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BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

UNIT I
Research means a search for knowledge. It refers to a scientific and systematic
search for pertinent information on a specific topic. The term research refers to the
systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collection the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions.
Research is thus an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for
its advancement.

OBJECTIVES
1. To explore a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
2. To discover the characteristic of a particular individual, situation or a group.
3. To examine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables.

RESEARCH TYPES
Basic Vs Applied:
Basic means the investigation of problems to further and develop existing
knowledge. It is mainly concerned with generalization and formulation of theories.
Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed basic research. E.g. Physics,
astronomy. Similarly, studying the behavior of individual to make some
generalization about their social learning, memory pattern, and intelligence level are
also examples of fundamental research.
1. Descriptive Vs analytical Research:
Descriptive research describes the present state of affairs as it exists without
having any control over variables. The researcher can only report what has happened or
what is happening. In analytical research on the other hand the researcher has to use fact
or information already available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
2. Quantitative Vs Qualitative research:

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Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. Qualitative research is
especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives, interest, personality and attitudes of human beings.
3. Conceptual Vs empirical Research
Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas or theory. Philosophers and
thinkers generally use it to develop new concepts or to interpret existing ones.
Empirical research is data based coming up with conclusions that are capable of being
verified, by observation or by experiment. Empirical research is appropriate when
proof that certain variables affect other variables in some way is sought. It is
considered that evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies provides
the most powerful support for a given hypothesis
4. Laboratory research:
The emphasis in laboratory research is on controlling certain variables in such as
to observe the relationship between two or three other variables.
5. Clinical or diagnostic Research;
This type of research follows case study methods or in-depth approaches to reach
the basic causal relationship. This research takes only a few samples and studies
the phenomenon in depth and observes the effects.
6. Exploratory research :
The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypothesis
rather than their testing. The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and
insights. It is more flexible and highly informal.
7. Historical research :
This type of research utilizes historical sources like documents, literature,
leaflets etc
8. Panel Research
Panel methods are broader than descriptive than descriptive research. These
methods are normally used in sales forecasting by measuring consumer
preferences for various products measuring audience size and character for media

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programmes, testing new products and product concepts and testing any variable
in a firm’s marketing mix. Generally the survey is valid for one time period,
which is known as study period and they do not reflect changes occurring over
time.
9. Experimental Research:
A process where events occur in a setting at the discretion of the
experimenter and control are used to identify the sources of variation in subject’s
response. The investigator or experimenter systematically manipulates some
factor to elicit a response from the subjects. Experimentation is considered to be
process of manipulating one variable constant in order to establish a casual
relationship.

RESEARCH PROCESS

Define research Problem

Review of Literature

Developing Hypothesis

Research Design

Sample Design

Data Collection

Analysis of Data

Hypothesis Testing

Interpretation

Report Preparation
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1. Defining the research problem:

Defining the basic problem, constitute the first step in a scientific enquiry.
While formulating the research problem there are two main issues.
1. Review Of Literature
It is a stage in which the researcher makes himself familiar with all the
previous studies and their findings relevant to his field of work. He learns the
methodology and approach developed by these past studies. He evaluates the
conclusion of the previous studies in the light of the data he has collected. He
questions these conclusions and tries to develop the alternative, possible better
conclusions.
2. Developing the hypothesis:
Hypothesis is a statement developed on the basis of suspected or
anticipated relationship among various factors studied. Normally at the beginning
of the research, the scholar would formulate a working hypothesis. It enables him
to avoid collecting irrelevant data and facts. It helps him in focusing his attention
on a particular aspect thereby eliminating wastage of time and resources.
3. Research Design
Research design is a description of conceptual structure within which the
research will be conducted. Here the researcher indicates the method of data
collection the skills at the command of the researcher, the execution plan
collection of data, the time and other resources available the financial implication
etc,
4. Sample Design
The researcher has to make a careful selection of a few elements from the
population and then study them intensely and reach conclusion, which can be
safely applied to the population. The selection of sample is a very important task.
The researcher should determine the size of sample, the method of sampling, the
test of sample etc.

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5. Collecting Data
The researcher at this stage should clearly spell out the sources of data for
his work. He could use both primary as well as secondary data. While the former
refers to the data collected for the first time by the researcher himself from the
informants or the sample respondents specifically for his work. The latter means
the data already, published or unpublished & available for use. The quality of data
collected will ultimately decide the findings of the research work and so the
researcher should arrange for surprise checks and controls over the collection of
field data.
6. Analysis Of data:
Once the data are collected they should be classified and tabulated. Then
the analysis of the data should be undertaken. At this stage, the researcher should
select the tools of analysis, which are consistent with the objectives of the study.
The tendency to carry out irrelevant analysis should be avoided. He should be
strong in reasoning, drawing inferences and reaching conclusions.
7. Testing Hypothesis:
After analyzing the data as stated above the researcher is in a position to
test the hypothesis, if any he had formulated earlier. Statistician has developed
various tests such as chisquare test, t-test, F- test for the purpose. The hypothesis
may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the
nature and object of research inquiry. The test result may result in either
accepting the hypothesis to start with generalization established on the basis of
data may be stated as hypothesis to be tested by subsequent researches in time to
come.
8. Generalization & interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, The real value of the researcher lies in its
ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to
start with he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. it is
called as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off
new questions that in turn may lead to further researchers.

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9. Report Preparation:
Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by
him. Writing of report must be done with great care. The report should clearly
indicate the justification of the study, period of study, sample size, sources of
data, tools of analysis, bibliography, review of past studies etc. It should also have
a separate chapter on results and discussions where the researcher would report all
his findings and give his interpretations. Care should be taken to incorporate
relevant tables, diagrammed etc at the appropriate places.

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be
used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance
and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
6. Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced has
a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCHER:

Good research is systematic:

It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a

specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic

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characteristics of the research do not rule out creative thinking but it certainly
does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
1. Good research is logical:
This implies that research is guide by the rules of logical reasoning and the
logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research.

2. Good Research is empirical:

It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity
to research results.
3. Good Research is Replicable:
This allows research to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building
a sound basis for decisions.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHER IN INDIA:

 The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research
 Insufficient interaction between the university research departments on the side
and business establishments, governments department, and research institution on
the other side.
 The business unit do not have confidence that the information supplied by them to
researchers will be misused and so such they are often reluctant in supplying the
needed information to researchers.
 Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information.
 There does not exist a code of conduct for researcher
 The difficult of adequate and timely secretarial assistance.
 Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many place.
 There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of
old and new Acts/ rules, reports and other government publications in time.

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 There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data.

 There may at times take place the problem of conceptualization.

HYPOTHESIS
• It is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested.
At the elementary level it may be mere hunch, guess, and imaginative
data, which becomes the basis for action or investigation. – Lundberg
• Hypothesis is a proposition, which can be put to test to determine validity.
– Goode & Hatt.
• A tentative solution posed on a cursory observation of known and
available data and adopted provisionally to explain certain events and to
guide in the investigation of others. It is in fact, a possible solution to a
problem.

