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C H A P T E R 05
Floodwater Damage to Structures
The extent of damage to structures that come in contact with floodwaters
depends on the depth of the water in and around the structure, the length of time of
inundation, the toxic extent of contaminants in floodwaters, and how rapidly the
water is moving. Both static (little or no water movement) and dynamic (rapidly
flowing water) forces are often at play.
In a static environment, water attacks and compromises the integrity of
every part of a structure, particularly the wood foundation pilings, structural
beams, carpets, wood floors, cabinetry, mechanical systems, utilities, and walls.
Most damage to homes is sustained in the first four feet above the first floor.
Within this space are located the above structural components and household
furnishings. Floods that rise and recede quickly because less damage than water
that sits for long periods. In these types of floods, the carpets, floors and drywall
can be replaced, other components dried out, and the remainder of the structure is
likely sound.
Floodwaters that fill homes and other structures for weeks typically result in
totally ruining interiors, i.e., replacing all of the components listed in the above
paragraph. The economic decision is whether to demolish the structure and start
over or repair what remains.
The dynamic forces of rapidly moving floodwater add to the above scenario.
As stated earlier, water flowing around and within a structure can exert great
pressure on structural surfaces (e.g., water flowing at 10 mph exerts the same
pressure as wind gusts of 270 mph), often causing further damage, even failure.
Structural Alternatives for Flood Control/Proofing
Structural alternatives for flood control/proofing include physical changes
to the river environment and adjacent surroundings. For ease of discussion, the
flood control/proofing of structures is divided between those in the floodplain, the
floodway, and river channel.

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
 1
Flood Control/Proofing Of Structures for FLOODPLAIN
The floodplain encompasses all the land at or below the 100-
year flood elevation, but exclusive of the floodway and river
channel. Structural alternatives for the floodplain may appear
to be remote from the river, but are subject to floodwaters on occasion.

1.1 FLOOD PROOFING ALTERNATIVES

Flood-proofing may involve changes to the structures themselves or changes
to the surroundings while leaving the structures alone. Structural changes include
relocation, elevation, and encapsulation/waterproofing. Changes to the
surroundings may include flow diversion and the construction of dikes or levees.

 Relocate / Move to higher ground

Structural Measure
Relocation involves either physically moving the structure in the floodplain
to ground with an elevation above the 100-year flood level, or demolishing the
structure and rebuilding a similar structure above the 100-year flood level.
Moving a structure requires that the structure be in sound condition to be jacked
up and transported to higher ground. This is a very expensive alternative and one
not used very often.
Impact on Flood Control
Since the alternative removes an obstruction to flood flow in the floodplain
during the flooding event, the impact has either negligible impact or a positive
impact, depending on the footprint of the structure removed. It also means there is
no longer a structure in the flood plain needing protection, so other flood or
erosion control measures such as levees or riprap may also be removed. This in
turn may allow the river greater latitude during floods and may reduce flood hazard
up and down the river.
Impact on River Process
Relocation of structures out of the floodplain would benefit river
processes. River channel dynamics require the ability of systems to remain
connected with the floodplain, an area that receives the floodwaters of the river at
high flows. In the Dungeness River, the majority of sediment is transported during
flood flows (Bountry et al 2002). Levees that have been constructed to protect
structures constrict the flow of the river, and do not allow connection to the
floodplain or to side channels that convey floodwaters. By removing human made
Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//
Flood Mitigation & Management.
structures from the floodplain, including the levees and other structures that are
intended to protect human property from flooding, uninhibited use of these areas
would be re-established and the natural migration of the river would be more
likely to occur in the channel migration zone. River bends can and do migrate
across the floodplain over time (Bountry et al 2002). The removal of structures
from the floodplain would allow natural river processes to occur without causing
damage, or risk of damage to human made structures.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Removing structures from the floodplain would result in many indirect
effects on fish habitat. In a general sense, the protection measures used to prevent
damage to human-made structures in the floodplain often restrict the natural
migration of the river, reduce the ability of the river to handle flood flows, and
disrupt the natural sediment transport processes that occur within a river system.
The effect of bank hardening structures and levees used to protect property
usually results in higher velocities in channels and lower levels of habitat
complexity for fish and other aquatic species.
These structures can also affect riparian vegetation development, spawning
substrate, and pool frequency. Relocation of structures out of the floodplain, and
the removal of hardened protection measures for those structures, would allow the
natural development and use of the floodplain, and allow a more natural
distribution of sediment throughout the river system, and would improve fish
habitat.
 Elevation of Existing Structure
The structure can be elevated onto either a new pad foundation or onto
piles.
Structural Measures
PAD FOUNDATION
 Elevating a structure onto a pad foundation can be done by building the pad
adjacent to the structure and relocating the structure (jack-up and transport)
to the pad, or jacking up structure and filling in under the elevated structure.
PILE FOUNDATION
 Elevating a structure onto piles can be done by installing the piles adjacent
to the structure and relocating the structure (jack-up and transport) to the
piles, or jacking up structure and drilling piles under the elevated structure,
then lowering the structure onto the piles.
Impact on Flood Control
The impact of the flood control depends on the size of the pad relative to the
original foundation of the structure. If the pad is similar in size to the original

