2013

WATER SUPPLY,
SANITATION & FIRE
FIGHTING (ARC 209)
[for II Yr. B.Arch. Students]

LAKSHMANAN CT
Associate Professor
School of Architecture
SRM University
 ARC 209 WATER SUPPLY, SANITATION AND FIRE FIGHTING L T P C

3 0 0 3
PURPOSE
To create awareness about the importance of sanitation, domestic water supply and fire services

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Development of technical and practical knowledge in these services.

UNIT I Water Supply (12 hrs)

Demand of water for domestic, commercial, industrial and public utility purposes as per BIS standards. Per capita demand, leakage and
wastage of water and its preventive measures
Storage and Distribution of Water: Different methods of water distribution boosting water, gravity and pressure distribution by storage tanks
of individual buildings
System of water supply – continuous, intermittent, their advantages and disadvantages
Service connections, types and sizes of pipes, water supply fixture and installations, Special installation in multistoried buildings

UNIT II Drainage (12 hrs)

Principles of drainage, surface drainage combined and separate system of drainage, shape and sizes of drains and sewers, storm water
over flow chambers, methods of laying and construction of sewers
House drainage: traps – shapes, sizes, types, materials and function
Inspection chambers – sizes, and construction
Ventilation of house drainage – anti siphonage and vent pipes, single stack and double stack system
Types of fixtures and materials - sinks, baths, water closets, flushing cisterns, urinals, sinks etc
Septic tanks, Dispersion trench and soak pits

UNIT III Solid waste Disposal (5 hrs)

Properties of Solid Wastes : Physical and chemical composition of municipal solid wastes, waste generation rates
Management of Solid Wastes in India : Prevalent SWM practices and deficiencies : Storage of waste at source, segregation of wastes,
Primary collection of waste, transportation of waste, disposal of wastes
Disposal of Wastes - Sanitary landfilling, Composting, Incineration, Pyrolysis - advantages and limitations

UNIT IV Fire Fighting Services (12 hrs)

Behaviour of fire - Ignition, Ignitor, Combustible contents, causes of fire, Mechanism of fire spread in building and prevention – Fire safety
standards – Concepts in fire protection
High temperature effect and combustibility: High temperature effects and combustibility of building materials and structure – Fire resistance
of buildings – Classification of buildings based on occupancy – Fire fighting installation and requirements.
Passive and active fire precautions - Site planning and fire brigade access – Roof covering – Control of fire spread. Heat sensitive
detectors – Smoke detectors – Automatic water system.
Fire safety, fire & human behaviour - Means of escape, design and planning of escape halts and corridors to final exit. Psychological
aspects – concept of panic – domestic, Multiple occupancy and Hospital fires

UNIT V Exercise (4 hrs)

Simple exercises on water supply, fire fighting and sanitary layout of residential and public buildings
TOTAL 45 Hrs.
TEXTBOOK
1. S.C. Rangwala, Water supply and sanitary engineering, Charotar publishing house

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Charangith shah, Water supply and sanitary engineering, Galgotia publishers
2. A. Kamala & DL Kanth Rao, Environmental Engineering, Tata McGraw – Hill publishing Company Limited
3. Technical teachers Training Institute (Madras), Environmental Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill publishing Company Limited
4. Marrimuthu et al., Environmental Engineering, Pratheeba publishers
5. M.David Egan, Concepts in Building Fire Safety.
6. V.K.Jain, Fire Safety in Buildings.
7. E.G.Butcher, Smoke control in Fire-Safety Design.
8. National Building Code 2005
ALL ABOUT WATER

Water : The Fountain Head of Life

What is water ? The simple answer to this question is that water is the simplest chemical of kitchen.
Water is, in fact, natural most abundant and the most useful compound. For the growth and
development of life support system, it is absolutely essential to make water available in the acceptable
quantity, quality and at the required time and place.

Distribution of Water on Earth

Millions of years ago life evolved in water and water became a basic component of every living cell.
Although water covers over three quarters of the surface of the Earth, 97 per cent of this water resource
is the oceans and is salty. The glaciers and icecaps lock away another two per cent (Table-1). Even
less than one per cent is the fresh and usable water of lakes, ponds, rivers and ground-water.
Freshwater is, therefore, a treasure to protect and conserve. Freshwater is precious not only because
we need it to live, but also because only about three per cent of all the earth's water is directly usable.
Of this only about 0.26 per cent is available as freshwater for people to use. Water is used for various
purposes like agriculture, livestock, industry and power generation and municipal and rural water
supplier

Necessity of Water
Since the birth of river basin civilizations, human societies have been developing technologies for
capturing, storing, cleaning and redirecting fresh-water resources to meet their needs. Different kinds of
structural solutions to supply irrigation water in fields, control of flood and generation of power and
electricity have been in operation in our country since independence.

Humanity today has been trying hard to reach the twin goals of human and ecological security. The
former includes easy access to safe domestic water, food and environmental security with effective
protection from flood and drought. The
latter implies the long-term protection of the goods and services that we get from nature and the
preservation of the delicate life-support system.