CHARACTERISTIC OF HYPOTHESIS
• Clarity:
The hypothesis must be conceptually clear. When the researcher attempts to establish
relationship among various facts and translates these relationships into concepts he
succeeds in formulating the hypothesis. Hence when a hypothesis is conceptually clear it
provides a clear direction to the researcher.
• Scope For Verification:
Hypothesis should be amenable for verification and empirical analysis. Though
hypothesis can be verified in terms of moral judgments yet such verifications process will
be questionable.
• Specific:
The hypothesis should be very specific and not a general statement. It should not
be ambiguous and it should be clearly stated. It is wiser to construct a hypothesis in
simple language than resorting to flowery and confusing terminology.
• Testable:

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It should be testable with the available technique of analysis. Even while

formulating a researcher should ascertain the relevant techniques with which it could be
tested.
• Linked To Theory
Hypothesis should facilitate establishing relationship with a body of theory.
Therefore when the hypothesis is formulated the researcher should conform whether it is
related to any existing theory or not.
• Consistent
It should be consistent with a most known facts ie it must be consistent with a
substantial body of established facts. It should be one which judges accept as being the
most likely.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS:
• Crude Hypothesis:
A crude hypothesis is formed to initiate the process of research. When the
researcher is commencing his research work he needs some guidelines or focus. For this
purpose he might develop a hypothesis based on the available evidence or data.
• Refined hypothesis:
Hypothesis that state the existence of empirical uniformities, hypothesis that are
concerned with complex ideal types and hypothesis that are concerned with complex
ideal types and hypothesis that are concerned with the relation of analytical variables.
• Working hypothesis
It is formed in the process of verifying the relationship among various variables
included in research. It provides useful guideline to the researcher in determining the
nature of data to be collected, volume of data required, the sample technique to be used
analytical tools to be selected etc.
• Statistical hypothesis
Statistical hypothesis are those, which are formulated based on the sample data or
facts. They serve the usual purpose of testing any expected relationship among variables.

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Once these hypotheses are tested or verified the conclusion about the population is
drawn.
• Null hypothesis
It is formulated only to test whether there is any relationship between variables
related to the problem being studied. Usually the null hypothesis is formed as a negative
statement.
• Alternative hypothesis
It is a statement, which is accepted after the null hypothesis is rejected based on the
test results.

PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING:

It refers to all those steps that we undertake for making a choice between the two
actions ie. Rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in
hypothesis testing are stated below;
1. Making a formal statement :
The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis and also of
the alternative hypothesis.
2. Selecting a significance level :
The hypothesis is tested on a pre- determined level of significance and as such the
same should be specified. Generally 5% or 1% is adopted for the purpose. The
factors that affect the level of significance are; a) the magnitude of the difference
between sample means. b) Whether the hypothesis is directional or non
directional. c) The variability of measurements within samples d) whether the
hypothesis is directional or non directional.
3. Deciding the distribution to use:
After deciding the level of significance the next step in hypothesis testing is to
determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally remains
between normal distribution and the t-distribution.
4. Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value:

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The next step is to select a random sample and compute an appropriate value
from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant
distribution.
5. Calculation of the probability:
Then calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it
has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
6. Comparing the probability:
In this step compare the probability thus calculated with the specified value for ∝
the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to or smaller than the
∝ value in case of one tailed test , then reject the null hypothesis but if the
calculated probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
• Theory: This is one of the main sources. It gives direction to research by
stating what is known. Logical deduction from theory leads to new
hypothesis.
Eg . the rate of return on capital employed is an index of business success.
• Observation: Hypothesis can be derived from observation . from
observing price behavior in a market a hypothesis can be formulated on the
relationship between price & demand for an article.
• Analogies: Julian Huxley pointed out that casual observation in nature or
in the framework of another science may be fertile source of hypothesis.
The hypothesis that similar human types or activities may be found in
similar geophysical regions came from studying plant ecology.

• Intuition & personal experience: Personal life and experience of persons

determine their perception. These may in turn direct a person to certain
hypothesis more quickly. Eg Newton & falling of apple.

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• Findings Of studies: Hypothesis may be developed from the findings of

other studies in order to replicate and test.
• State Of Knowledge: An important source of hypothesis is the state of
knowledge in any particular science. Where formal theories exist ,
hypothesis can be deduced from them. If the hypothesis were rejected
theories would be modified. Where formal theories are scarce, hypothesis
are generated from conceptual frameworks.
• Culture: another source of hypothesis is the culture in which the
researcher has been nurtured. In India in socio – economic and leadership
studies, hypothesis based on caste- ridden, hierarchical and segmental and
the Indian economic system riddled with inequalities and privileges.
• Continuity Of research: The continuity of research in a field itself
constitute an important source of hypothesis leads to the formulation of
new ones capable of explaining dependent variables in a subsequent
researchers on the same subject.

CHARACTERISTIC OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS:

• Conceptual Clarity: It should be conceptually clear. It should consist of
clearly defined and understandable concepts. Clarity is obtained by
defining operationally the concepts in the hypothesis.
• Specificity: A hypothesis should be specific and explain the expected
relations between variables and the conditions under which these relations
will hold.
• Testability: A hypothesis should be testable and should not be a moral
judgement. It should be possible to collect empirical evidence to test the
hypothesis. Eg Bad partners produce bad children.
• Availability Of technique: Hypothesis should be related to available
techniques. Otherwise they will not be researchable. Therefore the
research must make sure that methods for testing his proposed hypothesis
are available.

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• Theoretical relevance: It should be related to a body of theory. A

science can be cumulative only building on an existing body by building
on an existing body of facts and theory. When research is systematically
based upon a body of existing theory, a genuine contribution to knowledge
is more likely to result. Therefore a hypothesis should posses theoretical
relevance.
• Consistency: Hypothesis should be logically consistent. Two or more
propositions logically derived from the same theory must not be mutually
contradictory.
• Objectivity: Scientific hypothesis should be free from value judgements.
However as social phenomenon are affected by the milieu in which they
take place, the researcher must be aware of his values and state them
explicitly.
• Simplicity: A hypothesis should be a simple one requiring fewer
conditions or assumptions. It demands insight. The more the insight the
researcher has into a problem; the simple will be his hypothesis about it.

RULES IN HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT:

1. Search for variable measurements with the most quantitative
characteristic.
2. Make the variable like properties explicit by stating all of the variable’s
mutually exclusive and totally inclusive categories by degree.
3. Describe the means used to sort observation into your variable categories
insufficient detail so that methods may be evaluated and replicated by
others .
4. Always consider alternative operations that might be more appropriate for
a given variable.
5. Analyze variable through their relationship.
6. Link two or more formal propositions through a shared independent or
dependent variable where possible.

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RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure. In fact the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted. it constitutes the blueprint for the collection measurement and analysis of
data. In keeping the above stated design decisions one may split the overall research
design into the following parts;
1. The sampling design: Which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study.
2. The above observational design: which relates to the conditions under which the
observation is to be made?
3. The statistical Design: which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed.
4. The operational design : which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling , statistical and observational design can be carried out.

FEATURES OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN:

1. It is a plan that specifies the source and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
2. It is an outline that specifies the objectives of the study and the hypothesis
Relevant to the research questions.
1) It is a blueprint specifying his methods to be adopted for gathering and
analyzing data.
3. It is a scheme defining the domain of generalisability.

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PLAN:

After making decisions on the above questions a formal research plan
incorporating is drafted. The format may vary depending on the purpose for which the
study is undertaken.

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Introduction: The introduction of a research plan or proposal should place the research

problem in its historical perspective. It must state the need for studying it. and the

research’s precise interest in studying the problem.