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
foundation of the structure, the pad will not change the impacts on flood control.
If the pad is larger than the original structure foundation, the pad may restrict
flood flow some small percentage and negatively impact flood control by elevating
the flood elevation upstream. Elevating a structure onto piles can be done by
installing the piles adjacent to the structure and relocating the structure (jack-up
and transport) to the piles, or jacking up structure and drilling piles under the
elevated structure, then lowering the structure onto the piles.
Impact on River Process
Elevating structures above the floodplain would have mixed effects on river
processes depending on the structural approach used. An elevated pad foundation
would not offer direct improvement to river processes because the structure would
still disrupt the natural use of the floodplain. The removal of levees that may
occur with the elevation of structures would offer some improvement to river
process function. An elevated pile foundation would allow for some improvement
to river process function in that the floodwaters would be able to flow through and
around the piles, which would cause less overall disturbance to natural floodplain
processes.
The indirect effects of this alternative measure would be the same as those
for the pile foundation. If protection measures such as levees could be removed as
a result of the elevation of the structure, than natural river process function would
likely improve.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Elevation of structures above the floodplain is unlikely to have direct effects
on fish habitat. However, if flood protection measures, such as levees, can be
removed as an indirect result of structure elevation, the similar benefits to fish
habitat could occur as those described in Section 1.1. However, since the structure
will remain in the floodplain, it is unlikely that the complete removal of levees
would be possible to the extent that would occur if the structures were removed
from the floodplain.
 Encapsulate/Waterproof below Flood Level

Structural Measure
This alternative involves either installing watertight doors and windows in
the structure below the 100-year flood elevation or strengthening and wrapping
that portion of the structure in waterproof film.
Impact on Flood Control
Waterproofing structures within the floodplain will have no direct effects on
the frequency or duration of flooding. This measure will decrease the risk of
Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//
Flood Mitigation & Management.
potential damage to property. The impact depends on the size of the
encapsulation material relative to the original foundation of the structure. If the
structure is just wrapped in a waterproof film material and results in a section
similar in size to the original foundation of the structure, this alternative will not
change the impacts on flood control. If the encapsulation results in a section larger
than the original structure foundation, it may restrict flood flow some small
percentage and negatively impact flood control by elevating the flood waters
upstream
Impact on River Process
Waterproofing structures below the flood level would have no direct
improvements on river processes. The structures would remain in the floodplain,
and there would be no increase in the ability of the floodplain to dissipate
floodwaters. The protection provided to structures from waterproofing measures is
unlikely to allow complete removal of protection measures such as levees. If the
levees and other flood protection measures remain in place, the indirect benefits to
river process function from waterproofing structures are likely to be less than the
potential indirect benefits from structure elevation, and much less than those from
the removal of structures from the floodplain.
Impact on Fish Habitat
There would be no effects on fish habitat from waterproofing existing structures
within the floodplain.