However, water is required essentially for the satisfactory performance of the following.
(i) Various life process for sustenance
(ii) Circulatory fluid.
(iii) Carrier of nourishing food and micronutrients
(iv) Removal of product of wastes.
All sources of water supply may be classified as
SURFACE SOURCES
 Rivers
o Perennial rivers
o Non-perennial rivers
 Lakes and streams
  Impounding or storage reservoirs
 Seas
 Stored rain water in cisterns
 Ponds
 Waste water reclamation

GROUND OR SUBSURFACE SOURCES

 Springs
o Artesian springs
o Gravity springs
o Surface springs
 Surface springs
 Infiltration galleries
 Porous pipe galleries
 Infiltration wells
 Wells
o As per aquifer tapped
 Shallow wells
 Deep or pressure wells
o As per the conditions of flow
 Gravity wells
 Artesian wells
o As per the type of construction
 Dug wells or percolation wells
 Driven wells
 Tube wells or drilled wells
 Sunk wells
QUANTITY OF WATER

Water Supply for Residences

A minimum of 70 to 100 litres per head per day may be considered adequate for domestic needs of
urban communities, apart from non-domestic needs as flushing requirements. As a general rule the
following rates per capita per day may be considered minimum for domestic and non-domestic needs:

a) For communities with population upto 20000 and

without flushing system:

1) water supply through standpost 40 lphd, Min

2) water supply through house service connection 70 to 100 lphd

b) For communities with 100 to 150 lphd

population 20000 to 100000 together with full
flushing system

c) For communities with 150 to 200 lphd

population above 100000 together with full flushing
system

NOTE— The value of water supply given as 150 to 200 litres per head per day maybe reduced to 135
litres per head per day for houses for Lower Income Groups (LIG) and Economically Weaker Section of
Society(EWS),depending upon prevailing conditions.

Out of the 150 to 200 litres per head per day, 45 litres per head per day may be taken for flushing
requirements and the remaining quantity for other domestic purpos
Water requirements for different types of buildings

Sl. No Type of Buildng Consumption (litres/day)

i) Factories with bath rooms 45 per head
ii) Factories without bath rooms 30 per head
iii) Hospital (including laundry):
a) Number of beds not exceeding 100 340 per head
b) Number of beds exceeding 100 450 per head
iv) Nurses’ homes and medical quarters 135 per head
v) Hostels 135 per head
vi) Hotel (up to 4 star) 180 per head
vii) Hotel (5 star and above) 320 per head
viii) Offices 45 per head
ix) Restaurants 70 per seat
x) Cinemas, concert halls and theaters 15 per seat
xi) Schools
a) Day schools 45 per head
b) Boarding schools 135 per head

In addition, water demand of visitors to these building is considered as 15 LPCD

Variation in consumption of water

Daily variation: the rate of demand may vary from day to day. This may be due to the change in climatic
conditions and also due to holidays and days of special functions. On a rainy day, the consumption will
be much less when compared to that on a dry and hot day. The rate of demand on Sundays and other
holidays will be more due to leisurely bathing, washing of clothes and house etc.

Hourly variation: the rate of demand over a period of 24 hours varies according to the hour of the day.
The consumption holidays begins generally from 8 am and it is earlier at about from 6 am on weekdays.
The peak flow hours may be at 8 to 10 am and minimum flow hours may be midnight to 4 am.

WASTAGE OF WATER
Water saving practices and their potential
Water usage for applications such as flushing, bathing and washing is as high as 93% of water demand
in any building. However, measures can be adopted to reduce this demand through use of water
efficient practices and devices (efficient plumbing fixtures). These would result in significant saving of
water and contribute towards protection of the environment.

Some of the common practices and devices that can save water are covered below:

1. Monitoring water use: Use of water meter conforming to ISO standards should be installed at the inlet
point of water uptake and at the discharge point to monitor the daily water consumption. This would
also enable the user to identify if there are any points of leakages.

2. Use of water saving devices/ fixtures: About 40% of all water used indoors is in the bathroom and
toilets and more than 10% of that used is in the kitchen. The conventional fixtures used in toilets use
water at the rate of 12-15 litres per flush. In normal scenario, the taps and showerheads in buildings
consume water at the rate of 20 litres of water per minute. The flow rates of these fixtures depend on
the pressure at which these are operated. However there exists the opportunity to lower the
consumption through the use of following efficient fixtures:

_ Low flow flushing systems: Water consumption is more for flushing applications in any building. Use
of more efficient water saving toilets having dual flush system can result in a saving of atleast 50% of
water. Dual flush systems can be installed in order to allow different volume of water for flushing liquids
and solids. To facilitate efficient cleaning at low volume, it is possible to install suitable water closets.

_ Sensor based fixtures: Sensors based fixtures functions only in the presence of user. Various types of
sensor based technologies are magic eye sensor for urinals, solenoid self-operating valves etc. Infrared
and ultrasonic sensors discharge a set amount of water only when the taps are being used thus
resulting in water saving as compared to manually operated valves. In addition to its advantage in
reducing water consumption, sensor-operated taps also result in better hygiene particularly in a public
place.

_ Urinals: By using automated flushing urinals usage of water is very high. By replacing these with
sensor-based urinals such as magic eye sensor, the water use is reduced to 0.4 litres per flush. In
place of conventional urinals, if the low flow urinals are used, water saving amounts to 3 litres per flush.
_ Waterless urinals: Waterless urinals are an efficient technique to save water. The system works
without any water but with the use of biodegradable liquid in the cartridge fitted at the bottom of the
urinal. Each cartridge is adequate for 7000 uses.

_ Water taps: A normal tap works at a flow rate as high as 20 lpm. Use of low flow faucets along with
other water saving devices such as auto control valves, pressure reducing devices, aerators and
pressure inhibitors for constant flow, magic eye solenoid valve, self operating valves can result in 25 –
50% of water savings.

_ Showerheads: In a conventional shower, water is delivered at the rate of 20 litres of water per minute
at a pressure of 60 psi. A significant reduction in water consumption is possible through use of low flow
shower which results in a flow of 7.5 lpm at design pressure of 80 psi. Flow restrictors and temporary
cut-off valves can further save water. In addition to the use of low water consuming fixtures, it is also
possible to introduce other features such as aerators, use of spray nozzles, automatic shut-off nozzles
and pressure reducing valves along with these fixtures.