Statement Of the problem: The research problem should be defined pointing out its
core nature and its importance. The issue relating to the problem may also be stated. This
statement gives direction to the research process.
Review Of previous studies: There may be previous studies on the selected theme. A
review of available literature will bring out information on them. The primary aspects of
those studies may be briefly described and the gaps pointed out.
Scope of the study: A complete study of any problem is well high non- manageable,
since it would entail an overwhelming mountain of data. Therefore the scope and
dimension of the study should be delimited with reference to the topical scope- breath
and depth, geographical area to be covered , reference period , the type of institution
Objective Of the study: The specific objectives of the study should be stated clearly.
These refer to the questions to which the researcher proposes to seek answers through the
study.
Conceptual model: This section is the heart of the research plan. This is where the
researcher formulates and develops the structure of relationship among the variables he is
investigating.
Hypothesis: These are logically deduced from the theoretical framework above. They
refer to the anticipated outcome or possible answers to the research questions. they
should be conceptually clear , specific and simple.
Operational definition OF concepts: The major concepts used in the title of the study , its
objectives , the investigative questions and the hypothesis should be identified. Each of
them should be defined in operational terms pertinent to the measurement criteria or
operations.
The significance of the study: It is important to point out the relevance and significance
of the investigation. A careful statement of the value of the study and the possible
applications of its findings helps to justify its importance and social relevance.

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Geographical area to be covered: The territorial area to be covered by the study should
be decided and specified in the plan. The area to be chosen depends on the purpose of the
study and time and other resources.
Reference Period: This depends on the nature of the study and availability of data. The
period should be longer- say five or 10 years – if the study aims to make a trend analysis
of an activity like production or sale or profitability.
Methodology: In this section the overall topology of the design – experimental,
descriptive, survey, case study or historical study – is specified. Further the method or
methods to be adopted for the collection of data- observation, interviewing or mailing –
are specified.
Sampling Plan: If the study requires collecting primary data from the field the universe
must be deliberated, and the methods of sampling to be used for drawing the sample
from the universe and the sample size must be stated.
Tools for gathering data; In this section the tools to be used for gathering data-
interview schedule /guide , questionnaire or check list etc. are listed and each of them
described. the tools chosen should be appropriate to the methods to be adopted for
gathering data.
Plan of Analysis: The statistical techniques proposed for data collection and analysis
should be explained clearly with its suitability in the research.
Chapter Scheme: The chapter scheme of the report to be prepared for communicating
the findings of the study to the academic community and users should be outlined and the
purpose of each chapter stated.
Time budget: The time period required for each stage of work and the total time duration
of the study are specified.
Financial Budget:
The should include an estimate of the expected costs of the project under major
categories like salary, printing and stationary , postages , travel expenses , computation ,
secretarial & typing.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

 It may lead in the desired type of study with useful conclusions

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 It may lead to more accurate results or help to reduce inaccuracy.

 It may lead to optimum efficiency and reliability.
 It may minimize the wastage of time and beating about the bush.
 It may minimize the uncertainty, confusing and practical hazards associated with
research problem.
 It may be helpful for the collection of research material and testing of hypothesis.
 A research design is a guidepost for research direction.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

 Exploratory Studies:
The major purpose of exploratory studies are: the identification of problems , the more
precise formulation of problems and the formulation of new alternative courses of action.
The design of exploratory studies is characteristics by great flexibility and ad-hoc
versatility. By definition the researcher is involved in investigating an area or subject
about which he or she is not sufficiently knowledgeable to have formulated detailed
research questions and /or to state hypothesis about it. In short the researcher seeks to
gain familiarity and /or achieve new insights into the problems situation. For a given
problem the results of an exploratory study may indicate that further research can be
reduced and /or certain aspects of the larger study can be eliminated. An exploratory
study is conducted in the following situations;
 To design a problem for investigation & to formulate hypothesis
 To determine the priorities for further research.
 To gather data about the practical problems of carrying out research on particular
conjectural statements.
 To increase the analyst’s interest in the problems.
 To explain basic concepts.

While applying this design three different methods are followed.

Survey Of related Literature:

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By studying intensively the past studies and contributions related to the field of study the
research problem could be easily formulated.
Conducting Experience survey – This refers to undertaking collection of details and
discussion with the experienced people in the chosen field of research. This would help
the researcher to determine the extent to which he is original and can avoid duplication.
Analysis Of insight –stimulating examples is yet another method in which depending
upon the study on hand. In this method the experience of people would be used as a guide
to develop of formulates a hypothesis.
Descriptive Studies:
Descriptive research design is concerned with the research studies with a focus on
the portrayal of the characteristics of a group or individual or a situation. The main
objective of such studies is to acquire knowledge. For example to identify the use of a
product to various groups a research study may be undertaken to question whether the use
varies with income, age, sex, or any other characteristics of population. Similarly such
studies are used to examine the characteristics of the corporate sector or consumer
behavior etc.
Descriptive research is a marked by the prior formulation of specific research question.
The investigator already knows a substantial amount about the research problem, perhaps
as a result of an exploratory study before the project is initiated. Thus the investigator
should be able to define clearly what it is that he or she wants to measure and to set up
appropriate and specific means for measuring it.
A researcher does a descriptive study in the following situations;
 During the analysis of characteristics of certain groups , e.g users of a product of
different ages ,sexes ,education etc.
 To identify the proportion of people in a specified population who behave in a
certain way e.g shoppers who buy from a particular shop.
 To forecast future trends e.g sales of a company‘s product in each of the next five
years.
 To study whether certain variables are associated e.g income & use of a product.
Casual Relationship/ experimental research Design:

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This research studies are mainly focused on focused on finding out the cause &
effect relationship of the phenomenon under study. Actually when observation is
arranged and controlled, it becomes experimental research. An experiment is a test or
trail or an act or operation for the purpose of discovering something unknown or of
testing a principle , supposition etc. It is a unconfused fashion. There are different types
of experiments such as methodology, pilot study, heuristic, fact finding, boundary,
simulation, theoretical , illustrative etc.

FACTORS AFFECTING RESEARCH DESIGN:

• Non – Availability Of sufficient data: This is one of the basic factors affecting
research design. A design developed at one stage may undergo change in the
process of research as data may not be available. Then the design would be
suitably method. To overcome this usually researcher conduct a pilot study to
ascertain whether the required data would be available or not.

• Availability Of time: In the research process various stages are time consuming.
For example problem identification data collection, analysis and interpretation
etc. require a lot of time. The research design would be depending upon the
availability of sufficient time to carry out all these process rigorously.
• Availability Of resources: Certainly the availability of human and financial
resources will influences research design. A study which requires highly
specialized skill or experience, identifying such personalities would itself
consume a lot of time. Similarly the level of accuracy aimed at would also call for
liberal funding of the research process. Therefore researches with ambitious
objectives are usually undertaken only by organizations or with sponsors or by
government, considering the volume of funds required.
• Ability Of researcher: Not every researcher is gifted with all the qualities
required for conducting good research. A study which is highly analytical would
call for knowledge about the analytical tools and the interpretation ability.
Similarly an experimental research would require a special temperament. Hence

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depending upon the potential and ability of the researcher the research design
would be prepared.

