p el = −0.85 p.u., q = −0.07 p.u.

The exhaustive list of eigenvalues is presented in table 8.4. Indications of dominant states
identified as "PSS" means that internal variables of the PSS are dominant. The specific variable
u P SS corresponds to the output of the stabilizer. For more information on the meaning of the
state variables, please refer to chapter 5, sections 5.3, 5.5 and 5.8.

For a detailed discussion on the nature of these eigenvalues, please refer to chapter 5. Nonethe-
less, it is important to observe that the zero eigenvalue presented in table 8.4 (eigenvalue
number 29) only happens due to the fact that one of the wash-out blocks of the PSS is not
taken into account in the real system, and has to be artificially eliminated in the mathematical
model.

At this point, it is interesting to focus on the local mode, since it is the dominant one also in
this case. From the time-domain behavior, it is possible to validate the properties of the local
mode, given by the pair 1, 2 of table 8.4.

The active power behavior after the first disturbance is presented in figure 8.6. The fact that the
first peak does not respect the exponential decay indicates that the first period of the transient
is also influenced by another eigenmode, which is rapidly damped.

Nonetheless, once this influence is damped, the global transient behavior is satisfactorily
described by the oscillating frequency f , the attenuation σ and the damping time constant
τ extracted from this graph. Moreover, they present a good agreement with the eigenvalues
result.

118
 8.3. Validation of the Electrical Model

Therefore, the electrical model including the PSS also gives a good representation of the real
system.

250 On-site measurement Simulated

– Pel (MW)

245
240
235
230

45
– Q (Mvar)

35

25

15

50.02
50.00
fcomp (Hz)

49.98
49.96
49.94
49.92

600
400
uf (V)

200
0
–200

0.2
0.1
uPSS (%)

0
–0.1
–0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 8.5: On-site measurement versus time-domain simulation, PSS with reduced gain.

119
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

Table 8.4: Eigenproperties of the system with a single machine, PSS with reduced gain.

Eigenvalue σ = ℜ(λi ) ωd = ℑ(λi ) τ ζ f Dominant

number i (Np/s) (rad/s) (s) (%) (Hz) states
1, 2 −0.896 7.955 1.116 11.2 1.266 ∆ωm , ∆θ, ∆i abc2 , ∆i f
3, 4 −9.112 0.078 0.110 100 0.012 PSS
5, 6 −8.146 1.776 0.123 97.7 0.283 ∆ωm , ∆θ, PSS
7, 8 −11.74 3.245 0.085 96.4 0.516 ∆i f ∆i D , ∆ωm , ∆θ
9, 10 −49.14 10.09 0.020 97.9 1.606 ∆i f ∆i D , u P SS , PSS
11, 12 −23.02 313.95 0.043 7.31 49.98 ∆i abc2
13, 14 −0.003 314.16 333.3 0.001 50.0 ∆i abc1,abc2
−4
15 −10000 − 10 100 − PSS
−4
16 −10000 − 10 100 − PSS
17 −10000 − 10−4 100 − PSS
18 −225.8 − 0.004 100 − ∆u g , ∆u r eg , ∆i f
19 −169.1 − 0.006 100 − ∆u g , ∆u r eg , ∆i f
20 −92.34 − 0.011 100 − ∆i ∆
21 −40.00 − 0.025 100 − ∆uC 2
22 −13.75 − 0.073 100 − ∆ωm , ∆i D , ∆i f , PSS
23 −3.231 − 0.310 100 − ∆i Q
24 −1.119 − 0.894 100 − PSS
25 −0.104 − 9.615 100 − PSS
26 −0.100 − 10.0 100 − PSS
27 −0.100 − 10.0 100 − PSS
28 −0.097 − 10.31 100 − PSS
29 0 − − − − PSS

8.4 Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System at Part Load Condition

In order to perform an analysis focused on the understanding of the interactions between
the vortex rope phenomenon and the electrical system, the four units are considered in the
operating point corresponding to the conditions of the measurement presented in figure 8.2.
This means an under-excited, part load condition with: u = 0.97 p.u., p el = −0.426 p.u. and
q = +0.345 p.u.

Although such an operating point may sound implausible most of the time, it should not
be disconsidered. The high flexibility of hydropower plants creates the possibility for them
to be requested to run under many different operating conditions. In some cases, it might
be more advantageous to divide the demand of power among all the machines rather than

120
 8.4. Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System at Part Load Condition

250
Electrical power
Envelope with τ = 1.15 s
Ref. points for envelope
– P (MW) 245

240
el

σ = –0.867
235
f = 1.26 Hz

230
0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s)

Figure 8.6: Frequency and attenuation time constant from time-domain results, with PSS.

concentrating it all in some of them, while desynchronizing others.

The eigenanalysis performed here aims at revealing the electro-mechanical modes of the
system, since they are those likely to interact with vortex rope pulsations. Consequently, only
the results regarding electro-mechanical modes are presented in this section.

The number of generating units connected to the power grid is considered a variable param-
eter, which is gradually increased in such a way that the eigenvalues are calculated for four
different configurations with one up to four generating units on operation. The calculations
are performed for the cases without and with PSS (with gain implemented on site).

Considering the case with only one generating unit synchronized to the grid, the results of
the eigensolution of the system are given in table 8.5. It can be seen that even without PSS
the system has a rather good damping ratio (approximately 15%). Nonetheless, the activation
of the stabilizer increases the attenuation while shifting down the damped frequency, as it
should be expected.

Additionally, the PSS introduces a new control mode whose frequency is close to the local
mode one. It is, however, very well damped with a damping ratio over 80%. Consequently, it is
less relevant for the dynamic behavior of the system than the local mode. This is the case for
all the control modes introduced by the PSS in the case studied in this section. They all have
damping ratios higher than 80% and are therefore not discussed here.

121
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

Table 8.5: Local mode of one generating unit, with and without PSS.

Nature of the without PSS with PSS

eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz) λ ζ (%) f (Hz)
Local −1.06 ± j 7.00 15.0 1.114 −3.35 ± j 5.46 52.3 0.869

Table 8.6: Electro-mechanical modes for two generating units, with and without PSS.

Nature of the without PSS with PSS

eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz) λ ζ (%) f (Hz)
Local −0.71 ± j 6.17 11.4 0.982 −2.33 ± j 5.17 41.1 0.823
Intermachine −1.88 ± j 8.34 22.0 1.327 −7.28 ± j 8.53 64.9 1.358

The results for the case with two generating units connected to the grid are presented in
table 8.6. For this case, the local mode is less damped and its frequency is also changed. As
explained previously, this mode represents the oscillations of the whole power plant against
the grid. This means that the rotors of all machines oscillate with the same frequency and
same phase. Therefore, from the point of view of the network, these oscillations can be seen as
the oscillations of one equivalent machine, with larger power and inertia. As the ratio between
the power of this "equivalent machine" and the short-circuit power of the network increases,
the damping ratio of the local mode decreases. Furthermore, the value of the frequency of the
local mode reduces, since the equivalent inertia increases.

A new electro-mechanical eigenmode appears in the system. It corresponds to an interma-

chine mode. The oscillations related to this mode happen mainly inside the power plant, with
one machine swinging against the other. This can be verified with a graphical representation
of the mode shapes. It is important to notice that the PSS considerably increases the damping
of this mode, while slightly shifting its frequency.

Figure 8.7 gives the representation of the shapes of local and intermachine modes on the
rotational speed of both generators. The size of the arrows is normalized to the biggest one
in the representation, while their positions indicate the phase of the modes. Figure 8.7a
reveals clearly that the local mode has the same phase on both machines (G1 and G2), whereas
figure 8.7b shows the phase opposition of the intermachine mode.

Table 8.7 presents the result of the electro-mechanical modes for the case with three machines
connected to the grid. The increase of the total power of the plant leads to a decrease of
damping ratio and frequency of the local mode. On the other hand, the intermachine mode
identified in the case with two machines does not undergo significant changes. However,
a new intermachine mode appears which has very similar eigenproperties to the first one.

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 8.4. Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System at Part Load Condition

90° 90°
120° 60° 120° 60°

150° G2 30° 150° 30°

G1
G2
180° 0° 180° 0°
G1

210° 330° 210° 330°

240° 300° 240° 300°

270° 270°
(a) (b)

Figure 8.7: Mode shapes of the local mode (a) and the intermachine mode (b), with two
generating units.

Table 8.7: Electro-mechanical modes for three generating units, with and without PSS.

Nature of the without PSS with PSS

eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz) λ ζ (%) f (Hz)
Local −0.52 ± j 5.66 9.15 0.901 −1.85 ± j 4.87 35.5 0.775
Intermachine 1 −1.88 ± j 8.36 21.9 1.330 −7.29 ± j 8.48 65.2 1.350
Intermachine 2 −1.87 ± j 8.27 22.0 1.316 −7.27 ± j 8.54 64.8 1.359

Nevertheless, they do not act in the same manner.

Figure 8.8 presents the shapes of the local and intermachine modes. Figure 8.8a depicts the
in-phase characteristic of the local mode. Figure 8.8b shows that the first intermachine mode
corresponds to oscillations of the first unit (G1) against the other two (G2 and G3). On the
other hand, figure 8.8c reveals that the second intermachine mode is related to oscillations of
units two and three in phase opposition.

Finally, the results of the eigenvalue calculation for the electro-mechanical modes after the
introduction of the fourth unit are given in table 8.8. Once again, the local mode undergoes a
reduction of both damping ratio and frequency, as it should be expected.

The intermachine modes, on the other hand, do not suffer any considerable modification with
the introduction of another generator. Nevertheless, a new mode of the same nature appears.
Now, all three intermachine modes are equal in value. Nevertheless, each one of them acts
differently.

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Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

90°
120° 60°

150° G3 30°
G1
G2

180° 0°

210° 330°

240° 300°
270°
(a)

90° 90°
120° 60° 120° 60°

150° 30° 150° 30°

G3
G2 G2
180° 0° 180° 0°
G1 G3

210° 330° 210° 330°

240° 300° 240° 300°

270° 270°
(b) (c)

Figure 8.8: Mode shapes of the local mode (a), the first intermachine mode (b) and the second
intermachine mode (c), with three generating units.

Figure 8.9 presents the shapes of the local and the intermachine modes for the case with four
generating units. Figure 8.9a illustrates once again the in-phase characteristic of the local
mode for all four generators. Figure 8.9b shows that the first intermachine mode corresponds

Table 8.8: Electro-mechanical modes for four generating units, with and without PSS.

Nature of the without PSS with PSS

eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz) λ ζ (%) f (Hz)
Local −0.41 ± j 5.35 7.64 0.851 −1.57 ± j 4.67 31.9 0.743
Intermachine 1 −1.88 ± j 8.41 21.8 1.338 −7.26 ± j 8.57 64.6 1.364
Intermachine 2 −1.88 ± j 8.41 21.8 1.338 −7.26 ± j 8.57 64.6 1.364
Intermachine 3 −1.88 ± j 8.41 21.8 1.338 −7.26 ± j 8.57 64.6 1.364

124
 8.4. Eigenanalysis of the Electrical System at Part Load Condition

90° 90°
120° 60° 120° 60°

150° 30° 150° 30°

G4 G1
180° 0° 180° 0°
G2
G2 G3
G1
G4
210° 330° 210° 330°
G3

240° 300° 240° 300°

270° 270°
(a) (b)

90° 90°
120° 60° 120° 60°

150° 30° 150° 30°

G2
G1 G1
180° G3 0° 180° 0°
G4 G3
G2

210° 330° 210° 330°

240° 300° 240° 300°

270° 270°
(c) (d)

Figure 8.9: Mode shapes of the local mode (a), the first intermachine mode (b), the second
intermachine mode (c) and the third intermachine mode (d), with four generating units.

to oscillations of the generator one (G1) against the other three generators (G2, G3 and G4 –
the participation of generator four is very weak). The second intermachine mode is related to
oscillations of generator one against mostly generator two and, in a less extent, generator three
(see figure 8.9c). Finally, the third and last intermachine mode (represented in figure 8.9d) is
involved in oscillations of the generator four against the other three generators.

In all four cases, the effect of the PSS is very clear. Besides considerably increasing the damping
ratio of the local mode, the PSS contributes even more to the damping of the intermachine
modes. Moreover, whereas the local mode frequency is shifted by the PSS, the changes caused
by the PSS in the frequency of the intermachine modes are very small.

It is interesting to observe that the frequency of the intermachine modes, with or without PSS,

125
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

is close to the frequency estimated to the pulsation identified by the on-site measurements,
presented in figure 8.2. This means that some interactions are likely to occur between the
electrical and the hydraulic system around this value of frequency (∼ 1.34 Hz).