 1.2 Levee/Floodwall/Berm/Dike around Foundation

Structural Measure
This alternative involves constructing a levee or floodwall around the
foundation of the structure. The protection can be either temporary or permanent
and typically extend up to the 100-year flood elevation.
A levee typically consists of a trapezoidal-shaped section of earth-material
with a plant, concrete-block, or riprap scour protection facing.
A floodwall is typically a vertical wall constructed of man-made material.
A levee or floodwall is usually with a few feet of the structure foundation.
Impact on Flood Control
Levees, floodwalls, berms, and dikes all provide flood control to structures
inside the barriers by raising the height to which the water has to rise before
spilling into the structure area. These measures provide protection to one structure
or set of structures, but may be increasing the risk to other structures by occupying
space on the floodplain. The barriers also may increase the potential damage to
Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//
Flood Mitigation & Management.
the very structures they are protecting if the barrier should fail. In the event that
one of the barriers fails, the resultant flood waters inundate the surrounding area
to a much greater extent than would have occurred without the water height
provided by the barrier holding back the water.
Impact on River Process
Levees, floodwalls, berms, and dikes all have similar impacts on river
processes. These structures would be used to surround a structure on the
floodplain and prevent floodwaters from damaging the structure. However,
additional floodplain space would be occupied by the levees or other protection
structures, so the ability of the floodplain to process floodwater would be reduced.
The disconnection of the river from a larger part of the floodplain would have a
negative effect on the development of natural river processes.
Impact on Fish Habitat
The construction of levees, floodwalls, berms, and dikes generally has a
negative effect on fish habitat. The occupation of the floodplain by structures and
protective levees does not allow for natural migration of the channel across the
floodplain. The need to protect these structures leads to channelization of the river
to try to “control” the flow and keep the channel in one place. Channelization
tends to increase water velocity, remove backwater habitat, reduce recruitment, and
reduce habitat complexity.
1.3 Divert Flow: Off-stream Detention Pond

Structural Measure
This alternative involves constructing a detention pond on the floodplain or
beyond, but away from the floodway, and cutting a channel to it. Flood flow is
channeled to the detention pond when the flood level reaches a specified
elevation, but less than the 100-year flood.
Impact on Flood Control
During a flood, floodwaters are diverted to the detention pond and impacts
downstream are improved. The detention pond stores some of the flood water
lessens the amount water the river system has to carry.
Impact on River Process
Creation of an artificial off-stream detention pond could alter river processes
by reducing the level of flow downstream from the pond. Reduction of flows
would reduce the sediment transport capacity in downstream reaches. Reduction
of sediment transport could lead to channel aggradation in downstream reaches,
and deposition of fine sediment. Additionally, diversion of flow into an off-stream

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
detention pond includes the risk of more river flow than anticipated entering the
pond, and the potential for river channel avulsion.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Creation of an off-stream detention pond could provide temporary off-
channel habitat for salmonids during peak flows. Over wintering habitat has been
shown to have benefits on growth to maturity for coho salmon and other
salmonids. Those juvenile fish that overwinter in off-channel habitat achieve
greater size-at-age than those fish that overwinter in the mainstem channels.
However, the connection between the off-channel pond and the mainstem would
need to be carefully constructed to maintain connection in order to prevent
stranding of juvenile fish.

Abandoned channel restoration / split channel

Structural Measure
This alternative involves constructing a channel from the existing river
channel to an abandoned or less-used river channel. This alternative is available
only in meandering and braided sections of the river. It may require some further
excavation/dredging of the previously abandoned channel to accommodate flood
volumes.
Impact on Flood Control
During a flood, floodwaters are diverted to the abandoned channel and
impacts downstream are improved. The abandoned channel stores some of the
flood water and lessens the amount of water the river system has to carry. In
effect, this diversion would increase the flood conveyance of the main stem, and
allow flood waters to recede gradually as they returned from side channels or
abandoned channels to the main channel, or percolated into the groundwater.
Impact on River Process
Reconnecting an abandoned channel to the mainstem channel could have
various effects on river process, depending on the current status of the mainstem
channel. If the mainstem channel has been extensively affected by human efforts
to channelize the river through diking and bank hardening techniques such as
riprap, reconnection with an abandoned channel may allow the river system to
regain more of its natural sinuosity and allow the dissipation of excess energy that
had been created by channelization. Identifying areas with existing human-made
barriers would be beneficial in selecting sites for reconnection with abandoned
channels and other off-channel habitats.