UNIT – II
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Experiment is a study in which the investigator manipulates or varies one or more
variables and measures other variables. In other words It is a process of manipulating one
variable in a controlled environment while holding all other variables constant in order to
establish a casual relationship.
All experiment involves three basic components:
1. Variable manipulated in a experiment are referred to as the independent variable
or test units.
2. The actual alteration is called the treatment.
3. The actual variable chosen to measure the subject response are known as
dependent variables.
The result of the treatment is measured on dependent variable and these results of the
treatment are given a variety of names i.e, outcome, observation change, effect etc.
Advantage:
1. The researcher can manipulates the independent variable
2. Control group serves as a comparison to assess the existence and potency of the
manipulation.
3. The contamination from extraneous variable can be controlled more effectively.
4. The convenience and cost of experimentation are superior to other methods.
5. The experimenter can assemble combination of variables for testing .
6. Repeating an experiment with different subject group and condition is possible.
7. Researcher can use naturally occurring events.
Disadvantages:
1. The laboratory experiment is artificial

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2. Generalisation from non-probability samples can poses problems.

3. The experimentation can outrun the budget.
4. It is mostly effectively targeted at present or immediate future problems.
5. It is concerned with the study of people.
6. There is limits to the types of manipulation and control that are ethical.

CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT:
1. Select relevant Variable
In this step researcher will a) Select variable that are the best operational
concepts. b) Determine how many variables to test c) Select or design appropriate
measures for them.
2. Specify the level of the treatment:
The treatment levels of the independent variables are the distinctions the
researcher makes between different aspects of the treatment condition.
1. Control the experimental Environment
At this research concerned with environment control, holding constant the
physical environment of the experiment. The introduction of the experiment to the
subjects and the instruction would likely be videotaped for consistency. The
arrangement of the room, the time of administration the experimenter’s contract
with the subjects and so forth must all be consistent across each administration of
the experiment.
4. Choose the experimental design:
The experimental design are unique to the experimental. They serve as
positional and statistical plans to designate relationships between experimental
treatment and the experimenter’s observations or measurement points in the
temporal scheme of the study. The design strengthen the generalizability of results
beyond the experimental setting
4. Select and assign the subjects:
The subject selected for the experiment should be representative of the
population to which the researcher wishes to generalize. The researcher first
prepares a sampling frame and then assigns the subject for the experiment to

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groups using a randomization technique. If randomization is used those assigned

to the experimental group are likely to be similar to those assigned to the control
group. Random assignment to the group is required to make the group as
comparable as possible with respect to the dependent variable.

5. Pilot test –revise and test:

Pilot testing is intended to reveal errors in the design and improper control
of extraneous or environmental conditions. Pretesting the instrument permits the
researcher to revise scripts ,look for control problems with laboratory conditions
and scan the environmental for factor that might confound the results.
6. Analyse the data:
If adequate planning and pretesting have occurred the experimental data will
take an order and structure uncommon to surveys and unstructured observational
studies. Researcher has several measurement and instrument options with
experiment. Among them are
1) Observational technique and coding schemes
2) Paper and pencil tests
3) Self report instrument with open or dosed questions
4) Scaling technique
5) Physiological measure

VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTATION:
Validity refers to the extent to which the conclusions drawn from the
are true experiment
I - Internal validity:
Refers to the extend to which the research design accurately identifies casual
relationship.
a) History
When extraneous factors that enter the experiment process between the first and
later manipulation affect measure of the dependent variable.

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b) Maturation :
Changes in the dependent variable based on the natural function of time and not
attributed to any specific event.
c) Testing
When learned understanding gained from the first treatment and measure of the
dependent variable distort future treatment and measurement activities.
d) Instrumentation :
Contamination from changes in measurement processes observation technique
and measuring instruments
e) Selection Bias:
Contamination created by inappropriate selection or assignment process of test
subject to experimental treatment groups
f) Statistical Regression:
Contamination created when experiment group are selected on the basis of their
extreme response or scores.
g) Mortality :
Contamination due to changing the composition of the test subjects in the
experiment.
h) Ambiguity :
Contamination from unclear determination of cause effect relationship

II - External Validity:
Refer to the extent to which a casual relationship found in a study can be expected to
be true for the entire target population.
a) Treatment Vs Treatment
When test subject in different treatment groups are exposed to different amount of
manipulations.
b) Treatment Vs Testing
When the premeasurement process sensitizes test subject to respond in an abnormal
manner to treatment manipulation.
c) Treatment Vs Selection

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Generalising the results to other categories of people beyond those used in the
experiment

d) Treatment Vs Setting
Generalising the results to other environment beyond the one used in the experiment.

e) Treatment Vs History
Using the existing functional relationship to predict future phenomenon outcomes.

III - Construct Validity

Refers to the extent to which the variables under investigation are completely and
accurately identified prior to hypothesizing any functional relationships.
a) Inadequate pre-operationalization of variable
Contamination due to inadequate understanding of the complete make-up of the
independent and dependent variable included in the experimental design.
b) Mano operation bias
Contamination created by using only one method to measure the outcome of the
dependent variable.
c) Mano-method bias
Contamination due to assessing multi-attribute treatment manipulation using single
item measuring instrument.
d) Hypothesis –guessing
Contamination by test subject believing they know the desired functional relationship
relationship prior to the manipulation treatment.
e) Evaluation Apprehension:
Contamination caused by test subjects being fearful that their actions or response will
become known to others.
f) Demand Characteristic:
Contamination created by test subjects trying behind the experiment thus abnormal
socially acceptable responses or behaviour.
g) Diffusion Of treatment

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Contamination due to test subject discussing the treatment and measurement

activities with individual yet to receive the treatment.

IMPROVING THE VALIDITY OF EXPERIMENT DESIGN:

a) Inclusion of control group
When designing an experiment the researcher must determine who will be
assigned to the group that will be exposed to the manipulation and who will be assigned
to the control that does not receive the manipulation. Control group represent the greatest
strength of the experiment and the best way to ensure internal validity.
b) Time order of the manipulation exposure:
The researcher also must determine which variables, independent or dependent
will occur first. This can be accomplished by using pre-experimental measure of the
variables prior to manipulation or by establishing experimental treatment and control
group that do not differ in terms of influencing the dependent variable before the
manipulation takes place.
c) Exclusion of Non similar test subject
To increase internal validity the researcher can select only those test subject who
have similar and controllable characteristics.
d) Matching extraneous variable
Through the process of matching, the researcher measure certain extraneous
variable on a individual by individual basis Those who respond similarly to the variables
are then allocated to the experimental and control groups. Again this process can control
for both selection and statistical regression threats and enhances internal validity.
e) Randomisation Of Test subjects to treatment groups
Randomization of the assignment of test subjects to the experimental and control
groups can help make the groups equivalent . To enhance external validity the researcher
should also randomly select setting and times for the experiment based on the population
or event under investigation.

PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

a) Principle of Replication :

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According to this principle the experiment should be repeated more than once. So
each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By this statistical
accuracy of the experiment can be increased. This aims for increase in accuracy with
which effects and interactions can be estimated.
b) Principle of Randomisation
It provides protection, against the effect of extraneous factors in experiment. This
principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of
chance.

c) Principal Of local control

Under this method we first divide the whole unit into several homogenous parts , known
as blocks and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatment.
Then the treatment are randomly assigned to these parts of the block.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

I - Informal experimental design
1) Before and after without control design
In this design a single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is
measured before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is then introduced and
the dependent variable is measured again after the treatment has been introduced.