Figure 8.10 illustrates the evolution of the local mode on the complex plane (with and without
PSS) with the number of generators connected to the network. The arrows in this figure
indicate an increasing number of generating units synchronized to the grid. Moreover, two
slopes are given (for ζ = 5% and ζ = 15%) as reference values of damping ratio. The reduction
of the damping ratio with the growth of total generated power (more generators synchronized
to the grid) is clear.

without PSS ζ = 15% ζ = 5%

8
with PSS
6

2
d
ℑ{λ} = ω

−2

−4

−6

−8

−3.0 −2.5 −2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0

ℜ{λ} = σ

Figure 8.10: Evolution of local mode with the number of generating units.

8.5 Eigenanalysis of the Hydraulic System at Part Load Condition

Following the study of the electrical subsystem, the analysis of the hydraulic one is an impor-
tant step to identify the eigenmodes that are most likely to interact with the generators and
the power grid. Therefore, the eigenanalysis performed in this section takes into account the
hydraulic subsystem as described in section 8.2.2, also including the inertia of the generator
rotor (given in table 8.1). The operating point considered here is the part load condition used
in the previous section (P t ur b = 120 MW).

A reduced list of eigenvalues of the hydraulic system is presented in table 8.9. Given the high

126
 8.5. Eigenanalysis of the Hydraulic System at Part Load Condition

Table 8.9: Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydraulic system.

Nature of the eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz)

Mass flow oscillation mode −0.002 ± j 0.052 3.84 0.008
Gallery 1st elastic mode −0.02 ± j 2.40 0.83 0.382
Penstock 1st elastic mode −1.02 ± j 2.16 42.7 0.344
Penstock 2nd elastic mode −0.68 ± j 4.41 15.2 0.702
Draft tube 1st elastic common mode −0.02 ± j 3.50 0.57 0.557
Draft tube 1st elastic intermach. modes −0.07 ± j 3.50 2.00 0.557
Draft tube 2nd elastic common mode −0.005 ± j 8.38 0.06 1.333
Draft tube 2nd elastic intermach. modes −0.01 ± j 8.39 0.12 1.335

order of the system due to the spatial discretization of the piping system, the extensive list of
eigenvalues is not given here. Only the most relevant modes are presented. On the other hand,
the spatial discretization of the piping system allows for the representation of the hydraulic
mode shapes also in a spatial form. Such representation permits to observe how the influence
of each mode is distributed along the elements of the hydraulic installation.

The mass flow oscillation mode corresponds to interactions between the upstream reservoir
and the surge tank [71]. The pressure mode shape for this eigenmode is presented in fig-
ure 8.11a. The gallery 1st elastic mode is mostly related to the characteristics of the piping of
the gallery and its mode shape is represented figure 8.11b. The mode shapes of the 1st and 2nd
elastic eigenmodes of the penstock are represented in figures 8.12a and 8.12b, respectively.
For detailed information on the characteristics and behavior of these eigemodes, please refer
to reference [70].

(a) (b)

Figure 8.11: Mass flow oscillation (a) and gallery 1st elastic (b) pressure mode shapes.

127
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

(a) (b)

Figure 8.12: Pressure mode shapes of the penstock 1st (a) and 2nd (b) elastic modes.

The two draft tube elastic eigenmodes are also relevant. The mode shapes for the 1st and
2nd elastic modes of the draft tube are depicted in figures 8.13 and 8.14, respectively. The
eigenvalues related to both the 1st and 2nd modes appear four times in the results. For each
of them, in one occurrence the eigenvalue has a weaker damping ratio. These less damped
modes have the same phases in all four generating units. Oscillations due to such modes add
up and their influences go upstream through the penstock, surge tank and gallery. This is the
case of the eigenmode shapes represented in figures 8.13a and 8.14a for the 1st and 2nd draft
tube elastic modes, respectively. Due to their common nature for all four units of the system,
these modes are called here draft tube 1st and 2nd elastic common modes.

Conversely, the other three occurrences of each of the two draft tube elastic modes have a
distinct characteristic. They indicate intermachine oscillations, since their actions in the
four machines happen in phase opposition. Therefore, the superposed contributions of
the four machines cancel each other in the penstock. Consequently, they do not have an
upstream influence. This can be seen in the representation of the eigenmode shapes given in

–0.071 ± j3.495

(a) (b)

Figure 8.13: Pressure mode shapes of the draft tube 1st elastic common (a) and inter-
machine (b) modes.

128
 8.5. Eigenanalysis of the Hydraulic System at Part Load Condition

(a) (b)

Figure 8.14: Pressure mode shapes of the draft tube 2nd elastic common (a) and inter-
machine (b) modes.

figures 8.13b and 8.14b for the 1st and 2nd draft tube elastic modes, respectively. Taking into
account the phase opposition of these oscillations, these modes are called here draft tube 1st
and 2nd elastic intermachine modes.

The influence of these two modes on the whole hydraulic system can be confirmed through
a forced response analysis, which is performed using the linearized matrices of the model.
Figure 8.15 depicts the forced response of the hydraulic system to an excitation source located
in the draft tube of generating unit 1. The pressures of the penstock, turbine 1 inlet and
turbine 1 draft tube are represented, together with the rotational speed of the mechanical
masses representing the turbine and the generator of unit 1.

Even though the frequency response of the penstock pressure shows the presence of several
resonance frequencies (the elastic modes of the penstock), it is easy to observe that for all
the hydraulic quantities represented in figure 8.15, the strongest resonances happen at the
frequencies of the draft tube elastic modes. Furthermore, the influence of these resonance
frequencies is not restricted to the hydraulic system, since they also happen in the rotational
speeds. Therefore, oscillations at such frequencies are likely to spread to the electrical system
through the mechanical torque behavior.

Finally, it is important to stress that the frequency of the 2nd draft tube elastic mode lies in the
range of 0.2 to 0.4 times the rotational frequency of the turbine in which vortex rope pulsations
are likely to occur (1.1 to 2.2 Hz, since f t ur b = n N /60 = 5.5 Hz). Therefore, a risk of resonance
exists. Moreover, the frequency of this eigenmode corresponds to the frequency of the power
fluctuations recorded on-site, which are depicted in figure 8.2. Furthermore, it is very close to
the frequency of the electrical intermachine eigenmodes presented in the previous section.
This indicates that significant interactions may happen between hydraulic, mechanical and
electrical subsystem at least around this frequency value.

129
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

4
10 Penstock pressure
Draft tube pressure
2
Turbine inlet pressure
10 Turbine rotor speed
Generator rotor speed
Magnitude (p.u.)

0
10

−2
10

−4
10

−6
10

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

f (Hz)

Figure 8.15: Forced response of the hydraulic system.

8.6 Hydroelectric System Eigenanalysis at Part Load Condition

The composition of the complete hydroelectric model is obtained by combining the electrical
and hydraulic models studied in the previous sections. The interface between these two
systems lies in the mechanical coupling between turbine and generator inertias, through
coupling shaft. Consequently, interactions between hydraulic and electrical subsystems are
related to interactions between the mechanical and the electromagnetic torques. Moreover,
because of the high value of inertia of the generator, the mechanical system behaves as a
low-pass filter [71, 95]. Therefore, interactions between the hydraulic and electrical elements
are expected to happen at a low frequency range.

The calculation of eigenvalues is performed for the system both without and with PSS. In
the first case, the order of the complete system is 433, whereas in the latter the order is 493.
Thus, the extensive list of eigenvalues is not given here. The reduced list containing the most
relevant eigenvalues for this case is presented in table 8.10. The letters that identify the nature
of the eigenmodes are specified in the legend below the table.

By comparing these results with those obtained for the purely electrical and hydraulic systems
(see tables 8.8 and 8.9, respectively), it is possible to see that the influence of one system over
the other does not affect all the relevant eigemodes.

The mass flow oscillation (A) and the gallery elastic (B) eigenmodes are not subjected to any

130
 8.6. Hydroelectric System Eigenanalysis at Part Load Condition

Table 8.10: Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system, with and without PSS.

Nature of the without PSS with PSS

eigenmode λ ζ (%) f (Hz) λ ζ (%) f (Hz)
A −0.002 ± j 0.052 3.84 0.008 −0.002 ± j 0.052 3.84 0.008
B −0.02 ± j 2.40 0.83 0.382 −0.02 ± j 2.40 0.83 0.382
C −0.98 ± j 2.09 42.5 0.333 −0.97 ± j 2.10 41.9 0.334
D −0.63 ± j 4.39 14.2 0.699 −0.66 ± j 4.33 15.1 0.689
E −0.02 ± j 3.50 0.57 0.557 −0.02 ± j 3.50 0.57 0.557
F −0.07 ± j 3.50 2.00 0.557 −0.07 ± j 3.50 2.00 0.557
G −0.005 ± j 8.38 0.06 1.333 −0.005 ± j 8.38 0.06 1.333
H −0.01 ± j 8.39 0.12 1.335 −0.01 ± j 8.39 0.12 1.335
I −0.43 ± j 5.44 7.88 0.866 −1.59 ± j 4.83 31.3 0.769
J −1.92 ± j 8.53 22.0 1.358 −7.20 ± j 8.34 65.3 1.327
K −0.20 ± j 47.9 0.42 7.624 −0.22 ± j 47.9 0.46 7.624
L −0.07 ± j 47.5 0.15 7.560 −0.07 ± j 47.5 0.15 7.560

Legend (nature of the eigenmode):

A Mass flow oscillation eigenmode

B Gallery 1st elastic eigenmode
C Penstock 1st elastic eigenmode
D Penstock 2nd elastic eigenmode
E Draft tube 1st elastic common eigenmode
F Draft tube 1st elastic intermachine eigenmodes 1, 2 and 3
G Draft tube 2nd elastic common eigenmode
H Draft tube 2nd elastic intermachine eigenmodes 1, 2 and 3
I Electro-mechanical local eigenmode
J Electro-mechanical intermachine eigenmodes 1, 2 and 3
K Torsional eigenmodes
L High-order penstock elastic eigenmode with strong interaction with torsional modes

modification. The elastic eigenmodes of the penstock (C and D), on the other hand, undergo
slight changes. Both damping ratio and frequency of the 1st penstock mode are decreased. The
modification is more significant in terms of frequency, whereas the reduction of the damping
ratio is weak. For the 2nd penstock mode, the frequency is slightly decreased, whereas the

131
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

damping ratio only drops if the PSS is deactivated. The eigenmodes of the draft tubes of the
four turbines (E, F, G and H) are not modified by the introduction of the electrical system.

Considering the electro-mechanical eigenmodes (I and J), the influence of the introduction of
the model of the hydraulic system has distinct effects if the electrical system is either without
or with PSS. For the local mode (I), in the absence of PSS both frequency and damping ratio
are subjected to a minor increase. If the PSS is activated, the inclusion of the hydraulic model
shows that the damping ratio is slightly weaker (yet high) than the value obtained with the
purely electrical model, whereas the frequency shift is weak. Considering the intermachine
eigenmodes (J), the frequency is increased for the system without PSS, whereas it suffers a
light decrease for the system with PSS. In both cases, the damping ratio has a very subtle
increase.

It is interesting to observe that the representation of the rotors of turbines and generators by
independent mechanical masses introduces torsional eigenmodes (K) in the system, which
are related to oscillations of the turbine rotor against the generator rotor. These modes have
a strong interaction with a high-order mode from the penstock (L) which lies in the same
frequency range.

Reference [71] demonstrated that a stiff network introduces a stabilization effect in the low
frequency range (especially below 1 Hz). In the present case, however, the power grid is not
stiff (it has a limited short-circuit power). Therefore, the effect of the electrical network over
the low-frequency modes is either weak or even imperceptible in some cases. Moreover, it
does not contribute to enhance the damping ratio of the draft tube eigenmodes. Consequently,
hydraulic resonances due to part load vortex rope precession in the draft tube are likely to
affect also the electrical system through torque oscillations.

Indeed, the 2nd draft tube mode has a frequency (1.333 Hz) very close to the electro-mechanical
intermachine mode (1.327 Hz in the case with PSS). This mode is very well damped (ζ = 65.3%)
but if resonances in the draft tube are amplified by turbine head fluctuations, and conse-
quently, by mechanical torque oscillations, the electromagnetic torque will also pulsate,
resulting in significant electrical power swing. The high damping ratio of the intermachine
eigenmode is nevertheless important to limit the amplitude of these oscillations.

It is convenient to perform also time-domain simulations in order to confirm that the inter-
actions predicted by the eigenvalues results are indeed a risk to the power plant. To this end,
time-domain simulations are performed with a pressure excitation source placed in the draft
tube of generating unit 1. The pressure source has a frequency equal to 1.33 Hz and amplitude
equal to 2% (4% peak-to-peak) of the rated turbine head (H N ).