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
 Diversion of flow into a side channel, abandoned channel, or newly created
channel can have a variety of effects on river processes. Naturally, new river
channels are often created by avulsions or meander bend cut-offs. The
incorporation of deflectors or wood structures to divert flows at high water may
increase the rate of creation of new channels that would have occurred naturally,
only at a slower pace. LWD often plays a role in channel avulsions and diversion
of flows to side channels during peak events. If there is a lack of LWD in the river
system, artificial placement of log jams or other structures may be necessary to
maintain channel diversity. However, the artificial diversion of high flows could
alter the channel forming processes that occur during high flow events be
reducing the amount of flow in the main channel. The main work of sediment
transport occurs during high flow events, and if those flows are diverted into other
channels, sediment may begin to aggrade in the main channel.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Reconnection of the main stem with abandoned channels, or side channels,
could provide important rearing habitat for coho and Chinook salmon and for
other salmonids. Off-channel habitats can provide refuge from high flows in
winter as well as thermal refuge in summer, as long as they remain connected to
the main channel. Overwintering in off-channel areas can increase the growth to
maturity for salmonids such as coho and chinook. Those juvenile fish that
overwinter in off channel habitat achieve greater size-at-age than those fish that
overwinter in the mainstem channels.

2
Flood Control/Proofing Of Structures for F L O O D W A Y
The floodway includes the active channel and the river
banks up to the level of bank full flow. The floodway is the
portion of the land adjacent to the river that enables flood
waters to pass without increasing flood depths upstream, but is exclusive of the
river channel. A floodway usually has a small bank either cut by previous floods
or a natural levee deposited by overflow of previous floodwaters.

 2.1 Reduce Bank Slope

Structural Measure
Bank reduction involves excavating or cutting the bank back at a gentler
slope than currently exists. The process usually includes replanting or surfacing
the bare bank slope with some form of scour protection.

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
Impact on Flood Control
Reducing bank slopes may increase the flood conveyance of the channel by
increasing the bankfull width of the channel. The reduced bank slope will increase
the surface area of the bankfull channel and therefore, the volume of the channel
at bankfull flow. If banks with reduced slopes have time to revegetate, bank
stability will likely increase and natural channel containment will occur. Water
velocity will decrease in areas that have vegetation, which increases channel
roughness. Reduced water velocities will further reduce the erosive force of the
water, but may also reduce the capacity of the channel to convey high flows
without over topping its banks. However, bank vegetation is likely to trap
sediment from high flows, and banks may build up further as a result of floods.
The long-term effectiveness of reducing bank slopes is a site-specific issue that is
difficult to generally predict.
Impact on River Process
Reduction of bank slopes will reduce the potential for erosion of river banks.
This reduction in erosion potential will have several effects including: reducing
delivery of sediment to the channel, reducing recruitment of large woody debris,
and reducing channel migration. If the channel is experiencing excessive erosion
and bank failure, reducing bank slopes may help to stabilize the banks to allow
them to re-vegetate. However, the natural process of erosion is vital to the dynamic
balance of river systems, and reducing bank slopes affects this process. Bank
erosion is the primary driver behind the delivery of LWD to river channels, and
without natural erosion, in-channel levels of LWD will decrease, reducing channel
complexity.
Impact on Fish Habitat
The reduction of bank slopes may have mixed effects on fish habitat. If a
stream is out of dynamic equilibrium and there is excessive erosion and
sedimentation of spawning gravel, a reduction in bank slopes may help to
decrease the level of fine sediment in the channel and benefit spawning habitat.
However, undercut banks are a primary source of cover for juvenile fish, including
salmonids. These fish generally hide under cover during the day to escape
predation and feed mostly after dark. Removing steep banks would eliminate this
important cover habitat.

 2.2 Reinforce Bank

Bank reinforcement involves adding material to the bank face to increase
the bank stability, protect the bank from river scour, or both.