Experimental Training
Level of [X] Level of [Y]
Group Introduced
Performance Performance

Training Effect = Y- X
2) After – Only with control design
In this design two group or areas are selected and the treatment is introduced
into the test area only. The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the
same time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent

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variable is then measured in both the areas at the same time. Treatment impact is
assessed by subtracting the value in the test area.

Experimental Level of performance

Group Training after training [Y]
Introduced

Experimental Level of performance

Group No Training after training [Z]

Training Effect = Y- Z

3) Before and After with control design

In this design two areas are selected and the dependent variable is measured in
both the areas for an identical time period before the treatment. The treatment is then
introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is measured in both for an
identical time period after the introduction of the treatment. The treatment effect is
determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the control area from
the change in the dependent variable in the test area.
Time Period – I Time Period - II

Experimental Level of Training Level of

Group Performance Introduced Performance [Y]
[X]

Level of Level of
Performance No Training Performance [Z]
Control Group
[A]

Training Effect [Y-X] – [Z-A]

II Formal Experimental Design

4) Completely Randomized design

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In this design the subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments. It

involues two basic principle , ie principle of replication and principle of randomization of
experimental designs.
a) Two group simple randomization design
In this design all the population is defined and then from population a sample is
selected randomly. Then the samples are randomly assigned to the experimental and
control groups. The two groups ie experimental & control , of such a design are given
different treatments of the independent variable. This design is common in behavioural
sciences.
It is simple & randomize the differences among the sample items. But this does not
control extraneous variable.

a. Two Group Simple Randomized Design

Randomly Sample Randomly

Population
Selected Assigned

Treatment [A] Experimental

Group

Treatment [B] Control Group

b) Random replication design:

In previous design extraneous variable was not controlled. But in this method the
effect of such variable are minimized by providing a number of repetitions for each
treatment. Each repetition is technically called a replication. In this design sample is
taken randomly from the population available to conduct experiments and randomly

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assigned to four experimental & four control groups. Generally equal number of items are
put in each group so that the size of the group is not likely to affect the results of the
study. Due to repetitions the results are more reliable and population differences is also
reduced as it is randomized.

Population Population

Random Selection
Random Selection

Sample

Random assignment Sample

Random assignment

Group 1 E

Group 2 E

Group 3 E

Group 4 E

Group 5 C
Treatment A Treatment
B
Group 6 C

Independent Variable (or) Casual Variable

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Group 7 C

Group 8 C

5) Randomized Block design

It is an improvement over the completely randomized design. In this local control
can be applied along with other principles of experimental design. The subjects are
divided groups known as blocks. , within each group the subjects are relatively
homogeneous in respect to some selected variable. The number of subjects in a given
block would be equal to the number of treatments and one subject in each block would be
randomly assigned to each treatment. In general blocks are the level at which we hold the
extraneous factor fixed. So that its contribution to the total variability of data can be
measured. The main feature of the R.B. design is that in this each treatment appears the
same number of times in each block.
Randomized Block Design:
Very Low Very Low Very Low Very Low Very Low
I.Q I.Q I.Q I.Q I.Q
Student A B C D E

Form 1
Form 2

Form 3

Form 4

Form 5

6) Latin Squares design

It is used in agricultural research. For eg an experiment has to be made through
which the effects of five different varieties of fertilizers on the yield of a certain crop say
wheat is to be judged. In such case the varying fertility of the soil in different blocks in
which the experiment has to be performed must be taken into consideration otherwise the

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results obtained may not be very dependable because the output happens to be the effect
not only of fertilizers, but it may also be the effect of fertility of soil , varying seeds. To
overcome such difficulties the L.S design is used when there are two major extraneous
factors such as the varying soil fertility & varying seeds.
The merit of this design is it enables differences in fertility gradients in the field
to be eliminated in comparision to the effects of different varieties of fertilizers on the
yield of the crop. But it has a limitation , that there is no interation between treatments
and blocking factors and it requires rows & columns to be equal

I II III IV V

X1

X2

X3

X4

X5

Fertility Level
7) Factorial Design
It is used in experiment where the effects of varying than one factor be
determined.
a) Simple factorial Designs;
It is also termed as a two –factor factorial design. In this design the extraneous variable
to be controlled by homogeneity is called the control variable and the independent
variable, which is manipulated is called the experimental variable. Then there are two
experimental variable and two levels of the control variable. Subjects are assigned at
random to each treatment just like Random design. Means of different cells represent the
mean scores for the dependent variable. The column means represent the effect for
treatments without taking in account of control variable. The row means represent the
effect for levels without regard to treatment. Thus we can study the main effect of

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treatments as well as the main effect of levels. It is also possible to examine the
interactions between treatment and levels, whether they are independent of each other nor
they are not so.
Training
Control Treatment A Treatment B Row Mean
Intelligence
Level I 155 23.3 19.4
Level II 35.8 30.2 33.0
Column Mean 256 26.7

Training
Control Treatment A Treatment B Row Mean
Intelligence
Level I 10.4 20.6 15.5
Level II 30.6 40.4 35.5
Column Mean 20.5 80.5

40 B
A

30

20

10

A B

b) Complex Factorial design:

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Experiment with more than two factors at a time involve the use of complex
factorial design. A design which considers three or more independent variables
simultaneously is called a complex factorial design. When three factors with one
experimental variable having two treatments and two control variable each one of which
having two levels, the design used will be termed complex factorial design. In this
method it is possible to determine the main effect for three variables ie one experimental
and two control variables. The researcher can also determine the interactions between
each possible pair of variables.

Experimental Variable
Treatment A Treatment B
C.V. 2 C.V. 2 C.V. 2 C.V. 2
Level 1 Level 2 Level 1 Level 2
Control Level I
Level II
Variable

MEASUREMENT
Measurement can be defined as a standardized process of assigning numbers or other
symbols to certain characteristics of the objects of interest, according to some pre-
specified rules.
The definition implies that measurement is a three part process
1) Selecting observable events
2) Using numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the events.
3) Applying a mapping rule to connect the observation to the symbol.
Data Type
Data classifications employ the real numbers system. The most accepted basis for scaling
has three characteristics.
1) Numbers are ordered

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2) Differences between numbers are ordered.

3) Number series origin
Combination of these characteristics of order, distance and origin provide the following
widely used classification of measurement scales.
1) Nominal Data
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order
to label them. It provides convenient ways of keeping track of people object and
events. The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic
operation when a nominal scale is employed. Chi-square test is the most common test
of statistical significance that can be utilized and for the measure of correlation , the
contingency co-efficient can be worked out .