Figure 8.16 shows that such pressure fluctuations, which could be caused by vortex rope

132
 8.6. Hydroelectric System Eigenanalysis at Part Load Condition

1.4 Turbine net head (hturb)

Turbine torque (t )
1.2 turb

hturb , tturb (p.u.) 1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10
t (s)

Figure 8.16: Turbine net head and torque response to vortex rope pulsation of 2% H N .

precession in the draft tube, lead to turbine head peak-to-peak oscillations equal to 38% of
the nominal head, and to mechanical torque peak-to-peak oscillations equal to 34% of the
rated torque of the turbine.

These torque fluctuations are reflected in the electrical system as power swings of high am-
plitude. Figure 8.17 illustrates the oscillatory behavior for the cases without and with PSS. If
the PSS is out of service, electrical power fluctuations reach 62% of the rated power of the
generator (peak-to-peak value). When the PSS is active, the peak-to-peak value drops to 31%.
This reduction is due to the fact that the interactions around 1.33 Hz are better damped by the
high damping ratio of the intermachine mode. Nonetheless, such a level of power swing is
not acceptable and can be very detrimental not only to the power plant, but also to the local
network.

Therefore, it is clear that vortex rope precession must be avoided in order to spare the instal-

1.00
without PSS
0.75 with PSS
– pel (p.u.)

0.50

0.25

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t (s)

Figure 8.17: Electrical power swing due to vortex rope pulsation of 2% H N .

133
Chapter 8. Power Fluctuations in an Existing Hydropower Plant

lation serious consequences that could result from this resonant behavior. Avoiding vortex
rope precession can be achieved through measures such as compressed air injection in the
draft tube or installation of fins [40]. Compressed air injection modifies the wave speed in
the draft tube, which results in changing the characteristics of the draft tube eigenmodes [27].
Fins installed in the cone of the turbine outlet introduce changes of geometry that shift the
precession frequency of the vortex rope. Another possibility is to tune the PSS parameters or
to condition the PSS power input signal with a filtered draft tube pressure signal in order to
avoid the disturbances [9].

Finally, it is interesting to calibrate the amplitude of the excitation source in order to reproduce
the power fluctuations measured on-site, presented in figure 8.2. Investigations revealed
that the measured 1.1% peak-to-peak electrical power swing can be caused by a very weak
excitation on the draft tube. For the system with the PSS, the amplitude of the excitation was
equal to 0.021% (0.042% peak-to-peak) of the rated turbine head (H N ).

Figure 8.18 presents the electrical power fluctuations caused by such an excitation source. The
unit 1 (where the excitation is placed) oscillates with a peak-to-peak amplitude equal to 1.11%
of the rated power of the generator. The other three units have a peak-to-peak oscillation equal
to 0.4%. Moreover, they oscillate in phase opposition with respect to unit 1 (intermachine
mode 1, illustrated in figure 8.9b).

Such a low value of excitation indicates that very few energy is necessary to cause electrical
power swings in this hydropower plant. This means that the broadband excitation spectrum
in the draft tube is sufficient to cause undesired behavior with considerable power fluctuation
under part load operating condition.

0.435 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4

0.430
– pel (p.u.)

0.425

0.420

0 2 4 6 8 10
t (s)

Figure 8.18: Electrical power swing due to vortex rope pulsation of 0.021% H N .

134
 8.7. Concluding Remarks

8.7 Concluding Remarks

This case study permitted to apply the small-signal models developed in the present work in
the study of a real situation, likely to occur in several existing hydropower plants. Due to its
flexibility, such power plants may be required to repeatedly operate under part load condition
and must keep stability during this mode of operation.

First, the validation of the electrical system was performed through comparison between
on-site measurements, time-domain simulations and eigenvalue calculations. Then, eigen-
analyses of the electrical system at part load were performed in order to identify the electro-
mechanical modes likely to interact with vortex rope pulsations in the draft tube. These
analyses also showed the evolution of the local mode as a function of the number of generat-
ing units synchronized to the grid. Additionally, the intermachine eigenmodes were identified
and representations of the mode shapes showed that each intermachine mode has a distinct
action over the generators, even though their damping ratios and frequencies were equal.

Subsequently, the hydraulic system was studied. The main eigenmodes were presented and
their mode shapes were illustrated. The 2nd draft tube elastic eigenmode was identified as a
possible source of problem, since its frequency is in the range of both draft tube vortex rope
precession and electro-mechanical eigenmodes. Thus, resonant interactions are likely to
occur.

Finally, the complete hydroelectric system was also studied through eigenanalysis. It was
verified that only slight modifications happen to eigenmodes of both hydraulic and electrical
nature. Therefore, the complete system confirmed that the 2nd draft tube mode and the
intermachine mode were very close and likely to interact. Time-domain simulations were
then performed to confirm such interaction and demonstrated that pulsations originated
in the draft tube are largely amplified and result in high power swings, which have harmful
consequences to the power plant and to the local grid. Moreover, very low excitation values
corresponding to the broadband oscillation spectrum were found to be sufficient to cause the
electrical power fluctuations measured on-site.

Therefore, vortex rope precession must absolutely be avoided at this hydropower plant in
order to avoid damages and malfunctioning both in the power plant and in the local grid.
Solutions such as compressed air injection in the draft tube or installation of fins in the cone
of the turbine outlet can be helpful to avoid or to change the characteristics of vortex load
precession, thus reducing pressure fluctuations in the draft tube during part load operation.

135
 Part IV

Conclusions

137
 Summary, Conclusions and Perspectives
9

9.1 Summary
As mentioned in chapter 1, section 1.4.1, the main purpose of the present work was to develop a
new tool for small-signal stability analysis of electrical systems to be implemented in SIMSEN,
so that it would be possible not only to build comprehensive small-signal electrical models,
but also to combine them with hydraulic ones.

For this purpose, and in order to take advantage of the main assets of SIMSEN, it was necessary
to respect the modeling principles already existing in this software. This means electrical
models based on a,b,c-phase variables which differ from classical models, based on Park’s
representation (d,q,o-axis).

As stated in chapter 1, section 1.3.2, and chapter 3, section 3.1, small-signal stability anal-
ysis of a system is based on the calculation of its eigenvalues and eigenvectors. For linear
time-invariant (LTI) systems, the characteristics of eigenvalues inform if it is stable around
a given equilibrium point or not. On the other hand, if the system is time-variant (non-LTI),
eigenanalysis techniques cannot be directly applied.

Electrical machines models based on a,b,c-phase variables are time-variant systems. Thus,
it would not be coherent to straightforwardly linearize the time-domain models existing in
SIMSEN, in order to extract their eigenvalues for small-signal stability analysis purposes.
Therefore, a new methodology was developed for the derivation of small-signal models from
non-LTI time-domain models. This new methodology, presented in chapter 4, section 4.3,
guarantees a coherent linearization of the models (by applying the analytical linearization
method), whilst preserving compatibility with the modeling principles of SIMSEN. This means

139
Chapter 9. Summary, Conclusions and Perspectives

that by using this methodology, it is possible to obtain small-signal models of electrical

elements based on a,b,c-phase variables, which are fully compatible with both eigenanalysis
techniques and the SIMSEN environment.

All small-signal electrical models obtained through the proposed methodology were applied
in test cases presented in chapter 5. These test cases allowed for the validation of the models,
since all the results were confirmed either analytically or through comparison with time-
domain simulations. Both frequency and damping ratio of the calculated eigenvalues were
demonstrated to be coherent.

In chapter 6, the modeling principles of hydraulic elements were explained. Time-domain

models for pipes, Francis turbine, surge tank and turbine governor were presented. Then,
peculiarities related to the linearization of hydraulic models for the derivation of small-signal
models were described.

Subsequently, electrical and hydraulic small-signal models were applied in two case studies,
with comprehensive modeling of hydropower plants. In both cases, all the hydraulic, mechan-
ical, electrical and regulation elements were taken into account, so that complete small-signal
models were used in order to assess all possible interactions between these subsystems.

The first case study, presented in chapter 7, analyzed the dynamic behavior of an islanded
hydropower plant. The contribution of power system stabilizers to damp unstable electro-
mechanical eigenmodes was demonstrated. Also, it was shown that in the case of an islanded
power plant, the frequency control loop of the turbine governor is also capable of enhancing
the stability of the electro-mechanical eigenmodes. Nonetheless, this case study also permitted
to reveal adverse interactions that are likely to occur between the turbine governor and the PSS.
These interactions, which depend strongly on the tuning of each regulator, had the tendency
to drastically destabilize eigenmodes related to the hydraulic installation. Even though these
effects are somewhat known and have been observed in practical cases, the use of a complete
multi-physics model allowed for the predictive assessment of such risk, whilst giving a clear
indication of its origin and possible solution. Therefore, a comprehensive model is important
in order to allow a judicious tuning of all regulators, avoiding undesirable on-site problems.

The second case study, presented in chapter 8, focused on the small-signal stability of an
existing 1000 MW hydropower plant (4 × 250 MW generating units) during part load operation.
Due to their flexibility, hydropower plants may be frequently required to operate under such
condition, which is likely to cause the occurrence of vortex load on the draft tube of the
turbine. The complete hydroelectric model used in this case study showed that pressure
fluctuations due to vortex rope pulsation may coincide with draft tube modes and also with
electro-mechanical modes, leading to considerable power swings on the electrical system.
Therefore, it was possible to conclude that vortex rope pulsation must absolutely be avoided

140
 9.2. Conclusions

at this hydropower plant, in order to prevent damages and malfunctioning both of the power
plant and of the local grid.

9.2 Conclusions
As highlighted in chapter 1, the power sector is in constant evolution. Considering the installa-
tion of new power plants and the constant need to study more flexible modes of operation, it is
clear that reliable, robust and user-friendly tools are necessary to assess the dynamic behavior
of power plants and grid.

Moreover, based on the conclusions withdrawn from the case studies of chapters 7 and 8,
presented in sections 7.6 and 8.7 respectively, it is clear that multi-physics models are necessary
in order to assess the real small-signal behavior of the global system.

The tool developed in the present work meets these needs. By taking advantage of the assets
of SIMSEN, it is a reliable and robust tool, with a user-friendly graphical interface (GUI).
By incorporating electrical, mechanical, hydraulic and regulation elements, it is capable of
providing comprehensive, precise, multi-physics models of hydroelectric systems.

9.3 Contributions of the Present Work

Applications of small-signal stability analysis techniques on multi-physics systems, such as
those presented in chapter 2, section 2.2, are most commonly developed for specific cases or
on very particular purposes. Consequently, the extension of these applications to systems
with any different topological structure requires time-consuming efforts, in order to establish
the new set of differential equations of the new system.

Moreover, the computational tools presented in chapter 2, section 2.3, are dedicated to large-
scale power systems. Small-signal models for several electrical elements are available, espe-
cially those related to transmission networks, as well as generators and loads. On the other
hand, no special attention is paid to the nature of the energy sources. For example, turbines are
often represented by constant torques, which do not correspond to the reality. Furthermore,
these electrical models are based on Park’s representation.

Therefore, one of the contributions of the present work is the new procedure applied to derive
small-signal models for electrical elements, presented in chapter 4. The models derived
by applying this method are based on a,b,c-phase variables, which is a novel approach in
small-signal stability analysis. The innovative aspect of this procedure is related to a new
inverse transformation, which was defined based on the inverse Park’s transformation. This
new transformation is the only one capable of converting the linearized models to a,b,c-

141
Chapter 9. Summary, Conclusions and Perspectives

phase coordinates, whilst correctly taking into account all the supplementary terms due to
linearization and keeping the modular structure of the system. Furthermore, by doing so
the resulting models were compatible with SIMSEN, and after their implementation it was
possible to take profit of the modular characteristic of this software.

Furthermore, once the small-signal electrical models developed in the scope of the present
work were combined with the hydraulic ones already existing in SIMSEN, complete and
detailed modeling of hydroelectric systems, taking into account electrical and hydraulic
subsystems including their control elements was made possible. This means that this is a
truly multi-physics small-signal analysis tool. This is an important contribution, in the sense
that interactions between hydraulic, mechanical, electrical and regulation elements can be
correctly identified, allowing for preventing resonance problems that cannot be detected if
turbines are modeled by a constant torque.

The examples presented in chapters 7 and 8 demonstrated that such a detailed modeling
allows for the identification not only of the instabilities or adverse interactions, but also
of the sources of any undesired phenomena. Once such phenomena and their causes are
clearly detected, adequate solutions can be proposed either to a better exploitation of existing
installations, or to satisfactory adjustments of projects of new installations.

Additionally, another contribution of this work is a new graphical interface, which was devel-
oped in MATLAB in order to treat the calculation and representation of participation factors.
It was applied in all validations and test cases presented in this work. This interface gives
the possibility for a new didactic and intuitive form of representation of participation factors
based on color maps, which facilitates the identification of interactions between subsystems,
characterized by their corresponding state variables. An example of this representation was
given in chapter 7, figure 7.7.