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
Bioengineering
Bioengineering refers to the use of plants or planting to stabilize the bank
and increase its ability to resist scour by river and flood flows.
Structural Measures
Hydro seed: Hydro seeding includes various methods of applying a liquid
mixture of water, fertilizer, and plant seeds to the bank. Over time, the plants grow
and establish a mature root system. The plants provide a surface roughness to slow
flood flow. The plant roots entangle with the soil and increase the soil mass
resistance to scour.
Hand plant: Hand planting involves the insertion (planting) of saplings or
mature plants into the riverbank. An advantage of hand planting is that the plants
are immediately available to provide flow reduction and scour protection. Also, a
variety of plant sizes can be introduced at the same time.
Plant mats: Plant mats are blankets or meshes of natural or synthetic
material containing fertilizer and plant seeds. The mats are rolled onto the
riverbank and then anchored or stapled into the bank. Water can be sprayed onto
the mats to start the growing process or fluctuation in the river level can be used to
start the growth
Impact on Flood Control
Bioengineering in not likely to reduce the frequency or duration of flooding,
but may help prevent banks from failing and accelerated channel migration. These
measures are designed to stabilize banks without drastically increasing water
velocity, which could lead to channel down cutting or excessive erosion. Bank
stabilization will not control floods, but may help reduce property damage and
loss.
Impact on River Process
Bioengineering allows failing banks to be reinforced in a manner that is
more reflective of natural processes than traditional “hard” engineering practices.
The incorporation of organic materials into the design, as well as the use of
vegetation to increasingly stabilize the banks through time, provides a longer
lasting, more natural treatment that requires less long-term maintenance. The
organic materials mimic the natural inputs of the riparian environment, such as
LWD. Vegetation used to stabilize banks will increase in root strength over time,
and flood adapted species are likely to thrive in high flows. As vegetation
increases, channel roughness may increase and water velocity may decrease. This
effect is similar to the long-term effects from reduction in bank slope discussed in

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Bioengineering is intended to stabilize banks while also providing benefits
to fish. The materials used in bioengineering are generally the same materials,
such as LWD, that would naturally enter the river from the riparian corridor.
LWD provides cover and food resources, as discussed earlier, while also
providing backwater habitat to salmonids and other fish. Bioengineering
techniques can serve the dual purpose of stabilizing banks to protect property
along rivers and improving fish habitat.

 Gabions

Structural Measure
Gabions are wire-mesh baskets filled with locally available stones, usually in
the 2-inch to 6-inch range. The baskets come in block or mattress (flat) form. The
former can be stacked to form a stepped wall. The latter can be laid on gentler
slopes to form a surface covering of scour protection.

Fig.: Gabions for Protection Against Flood.

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
Impact on Flood Control
Like bioengineering, gabions will not affect the frequency or duration of
flooding, but may provide protection to streamside property and prevent bank
erosion. However, unless combined with vegetation to re-enforce the strength of
the structure, these rock filled baskets will deteriorate over time, and will need to
be replaced to maintain their level of function.
Impact on River Process
Gabions are often used to protect banks in areas where erosion and channel
migration are excessive, or to protect property on the river banks. These hard
structures can prevent erosion and decrease the delivery of fine sediment to
downstream habitat. Gabions are designed to deflect river flow and provide an
erosion resistant armor for banks. The deflection of flow may redirect erosion to
other areas in the river channel. Gabions, like berms and dikes, may also increase
the velocity water flow and decrease backwater habitat available for fish.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Gabion structures do not provide direct benefits for fish habitat, but may
serve as a source for spawning gravel if designed to do so. There is little usable
cover provided by most gabion structures, and although invertebrates may
colonize the rocks, the access to these invertebrates is limited for most fish
species. If combined with bioengineering practices, the use of gabions may
provide eventual benefits for fish habitat in the form of spawning gravels released
as the gabion fails through time.

Concrete-block Mattresses

Structural Measure
Concrete-block mattresses consist of concrete blocks about 12 inches by 12
inches by 9 inches laced together with synthetic or steel rope. The blocks are
interlaced to for a flexible pad or mat of blocks that resist erosive flood forces.
The blocks come in closed and open (holes through them) form.
The latter form allows soil to be placed in the openings and plants to be
grown in the soil, thereby providing for a softer visual impact. The mattresses are
placed on sloping banks and anchored into the underlying soil.
Impact on Flood Control
The concrete-block mattresses armor the floodway bank and prevent erosion
of the floodway bank or surface.
Impact on River Processes

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
 Bank hardening structures, such as concrete-block mattresses would affect
river processes by restricting the natural migration of the channel. This restriction
would reduce the overall sinuosity of the channel over time and prevent the
creation of meander bends and additional off-channel habitat. The mattresses
would channelize the flow and could increase velocity by decreasing bank
roughness. At the location of the structures, bank erosion would be decreased or
eliminated, but further downstream, increases in flow velocity may increase
downstream erosion. Localized decreases in bank erosion may decrease sediment
and LWD levels downstream. However, if there are downstream increases in flow
velocity, sediment and would input could increase in those areas.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Concrete-block mattresses would have a negative effect on fish habitat.
Hardening of the bank would remove the capacity for under-cut banks, which
provide cover for fish species. Concrete block mattresses do not provide cover
for fish species, and remove the potential for additional LWD recruitment through
bank erosion at the site of the treatment. The reduction in roughness at the bank is
likely to increase local velocities which would remove feeding and resting
opportunities for juvenile fish, and increase the difficulty of upstream migration
for adult salmon.