2) Ordinal Scale
It places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale
equal in terms of some rule. A rank order represents ordinal scales and are frequently
used in research relating to qualitative phenomenon. It have no absolute values and
the real differences between adjacent ranks may not be equal. All that can be said that
one person is higher or lower on the scale than another but more precise comparisons
cannot be made.
3) Internal Scale
It has the power of nominal and ordinal data plus one additional strength. It
incorporates the concept of equality of interval. The intervals are adjusted in terms of
some rule that has been established as a basis for making the units equal. Interval
units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is
based .eg Centigrade and Fahrenheit temperature scales Mean, standard of deviation
is appropriate measures. The generally used test for statistical significance are the “T”
test “F” test & other parametric test are the statistical procedures of choice.
4) Ratio Scale
Ratio scale has an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term “absolute zero”
is not as precise. We can conceive of an absolute zero length and also absolute zero of

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time. It represents the actual amount of variables. Geometric & harmonic mean can
be used as measures of central tendency & coefficient of variation may also be
calculated.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND MEASUREMENT

1) Validity
It is the extend to which difference found with a measuring tool reflect true
differences among respondents being tested. The difficulty in meeting this test is that
usually one does not know what the true difference
a) Content Validity
Degree to which extent content of the item adequately represents the universe of
all relevant items under study.
b) Criterion Validity
Degree to which the predictor is adequate in capturing the relevant aspects of the
criterion.
i) Concurrent Validity
Description of the present criterion data is available at same time as predictor
Scores.
ii) Predictive Validity
Prediction of the future criterion is measured after the passage of time.
c) Construct Validity
It tries to answer the question what accounts for the variance in the measure. Attempt
to identify the underlying construct being measured and determine how well the test
represents them.
2) Reliability

It is concerned with estimates of the degree to which a measurement is free of random

or unstable error. A measure is reliable to the degree that it supplies consistent results.
a) Stability
A measure is said to be stable if you can secure consistent results with repeated
measurement of the same person with the same instrument.
b) Equivalence

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Degree to which alternative forms of the same measure produce same or similar
results.
c) Internal consistency:
Degree to which instrument items are homogenous and reflect the same
underlying construct.
3)Practicality
It is concerned with how far it economical , convenience and interpretability
a) Economy
There should be a trade off between ideal research project and the budget.
b) Convenience test
Degree to which the measuring instrument is easy to administer.
c)Interpretability
Degree to which the person other researcher is able to interpret the results

SCALING
It is a procedure for the assignment of numbers to a property of objects in order in
order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.
Scaling Techniques:
I - Rating scale:
It involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or of
traits of a person. Here we judge an object in absolute terms against some specified
criteria There is no rules with points of scales, in practice 3 to 7 points scales are
generally used.
There are various types of rating scale;
a) Simple category scale :
It has two responses eg YES, NO. This scale is particularly useful for
demographic question or where dichotomous response is adequate.
b) Multiple Choice – Single
When there are multiple options for the respondent and only one answer is sought
this scale is preferred.

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c) Multiple Choice – Multiple response scale

It allows the respondent to select one or more alternatives from multiple choices.
e) Likert Scale –
It is a mostly used summated rating scale. It consists of statements that express
either a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the object of interest. The
respondent is asked to agree or disagree with each statement. Each response is given a
numerical score to reflect its degree of attitude favorableness and the scores may be
totaled to measure the respondent’s attitude. This data provides interval data.
f) Semantic differential
It helps to measure the psychological attitude. It is used in marketing problems,
political issues, and personalities. This method consist of bipolar rating scales, usually
with seven points by which one or more respondents rate one or more concepts on
each scale item. It produces interval data. The total set of response provides a
comprehensive picture about the respondent rating and object which is measured.

g) Numerical Scale
It has equal intervals that separate their numeric scale points. The verbal
statement serves as the labels for the extreme points. It is often five point scale. The
scale provides absolute & relative measure of the subject.
h) Multiple rating scale:
It is similar to numerical scale, but differs in two ways 1) It accepts a circled
response from the rater 2) The layout allows visualization of the results. The
advantage is that a mental map of the respondent evaluation is evident to both the
rater and the researcher. This scale produces interval data.
i) Fixed sum scale
In this scale two categories are presented that must sum to 100 upto 10 categories
can be used. The advantage is its compatibility. It provides continuous data. The scale
is used to record to attitudes, behaviour and behavioural intent.
j) Graphic rating scale:

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It was created to enable researcher to discern fine differences. It uses pictures ,

icons or other visuals to communicate with the respondents.
Ranking Scales
In this the subject directly compares two or more objects and makes choices
among them. The respondents were asked to select one as best or most preferred.
a) Paired –comparison
In this respondent can express attitudes clearly by choosing between two objects.
b) Forced Ranking Scale:
The list of objects are ranked relative to each other .This method is faster than
paired comparisons and is usually easier and more motivating to the respondent.
c) Comparative Scales
Another version of the preceding scale would label the categories “excellent”,
”very good”, “Good”, “fair” and “poor”. Thereby eliminating the implicit
comparison. The problem with comparative scale is that the reference point is unclear
and different reference points or standards.

SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

In research while measuring attitudes of the people we generally follow the
technique of preparing the opinonnaire (attitude scale) in such a way that the score of
the individual responses assigns him a place on a scale. In this respondent express his
opinion on various statements. While developing such statement the researcher must
note the following points;
1) That the statement must elicit responses which are psychologically related to the
attitude being measured.
2) That the statements need be such that they discriminate not merely between
extremes of attitude but also among individual who differ slightly.

DIFFERENT SCALES FOR MEASURING ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE

Name of the scale construction approach Name of the scales developed
1. Arbitrary approach Arbitrary scales

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2. Consensus scale approach Differential scales

(Thurstone Differential scale )
3. Item analysis approach Summated ( Likert Scale )
4. Cumulative scale approach Cumulative Scale
(Guttman’s Scalogram)
5. Factor analysis approach Factor scales
(Semantic differential, Multi-dimensional scaling)
1. Arbitrary Scale;
It is developed on ad hoc basis and are designed largely through the researcher’s
own subjective selection of items. The researcher select few statement or item which he
believes are appropriate to a given topic and it is include in measuring instrument.. Then
people are asked to check in a list for their opinion.
Merits:
1. It is easy to develop quickly with less expense.
2. It can be designed highly specific and adequate

Demerits
1. It is not reliable
2. It rely on researcher’s insight and competence.

3. Differential scale (Thustone – type scale)

It is associated with differential scale which have been developed using consensus
scale approach. In this selection is made by panel of judges
The procedure is
1. The researcher gather a large number of statements
2. The statements are submitted to panel of judges.
3. Each judge is request to arrange in position according to opinion.
4. Each judge is request to place the statement in first, second groups etc according
to his favorableness.

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5. In case of disagreement between the judges in assigning a position to an item that

item is discarded.
6. A final selection of statements is then made .
7. The position of statements on the scale is determined by judges.
Merits
1. It appropriate when we measure single attitude.
2. It is very reliable method
Demerits
1. It is costly method
2. Judge own attitude may reflect in arrangement
3. Summated Scale (Likert Scale)
It developed by utilizing the item analysis approach wherein in a particular item is
evaluated on the basis of how well it discriminates between those persons whose total
score is high and those whose score is low. Those items or statements that best meet this
sort of discrimination test are included in the final instrument.
Procedure:
1. Researcher collect a number of statements relevant to the attitude being studied.
2. A trial test should be made with small group of people
3. The response to various statements are scored in such a way that a response of
most favorable attitude is given the highest score of 5, and the most unfavorable
attitude is given the lowest score of 1.
4. Then the total score of each respondent is obtained by adding his scores for
separate statements.
5. Then arrange these scores & find out with those statements which have a high
discriminating power. This way we determine which statement consistently co
relate with high favorability & which with low favorability.
6. Only those statements that correlate with total test, should be retained in the final
statement. And others must be removed.
Merits:
1. it is easy to construct in comparison to differential scale.
2. It is more reliable.