Finally, with the implementation of the small-signal electrical models, it was possible to take
advantage of the main features of SIMSEN in such a way that a novel small-signal stability tool
was obtained. It comprises small-signal models of all elements necessary to build a detailed
representation of power plants and grids (see figure 1.6). The major advantages of this tool are
three of the strongest assets of SIMSEN, namely:

• Treatment of systems with any given topology – a modular tool;

• Simple construction of topologies in an user-friendly GUI, through graphical connection

and parametrization of all elements – easy association and configuration of building
blocks;

• Automatic generation of the full set of differential equations of the global system – rapidly
and safely performed.

142
 9.4. Perspectives

In other words, this means that topological changes in the structure of the system do not re-
quire much effort from the user. Through a graphical modification (in the GUI) of connections
and elements to be changed, the new problem can be solved without any need for the user to
adapt the matrices or equations describing the system. This fastidious, burdensome task is
automatically treated in SIMSEN. This is a considerable advantage over the models presented
in the publications discussed in chapter 2, section 2.2.

9.4 Perspectives

9.4.1 Other Standard Types of Regulators

Considering the large number of standard models for voltage regulators and power system
stabilizers proposed by IEEE [38], one interesting perspective is the inclusion of some new
models in the small-signal stability tool.

Nowadays, advanced versions of SIMSEN also include models ST4B and ST8C for voltage
regulators, and PSS4B for power system stabilizer. Together with the ST1A and PSS2B, these
are well-known models used worldwide, which could make the small-signal stability tool even
more complete.

The derivation of the small-signal model follows the same principles as for the ST1A and
PSS2B, and the linearized expressions for the inputs were already developed.

9.4.2 Parametric Studies through Eigenvalue Sensitivity

High-order models comprising different control and regulation structures may depict several
sources of interactions that have to be avoided, as shown in chapters 7 and 8. The tuning of
regulators play a major role in this context. It may have either a positive or a negative influence
in the dynamic behavior of the system. Consequently, the parameters set of regulators need to
be carefully determined.

A convenient and effective tool for the tuning of regulators is the calculation of eigenvalue
sensitivity. This concept was presented in chapter 3, section 3.3.4. It corresponds to the rate of
change of a given eigenvalue with respect to a specific parameter of the system. Therefore,
eigenvalue sensitivity can give valuable information on how parameters of regulators should
be adjusted, in order to obtain a better dynamic performance of the global system.

143
Chapter 9. Summary, Conclusions and Perspectives

9.4.3 Extension to other Renewable Energy Systems

Considering the growing penetration of new renewable energy sources (other than hydro) in
the power generation mix, and bearing in mind their intermittent characteristic, it can also be
interesting to develop multi-physics small-signal models for wind, tidal and solar PV power
plants.

For this purpose, small-signal models of wind and tidal turbines, photovoltaic panels, pseudo-
continuous power converters and permanent magnet synchronous machines need to be
developed. Such accomplishment shall yield an even more comprehensive small-signal tool.
With such a fully modular, multi-physics, mixed-sources tool, it shall be possible to perform
advanced analyses, with very high level of modeling.

144
 Part V

Appendices

145
 Small-Signal Models Based on
A
a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

The equations describing all small-signal models based on a,b,c-phase variables coordinates,
derived during the present work, are presented in this appendix. These models were developed
according to the procedure presented in chapter 4, section 4.3 and validated all along chapter 5.
The actual values of parameters are used instead of per-unit values.

The elements whose models are given here are:

• Salient-pole synchronous machine;

• Wound-rotor induction machine;

• Power transformers (vector groups Yy0, Yd5 and Yd11);

• RL and RLC loads;

• RL and π-section models of transmission lines;

• Voltage regulators (IEEE ST1A and Unitrol®);

• Power system stabilizer IEEE PSS2B.

A.1 Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine

A.1.1 Stator Equations

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i f d ∆i D d ∆i Q
∆u a = α11 + α12 + α13 + α14 + α15 + α16
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.1)
+ β11 ∆i a + β12 ∆i b + β13 ∆i c + β14 ∆i f + β15 ∆i D + β16 ∆i Q + β17 ∆ωm + β18 ∆θ

147
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

Where

2£ ¤ Lo
α11 = L d cos2 θ0 + L q sin2 θ0 +
3 3
Lo
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
α12 = L d cos θ0 cos θ0 − + L q sin θ0 sin θ0 − +
3 3 3 3
Lo
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
α13 = L d cos θ0 cos θ0 + + L q sin θ0 sin θ0 + +
3 3 3 3

α14 = L f a cos θ0

α15 = L D a cos θ0

α16 = −LQa sin θ0

ωm0 ¡
β11 = R s −
¢
L d − L q sin (2θ0 )
3
" ¶ p #
ωm0 ¡
µ
2π 3¡
β12 = −
¢ ¢
L d − L q sin 2θ0 − + Ld + L q
3 3 2
" ¶ p #
ωm0 ¡
µ
2π 3¡
β13 = −
¢ ¢
L d − L q sin 2θ0 + − Ld + L q
3 3 2

β14 = −ωm0 L f a sin θ0

β15 = −ωm0 L D a sin θ0

β16 = −ωm0 LQa cos θ0

½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β17 = −
¢
L d − L q i a0 sin (2θ0 ) + i b0 sin 2θ0 − + i c0 sin 2θ0 +
3 3 3
¾
+ L f a i f 0 sin θ0
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β18 = −ωm0
¢
L d − L q i a0 cos (2θ0 ) + i b0 cos 2θ0 − + i c0 cos 2θ0 +
3 3 3
¾
+ L f a i f 0 cos θ0

148
 A.1. Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i f d ∆i D d ∆i Q
∆u b = α21 + α22 + α23 + α24 + α25 + α26
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.2)
+ β21 ∆i a + β22 ∆i b + β23 ∆i c + β24 ∆i f + β25 ∆i D + β26 ∆i Q + β27 ∆ωm + β28 ∆θ

Where

Lo
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2 2π 2π
α21 = L d cos θ0 − cos θ0 + L q sin θ0 − sin θ0 +
3 3 3 3
Lo
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
α22 = L d cos2 θ0 − + L q sin2 θ0 − +
3 3 3 3
Lo
· µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π 2π 2π
α23 = L d cos θ0 − cos θ0 + + L q sin θ0 − sin θ0 + +
3 3 3 3 3 3
µ ¶
2π
α24 = L f a cos θ0 −
3
µ ¶
2π
α25 = L D a cos θ0 −
3
µ ¶
2π
α26 = −LQa sin θ0 −
3
" ¶ p #
ωm0 ¡
µ
2π 3¡
β21 = −
¢ ¢
L d − L q sin 2θ0 − − Ld + L q
3 3 2

ωm0 ¡
µ ¶
2π
β22 = R s −
¢
L d − L q sin 2θ0 +
3 3
" p #
ωm0 ¡ 3¡
β23 = −
¢ ¢
L d − L q sin (2θ0 ) + Ld + L q
3 2
µ ¶
2π
β24 = −ωm0 L f a sin θ0 −
3
µ ¶
2π
β25 = −ωm0 L D a sin θ0 −
3
µ ¶
2π
β26 = −ωm0 LQa cos θ0 −
3
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β27 = −
¢
L d − L q i a0 sin 2θ0 − + i b0 sin 2θ0 + + i c0 sin (2θ0 )
3 3 3
µ ¶¾
2π
+ L f a i f 0 sin θ0 −
3
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β28 = −ωm0
¢
L d − L q i a0 cos 2θ0 − + i b0 cos 2θ0 + + i c0 cos (2θ0 )
3 3 3
µ ¶¾
2π
+ L f a i f 0 cos θ0 −
3

149
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i f d ∆i D d ∆i Q
∆u c = α31 + α32 + α33 + α34 + α35 + α36
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.3)
+ β31 ∆i a + β32 ∆i b + β33 ∆i c + β34 ∆i f + β35 ∆i D + β36 ∆i Q + β37 ∆ωm + β38 ∆θ

Where

Lo
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2 2π 2π
α31 = L d cos θ0 + cos θ0 + L q sin θ0 + sin θ0 +
3 3 3 3
Lo
· µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π 2π 2π
α32 = L d cos θ0 + cos θ0 − + L q sin θ0 + sin θ0 − +
3 3 3 3 3 3
Lo
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
α33 = L d cos2 θ0 + + L q sin2 θ0 + +
3 3 3 3
µ ¶
2π
α34 = L f a cos θ0 +
3
µ ¶
2π
α35 = L D a cos θ0 +
3
µ ¶
2π
α36 = −LQa sin θ0 +
3
" ¶ p #
ωm0 ¡
µ
2π 3¡
β31 = −
¢ ¢
L d − L q sin 2θ0 + + Ld + L q
3 3 2
" p #
ωm0 ¡ 3¡
β32 = −
¢ ¢
L d − L q sin (2θ0 ) − Ld + L q
3 2

ωm0 ¡
µ ¶
2π
β33 = R s −
¢
L d − L q sin 2θ0 −
3 3
µ ¶
2π
β34 = −ωm0 L f a sin θ0 +
3
µ ¶
2π
β35 = −ωm0 L D a sin θ0 +
3
µ ¶
2π
β36 = −ωm0 LQa cos θ0 +
3
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β37 = −
¢
L d − L q i a0 sin 2θ0 + + i b0 sin (2θ0 ) + i c0 sin 2θ0 −
3 3 3
µ ¶¾
2π
+ L f a i f 0 sin θ0 +
3
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β38 = −ωm0
¢
L d − L q i a0 cos 2θ0 + + i b0 cos (2θ0 ) + i c0 cos 2θ0 −
3 3 3
µ ¶¾
2π
+ L f a i f 0 cos θ0 +
3

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 A.1. Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine

A.1.2 Rotor Equations

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i f d ∆i D
∆u f = α41 + α42 + α43 + α44 + α45
dt dt dt dt dt (A.4)
+ β44 ∆i f + β47 ∆ωm

Where

α41 = L f a cos θ0
µ ¶
2π
α42 = L f a cos θ0 −
3
µ ¶
2π
α43 = L f a cos θ0 +
3

α44 = L f

α45 = L D f

β44 = R f
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2π 2π
β47 = −L f a i a0 sin θ0 + i b0 sin θ0 − + i c0 sin θ0 +
3 3

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i f d ∆i D
0 = α51 + α52 + α53 + α54 + α55 + β55 ∆i D + β57 ∆ωm (A.5)
dt dt dt dt dt

Where

α51 = L D a cos θ0
µ ¶
2π
α52 = L D a cos θ0 −
3
µ ¶
2π
α53 = L D a cos θ0 +
3

α54 = L D f

α55 = L D

β55 = R D
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2π 2π
β57 = −L D a i a0 sin θ0 + i b0 sin θ0 − + i c0 sin θ0 +
3 3

151
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i Q
0 = α61 + α62 + α63 + α66 + β66 ∆i Q + β67 ∆ωm (A.6)
dt dt dt dt

Where

α61 = −LQa sin θ0

µ ¶
2π
α62 = −LQa sin θ0 −
3
µ ¶
2π
α63 = −LQa sin θ0 +
3

α66 = LQ

β66 = RQ
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2π 2π
β67 = −LQa i a0 cos θ0 + i b0 cos θ0 − + i c0 cos θ0 +
3 3

A.1.3 Mechanical Equations

J d ∆ωm X
= ∆T = ∆Tem + ∆Tmec
X
(A.7a)
Pp d t
With

∆Tem = β71 ∆i a + β72 ∆i b + β73 ∆i c + β74 ∆i f + β75 ∆i D + β76 ∆i Q + β78 ∆θ (A.7b)

Where
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β71 = −P p
¢
L d − L q i a0 sin (2θ0 ) + i b0 sin 2θ0 − + i c0 sin 2θ0 +
3 3 3
¾
+ L f a i f 0 sin θ0
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β72 = −P p
¢
L d − L q i a0 sin 2θ0 − + i b0 sin 2θ0 + + i c0 sin (2θ0 )
3 3 3
µ ¶¾
2π
+ L f a i f 0 sin θ0 −
3
½ · µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2¡ 2π 2π
β73 = −P p
¢
L d − L q i a0 sin 2θ0 + + i b0 sin (2θ0 ) + i c0 sin 2θ0 −
3 3 3
µ ¶¾
2π
+ L f a i f 0 sin θ0 +
3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2π 2π
β74 = −P p L f a i a0 sin θ0 + i b0 sin θ0 − + i c0 sin θ0 +
3 3