_ Tap aerators: Tap aerators can be effective by facilitating cleaning through increasing the pressure at
which the water is delivered even at low flow rates. Installation of flow regulators can be done where the
aerators cannot be installed.

_ Auto control valves: Automatic shut-off valves can be used to control the flow of water for a preset
time limit and with use, which is linked to the release of the lever or handle.

_ Pressure reducing device: The reducers can be used to control the pressure in the water line, which
will affect the discharge rate and also to maintain uniform flow at different levels. A pressure reduction
device can be installed when the pressure in the line exceeds 50-60 psi. It is observed that a reduction
of pressure from 80 to 65 and 50 psi can result in a reduction of water flow of 10% and 25%,
respectively.

Other appliances

Water efficient washing machines

One of the most effective water saving mechanisms in clothes washers is a horizontal- axis tub or
drum. These kind of machines can clean as many clothes as comparable vertical axis or ‘agitator
washers’, but with less water. Manufacturers estimates of water saving obtainable with horizontal axis
washing machines range from one-third to one-half the water and energy used by conventional, vertical
axis machines. These types of machines can be used in big hotels etc.

Dual pipe plumbing

Introduction of dual pipe in the buildings for use of water with different water quality namely ground
water with high hardness, municipal supply water, treated soft water and recycled water can result in
optimal use of water for different applications thus saving on the high quality water. Installation
of dual pipe plumbing for using recycled water / rain water can save the potable water from municipal
supply or ground water.
There can be two lines, one supplying fresh water for drinking, cooking and bathing etc and other for
supply of recycled water for flushing, landscape irrigation, car washing, thermal conditioning etc. This
result in saving of more than one-third of fresh water demand and life of existing sewerage can be
improved and also promotes decentralized treatment system. This system needs space for
establishment and initial investment and retrofitting.
Drinking water standards for packaged and non packaged water are as follow:

WATER DISTRIBUTION
Sr. Impurity Non Packaged Packaged
No. IS desirable USEPA WHO IS desirable
limit (As per Maximum guideline limit (As per IS
IS 10500) contaminant value 14543:2004)
level
1 Colour, Hazen units 5 NA 15 true colour 2
units
2 Odour Agreeable 3 threshold Not offensive Agreeable
odour number
3 Taste Agreeable NA Not offensive Agreeable
4 Turbidity, NTU 5 5 5 2
5 Dissolved solids, mg/l 500 500 1000 500
6 Total hardness, mg/l (as 300 NA 500 NA
CaCO3)
7 Ca, mg/l 75 -- -- 75
8 Mg, mg/l -- -- -- 30
9 PH value 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5
10 Manganese, mg/l 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.1
11 Chlorides, mg/l 250 250 250 200
12 Sulphates, mg/l 200 250 400 200
13 Nitrates, mg/l 45 10 10 45
14 Fluorides, mg/l 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
15 Phenolic compounds, mg/l 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
16 Mercury, mg/l 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.001
17 Cadmium, mg/l 0.01 0.005 0.003 0.01
18 Selenium, mg/l 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01
19 Arsenic, mg/l 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.05
20 Cyanide, mg/l 0.05 0.2 0.1 Absent
21 Lead, mg/l 0.05 0.015 0.01 0.01
22 Zinc, mg/l 5 5 3 5
23 Anionic detergents, mg/l 0.2 -- 0.2 0.2
24 Total pesticides, mg/l 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
25 Total bacterial count, CFU/ ml -- Not more than -- 100 at 200C
500 20 at 370C
26 Total coliform per 100 ml Absent Absent Absent Absent
(including Fecal coliform & E-
coli)
27 Viruses (Enteric) Absent Absent Absent Absent
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN SMALL TOWNS

REQUIREMENTS OF DISTRIBUTION

The following requirements are essential for a good distribution system

1. The system of distributing water efficiently to the customers in known as distribution system The
system should be cheap
2. The system should meet the fire demand
3. The system should be water tight to avoid any loss due to leakage
4. There should be no chances of pollution of water in the system. Hence water pipe lines should be
kept away and above the sewerage and drainage lines
5. The pipe lines should not get busted to avoid failure of the system
6. The system should maintain the desired pressure in the pipes so that consumers may get ample
water at all times
7. It should be easy to operate and maintain
8. Degree of purity of water should be maintained
9. The system should be reliable i.e. if one pipe fails, the supply should reach the area from the other
pipe line
10. The system should not create any obstruction to the traffic during repair work
11. The system should serve all places in the city
12. The water should reach the consumer with required rate of flow, which requires maintaining proper
pressure in the pipeline to force water to reach at every place

METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION
The method of water distribution should be such that water can be reached efficiently and at desired
pressure to the consumers.