 Riprap/Geotextiles

Structural Measure
Riprap is an exposed layer of well graded stone or rock placed on a sloping
bank face to resist erosive flood waters. A synthetic geotextile is usually placed
between the riprap and underlying soil to act as a filter, thereby preventing the
piping of soil through the rock and relieving hydrostatic pressure

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
 Fig. : Riprap for Protection Against Flood.

Impact on Flood Control

Riprap has been commonly used to protect roads and other structures from
erosion and channel migration. These measures do not alter the frequency or
duration of flooding, but provide longer-term protection to structures or property
on river banks. Riprap may also increase channel conveyance if water velocity or
bank heights are increased.

Impact on River Process

Riprap has similar effects on river processes as gabions, however, riprap is
likely to affect river processes for a longer time period, and will not provide
spawning size gravel to downstream fish habitat. Riprap may also increase the
channel velocity more than gabions depending on the design and channel
roughness. Increased channel velocities, as discussed earlier are likely to cause
increased erosion downstream and may cause channel down cutting. Riprap re-
enforced banks are highly unlikely to deliver LWD to channels or allow for
natural channel migration. The artificial constriction of the river is likely to cause
changes in the dynamic equilibrium downstream.
Impact on Fish Habitat
The reduction in quality fish habitat due to the use of riprap has been
documented. The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife limits the
installation of riprap in areas where the objective is to improve fish habitat. There
Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//
Flood Mitigation & Management.
is little habitat value in the use of large boulders as riprap alone, but these
measures can be combined with bioengineering techniques to provide habitat
elements that are beneficial to fish species.
2.4 Levee and Dike Setback
Structural Measure
Some levees have been placed at the edge of the river’s bankfull zone,
cutting off side channels and reducing the river’s floodway to a narrow zone.
Levees and dikes can be set back to some higher point, perhaps as far back as the
prehistoric floodplain line, or can at least be set back to allow a wider river
meander and channel zone within the flood plain.
Impact on Flood Control
Moving these levees back into the floodplain allows the river more room to
meander and more volume capacity during high flows. Setting back levees leaves
the lands between the new levee location and the old one fully susceptible to
flooding, but does a better job of protecting structures behind the levee because
the river is less likely to overtop the levee, even in very large flood events.
Impact on River Process
Levee setback is one of the most effective ways to restore river process. It
allows the river more of its historic channel and floodway, often allows access to
side channels during both high and lower flows, and allows the river its natural
meander zone. All these measures improve the river’s ability to carry large
volumes of water during flood events and to re-establish a more natural riparian
community.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Especially where levee setback includes renewed access to side channels,
fish habitat is markedly improved by the measure. Since the river can spread out
more during floods, there is less scouring in areas of high velocity and less
aggradation upriver of artificially narrowed areas. Natural channel migration
allows the creation of meanders that may contain lateral scour pools, and may
eventually form oxbows or other backwater habitat that is used for rearing of
juvenile salmonids such as chinook and coho salmon.