152
 A.2. Wound-Rotor Induction Machine

· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2π 2π
β75 = −P p L D a i a0 sin θ0 + i b0 sin θ0 − + i c0 sin θ0 +
3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2π 2π
β76 = −P p LQa i a0 cos θ0 + i b0 cos θ0 − + i c0 cos θ0 +
3 3
½ · µ ¶
2¡ ¢ 2 2π
β78 = −P p L d − L q i a0 cos2 (2θ0 ) + 2i a0 i b0 cos 2θ0 −
3 3
µ ¶ µ ¶
2π 2 2π
+ 2i a0 i c0 cos 2θ0 + + i b0 cos2 2θ0 + + 2i b0 i c0 cos (2θ0 )
3 3
µ ¶¸
2 2 2π
+ i c0 cos 2θ0 −
3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸ ¾
3 2π 2π
+ L f a i f 0 i a0 cos θ0 + i b0 cos θ0 − + i c0 cos θ0 +
2 3 3

d ∆θ
= ∆ωm (A.8)
dt

A.2 Wound-Rotor Induction Machine

A.2.1 Stator Equations

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i A d ∆i B d ∆i C
∆u a = α11 + α12 + α13 + α14 + α15 + α16
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.9)
+ β11 ∆i a + β12 ∆i b + β13 ∆i c + β14 ∆i A + β15 ∆i B + β16 ∆i C + β17 ∆ωm + β18 ∆θm

Where

2 L s + L os
α11 =
3
−L s + L os
α12 =
3
−L s + L os
α13 =
3
2
α14 = L sr cos θm0
3
µ ¶
2 2π
α15 = L sr cos θm0 +
3 3
µ ¶
2 2π
α16 = L sr cos θm0 −
3 3

153
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

β11 = R s
p
3
β12 = − ωa0 L s
3
p
3
β13 = ωa0 L s
3
2
β14 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0
3
µ ¶
2 2π
β15 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0 +
3 3
µ ¶
2 2π
β16 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0 −
3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β17 = − L sr i A0 sin θm0 + i B 0 sin θm0 + + i C 0 sin θm0 −
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β18 = − ωa0 L sr i A0 cos θm0 + i B 0 cos θm0 + + i C 0 cos θm0 −
3 3 3

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i A d ∆i B d ∆i C
∆u b = α21 + α22 + α23 + α24 + α25 + α26
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.10)
+ β21 ∆i a + β22 ∆i b + β23 ∆i c + β24 ∆i A + β25 ∆i B + β26 ∆i C + β27 ∆ωm + β28 ∆θm

Where

−L s + L os
α21 =
3
2 L s + L os
α22 =
3
−L s + L os
α23 =
3
µ ¶
2 2π
α24 = L sr cos θm0 −
3 3
2
α25 = L sr cos θm0
3
µ ¶
2 2π
α26 = L sr cos θm0 +
3 3
p
3
β21 = ωa0 L s
3
β22 = R s

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 A.2. Wound-Rotor Induction Machine

p
3
β23 = − ωa0 L s
3
µ ¶
2 2π
β24 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0 −
3 3
2
β25 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0
3
µ ¶
2 2π
β26 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0 +
3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β27 = − L sr i A0 sin θm0 − + i B 0 sin θm0 + i C 0 sin θm0 +
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β28 = − ωa0 L sr i A0 cos θm0 − + i B 0 cos θm0 + i C 0 cos θm0 +
3 3 3

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i A d ∆i B d ∆i C
∆u c = α31 + α32 + α33 + α34 + α35 + α36
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.11)
+ β31 ∆i a + β32 ∆i b + β33 ∆i c + β34 ∆i A + β35 ∆i B + β36 ∆i C + β37 ∆ωm + β38 ∆θm

Where

−L s + L os
α31 =
3
−L s + L os
α32 =
3
2 L s + L os
α33 =
3
µ ¶
2 2π
α34 = L sr cos θm0 +
3 3
µ ¶
2 2π
α35 = L sr cos θm0 −
3 3
2
α36 = L sr cos θm0
3
p
3
β31 = − ωa0 L s
3
p
3
β32 = ωa0 L s
3
β33 = R s
µ ¶
2 2π
β34 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0 +
3 3

155
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

µ ¶
2 2π
β35 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0 −
3 3
2
β36 = − ωa0 L sr sin θm0
3
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2 2π 2π
β37 = − L sr i A0 sin θm0 + + i B 0 sin θm0 − + i C 0 sin θm0
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2 2π 2π
β38 = − ωa0 L sr i A0 cos θm0 + + i B 0 cos θm0 − + i C 0 cos θm0
3 3 3

A.2.2 Rotor Equations

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i A d ∆i B d ∆i C
∆u A = α41 + α42 + α43 + α44 + α45 + α46
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.12)
+ β41 ∆i a + β42 ∆i b + β43 ∆i c + β44 ∆i A + β45 ∆i B + β46 ∆i C + β47 ∆ωm + β48 ∆θm

Where

2
α41 = L sr cos θm0
3
µ ¶
2 2π
α41 = L sr cos θm0 −
3 3
µ ¶
2 2π
α43 = L sr cos θm0 +
3 3
2 L r + L or
α44 =
3
−L r + L or
α45 =
3
−L r + L or
α46 =
3
2
β41 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0
3
µ ¶
2 2π
β42 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0 −
3 3
µ ¶
2 2π
β43 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0 +
3 3

β44 = R r
p
3
β45 = − (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L r
3
p
3
β46 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L r
3

156
 A.2. Wound-Rotor Induction Machine

· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β47 = − L sr i a0 sin θm0 + i b0 sin θm0 − + i c0 sin θm0 +
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β48 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr i a0 cos θm0 + i b0 cos θm0 − + i c0 cos θm0 +
3 3 3

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i A d ∆i B d ∆i C
∆u B = α51 + α52 + α53 + α54 + α55 + α56
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.13)
+ β21 ∆i a + β52 ∆i b + β53 ∆i c + β54 ∆i A + β55 ∆i B + β56 ∆i C + β57 ∆ωm + β58 ∆θm

Where
µ ¶
2 2π
α51 = L sr cos θm0 +
3 3
2
α52 = L sr cos θm0
3
µ ¶
2 2π
α53 = L sr cos θm0 −
3 3
−L r + L or
α54 =
3
2 L r + L or
α55 =
3
−L r + L or
α56 =
3
µ ¶
2 2π
β51 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0 +
3 3
2
β52 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0
3
µ ¶
2 2π
β53 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0 −
3 3
p
3
β54 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L r
3
β55 = R r
p
3
β56 = − (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L r
3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β57 = − L sr i a0 sin θm0 + + i b0 sin θm0 + i c0 sin θm0 −
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β58 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr i a0 cos θm0 + + i b0 cos θm0 + i c0 cos θm0 −
3 3 3

157
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c d ∆i A d ∆i B d ∆i C
∆uC = α61 + α62 + α63 + α64 + α65 + α66
dt dt dt dt dt dt (A.14)
+ β61 ∆i a + β62 ∆i b + β63 ∆i c + β64 ∆i A + β65 ∆i B + β66 ∆i C + β67 ∆ωm + β68 ∆θm

Where
µ ¶
2 2π
α61 = L sr cos θm0 −
3 3
µ ¶
2 2π
α62 = L sr cos θm0 +
3 3
2
α63 = L sr cos θm0
3
−L r + L or
α64 =
3
−L r + L or
α65 =
3
2 L r + L or
α66 =
3
µ ¶
2 2π
β61 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0 −
3 3
µ ¶
2 2π
β62 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0 +
3 3
2
β63 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr sin θm0
3
p
3
β64 = − (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L r
3
p
3
β65 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L r
3
β66 = R r
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2 2π 2π
β67 = − L sr i a0 sin θm0 − + i b0 sin θm0 + + i c0 sin θm0
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2 2π 2π
β68 = (ωa0 − ωm0 ) L sr i a0 cos θm0 − + i b0 cos θm0 + + i c0 cos θm0
3 3 3

A.2.3 Mechanical Equations

J d ∆ωm X
= ∆T = ∆Tem + ∆Tmec
X
(A.15a)
Pp d t

158
 A.3. Power Transformers

With

∆Tem = β71 ∆i a + β72 ∆i b + β73 ∆i c + β74 ∆i A + β75 ∆i B + β76 ∆i C + β78 ∆θm (A.15b)

Where
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β71 = − P p L sr i A0 sin θm0 + i B 0 sin θm0 + + i C 0 sin θm0 −
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β72 = − P p L sr i A0 sin θm0 − + i B 0 sin θm0 + i C 0 sin θm0 +
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2 2π 2π
β73 = − P p L sr i A0 sin θm0 + + i B 0 sin θm0 − + i C 0 sin θm0
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β74 = − P p L sr i a0 sin θm0 + i b0 sin θm0 − + i c0 sin θm0 +
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
2 2π 2π
β75 = − P p L sr i a0 sin θm0 + + i b0 sin θm0 + i c0 sin θm0 −
3 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
2 2π 2π
β76 = − P p L sr i a0 sin θm0 − + i b0 sin θm0 + + i c0 sin θm0
3 3 3
·
2
β78 = − P p L sr (i a0 i A0 + i b0 i B 0 + i c0 i C 0 ) cos θm0
3
µ ¶
2π
+ (i a0 i C 0 + i b0 i A0 + i c0 i B 0 ) cos θm0 −
3
µ ¶¸
2π
+ (i a0 i B 0 + i b0 i C 0 + i c0 i A0 ) cos θm0 +
3

d ∆θm
= ∆ωm (A.16)
dt

A.3 Power Transformers

A.3.1 Vector Group Yy0

Primary Side

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i a2 d ∆i b2
∆u a1 = L 11 − L 11m − L 11m + L 12 − L 12m
dt dt dt dt dt
p
d ∆i c2 3
− L 12m + R 1 ∆i a1 − ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i b1 (A.17)
dt 3
p p p
3 3 3
+ ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i c1 − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b2 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c2
3 3 3

159
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i a2 d ∆i b2
∆u b1 = −L 11m + L 11 − L 11m − L 12m + L 12
dt dt dt dt dt
p
d ∆i c2 3
− L 12m + ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i a1 + R 1 ∆i b1 (A.18)
dt 3
p p p
3 3 3
− ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i c1 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i a2 − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c2
3 3 3

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i a2 d ∆i b2
∆u c1 = −L 11m − L 11m + L 11 − L 12m − L 12m
dt dt dt dt dt
p p
d ∆i c2 3 3
+ L 12 − ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i a1 + ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i b1 (A.19)
dt 3 3
p p
3 3
+ R 1 ∆i c1 − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i a2 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b2
3 3

Secondary Side

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i a2 d ∆i b2
∆u a2 = L 12 − L 12m − L 12m + L 22 − L 22m
dt dt dt dt dt
p p
d ∆i c2 3 3
− L 22m − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b1 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c1 (A.20)
dt 3 3
p p
3 3
+ R 2 ∆i a2 − ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i b2 + ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i c2
3 3

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i a2 d ∆i b2
∆u b2 = −L 12m + L 12 − L 12m − L 22m + L 22
dt dt dt dt dt
p p
d ∆i c2 3 3
− L 22m + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i a1 − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c1 (A.21)
dt 3 3
p p
3 3
+ ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i a2 + R 2 ∆i b2 − ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i c2
3 3

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i a2 d ∆i b2
∆u c2 = −L 12m − L 12m + L 12 − L 22m − L 22m
dt dt dt dt dt
p p
d ∆i c2 3 3
+ L 22 − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i a1 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b1 (A.22)
dt 3 3
p p
3 3
− ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i a2 + ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i b2 + R 2 ∆i c2
3 3

160
 A.3. Power Transformers

A.3.2 Vector Group Yd5

Primary Side

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i b2 d ∆i c2
∆u a1 = L 11 − L 11m − L 11m + L 12m + 2L 12m
dt dt dt dt dt
p
d ∆i ∆ 3
− (L 12 − 2L 12m ) + R 1 ∆i a1 − ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i b1 (A.23)
dt 3
p p
3 3
+ ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i c1 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b2
3 3

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i b2 d ∆i c2
∆u b1 = −L 11m + L 11 − L 11m − L 12 − (L 12 − L 12m )
dt dt dt dt dt
p
d ∆i ∆ 3
− (L 12 − 2L 12m ) + ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i a1 + R 1 ∆i b1 (A.24)
dt 3
p p
3 3
− ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i c1 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c2
3 3

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1 d ∆i b2 d ∆i c2
∆u c1 = −L 11m − L 11m + L 11 + L 12m − (L 12 − L 12m )
dt dt dt dt dt
p p
d ∆i ∆ 3 3
− (L 12 − 2L 12m ) − ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i a1 + ωa0 (L 11 + L 11m ) ∆i b1 (A.25)
dt 3 3
p p
3 3
+ R 1 ∆i c1 − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b2 − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c2
3 3

Secondary Side

L 12 + L 12m d ∆i a1 L 12 + L 12m d ∆i b1 L 22 + L 22m d ∆i b2

∆u a2 = − + −
3 dt 3 dt 3 dt
p p
L 22 + L 22m d ∆i c2 3 3
− + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i a1 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b1
3 dt 9 9
p " p # (A.26)
2 3 R2 3
− ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c1 − + ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i b2
9 3 9
" p #
R2 3
− − ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i c2
3 9

161
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

L 12 + L 12m d ∆i b1 L 12 + L 12m d ∆i c1 L 22 + L 22m d ∆i b2

∆u b2 = − + +
3 dt 3 dt 3 dt
p p
2 3 3
− ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i a1 + ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b1
9 9
p " p # (A.27)
3 R2 3
+ ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c1 + − ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i b2
9 3 9
p
2 3
− ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i c2
9

L 12 + L 12m d ∆i a1 L 12 + L 12m d ∆i c1 L 22 + L 22m d ∆i c2

∆u c2 = − +
3 dt 3 dt 3 dt
p p
3 2 3
+ ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i a1 − ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i b1
9 9
p p (A.28)
3 2 3
+ ωa0 (L 12 + L 12m ) ∆i c1 + ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i b2
9 9
" p #
R2 3
+ + ωa0 (L 22 + L 22m ) ∆i c2
3 9

Circulating Current of the ∆-Connection

d ∆i a1 d ∆i b1 d ∆i c1
0 = − (L 12 − 2L 12m ) − (L 12 − 2L 12m ) − (L 12 − 2L 12m )
dt dt dt
d ∆i b2 d ∆i c2 d ∆i ∆ (A.29)
+ (L 22 − 2L 22m ) + 2 (L 22 − 2L 22m ) + 3 (L 22 − 2L 22m )
dt dt dt

+ R 2 ∆i b2 + 2R 2 ∆i c2 + 3R 2 ∆i ∆

A.3.3 Vector Group Yd11

Equations representing power transformers of vector group Yd11 are the same as those for Yd5
transformers. Nonetheless, the polarity between primary and secondary sides is inverted, due
to the windings connection.