The method of distribution depends on the following factors

1. The level of the water source
2. The level of the city
3. The topography of the area
4. Other considerations prevailing in the area such as maximum height of the building and the
maximum distance of water supply from the source

The following methods are used for distributing water in a distribution system
1. By gravity flow method
2. By combined gravity and pumping method
3. By pumping method

1. Gravity flow method

 By this method water is distributed from the higher level to the consumers at lower level by
gravity flow. No pumping is involved
 To maintain the efficiency of the system the water head difference between the distribution
tank and the localities must be sufficient
 The system is suitable if the source of supply is a reservoir or lake
 it is the most reliable method of water distribution
2. Combined gravity and pumping method
 It is also known as the dual system
 The pump is connected to the mains and the elevated reservoir
 Water is pumped to the reservoir for storage and then it is supplied to the consumers by
gravity flow
 Sometimes water is pumped into the reservoir and the water main simultaneously
 The surplus water is kept reserved in the storage reservoir and be supplied in emergency
period during demand
 The pumps work at uniform speed therefore supervision required is less
 The surplus water in the storage bank can be supplied and utilized in emergency
 The water supply does not depend on power failure even if the power fails because stored
water from the tank reservoir flows under gravity
 The method is cheap, efficient and reliable

3. Pumping method
 In this method the treated water is not stored but it is pumped directly into the water mains
 The demand of water is not constant therefore high-powered pumps are required in this
method. The pumps are operated at variable speeds in order to meet the variable demand
 One permanent man is required to operate the pump
 The supply of water depends on the availability of power
 In emergency this method will not work. Th3erefore this is not preferred
LAYOUT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The layout of distribution system depends upon the local conditions ad orientation of roads because
pipes are generally laid below the road pavements
The distribution system is classified as follows depending upon the layout
1. Dead end system
2. Grid iron system
3. Circular system or Ring system
4. Radial system

1. Dead end system

 It is also known as the tree system
 There is only one main supply pipe. A number of pipes are taken out from it (sub-mains)
 Each sub-main is divided into many branch pipes called laterals.
 From laterals the service connections are given to customers
 This system is used in unplanned cities having no planning of roads
 The main water pipe is laid along the main road and branches are taken off from this whenever
required. Therefore many number of dead ends are formed in this system due to which it is called
dead end system

Advantages
 It is easy to plan the layout of the system
 The system requires less number of sluice valves (sluice valves are provided to control the flow of
water in a distribution system at the street corners where the pipe lines intersect)
 Pipe laying is easy
 Length of pipe is reduced
 The discharge and pressure at any point can be calculated
 The system can be extended when and where desired
 The system is very simple and cheap

Dis-advantages
 During the repair work in sub-main the supply of water will not be available in some areas of the city
 The quality of the water is affected at dead ends because there is no free circulation of water
 The supply can be got from one point on the mains which cannot be increased during emergency
 2. Grid iron system (also known as interlaced system or reticulating system)
 The mains, sub mains and branches are interconnected with each other
 This is most convenient for towns having rectangular roads

Advantages
 In case of repairs, a very small portion of the distribution system area will be affected
 There is free circulation of water and hence it is not liable to pollution due to stagnation
 Water is delivered at every point of the distribution system with minimum loss of head
 During fire accidents, a sufficient quantity of water will be available for fire-fighting purposes, as by
manipulation cut off valves the entire supply of water may be concentrated for this purpose

Dis-advantages
 The cost of laying water pipes is more
 The procedure for calculating the sizes of pipes and for working out pressure at various points in
the distribution system is difficult and complicated
 The values required in the system are more in number and for every junction about 4 valves are
necessary.
3. Circular system or Ring system
 The distribution area is divided into rectangular or circular blocks and the water mains are laid
on the periphery of these blocks
 This system is most suitable for well planned cities as its design is easier
 This system increases the water pressure at various points and increases the efficiency of the
grid iron system
 This system posses the advantages and disadvantages as those of grid iron system

4. Radial system
 This system is just the reverse of the ring method
 Water is taken from the mains and pumped into the distribution reservoirs which are situated at
centers of different zones
 The water is then supplied through pipes laid radially
 This method gives quick and satisfactory water supply
 The sizes of the pipes can be calculated easily
 This system is most suitable for towns with roads laid out radially
PRESSURE IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

When the water enters in the distribution main, the water head continuously is lost due to friction in
pipes,at-entrance-of-reducers;-due-to valves, bends, meters etc. till it reaches the consumer's tap. The
net available head at the consumer's tap is the head at the entrance of the water main minus all the
losses in the way. The effective head available at the service connection to a building is very important,
because the height up to which the water can rise in the building will depend on this available head
only. The greater the head the more will be the height up to which it will rise. If adequate head is not
available at the connection to the building, the water will not reach the upper storeys (i.e. 2nd, 3rd, 4th
etc.). to overcome this difficulty the required effective head is maintained in the street pipe lines.
The water should reach each and consumer therefore it should reach on the uppermost storey. The
pressure which is required to be maintained in the distribution system depends upon the following
factors:

(1) The height of highest building up to which water should reach without boosting.
(2) The distance of the locality from the distribution reservoir.
(3) The supply is to be metered or not. Higher pressure will be required to compensate for the high loss
of head in meters.
(4) How much pressure will be required for fire-hydrants.

In multistoreyed structures the following pressures are considered satisfactory :

Up to 3 storeys 2.1 kg/ cm2
From 3 to 6 storeys 2.1 to 4.2 kg/ cm2
From 6 to 10 storeys 4.2 to 5.27 kg/ cm2
Above 10 storeys 5.27 to 7 kg/ cm2

While designing pipes of distribution systems the following points should be kept in mind :
(i) The main line should be designed to carry 3 times the average demand of the city.
(ii) The service pipes should be able to carry twice the average demand.
(iii) The water demand at various points in the city should be noted.
(iv) The lengths and sizes of each pipe should be clearly marked on the site plan along with hydrants,
valves, meters, etc.
(v) The pressure drops at the end of each line should be calculated and marked.