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3. Each statement in this is given a test for discriminating ability, so it permits the use of
only those statements that have direct relationship to the attitude being studied.
4. We can study how responses differ between people & how response differ between
stimuli.
5. It takes less time to construct.
Demerits:
1. In this method we can examine whether respondents are more or less favorable to the
topic, but we can’t tell how much or less they are.
2. The interval between strongly agree & agree may not be equal to the interval between
agree & undecided.
3. Often the total score of an individual respondent has little clear meaning since the
given score can be secured by a variety of answer pattern.
4. Cumulative scale or scalogram:
It consists of a series of statements to which a respondents expresses his
agreement or disagreement. The special feature of this scale is that statements in it form a
cumulative series. The individual score is worked out by counting the number of points
concerning number of statement he answered favorably. The major scale of this type of
cumulative scales is the gutt man’s scalogram. The scalogram refers to the procedure for
determining whether a set of items form a unidimensional scale. A scale is said to be
unidimensional if response fall into a pattern in extreme and also less extreme points.
Procedure;
1. The layout in clear terms the issue we want to deal in our study.
2. Develop a number of items relating the issue and to eliminate by inspection the items
that are irrelevant or those that happen to be extreme items.
3. Pre-test the items whether the issue at hand is scalable. The respondent are asked to
record their opinion on all items ranging from ‘strongly agree to strongly disagree. The
score like 5 -1 was assigned. If there is 5 items in all, total, score can be from 75- 15.
4. Respondent opinionnaires are then arrayed according to total score for analysis and
evaluation. If the responses of an item form a cumulative scale, its response category
scores should decrease in an orderly fashion. After analyzing the preset results, a few
items may be chosen.

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5. Then total scores for the various opininnoires and to rearray them to reflect any shift in
order resulting from reducing the items.
Merits;
1. It assures that only a single dimension of attitude is measured.
2. Researcher’s subjective judgment is not allowed to creep in the development of
scale since the scale is determined by the replies of respondent.
3. It can be appropriately be used for personal, telephone or mail surveys.
Demerits:
1. It is very tedious & complex in preparation.
2. Conceptually is more difficult in comparison to other scaling methods.
3. It very a reliable source for assessing attitudes of persons towards complex objects.
5. Factor Scales:
It is developed on the basis of intercorrelations of items which indicate the degree
of interdependence. It include a variety of technique that have been developed for two
problem.
1) How to deal with the universe of content that is multidimensional.
2) How to uncover underlying dimension that have not been identified.

An important factor scale is semantic differential and multidimensional scaling.

a) Semantic differential scale:
It is an attempt to measure the psychological meanings of an object to an
individual.
b) Multidimensional scaling
It is characterized as a set of procedures for portraying perceptual or affective
dimension of substantive interest. It is used when all the variables are to be analysed are
happened to be independent. Through MDS techniques one can represent geometrically
the locations and interrelationship among a set of points.
Merits:
1. It is used in psychological survey.

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2. It is used to measure the perceptual structure of a set of stimuli and cognitive

processes underlying the development of this structure.
3. It is an important measurement tool for attitude.
Demerits:
1. It is complicated in calculation.
It is laborious in collection of data & analysis.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING A MULTIPLE ITEM SCALE

Determine Clearly What You Are Going

To Measure

General As Many Items As

Possible

Ask Expert In The Field To Evaluate

The Initial Pool Of Items

Determine The Type Of Attitudinal

Scale To Be Used

Include Some Items That Will Help In

• The Validation
Determine clearly what it isOf The
that Scale
you want to measure:
The scale should be well grounded in theory. The construct to be measured and
the scale itself should be specific. The construct should be clearly distinguishable
Administer The Items To An Initial
Sample
from other construct.
• Generate as many items as possible:
Items essentially are statements that are relevant of the construct. The greater the
Evaluate And Redefine The Items
number of initial items generated. The better the final scale will be. The items that are
developed should not be too long nor should they pose any reading difficulty to the
respondent.
Finally Optimize The Scale Length
• Ask expert to evaluate the initial pool of items:

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Experts are people who have worked one are currently working on the
phenomenon that is being studied. They can give inputs on the relevancy clarity and
conciseness of the items. Based on the experts’ evaluation the initial pool of items is
modified.
• Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used

The various scales such as the likert scale, semantic differential scale, Thurston
and associative scale has already been discussed should be selected. The type of
attitudinal scale to be used has to be decided quite early, because the wording of the
items varies with each scale format.

• Include validation item in the scale:

Certain items are added to the scale in order to improve the scales validity and
also to detect certain flaw in it.
• Administer the item to an initial sample:
Once it has been determined which construct related items are to be included in
the scale, the next step is to administer the scale to an initial sample. This is done to
check the validity of the items.
• Evaluate and refine the item of the scale:
The ultimate quality that is sought in an item is high conctation with the true score
of the latent variable that is being measured. The properties that the items of a scale
should possess are high interconctation, high item scale conctation high item
variance, a mean close to the center of ht range of possible scores, and a high
coefficient alpha.
• Optimize scale length:
The larger the scale, the greater the reliability but shorter scales are easier he
respondent to answer. Hence balance has to be struck between briefly and reliability
and the optimal scale length have to be determined.
SAMPLING DESIGN
• Population
A population is an identifiable total group of aggregation of elements.

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For Example: People, Products, Organizations, Physical Entities that are of

interest to the researcher and pertinent to the specified information problem.
• Element:
An element is a person or object from which data and information are sought.
• Sampling units:
Are the target population elements available for selection during the sampling
process.
• Sampling frame:
After defining the target Population the researcher must assemble a list of all
eligible sampling units, referred to as a sampling frame.

Characteristic of a good sample design

1. Goal orientation:
The sample design should be oriented to the research objectives, tailored to the
survey design, and filtered to the survey conditions.
2. Measurability:
A sample design should enable the computation of valid estimates of its sampling
variability normally this variability is expressed in the form of standard errors in surveys.
3. Practicality:
This implies that the sample design can be followed properly in the survey as it
also refers to simplicity of the design.
4. Economy:
It implies that the objectives of the survey should be achieved with minimum cost
and effort.

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING:
1. Sampling is cheaper than a census survey. It is obviously more economical for
instance to cover a sample of household than the entire household in a territory
although the cost per unit of study may be higher in a sample survey than in a
census survey.

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2. Since magnitude of operation involved in a sample survey is small, both the

execution of the fieldwork and the analysis of the results can be carried out
speedily.
3. Sampling results in greater economy of effort, as a relatively small staff is
required to carry out the survey and to tabulate and process the survey data.
4. A sample survey enables the researcher to collect more detailed information than
would otherwise be possible in a census survey. Also information of a more
specialized type can be collected which would not be possible in census survey on
account of the availability of a small number of specialist.
5. Since the scale of operation involved in a sample survey is small. The quantity of
the interviewing supervision and other related activities could be better than the
quality in a census survey.

LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING:
1. When the information is needed on every unit in the population such as
individual, dwelling units a business establishment a sample survey cannot be of
much help for it fails to provide information on individual count.
2. Sampling gives rise to certain errors of these errors are too large, the results of the
sample survey will be of extremely limited use.
3. While in a census survey it may be easy to check the omissions of certain units in
view of complete coverage this is not so in the case of a sample survey.