Therefore, the sign of mutual inductances L 12 and L 12m must be inverted, so that this effect is
taken into account.

162
 A.4. Electrical Loads

A.4 Electrical Loads

A.4.1 RL Series Load

p p
d ∆i a 3 3
∆u a = L L + R L ∆i a − ωa0 L L ∆i b + ωa0 L L ∆i c (A.30)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i b 3 3
∆u b = L L + ωa0 L L ∆i a + R L ∆i b − ωa0 L L ∆i c (A.31)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i c 3 3
∆u c = L L − ωa0 L L ∆i a + ωa0 L L ∆i b + R L ∆i c (A.32)
dt 3 3

A.4.2 RLC Series Load

p p
d ∆i a 3 3
∆u a = L L + R L ∆i a − ωa0 L L ∆i b + ωa0 L L ∆i c + ∆uC a (A.33)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i b 3 3
∆u b = L L + ωa0 L L ∆i a + R L ∆i b − ωa0 L L ∆i c + ∆uC b (A.34)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i c 3 3
∆u c = L L − ωa0 L L ∆i a + ωa0 L L ∆i b + R L ∆i c + ∆uC c (A.35)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC a 3 3
∆i a = C L − ωa0 C L ∆uC b + ωa0 C L ∆uC c (A.36)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC b 3 3
∆i b = C L + ωa0 C L ∆uC a − ωa0 C L ∆uC c (A.37)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC c 3 3
∆i c = C L − ωa0 C L ∆uC a + ωa0 C L ∆uC b (A.38)
dt 3 3

163
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

A.5 Transmission Lines

A.5.1 RL Transmission Line

ia Rtl Ltl

ib
uabc,1 uabc,2
ic

Figure A.1: Resistive-inductive transmission line.

p p
d ∆i a 3 3
∆u a1 = L t l + R t l ∆i a − ωa0 L t l ∆i b + ωa0 L t l ∆i c + ∆u a2 (A.39)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i b 3 3
∆u b1 = L t l + ωa0 L t l ∆i a + R t l ∆i b − ωa0 L t l ∆i c + ∆u b2 (A.40)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i c 3 3
∆u c1 = L t l − ωa0 L t l ∆i a + ωa0 L t l ∆i b + R t l ∆i c + ∆u c2 (A.41)
dt 3 3

A.5.2 π-Section Model of Transmission Line

ia1 Rtl Ltl ia2

iCab1 iCab2
ib1 Cϕϕ Ltlm Cϕϕ ib2
uabc,1 uabc,2
iCbc1 iCca1 iCbc2 iCca2
ic1 Ltlm ic2

iCa1 iCb1 iCc1 iCa2 iCb2 iCc2

C ϕn Cϕn

Figure A.2: Three-phase scheme of a π-section transmission line element.

164
 A.5. Transmission Lines

Voltage Drop on RL Series Element

d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c
∆u a = L t l + Ltlm + Ltlm + R t l ∆i a
dt dt dt
p p (A.42)
3 3
− ωa0 (L t l − L t l m ) ∆i b + ωa0 (L t l − L t l m ) ∆i c
3 3

p
d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c 3
∆u b = L t l m + Ltl + Ltlm + ωa0 (L t l − L t l m ) ∆i a
dt dt dt 3
p (A.43)
3
+ R t l ∆i b − ωa0 (L t l − L t l m ) ∆i c
3

p
d ∆i a d ∆i b d ∆i c 3
∆u c = L t l m + Ltlm + Ltl − ωa0 (L t l − L t l m ) ∆i a
dt dt dt 3
p (A.44)
3
+ ωa0 (L t l − L t l m ) ∆i b + R t l ∆i c
3

Phase-to-Ground Voltages on First End of the Line

p p
d ∆i C a1 3 3
∆u a1 = ∆uC a1 + L r es − ωa0 L r es ∆i C b1 + ωa0 L r es ∆i C c1 (A.45)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i C b1 3 3
∆u b1 = ∆uC b1 + L r es + ωa0 L r es ∆i C a1 − ωa0 L r es ∆i C c1 (A.46)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i C c1 3 3
∆u c1 = ∆uC c1 + L r es − ωa0 L r es ∆i C a1 + ωa0 L r es ∆i C b1 (A.47)
dt 3 3

Phase-to-Phase Voltages on First End of the Line

p p
d ∆i C ab1 3 3
∆u ab1 = ∆uC ab1 + L r es − ωa0 L r es ∆i C bc1 + ωa0 L r es ∆i C ca1 (A.48)
dt 3 3

165
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

p p
d ∆i C bc1 3 3
∆u bc1 = ∆uC bc1 + L r es + ωa0 L r es ∆i C ab1 − ωa0 L r es ∆i C ca1 (A.49)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i C c a1 3 3
∆u c a1 = ∆uC c a1 + L r es − ωa0 L r es ∆i C ab1 + ωa0 L r es ∆i C bc1 (A.50)
dt 3 3

Phase-to-Phase Voltages on Second End of the Line

p p
d ∆i C ab2 3 3
∆u ab2 = ∆uC ab2 + L r es − ωa0 L r es ∆i C bc2 + ωa0 L r es ∆i C ca2 (A.51)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i C bc2 3 3
∆u bc2 = ∆uC bc2 + L r es + ωa0 L r es ∆i C ab2 − ωa0 L r es ∆i C ca2 (A.52)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i C c a2 3 3
∆u c a2 = ∆uC c a2 + L r es − ωa0 L r es ∆i C ab2 + ωa0 L r es ∆i C bc2 (A.53)
dt 3 3

Phase-to-Ground Voltages on Second End of the Line

p p
d ∆i C a2 3 3
∆u a2 = ∆uC a2 + L r es − ωa0 L r es ∆i C b2 + ωa0 L r es ∆i C c2 (A.54)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i C b2 3 3
∆u b2 = ∆uC b2 + L r es + ωa0 L r es ∆i C a2 − ωa0 L r es ∆i C c2 (A.55)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆i C c2 3 3
∆u c2 = ∆uC c2 + L r es − ωa0 L r es ∆i C a2 + ωa0 L r es ∆i C b2 (A.56)
dt 3 3

Phase-to-Ground Currents on First End of the Line

p p
d ∆uC a1 3 3
∆i C a1 = C φn − ωa0 C φn ∆uC b1 + ωa0 C φn ∆uC c1 (A.57)
dt 3 3

166
 A.5. Transmission Lines

p p
d ∆uC b1 3 3
∆i C b1 = C φn + ωa0 C φn ∆uC a1 − ωa0 C φn ∆uC c1 (A.58)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC c1 3 3
∆i C c1 = C φn − ωa0 C φn ∆uC a1 + ωa0 C φn ∆uC b1 (A.59)
dt 3 3

Phase-to-Phase Currents on First End of the Line

p p
d ∆uC ab1 3 3
∆i C ab1 = C φφ − ωa0 C φφ ∆uC bc1 + ωa0 C φφ ∆uC ca1 (A.60)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC bc1 3 3
∆i C bc1 = C φφ + ωa0 C φφ ∆uC ab1 − ωa0 C φφ ∆uC ca1 (A.61)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC c a1 3 3
∆i C c a1 = C φφ − ωa0 C φφ ∆uC ab1 + ωa0 C φφ ∆uC bc1 (A.62)
dt 3 3

Phase-to-Phase Currents on Second End of the Line

p p
d ∆uC ab2 3 3
∆i C ab2 = C φφ − ωa0 C φφ ∆uC bc2 + ωa0 C φφ ∆uC ca2 (A.63)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC bc2 3 3
∆i C bc2 = C φφ + ωa0 C φφ ∆uC ab2 − ωa0 C φφ ∆uC ca2 (A.64)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC c a2 3 3
∆i C c a2 = C φφ − ωa0 C φφ ∆uC ab2 + ωa0 C φφ ∆uC bc2 (A.65)
dt 3 3

Phase-to-Ground Currents on Second End of the Line

p p
d ∆uC a2 3 3
∆i C a2 = C φn − ωa0 C φn ∆uC b2 + ωa0 C φn ∆uC c2 (A.66)
dt 3 3

167
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

p p
d ∆uC b2 3 3
∆i C b2 = C φn + ωa0 C φn ∆uC a2 − ωa0 C φn ∆uC c2 (A.67)
dt 3 3

p p
d ∆uC c2 3 3
∆i C c2 = C φn − ωa0 C φn ∆uC a2 + ωa0 C φn ∆uC b2 (A.68)
dt 3 3

A.6 Voltage Regulators

A.6.1 IEEE ST1A

VS VUEL VUEL y2 y3 VS VUEL

um VC VA EFD
1 – HV (1+ sTC) (1+ sTC1) KA HV LV
1+ sTR GATE (1+ sTB) (1+ sTB1) 1+ sTA GATE GATE
– –
ureg1 sKF VOEL
Vset 1+ sTF
KLR IFD
–
0 ILR

Figure A.3: IEEE ST1A voltage regulator.

d ∆VC
TR = ∆u m − ∆VC (A.69)
dt

d ∆y 2 d ∆VC d ∆u r eg 1 d ∆VS
TB + TC + TC − k 1 TC = −∆y 2 − ∆VC
dt dt dt dt (A.70)
− ∆u r eg 1 + k 1 ∆VS

d ∆y 3 d ∆y 2
TB 1 − TC 1 = ∆y 2 − ∆y 3 (A.71)
dt dt

d ∆V A
TA = K A ∆y 3 − ∆V A (A.72)
dt

d ∆u r eg 1 d ∆V A d ∆VS K F K LR d ∆i f
TF − KF − k2 K F + = −∆y 2 − ∆VC
dt dt dt I f δ0 dt (A.73)
− ∆u r eg 1 + k 1 ∆VS

The linearized output ∆E F D is:

K LR
∆E F D = ∆V A + k 2 ∆VS − ∆i f (A.74)
I f δ0

168
 A.6. Voltage Regulators

Which is applied to the excitation voltage as:

∆u f = R f I f δ0 ∆E F D (A.75)

The value of k 1 and k 2 vary according to the use of a PSS. If the PSS is inactive, k 1 = k 2 = 0.
If the PSS is active, k 1 and k 2 are either equal to 0 or 1 according to the following relation:
k2 = 1 ⊕ k1 .

The analytical expression of the input ∆u m in given in section A.6.3.

A.6.2 Unitrol®

uset (1+ sT1) (1+ sT3) 1 ureg

k
– (1+ sT2) (1+ sT4) 1+ sTst
ug
1 uC1 uC2
1+ sTms

um

Figure A.4: Block diagram of the Unitrol® voltage regulator.

d ∆u g
Tms = ∆u m − ∆u g (A.76)
dt

d ∆uC 1
T2 = ∆u set − ∆u g − ∆uC 1 (A.77)
dt

d ∆uC 2 T1 T3 T1 T3 T3 (T1 − T2 )
T3 =k ∆u set − k ∆u g − k ∆uC 1
dt T2 T4 T2 T4 T2 T4
(A.78)
T4 − T3
µ ¶
+ − 1 ∆uC 2
T3 T4

d ∆u r eg T1 T3 T1 T3 T3 (T1 − T2 )
T st =k ∆u set − k ∆u g − k ∆uC 1
dt T2 T4 T2 T4 T2 T4
(A.79)
T4 − T3
+ ∆uC 2
T3 T4

The output ∆u r eg is applied to the excitation voltage as:

∆u f = R f I f δ0 ∆u r eg (A.80)

169
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

If a PSS is active, its output is added to the set-point ∆u set .