The minimum velocity in pipe lines should not be less than 0.6 ml sec and maximum velocity should not
be more than 3 ml sec. For best results the velocities in different pipes should be as follows :

Diameter of pipes velocity

10 cm 0.9 m/sec
15 cm 1.21 m/sec
25cm 1.52 m/sec
40cm 1.82 m/sec
PIPE APPURTENANCES IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The distribution pipes are provided with various pipe appurtenances or accessories so as to make the
distribution of water easy and effective
The following are some such appurtenances
1. Air valve
 These are also termed as Air relief valves
 Some quantity of air contained in the flowing water and this tries to accumulate at high points
along the water pipes
 In order to provide an exit from such accumulated air, the air valves are provided at summit
along the water pipe
 The air valves should be located at points which are closer or above the hydraulic gradient
 The effective area of flow and consequently discharge through the pipe are greatly reduced
due to air blocking

An air valve consists of a cast iron chamber, float, lever and poppet. The chamber may be circular or
rectangular in shape and is fitted to the pipe line
 The float and lever are adjusted in such a way that they remain in raised position when the
chamber is filled with water under pressure and the poppet valve is in closed position
 No when air goes on accumulating at the top and builds some pressure the water le4vel gets
depressed and the float sinks down with the lever and opens the valve
 The accumulated air escapes out through the opening. The water level again rises, the float
moves up and closes the valve opening when no air is left at the top

2. Bib-cock
 These are the water taps which are attached at the end of the water pipes and from which the
consumers obtain water
 The bib-cocks are available in various pattern
 It is operated from a handle and when handle is turned the opening from which water comes
out gets increased or decreased in size
 The bib cocks may also be of push type and they operate automatically. They open out when a
slight push is given and close down as soon as the push is removed or withdrawn

3. Relief valve
 these are also known as the automatic cut-off valves or safety valves
 These valves relieve high pressure in pipe lines
 Such type of valve which is intended to release excessive pressure that may build up in a
closed pipe
 the relief valves are located at every point along the water pipe where pressure is likely to be
maximum
 When the pressure in the pipe line exceeds the desired pressure, the disc is forced off from its
seat and excessive pressure is relived through cross pipe, after this disc comes down
automatically due to force of spring.
 It will save a particular section of water pipe before bursting of pipe takes place.
4. Sluice valve
 these are also known as ‘gate valve’ or ‘shut off valve’ or ‘stop valve’
 These valves are cheaper, offer less resistance to flow of water than other valves used for
same purposes.
 Gate valves control the flow of water through pipes and fixed in main lines bringing water from
source
 This valve is made of cast iron with bran bronze and stainless steel.
 It mainly consist of a wedge shaped circular disc fitted closely in a recess against the opening
in the valve.
 these valves control the flow of water and are helpful in dividing the water mains into sections
 they are generally placed at a distance of about 150m to 200m and at all junctions
 for long straight mains, sluice valves can be installed at a distance of 1km also
 the raising or lowering of the valve is carried out by rotating the handle from the top
 the installation of sluice valves may be very much useful in case of intermittent water supply

5. scour valve or drain valve:

 In the summits of mains, it is possible that some suspended impurities may settle down and
cause obstruction to flow the water.
 In the distribution system at dead ends if water is not taken out it will stagnate and bacteria will
be born in it.
  To avoid the above difficulties drain valves are provided at all such points. When drain valve is
opened the water rushes out thus removing all the silt, clay etc. from the main line.

6. fire hydrant
 this is a device or outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in case of a fire
 they are also used for the water requirements of street washing, flushing sewer lines,
construction of roads, sprinkling of public lawns etc.
 generally the fire hydrants are placed at all street junctions and they are so located that if a
circle of about 60m to 90m is drawn from any hydrant, it will partly overlap that adjoining hydrant
 a map indicating the position of fire hydrants in the locality should be carefully prepared and
preserved

Types of hydrants

Flush hydrant
1. it is installed in an underground brick chamber flush with the road top and covered from top by cast
iron cover
2. for locating the position of it even in darkness some distinct sign is provided at the road side near it
with letter written FH on it

Post hydrant
1. a post hydrant projects above the road level to a height of 1 to 1.5m
2. this type of hydrant is more prominent
3. it is liable to be damaged by mischief or misuse
Working
 when the nut is operated by a key, the valve goes up and it allows the water form water pipe to rise
and to fill the barrel
 the water is then delivered from the outlet
 the diameter of the outlet should correspond to the diameter of hose to be attached to it
 the usual diameter is about 60mm
 after the requirement of water from fire hydrant is satisfied, the nut is operated in the reverse
direction by the key
 the valve lowers down and prevents the entry of water from water pipe to the barrel
 the water remaining in the barrel of hydrant, after the valve has been closed down, is removed by
opening the plug of drain hole.

7.Reflux valve
 these are known as check valves or non return valves
 it is automatic device which allows water to go in one direction only
 The arrow indicates the direction of flow of water when the water flows the disc rotates round the
hinge and remain in a horizontal plane.
 The water therefore passes off without any obstruction now if the flow reverses the disc
automatically falls down by rotating round the hinge and remains tightly pressed against the valve
seat by the pressure of water itself, in this way it does not allow the water to flow in reverse
direction.

Swing type of reflux valve

When water moves in the direction of the arrow, the valve swings or rotates around the pivot and it is
kept in an open position due to the pressure of water
When the flow in this direction ceases, water tries to flow in a backward direction. But, in this case the
valve occupies its seat and it thus prevent the passage of water in reverse direction

The reflux valve is placed in water pipe, which obtains water directly from the pump. When the pump
fails or stops, water will not flow back to the pump

8. Stop cock
Stop cocks are use to completely shut off the flow of water to a fixture. It is screw down type and opens
in anti clock wise direction

9. Water meter
 a water meter is a device to measure the quantity of water flowing through pipes. These meters
are necessary to measure the quantity of water supplied to the consumer
 the use of water meter ensures economic use of water. But sometimes, meters being an
obstacle to the flow of water, cause some loss of head.