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
 3 RIVER CHANNEL

3.1 Detention Pond/Reservoirs

Structural Measure
A detention pond is created by constructing a weir or low dam across the
river thereby impounding a portion of the floodwaters, and possibly excavating
the river bank to widen the river immediately upstream of the weir or dam. Flood
flow is regulated by the height of the weir or dam, and the width and elevation of
the outlet.
Impact on Flood Control
Detention structures in river channels have been used in flood control
nationwide. These structures can effectively ameliorate high flows and release
water slowly downstream after flood events.
Impacts may include reduction in river flow downstream, slowing of the river flow
velocities in the detention pond, and inundation of more of the river valley
upstream.
Impact on River Process
Detention ponds or reservoirs disrupt the natural flow of rivers through the
channel. The dam structure used to create the pond prevents the downstream
movement of water, sediment, and wood, as would occur in a natural river system.
The effects of dams on river process are extensive and well documented. The
disruption of river flow creates imbalance in the dynamic equilibrium of the
system and significantly alters the hydraulic processes of erosion and deposition,
which changes the sediment transport regime. Water flow below the detention
pond or reservoir is likely to be much lower than above the dam, as water is held
back behind the dam. Dams used for flood control eliminate the natural high flows
that help to create the features of a natural channel. Changes in water temperature
can also be significant if water is released from the bottom of the dam. The
reservoir upstream of the dam will generally have little to no current, and will
collect all of the sediment and LWD that the river carries from higher in the
watershed. The channel below the dam will consequently be sediment and wood
starved, which could lead to higher rates of bank erosion downstream.

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
Impact on Fish Habitat
The creation of in-channel detention ponds or reservoirs can have serious
adverse effects on fish habitat. The disruption of river flow drastically alters the
habitat both upstream and downstream of the structure. Upstream of the structure,
lack of current, slow water, and warmer water temperatures may make the
reservoir marginal habitat for many fish species that are adapted to river systems.
Negotiating the detention structure may be difficult or impossible for many fish
species, depending on the level of fish passage. Downstream of the detention
structure, water velocities may be higher and erosion may increase due to changes
in river processes. There may be fewer pools available if the flow below the
structure is reduced. Channel forming high flows will be restricted, and the
channel is likely to lose habitat complexity through time. Additionally, the
structure will likely block LWD transport, which could lead to low levels of wood
in downstream reaches. Lower levels of LWD would reduce the amount of
available cover, channel complexity, and the available food resources for juvenile
fish.

3.2 Sediment Trap/Mining

Structural Measure
A sediment trap is constructed by excavating or dredging a depression in the
bottom of the river. The dimensions of the sediment trap are optimized by a
careful assessment of the sediment load in the river during a flood. The trap will
need to be mined (sediment removed) after each major flood event to be efficient.
The latter usually requires the construction of haul roads and an excavator pad
adjacent to the trap for cleaning out the trap.
Impact on Flood Control
In-channel sediment traps or gravel mining can be used to reduce the amount
of sediment in the channel and increase the channel volume and flood
conveyance. The removal of sediment may improve flood conveyance in the
short-term, but sediment transport processes will continue to bring sediment
downstream, and repeating the sediment removal is likely to be required.
Impact on River Process
Gravel mining within the river channel would significantly alter natural river
processes. The active removal of sediment from the channel will change channel
morphology, which will affect the interaction of water flow with the bed of the

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
channel. Removal of sediment from the river may cause a change in channel
gradient, which would cause further changes in gradient upstream and
downstream. If gradient is increased in one location, a “nick point” could form at
which the sudden increase in gradient causes the channel to re-adjust by head
ward erosion in the bottom of the channel. At the nick point, the water flow erodes
at the channel bed to a point upstream where the gradient stabilizes, or where the
substrate is resistant to erosion, such as a bedrock channel bottom.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Sediment traps or gravel mining can affect fish habitat in a variety of ways.
If large amounts of fine sediment are present in the channel due to an acute event
(versus a long-term process) than the removal of sediment may reduce the level of
fine sediment in the channel, and may improve spawning habitat for many fish
species. If the gravel mining removes spawning gravel from the river channel, the
effects on fish habitat are likely to be negative, as there will be a reduction in
available spawning habitat.

3.3 Anchor Logs

Structural Measure
Logs, with all limbs removed except the root wad, are placed at various
angles across the bottom of the river. Logs can even overlap. Each log is held in
place by a cable or chain wrapped around or through the log, and the cable or
chain is attached to an anchor buried under the log
Impact on Flood Control
Anchor logs will not prevent flooding, but may provide protection to eroding
banks or other sensitive areas that need protection from erosion. If the logs do
slow the water velocity significantly the total flood conveyance at the location of
the logs may be reduced. Anchored logs can create quiet pools in the river
channels. They can trap sediment which modifies the configuration of the river
channel(s).
Impact on River Process
Anchor logs place in the channel would likely have many of the same effects
on river processes as those placed along the banks. These measures would
generally increase the roughness of the channel, slow water velocity in local areas,
and may cause a scour pool to be formed where the flow interacts with the log.
Impact on Flood Control