The analytical expression of the input ∆u m in given in section A.6.3.

A.6.3 Voltage Input (∆u m )

p ½ µ ¶ µ ¶
2 2π 2π
∆u m = − p sin (δo + θ0 ) ∆u a + sin δo + θ0 − ∆u b + sin δo + θ0 + ∆u c
3U N 3 3
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸ ¾ (A.81)
2π 2π
+ sin (δo + θ0 ) u a0 + sin δo + θ0 − u v0 + sin δo + θ0 + u c0 ∆θ
3 3

The analytical expressions for ∆u a , ∆u b and ∆u c were defined in section A.1.

A.7 Power System Stabilizer IEEE PSS2B

The stabilizer PSS2B is described either by fourteen or fifteen time-domain state equations,
depending on the values of the parameters M and N . In SIMSEN, these parameters can
assume either the values M = 4, N = 1; or M = 5, N = 1; or M = 2, N = 2. The system of
equations presented here correspond to the case with M = 5, N = 1 (fifteen equations).

δω 1 sTw1 sTw2 1 1+ sT8

N
1+ sT1 1+ sT3 uPSS
Ks1
1+ sTω 1+ sTw1 1+ sTw2 1+ sT6 (1+ sT9)M – 1+ sT2 1+ sT4
us1 us2 us3 us4 us9 … us13 us14
Ks3
us5 us6 us7 us8
pel 1 sTw3 sTw4 Ks2
1+ sTp 1+ sTw3 1+ sTw4 1+ sT7

Figure A.5: IEEE PSS2B power system stabilizer with filtered inputs.

d ∆u s1 ∆ωm
Tω = − ∆u s1 (A.82)
dt ωN

d ∆u s2 d ∆u s1
T w1 − T w1 = −∆u s2 (A.83)
dt dt

d ∆u s3 d ∆u s2
T w2 − T w2 = −∆u s3 (A.84)
dt dt

170
 A.7. Power System Stabilizer IEEE PSS2B

d ∆u s4
T6 = ∆u s3 − ∆u s4 (A.85)
dt

d ∆u s5
Tp = ∆p el − ∆u s5 (A.86)
dt

d ∆u s6 d ∆u s5
T w3 − T w3 = −∆u s6 (A.87)
dt dt

d ∆u s7 d ∆u s6
T w4 − T w4 = −∆u s7 (A.88)
dt dt

d ∆u s8
T7 = K s2 ∆u s7 − ∆u s8 (A.89)
dt

d ∆u s9
T9 = ∆u s4 + K s3 ∆u s8 − ∆u s9 (A.90)
dt

d ∆u s10
T9 = ∆u s9 − ∆u s10 (A.91)
dt

d ∆u s11
T9 = ∆u s10 − ∆u s11 (A.92)
dt

d ∆u s12
T9 = ∆u s11 − ∆u s12 (A.93)
dt

d ∆u s13 d ∆u s12
T9 − T8 = ∆u s12 − ∆u s13 (A.94)
dt dt

d ∆u s14 d ∆u s13 d ∆u s8
T2 − K s1 T1 + K s1 T1 = −K s1 ∆u s8 + K s1 ∆u s13 − ∆u s14 (A.95)
dt dt dt

d ∆u pss d ∆u s14
T4 − T3 = ∆u s14 − ∆u pss (A.96)
dt dt

171
Appendix A. Small-Signal Models Based on a,b,c-Phase Coordinates

The input ∆p el of equation (A.86) is defined as:

1
∆p el = − (i a0 ∆u a + u a0 ∆i a + i b0 ∆u b + u b0 ∆i b + i c0 ∆u c + u c0 ∆i c ) (A.97)
SN

The analytical expressions for ∆u a , ∆u b and ∆u c were defined in section A.1.

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182
 List of Symbols

Acronyms

AVR Automatic voltage regulator

CIGRÉ International Council on Large Electric Systems (Conseil International des Grands
Réseaux Électriques)

DDPM Direct drive permanent magnet synchronous machine

DFIG Doubly-fed induction generator

EPFL Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, in Switzerland

GUI Graphical user interface

GVO Guide vanes opening

HVDC High-voltage direct current

IEA International Energy Agency

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IM Induction machine

LP Linear periodic system

LTI Linear time-invariant system

LTV Linear time-variant system

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

PID Proportional-integral-derivative

183
Bibliography

PSS Power system stabilizer

PV Photovoltaics

SCIG Squirrel-cage induction generator

SIMSEN Simulation Software for Energy Systems (SIMulateur Modulaire pour Systèmes
ENergetiques électriques)

SM Synchronous machine

TG Turbine governor

Greek

δω Generator speed deviation (PSS input) [p.u.]

λ Local loss coefficient [–]

λi i-th eigenvalue of a matrix [–]

µ Induction machine stator-rotor turns ratio [–]

µeq Equivalent viscoelastic damping [Pa·s]

ν Specific speed of the turbine [–]

Ω Mechanical angular speed [rad/s]

ω0 Natural frequency of an eigenmode [rad/s]

ωa Angular frequency of the rotating reference frame [rad/s]

ωd Damped frequency of an eigenmode (ωd = ℑ{λi }) [rad/s]

ωm Angular speed [rad/s]

ωN Nominal angular frequency on the network (ωN = 2π f N ) [rad/s]

ρ Density of a fluid [kg/m3 ]

σ Attenuation of an eigenmode (σ = ℜ{λi }) [Np/s]

τ Damping time constant related to an eigenvalue [s]

θ Angular position of the rotor of a synchronous machine [rad]

θm Relative angular position of the rotor of an induction machine [rad]

184
 Bibliography

ζ Damping ratio of an eigenmode [–]

Latin

Ā Turbine mean cross section [m2 ]

A Cross section of a pipe [m2 ]

a Wave speed of the water in a pipe [m/s]

c Water flow velocity [m/s]

C e0 Transmission line lineic capacitance [F/m]

C h0 Hydroacoustic lineic capacitance [m]

Cr Courant number [–]

C φn Transmission line phase-to-ground capacitance [F]

C φφ Transmission line phase-to-phase capacitance [F]

C ST Surge tank equivalent capacitance [m2 ]

D Diameter of a pipe [m]

Dr e f Turbine reference diameter [m]

EF D Output of the AVR IEEE ST1A [p.u.]

f t ur b Turbine rotational frequency [Hz]

f V Rl ow Lower value of the vortex rope pulsation frequency [Hz]

f V Rupp Upper value of the vortex rope pulsation frequency [Hz]

g Gravitational acceleration (g ' 9.81 m/s2 ) [m/s2 ]

Gt g Transfer function of a turbine governor [–]

h Piezometric head [mWC]

hc Surge tank piezometric head [mWC]

hd Surge tank head losses [mWC]

HI Turbine inlet head [mWC]

185
Bibliography

Ht Turbine equivalent pressure source [mWC]

H I¯ Turbine outlet head [mWC]

h ST Surge tank total head [mWC]

H t ur b Turbine net head [mWC]

I f δ0 Synchronous machine no-load excitation current [A]

J Moment of inertia [kg·m2 ]

Kp Proportional gain [–]

L Mean value of L aa [H]

L 0e Transmission line lineic inductance [H/m]

L 0h Hydroacoustic lineic inductance [s2 /m3 ]

LD Damper D winding self-inductance [H]

Ld Self-inductance on the d-axis [H]

Lf Excitation winding self-inductance [H]

Lo Self-inductance on the Zero phase-sequence axis [H]

LQ Damper Q winding self-inductance [H]

Lq Self-inductance on the q-axis [H]

Lr Induction machine rotor self-inductance [H]

Ls Induction machine stator self-inductance [H]

Lt Turbine hydroacoustic inductance [s2 /m2 ]

L 11m Power transformer primary mutual inductance [H]

L 11 Power transformer primary winding self-inductance [H]

L 12m Power transformer mutual inductance between primary and secondary [H]

L 12 Power transformer mutual inductance between primary and secondary [H]

L 22m Power transformer secondary mutual inductance [H]

L 22 Power transformer secondary winding self-inductance [H]

186
 Bibliography

L aa Self-inductance of synchronous machine stator phase a [H]

LD a Mutual inductance between damper D and stator windings [H]

LD f Mutual inductance between damper D and excitation windings [H]

l eq Turbine equivalent length [m]

Lf a Mutual inductance between excitation and stator windings [H]

L h2 Amplitude of the oscillating component of L aa [H]

L or Induction machine rotor leakage inductance [H]

L os Induction machine stator leakage inductance [H]

LQa Mutual inductance between damper Q and stator windings [H]

L sr Induction machine mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings [H]

Ltlm Transmission line mutual inductance [H]

Ltl Transmission line self-inductance [H]

n Rotational speed [rpm]

N11 Francis turbine speed factor [rpm·m1/2 ]

Pp Number of pairs of poles [–]

p el Generator active power [p.u.]

p ji Participation factor of the j-th state variable in the i-th mode [–]

Q Water discharge [m3 /s]

Qc Surge tank stored discharge [m3 /s]

Q 11 Francis turbine discharge factor [m1/2 /s]

Q STi +1 Surge tank downstream discharge [m3 /s]

Q STi Surge tank upstream discharge [m3 /s]

r 20 Power transformer secondary winding resistance [p.u.]

R e0 Transmission line lineic resistance [Ω/m]

R h0 Hydroacoustic lineic resistance [s/m3 ]

187
Bibliography

r r0 Rotor windings resistance [p.u.]

R1 Power transformer primary winding resistance [Ω]

r1 Power transformer primary winding resistance [p.u.]

R2 Power transformer secondary winding resistance [Ω]

RD Equivalent damper D winding resistance [Ω]

Rd Surge tank equivalent resistance [s/m2 ]

rD Equivalent damper D winding resistance [p.u.]

Rf Excitation winding resistance [Ω]

rf Excitation winding resistance [p.u.]

RQ Equivalent damper Q winding resistance [Ω]

rQ Equivalent damper Q winding resistance [p.u.]

Rr Induction machine rotor winding resistance [Ω]

Rs Stator winding resistance [Ω]

rs Stator winding resistance [p.u.]

Rt Turbine equivalent resistance [s/m2 ]

r cc Power transformer short-circuit resistance [p.u.]

Rt l Transmission line resistance [Ω]

R ve Hydroacoustic viscoelastic resistance [s/m2 ]

s Induction machine slip [–]

S sc Short-circuit power [MVA]

Td00 Subtransient short-circuit time constant in the d -axis [s]

T q00 Subtransient short-circuit time constant in the q-axis [s]

T s0 Transient short-circuit time constant of induction machine stator [s]

Ta Armature short-circuit time constant [s]

TD Short-circuit time constant of the equivalent damper winding D [s]

188
 Bibliography

Td Derivative time constant [s]

Tf Filter time constant [s]

Ti Integral time constant [s]

T11 Francis turbine torque factor [N/m3 ]

Tcc Power transformer short-circuit time constant [s]

Tem Electromagnetic torque [N·m]

Th1 Power transformer magnetizing time constant [s]

T t ur b Turbine torque [N·m]

ug Generator filtered voltage for the Unitrol® [p.u.]

um Generator terminal voltage [p.u.]

uC 1 Internal variable of the Unitrol® [p.u.]

uC 2 Internal variable of the Unitrol® [p.u.]

u P SS PSS output [p.u.]

u r eg 1 Internal variable of the AVR IEEE ST1A [p.u.]

u r eg Output of the Unitrol® [p.u.]

u s1...14 Internal variables of the stabilizer IEEE PSS2B [p.u.]

u set AVR voltage set-point [p.u.]

V (t , x) Energetic function related to Lypaunov stability definition [–]

VA Internal variable of the AVR IEEE ST1A [p.u.]

VC Generator filtered voltage for the AVR IEEE ST1A [p.u.]

W1...3 (x) Boundary functions related to Lypaunov stability definition [–]

0
x σ2 Power transformer secondary winding leakage reactance [p.u.]

0
x σr Leakage reactance of rotor windings [p.u.]

x σ1 Power transformer primary winding leakage reactance [p.u.]

x σD f Mutual reactance between excitation and damper D [p.u.]