Types of water meters

1. Inferential / velocity meters
 these meters are good for high flows
 it measures the velocity of a liquid across a cross-section whose area is known
 discharge at a cross section is the product of sectional area and velocity e.g. turbine meter and
rotary meter
 a. Rotary meter
 Consists of radial valves attached to a shaft. Water enters and leaves as indicated by arrows
 The valves are rotated by the moving water and they in turn revolve the shaft
 Larger the velocity of water, higher the speed of rotation
 The discharge in this case is directly proportional to the velocity or the number of rotations of
the shaft per unit time

b. Turbine meter
 It is similar to the rotary meter and contains a turbine wheel which is rotated by moving water
 The velocity of flow is proportional to the number of revolutions of the turbine wheel in unit time

2. Positive or Displacement meter

 They measure the discharge by recording the number of times a chamber of known capacity if filled
and emptied
 They are good for low flows and are thus, suited to measure flows into buildings and residences

Requirements of good water meter

 Self cleansing property
 Accuracy of measurement
 Registration for both large and small flows
 Durability
 Availability of spares
 Ease of repair and maintenance
 Low cost
 Minimum hindrance to flow
 Parts of non-corrosion alloy
 Prevention of backflow and non-clogging

Storage tanks
The water supply to a building may either be continuous or intermittent. Even in the case of continuous
supply in the mains, the pressure of water may not be sufficient to raise the water to all the floors of the
building. In either case, storage tanks are required. The storage tanks may be situated either at the
ground level, or at the roof level or at the both levels. If the pressure of the water is sufficient to raise
the water to the roof level, storage tank is provided only at the roof level, so as to store water because
of intermittent supplies. If the pressure of water is not sufficient, water is first stored at a ground level
tank, from where it is pumped to the top storage tank.
A storage tank may be made of mild steel plates or reinforced concrete or brick masonry or plastic. It
should have accessories like top cover, valve with ball float assembly to control the inflow of water, over
flow pipe in case float assembly fails, supply or inlet pipe for water to admit in to the tank, outlet pipe
and drain pipe to clean the water periodically.

The capacity of storage tank depends on following factors –

a) Supply hours from the mains, with sufficient pressure.
b) Frequency with which the tank can be refilled during 24 hours.
c) Rate and regularity of supply.

For example, if water supply is once a day only and for not a considerable period, it would be advisable
that the entire daily requirement of 540 liters be stored in the tank and consumed later. Therefore, the
capacity of the tank in this case would be 540 liters.
PLUMBING
Safe water supply and hygienic sanitation facilities are the two basic essential amenities the community
needs on a top priority for healthy living. Plumbing system broadly involves transmission of fluid under
gravity or pressure through the conduits. These conduits or pipelines are major investments in any
projects. Therefore pipe materials shall have to be judiciously selected not only from the point of view of
durability, life and overall cost which includes, besides the pipe cost, the installation and maintenance
costs necessary to ensure the required function and performance of the pipe line throughout its
designed life time. Hence special care has to be taken while selecting the pipe materials for plumbing
works.

The technical factors that affect the final choices of pipe materials are
 The initial carrying capacity of the pipe and its reduction with usage defined as Hazen-Williams co-
efficient C
 Working and test pressure including surge pressure
 Strength of pipe to withstand the internal and external loads
 Durability of pipe
 Extent of possible leakage
 Noise transmission
 Resistance to corrosion
 Flow characteristics
 Water tightness of material
 Resistance to acid, alkalies, gases, solvents etc.

The choice of material for a pipe depends on internal pressures, operating conditions, maximum
permissible diameters, external corrosion and any other special condition of lying.

The selection of materials for the pipe is done on the following considerations
1. Carrying capacities of the pipe.
2. Durability and life of the pipe.
3. Qualities of water to be conveyed
4. Maintenance cost, repair, etc.
5. Cost
6. Resistance to corrosion
7. Ease to transportation.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Factors to be considered before selection of pipe materials are as follows:
 Type of application that is for domestic, industrial or for any specific process purposes
 Type of building in which plumbing to be carried out like hotels, commercials, residential, industries
 Type of weather conditions in the area like coastal area or rainy area or dry weather area etc.
 Water quality to be supplied in the pipe like hard water or soft water or cold water or hot water
 Economics of the project

Plumbing materials for water supply are broadly classified as

 Metallic pipes (CI, DI, MS, GI)
 Unlined metallic pipes
 Lined metallic pipes with cement mortar or epoxy coating
 Non metallic pipes
 RCC, PSC, Asbestos cement pipes etc.
 Plastic pipes PVC, polyethylene, glass reinforced plastic etc.