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
 Anchor logs will not prevent flooding, but may provide protection to eroding
banks or other sensitive areas that need protection from erosion. If the logs do
slow the water velocity significantly the total flood conveyance at the location of
the logs may be reduced. – Anchored logs can create quiet pools in the river
channels. They can trap sediment which modifies the
Configuration of the river channel(s).
Impact on Fish Habitat
The effects of in-channel anchor logs on fish habitat are likely to be positive
as these structures are generally intended to mimic the natural function of wood in
streams. Anchor logs that extend out into the current mimic the function of LWD
that has fallen into the channel and extends out into the current. These structures
are likely to create scour pools where they contact the channel bed, and may
provide important cover elements and feeding areas for fish.

 3.4 Deflector Structures

Deflector structures are constructed to reroute water flow in the river.

Structural Measures
VANES
Vanes are vertical panels placed in the river channel to divert flow in a
prescribed direction. The panels are typically made of steel or concrete. They are
held in place by piles or by having the lower half of the panel buried in the river
bottom.
SPUR DIKES
Spur dikes are built to extend from the river bank into the river channel,
usually at an angle to the river flow. Spur dikes are usually constructed of rock;
but steel sheet-piles, concrete panels, and lines of closely spaced timber piles have
been used.
Impact on Flood Control
Spur dikes and vanes serve to redirect river flow, but do not change the
frequency, severity, or duration of floods. These structures can provide protection
to river side structures and property that could be at risk of flood damage, or
failure due to bank erosion.
Impact on River Process

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
 Deflector structures such as vanes and spur dikes provide erosion protection
to banks and divert flow away from sensitive areas. The structures extend out into
the current and force the water flow away from the bank. There may be additional
downstream affects from this flow redirection that could affect river processes.
Whenever water is redirected, the force of that water affects other areas within the
channel. The redirection of flow by spur dikes is unlikely to dissipate the flow
energy of the current. The re-directed flow may come into contact with banks
downstream, and the remaining energy may increase downstream erosion rates.
Vanes may allow more of the water to pass through the structure and are likely to
allow more energy to dissipate. The potential for downstream erosion problems
with vanes is less than that for spur dikes.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Spur dikes and vanes are unlikely to have significant benefits to fish habitat.
Spur dikes will redirect flow which may create scour pools on the opposite bank,
however, these pools may not be stable over time, and there may be negative
effects from sediment that is scoured and transported downstream. Vanes may
allow the creation of scour pools below the structure and may provide some
backwater habitat for fish, but over time, they are not likely to provide additional
cover or nutrient input due to the lack of vegetation associated with the structures.

 3.5 Channel/Bed Dredging

Structural Measure
Channel bed dredging involves dredging existing river channels to a deeper
elevation.
Impact on Flood Control
Channel dredging would increase the channel capacity and thereby, increase
the flood conveyance of the channel. This increase in capacity would likely reduce
the frequency, duration, and severity of flooding.
Impact on River Process
Removal of sediment from the channel bed is likely to alter the sediment
transport regime of the river.
Impact on Fish Habitat
Channel/bed dredging is likely to have negative effects on fish habitat due
to the severe disturbance to the channel bottom. Natural habitat features would be

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
destroyed, spawning gravels could be removed, and invertebrate communities
would be disturbed.

Methods of Increasing the Cross-sectional Area of the River

PRESENT EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

 Temporary F l o o d b a r r i e r s

In recent years the Environment Agency of U.K has used a range of

temporary or "demountable" flood barriers to provide additional protection to
flood-prone areas.

Lightweight sectional metal barriers are relatively inexpensive and can be

placed in various configurations and removed completely when waters recede.

Frame barriers consist of rigid frames holding an impermeable membrane

and use the weight of the floodwater itself to hold the barrier in place.
Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//
Flood Mitigation & Management.
Types:
Two types of temporary flood barriers has been introduced recently. They are:
i. Sectional Barrier
ii. Frame Barrier

(i)

(ii)

Fig. (i) Sectional Type Flood Barriers & (ii) Frame Type Flood Barriers

Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//

Flood Mitigation & Management.
Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.//
Flood Mitigation & Management.