189
Bibliography

x σD Leakage reactance of damper winding D [p.u.]

xσ f Leakage reactance of excitation winding [p.u.]

x σQ Leakage reactance of damper winding Q [p.u.]

x σs Leakage reactance of stator winding [p.u.]

x ad Magnetizing reactance in the d –axis [p.u.]

x aq Magnetizing reactance in the q–axis [p.u.]

x cc Power transformer short-circuit reactance [p.u.]

x h1 Power transformer three-phase magnetizing reactance [p.u.]

x hs Magnetizing reactance [p.u.]

y Guide vanes opening [–]

y2 Internal variable of the AVR IEEE ST1A [p.u.]

y3 Internal variable of the AVR IEEE ST1A [p.u.]

Matrices and Vectors

A` Linearized state matrix of a system

A State matrix

B` Linearized input matrix of a system

C` Linearized output matrix of a system

D` Linearized feedforward matrix of a system

I Identity matrix

Λ Matrix containing the eigenvalues of a system (Λ = diag (λ1 , . . . , λn ))

P Park’s transformation

Q Orthogonal matrix involved in the QR factorization algorithm

T Upper-triangular matrix involved in the QR factorization algorithm

u(t ) Input vector of a system

190
 Bibliography

V Matrix containing the right eigenvectors of a system (V = [ v1 v2 · · · vn ])

vi Right eigenvector related to the i-th eigenvalue (λi ) of a matrix

¤T
Matrix containing the left eigenvectors of a system (W = wT1 wT2 · · · wTn )
£
W

wi Left eigenvector related to the i-th eigenvalue (λi ) of a matrix

x(t ) State vector of a system ( x = [ x 1 x 2 · · · x n ]T )

y(t ) Output vector of a system

Subscripts

0 Equilibrium point

1 Power transformer primary side

2 Power transformer secondary side

ABC Induction machine rotor windings

abc Phase (abc) coordinates

a Stator phase a

b Stator phase b

c Stator phase c

D Equivalent damper winding in the d-axis

d Direct axis (d-axis)

dqo Park’s (dqo) coordinates

f Excitation (field)

` Linearized

o Zero phase-sequence axis

Q Equivalent damper winding in the q-axis

q Quadrature axis (q-axis)

s Stator

set Set-point

tl Transmission line

191
 List of Figures

1.1 Worldwide electricity generation forecast by source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 Share of energy production by source and by region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Intermittency of wind and solar PV in Germany in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4 Classification of power system stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.5 Part load vortex rope in the draft tube and its pulsation frequency range . . . . 11

1.6 Elements for the representation of a hydropower plant and the grid . . . . . . . 14

3.1 Interpretation of Lyapunov stability and asymptotic stability . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.1 Self-inductance for phase a of a salient-pole synchronous machine . . . . . . . 42

4.2 Simplified representation of a salient-pole synchronous machine . . . . . . . . 42

4.3 Procedure flowchart for determination of small-signal models for SIMSEN . . . 45

5.1 Current loops construction in SIMSEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

5.2 Synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

5.3 Direct- and quadrature-axis equivalent circuit for the synchronous machine . . 55

5.4 Power fluctuation due to the local mode oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5.5 Damping of the excitation current related to the corresponding eigenvalue . . . 58

193
List of Figures

5.6 Induction connected to an infinite bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.7 Equivalent circuit of the induction machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5.8 Power fluctuation on induction gen. due to the local mode oscillation . . . . . . 61

5.9 Exponential damping of the aperiodic component in the reactive power . . . . 61

5.10 Yd5-transformer – generator – infinite bus system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

5.11 Equivalent circuit of a power transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

5.12 Equivalent circuit of the transformer seen from the magnetizing branch . . . . 64

5.13 RLC load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

5.14 Sinusoidal envelope and its exponential damping for a RLC load . . . . . . . . . 67

5.15 Resistive-inductive transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5.16 Three-phase scheme of a π-section transmission line element . . . . . . . . . . 69

5.17 IEEE ST1A voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5.18 Block diagram of the Unitrol® voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

5.19 Example of synchronous generator with automatic voltage regulator . . . . . . 71

5.20 Electrical power pulsation of the system with AVR and short transmission line . 73

5.21 IEEE PSS2B power system stabilizer with filtered inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5.22 Example of synchronous generator with automatic voltage regulator . . . . . . 74

5.23 Electrical power pulsation with AVR and PSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

6.1 Model of a pipe of length dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6.2 Equivalent scheme of a pipe of length dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

6.3 Turbine characteristics for different guide vane opening values . . . . . . . . . . 81

6.4 Francis turbine model (left) and equivalent scheme (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

6.5 Surge tank model (left) and equivalent scheme (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6.6 Turbine governor block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

194
 List of Figures

7.1 Layout of the islanded hydroelectric power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

7.2 Electrical power behavior for different values of short-circuit power . . . . . . . 96

7.3 Evolution of local mode with the PSS gain K s1 , considering the critical scenario 97

7.4 Electrical power response without and with PSS (K s1 = 20), in the critical scenario 99

7.5 Most relevant hydraulic mode shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

7.6 Turbine net head and torque for the hydraulic and hydroelectric models . . . . 102

7.7 Participation factors color map plot for the hydroelectric system, with enhanced
tuning of turbine governor, without PSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

7.8 Turbine net head and torque with initial and enhanced tuning of the governor . 106

7.9 Electrical power response with initial and enhanced tuning of the governor . . 106

7.10 Turbine net head and torque with initial and enhanced tuning of the governor,
with PSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

7.11 Electrical power response with initial and enhanced tuning of the governor, with
PSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

8.1 Layout of the hydroelectric powerplant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

8.2 Electrical power swing recorded on-site with active PSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

8.3 On-site measurement versus time-domain simulation, without PSS . . . . . . . 116

8.4 Frequency and attenuation time constant from time-domain results, without PSS117

8.5 On-site measurement versus time-domain simulation, PSS with reduced gain . 119

8.6 Frequency and attenuation time constant from time-domain results, with PSS . 121

8.7 Mode shapes of the local and intermachine modes, with two generating units . 123

8.8 Mode shapes of the local and intermachine modes, with three generating units 124

8.9 Mode shapes of the local and intermachine modes, with four generating units . 125

8.10 Evolution of local mode with the number of generating units . . . . . . . . . . . 126

8.11 Mass flow oscillation and gallery 1st elastic pressure mode shapes . . . . . . . . 127

195
List of Figures

8.12 Pressure mode shapes of the penstock 1st and 2nd elastic modes . . . . . . . . . 128

8.13 Pressure mode shapes of the draft tube 1st elastic modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

8.14 Pressure mode shapes of the draft tube 2nd elastic modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

8.15 Forced response of the hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

8.16 Turbine net head and torque response to vortex rope pulsation of 2% H N . . . . 133

8.17 Electrical power swing due to vortex rope pulsation of 2% H N . . . . . . . . . . . 133

8.18 Electrical power swing due to vortex rope pulsation of 0.021% H N . . . . . . . . 134

A.1 Resistive-inductive transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

A.2 Three-phase scheme of a π-section transmission line element . . . . . . . . . . 164

A.3 IEEE ST1A voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

A.4 Block diagram of the Unitrol® voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

A.5 IEEE PSS2B power system stabilizer with filtered inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

196
 List of Tables

5.1 Synchronous machine ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.2 Parameters of the synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.3 Eigenproperties of the synchronous machine – infinite bus system . . . . . . . . 56

5.4 Induction machine ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.5 Parameters of the induction machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5.6 Eigenproperties of the induction generator machine – infinite bus system . . . 60

5.7 Power transformer ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

5.8 Parameters of the Yd5 power transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

5.9 Eigenproperties of the power transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

5.10 Eigenproperties of the transformer – generator – infinite bus system . . . . . . . 64

5.11 Parameters of the RLC load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

5.12 Eigenproperties of the RLC load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

5.13 Parameters of RL transmission line and voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

5.14 Eigenproperties of the system with AVR and short transmission line . . . . . . . 72

5.15 Parameters of the PSS2B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

5.16 Eigenproperties of the system with PSS, AVR and step-up transformer . . . . . . 75

197
List of Tables

7.1 Main parameters of the electrical installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

7.2 Main parameters of the hydraulic installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

7.3 Parameters of the control and regulation elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

7.4 Eigenvalues of the electrical system considering the regular scenario . . . . . . 94

7.5 Eigenvalues of the electrical system considering the intermediate scenario . . . 95

7.6 Eigenvalues of the electrical system considering the critical scenario . . . . . . 95

7.7 Evolution of the local mode with the PSS gain, considering the critical scenario 97

7.8 Eigenvalues of the electrical system considering the critical scenario, with PSS
(K s1 = 20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

7.9 Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

7.10 Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system with turbine governor,
without PSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

7.11 Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system with enhanced tuning of
turbine governor, without PSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

7.12 Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system with enhanced tuning of
turbine governor, with PSS (K s1 = 20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

7.13 Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system with initial tuning of
turbine governor (K p = 1.0 ; T f = 0.5 s ; Ti = 3.7 s ; Td = 1.0 s), with PSS (K s1 = 20) 108

8.1 Main parameters of the electrical installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

8.2 Main parameters of the hydraulic installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

8.3 Eigenproperties of the system with a single machine, without PSS . . . . . . . . 117

8.4 Eigenproperties of the system with a single machine, PSS with reduced gain . . 120

8.5 Local mode of one generating unit, with and without PSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

8.6 Electro-mechanical modes for two generating units, with and without PSS . . . 122

8.7 Electro-mechanical modes for three generating units, with and without PSS. . . 123

8.8 Electro-mechanical modes for four generating units, with and without PSS. . . 124

198
 List of Tables

8.9 Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydraulic system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

8.10 Most relevant eigenvalues of the hydroelectric system, with and without PSS. . 131

199
Curriculum Vitae
Pedro Camilo DE OLIVEIRA E SILVA
Ch. des Ramiers 18 Nationality: Brazilian
CH-1022 Chavannes-près-Renens Date of birth: June 1, 1984
Switzerland Marital status: Single
E-mail: [email protected]

EDUCATION

04/2012–09/2015 Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering

Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland

09/2007–02/2009 M.Sc. in Electrical Engineering

Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland

04/2002–12/2006 Diploma in Electrical Engineering

Federal University of Itajubá (UNIFEI), Brazil

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE

04/2012–09/2015 Teaching and Research Assistant

Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
 Development of detailed mathematical models for a novel small-
signal stability tool (in SIMSEN) applied to hydroelectric systems.
Study of transients in hydroelectric power plants and power grids.
 Supervision of two Master projects. Teaching assistant in the courses
“Electromechanical Energy Conversion”, “Electrical Machines”,
“Transients of Electrical Machines” and “laboratory of Electrical
Machines”.

04/2011–03/2012 Tendering Engineer

Alstom Renewable Ltd, Brazil
 Responsible for technical tendering of speed governing systems, and
for electro-hydraulic drives for hydropower plants lifting and
hydromechanical equipment.

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09/2009–03/2011 R&D and Projects Engineer
Alstom Renewable Ltd, Brazil
 Responsible for the implementation of the standard IEC61850 for
hydropower plants control systems, together with a multidisciplinary
and multicultural team.
 Responsible for dealing with electrical and mechanical ancillary
systems for Foz do Chapecó hydropower plant project (855 MW), in
Brazil.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

Portuguese: Mother tongue.

English: Fluent reading, writing and speaking.
French: Fluent reading, writing and speaking.
Spanish: Fair reading, writing and speaking.
German: Basic knowledge.

COMPUTER SKILLS

Technical: Matlab, SIMSEN, language C.

Office tools: MS Office, MS Visio, LaTeX2ε, HTML.

PUBLICATIONS

P.C.O. Silva, S. Alligné, P. Allenbach, C. Nicolet, B. Kawkabani. “A Fully Modular Tool for
Small-Signal Stability Analysis of Hydroelectric Systems”. In 2014 International Conference
on Electrical Machines (ICEM), (Berlin, Germany, Sept. 2014), pp. 1697–1703.

S. Alligné, P.C.O. Silva, A. Béguin, B. Kawkabani, P. Allenbach, C. Nicolet, F. Avellan.

“Forced Response Analysis of Hydroelectric Systems”. IOP Conference Series: Earth and
Environmental Science vol. 22, issue 4 (Dec. 2014).

P.C.O. Silva, B. Kawkabani, S. Alligné, C. Nicolet, J.-J. Simond, F. Avellan. “Stability Study
on Hydroelectric Production Site Using Eigenvalues Analysis Method”. Journal of Energy and
Power Engineering vol. 6, (June 2012), pp. 940–948.

P.C.O. Silva, B. Kawkabani, S. Alligné, C. Nicolet, J.-J. Simond, F. Avellan. “Stability Study
of a Complete Hydroelectric Production Site by Eigenvalues Analysis Method Based on Phase
Variables”. In 2010 International Conference on Electrical Machines (ICEM), (Rome, Italy,
Sept. 2010).

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