They are also sub classified based on their usage pattern like
1. Internal plumbing works
2. External plumbing works

Internal plumbing works

Types of materials
 GALVINISED IRON (GI)
 STAINLESS STEEL (SS)
 COPPER
 cPVC
 uPVC
 POLYPROPYLENE RANDOM (PP-R)
 POLYBURYLENE

GALVINISED IRON (GI)

MERITS DEMERITS
 Availability of pipes is easy in the market  Easily gets corroded from hard water
with all type of fittings  Scaling of pipes is common
 Labour availability is easy for plumbing  Life span of pipe gets reduced by above
works effects
 Compared to other metallic pipes it is most  Friction loss is more compared to other
economical metallic pipes
 It requires insulation against weather
attacks

STAINLESS STEEL (SS) AND COPPER

MERITS DEMERITS
 They are capable of high pressure  It requires skilled labour for workability
 It is generally used for hot water supply due  Compared to GI pipe it is costlier
to its thermal conductivity  Corrosion is expected when dissolved
 Friction loss is less compared to GI pipes oxygen is more in the water
 Requires external protection in aggressive
soils

cPVC AND uPVC PIPES

MERITS DEMERITS
 Easily available in the market  Susceptible to degradation by certain
 Friction loss is less compared to metallic organic contaminants
pipes  Ultraviolet degradation on prolonged
 Scaling and corrosion is very less compared exposure to direct sunlight
to metallic pipes  Fittings are costlier and availability is
difficult
 Plumber has to be educated in the trade to
carryout the works
External plumbing works

Types of materials

Cast Iron
Merits Demerits
 These are structurally stronger  Fittings are costlier and availability is
 Highly resistance to tensile compressive difficult
and bending stresses  Plumber has to be educated in the trade to
carry out the works

Polyethylene pipes (MDPE/Hdpe)

Merits Demerits
 They are corrosion resistant  Susceptible to permeation / degradation on
 They are relatively light weight prolonged exposure to sunlight
 Alternative installation techniques possible  Repair and installation of fittings is difficult
in larger diameters

Prestressed concrete pipes

Merits Demerits
 These are structurally stronger and rigid  Heavy weight ad handling is difficult
 Highly resistance to tensile, compressive  Fittings are fabricated from mild steel lined
and bending stresses and coated with concrete
 Pre-stressing wire is protected against  Repair is difficult
corrosion  Poor ability of joint to withstand ground
 These pipes can cater to intermediate movement / subsidence
pressure range where RCC is not suitable

Distribution Systems in Multi-Storeyed Buildings

There are four basic methods of distribution of water to a multi-storeyed buildings. .
a) Direct supply from mains to ablutionary taps and kitchen with WCs and urinals supplied by overhead
tanks.
b) Direct Pumping Systems
c) Hydro-Pneumatic Systems
d) Overhead Tanks Distribution

Direct Supply System

This system is adopted when adequate pressure is available round the clock at the topmost floor. With
limited pressure available in most city mains, water from direct supply is normally not available above
two or three floors. For details of this system, reference may be made to good practice maybe referred.

Direct Pumping
Water is pumped directly into the distribution system without the aid of any overhead tank, except for
flushing purposes. The pumps are controlled by a pressure switch installed on the line. Normally a
jockey pump of smaller capacity installed which meets the dernand of water during low consumption
and the main pump starts when the demand is greater. The start and stop operations are accomplished
by a set if pressure switches are installed directly on the line. In some installation, a timer switch is
installed to restrict the operating cycle of the pump.
Direct pumping systems are suitable for buildings where a certain amount of constant use of water is
always occurring. These buildings are all centrally air conditioned buildings for which a constant make
up supply for air conditioning cooling towers is required.

The system depends on a constant and reliable supply of power. Any failure in the power system
would result in a breakdown in the water supply system. The system eliminates the requirements of
overhead tanks for domestic purposes (except for flushing) and requires minimum space

Hydro-Pneumatic Systems
Hydro-pneumatic system is a variation of direct pumping system. An air-tight pressure vessel is
installed on the line to regulate the operation of the pumps. The vessel capacity shall be based on the
cutin and cut-out pressure of the pumping system depending upon allowable start/stops of the pumping
system. As pumps operate, the incoming water is the vessel, compresses the air on top. When a
predetermined pressure is reached in the vessel, a pressure switch installed on the vessel switches off
the pumps. As water is drawn into the system, pressure falls into the vessel starting the pump at preset
pressure.

The air in the pressure tank slowly reduces the volume due to dissolution in water and leakages from
pipe lines. An air compressor is also necessary to feed air into the vessel so as to maintain the required
air-water ratio. The system shall have reliable power supply to avoid breakdown in the water supply.
There is an alternate option of providing variable speed drive pumping system where a pump with a
large variation in its pressure-discharge and speed of the pump is efficiently used to deliver water
at rates of flow as required by the system by changing its speed by a varying its with the assistance of
an electronic device which will reduce the rate of flow from speed of the motor from 960 rpm to 3000
rpm.

With this arrangement the same pump is able to deliver water as required at different times of the day.
The system consumes energy in proportion to the work done and save considerable amount of power
as compared to the fixed speed pumps used conventionally.

Hydro-pneumatic system generally eliminates the need for an over head tank and may supply water
at a much higher pressure than available from overhead tanks particularly on the upper floors, resulting
in even distribution of water at all floors

over-head Tank Distribution

This is the most common of the distribution systems adopted by various type of buildings.
The system comprises pumping water to one or more overhead tanks placed at the top most location
of the hydraulic zone.
Water collected in the overhead tank is distributed to the various parts of the building by a set
of pipes located generally on the terrace. Distribution is accomplished by providing
down takes to various fixtures
WATER SUPPLY PLUMBING SYSTEMS
IN BUILDING AND HOUSES

It is necessary to know the following terms relating to plumbing, principles and the common practices
used in the house plumbing

1. Water main: A water supply pipe vests in the administrative authority for the use of public or
community

2. Ferrule: It is gunmetal or bronze screwed into the hole drilled in CI pipe mains. Communication pipe
takes off from the ferrule. The pressure in the domestic supply and equal distribution among the house
connection are effected by adjusting the ferrule opening. Normally the ferrule opening is equal in area
to the area of flow in communication pipe.

3. Saddle: it is used in place of ferrule for mains of AC or PVC pipes

4. Communication pipes: It is a pipe taking off from the ferrule for the house connection. It is owned and
managed by the water supply authority. Communication pipe terminates at the boundary of the
consumers premises.

5. Service pipe : it is the part of the house connection beyond the stop cock. It is owned and maintained
by the consumer . No pumps shall be installed on this pipe.

6. Watermeter: It is installed to measure the flow. It is an integrating meter that it records the total flow
upto the time of measurement.
Generally 12.5 mm to 18.75mm rotary water meters are installed either at the beginning or at the
middle of the service pipe. A masonary pit is constructed around it. It has facility of sealing by the water
supply authority

7. Residual pressure: It is generally measured at the ferrule and should be about 7m head of water

8. Goose Nech: It is the short bent pipe and allow for small changes in length due to expansion and
movement of pipes due to soil settlements

PLUMBING SYSTEMS IN WATER SUPPLIES

The following are the requirements of plumbing systems in water supplies
1. Plumbing of water lines should be such as not to permit back flow from eistern and Sinks
2. All joints shall be perfectly water tight and no leakage or spill at taps or cocks should be allowed
3. Pipelines should not be carried under walls or foundations
4. It should not be close to sewers or waste water drains. There should not be any possibility for cross
connections.
5. When pipe lines are close to electric cables proper precautions for insulation should be observed
6. plumbing lines should be such as to afford easy inspection and repair of fixtures and joints.
7. Number of joints should be less and the number of bends and tees should be less
8. It should supply adequate discharge at fixtures economical in terms of material and protected against
corrosion , air lock, negative pressure and noise due to flow in pipes and in flushing
THE HOUSE WATER CONNECTION
The house water connection is as shown in the fig

House water connection

(I) WATER MAIN: This is also called “street main” . This is a water supply pipe for public or community
use and maintained by local or administrative authority.

(II) SUPPLY PIPE: The pipe which extends from the stop cock upto the boll cock or entrance of the
storage tank if any , and subjected to water- pressure from the water main is called the supply pipe.
This pipe is under control of the consumer.

(III) SERVICE PIPE: Any pipe used for conveying water from a water main to any building or premises
and is subjected to water pressure from the water main is called service pipe.

(IV) DISTRIBUTION PIPE: It is a pipe connecting the storage tank to the various sanitary fixures ,
taps etc., for the purpose of distribution of water inside the building.

(V) COMMUNICATION PIPE: The part of the service pipe, extending from the water main up to and
including the stop cork, which is under control of the authority is called communication pipe.

(VI) STOP COCK: It is a control valve fixed by the authority at the end of communication pipe. It is fixed
in the street, close to the boundary wall in an accessible position in a suitable masonry chamber. It
controls the supply to the building from the water main. The body of the valve is so cast that the water
passes through an orifice when valve stem is raised. When it is closed, it rests against the seat, closing
the orifice.

(VII) FERRULE: Ferrule is a right angled sleeve made of brass or gun metal. It is jointed to an opening
drilled in the water main to which it is screwed down with a plug and then connected to a goose neck or
communication pipe. The ferrule is usually of size varying from 10 to 50 mm diameter. For connections
more than 50 mm bore, a tee-branch connection from the water main is adopted.

(VIII) GOOSE NECK : It is a flexible curved pipe about 75cm in length. It forms a flexible connection
between the water main and service pipe and avoids stresses and strains on the joint due to expansion
and contraction of the service pipes and also due to small earth movements and vibrations.
SYSTEM OF SUPPLY

Intermittent water supply

In this system, treated water is supplied to the consumers during certain fixed hours of the day. This
system is used when the quantity of water is limited and the pressure in the system is low.

Intermittent water supply is a piped water supply service delivering water to users for less than
24 hours in one day, and is used when the available supply and/or the hydraulic capacities of
the water supply system are too weak.

Applicability
Designing an intermittent water supply network is often considered when there is a scarcity in total
water availability vis-à-vis the net water demand of a considered supply area, or when the hydraulic
capacities of the network are too low. Usually water supply networks are designed for continuous
conditions: the water system should be operated the way it has been designed to in order to approach
equitable and efficient water distribution. However, efforts should go towards transition to continuous
systems, even when water resources are low: less water is wasted with continuous systems, and
proper demand management optimises the resources better than distribution restrictions.

Advantages
 For older distribution systems having weaker joints and more leakage, restrained supply hours can
limit leakage
 Reduced pressure also helps lowering leakage
 Overall scarcity may sometimes be managed by interrupting the water supply and equally
balancing the resources (controversial)
 Time is available for repair and maintenance out of supply hours

Disadvantages
 Systems do not operate as designed: components are underused, others are overexploited and
damaged
 Inconvenience to consumers, mostly the poor (often, one person per household is devoted to
storing the water at supply times)
 Pipelines are subjected to vacuum condition after supply hours, which can cause groundwater
infiltration into the pipelines with contamination of the supply or pipes deformation
 Frequent contamination requires household-level water treatment, as well as higher doses of
residual chlorine by the supplier
 Consumers need to store water between supplies and tend to throw away remnant store. This
causes water wastage and storage costs
 Frequent wear and tear on valves, water meters malfunction
 More manpower and infrastructures needed
 High capital cost of making the system stronger compared to a continuous water supply system,
Often, no immediate supply and pressure in case of fire

The practice of supplying of water continuously with required pressure in the distribution net work is
recognized as safe method and is accepted all over the world. As per Central Public Health Engineering
and environment Organisation (CPHEEO) if the water is supplied under intermittent supply conditions
there is possibilities of contamination of water when the pipes are empty and this will cause ill health of
the public.