UNIT III
DATA COLLECTION

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Data refers to information or facts. Often researcher understands by data only numerical
figure. It also includes descriptive facts, non-numerical information, qualitative and
quantitative information. Data could be broadly classified as:
Primary Data:
It is known as the data collected for the first time through field survey. Such data are
collected with specific set of objectives to assess the current status of any variable
studied. Primary data are generally information gathered or generated by the researcher
for the purpose of the project immediately at hand. When the data are collected for the
first time, the responsibility for their processing also rests with the original investigator.
Secondary data
It refers to the information or facts already collected. Such data are collected with the
objective of understanding the past status of any variable.
Secondary data can be obtained internally ie within the firm or external from one or more
outside agencies.
Sources
I. Internal Sources
A. Accounting Record
 Sales Invoice
 Sales record
 Cost detail
 Level of profit
 Advertisig expenditure
 Budget etc.
B. Sales force Report
 Marketing information
 Customers opinion
 Competitor information
 AreaWise Sales
C. Internal Expert
Experts working in the company like product manager, marketing research

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managers, public relation personnel and advertising personnel etc.

C. Miscellaneous
 Company history
 Company background
 Market share
 Pamplet
 Prospectus
 Annual General Body Meeting Report.
 Organization manual, chart.
 Organisation report.
External Sources
i) Publication of (Government)
a. Reserve Bank of India Bulleting
b. Census Report
c. Registrar general of India
d. Central Statistical organization
e. Director general of commercial intelligence
f. Minisry of commerce & industry
g. Economic Advisor Office
h. Ministry of Agriculture
i. Labour Bureau.
ii) Non-government Publication
a. Private agencies
b. Stock –exchange directories
c. Chamber of commerce
d. Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce
e. Associate Chamber of commerce & Industry Of India
f. Indo- Amercian Chamber of Commerce etc
g. Promotion
h. Market Research & Statistical Bureau

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iii) Syndicated Services

These are provided provided by certain organization which collect
and tabulate marketing information on a continuing basis. Report based on the marketing
information collected by such organization is sent periodically to clients who are
subscribers. Apart from syndicated services a number of research agencies, offer and
customized research services to their clients.
iv) Technical and trade journals
v) Books, magazines & newspapers
vi) Reports prepared by research scholars universities economists etc in diff fields
vii) Public records and statistics, historical documents and other sources of published
information
viii) Various publications of foreign government or of international bodies and their
subsidiary organizations.

CHARACTERISTCS OF SECONDARY DATA

1. Reliability of Data :
The reliability can be treated by finding out such things about the said data
a. Who collected the data?
b. What were the sources of data?
c. Were they collected by using proper methods?
d. At what time were they collected?
e. Was there any bias of the compiler?
f. What level of accuracy was desired?
2. Suitability of Data
The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be
found suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in another
enquiry. Hence if the available data are found to be unsuitable. The researcher
should not use them.

3. Adequacy of Data

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If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose
of the present enquiry they will be considered as inadequate and should not used by
the researcher. The data will also be considered adequate.

4. Continuity of Data

This is another problem in using secondary data. For eg, the format used for
providing some date may not be consistently followed by the source. Depending upon
the page constraints or availability of material the data presentaion in a format is
decided. So frequent change in the format would only add to confusion to the people
using the data from such sources.

SPECIAL SOURCES

Computer Search & Internet Applications

Generally most databases allow the researcher to undertake precise searches using
combination of key words in the website.

1. Scanning & Browsing :

New publications such as journals are unlikely to be indexed immediately in
tertiary literature so you will need to browse through these publications to gain an
idea of their content. In contrast scanning involves going through individual items
such as journal articles to pick out points that are related to your own research.

2. Searching the Internet

The Internet is a worldwide network of computers that provides access to a

vast range of literature and other resources stored on computer around the world.
Searching these will uncover further material with which you can compare and
contrast your ides. The places where these resources are stored are known as
websites.
3. Home Page
Access to a website is through its home page. The home page, which has
links to other pages in the site, is similar to a title or contents page. Although they
often contain publicity for a company or institution they are an excellent way of
navigating the site.

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4. Search Tools:
It often referred to as search engines, are probably the most important way of
searching the internet for reviewing the literature on your research subject as they
enable you to locate the most current and up to date items.

5. Book marking
Once you have found a useful internet site, you will need to note its address.
This process termed bookmarking uses the internet browser to note the address so
that you will be able to access it again directly.

Sources of Primary Data

Advantages:-
1. It provide a first hand account of the situation. We can observe the phenomenon
as it takes place.
2. The information is more reliable as the investigator collects the data himself, he
can take all precautions to ensure their reliability
3. These are the logical starting point for research in several disciplines.
4. Primary data are the only way of finding out opinions, personal qualities, attitudes
etc.
Disadvantages:-
1. Collecting primay data is expensive in terms of both time & money.
2. There is greater scope for researcher bias creeping in unless the research
investigator is fair to the respondent and methods of data collection the result of
the study will not be reliable.
3. Sample selection is yet another problem.

METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA

1. Questionnaire :-
In this method to pre-printed list of questions arranged in sequence is used to
elicit response from the informant.

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2. Interview:
This is a method in which the investigator and the respondent meet and
questions raised are answered and recorded. This method is adopted when personal
opinion or view point are to be gathered as a part of data.
3. Observation:
A method which requires familiarity and experience, in this method the
observer applies his sense organs to note down whatever that he could observe in the
field and relate these data to explain some phenomena.
4. Feedback
In the case of some of the consumer goods, the supplier or the
manufacturer send the product along with a pre-paid reply cover in which questions
on the product and its usage are raised and the customer is required to fill it up and
send.
5. Sales force opinion
The sales representatives visit the distributor or the retailers shop to note
down the detail of stock movement, availability of items etc which give valuable
information.
6. Schedule
This method of data collection is very much like the questionnaire with
little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in by the
enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
7. Warranty Card
Warranty Card are usually postal sized card which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information
sought is printed in the form of question on the warranty cards which is placed
insided the package along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in
the card and post it back to the dealer.
8. Distributor or store Audit
Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesman and use such
information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern & so
on.

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9. Pantry Audit
Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basker of
goods at the consumer level. The investigators stay at the consuming point and
observe the purchasing behavior or the people like price response, quality
consciousness, response to price & incentive schemes, who take buying decision,
credit facility required.
10. Consumer Panel
It refers to an arrangement with select consumers to maintain details of
their consumption behavior in their diaries based on these recorded information,
useful first hand information is collected about the product & behavior of the
consuming public.
11. Collection through mechanical devices
The Use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect information
by way of indirect means. Eye camera, pupilometric camera, psychgalvanameter,
motion picture camera and audiometer etc are principal devices, commonly used for
the purpose for collecting the required information.
12. Projective technique
This technique is adopted to study the consumers through various methods
like recalling advertisement theme, story completion tests, quizzes, thematic
appreciation tests etc. Through this technique it is possible to compile information
to be used as the basis for projecting the demand for the product at different points
of time.
i. Word association test
In this the respondent asked to mention the first word that comes to
mind, without thinking as the interviewer reads out each word from a list.
j. Sentence Completion test
In this informant may asked to complete a sentence analysis of
replies from the same informant reveals his attitude toward that subject and
the combination of these attitudes of all the sample members is then taken to
reflect the views of the population.

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k. Story Completion Test

It is a step further, where in the researcher may contrive
stories instead of sentences and ask the informant to complete them.
l. Verbal Projection Test
These are the test where in the respondent is asked to comment on
or explain what other people do.
m. Pictorial Technique
* Thematic Apperception Test:
It consist of a set of pictures that are shown
to respondents who are asked to describe what they think the pictures
represent.
• Rosenzweig Test :
This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have a
series of cartoons with words inserted in balloon’s above. The
respondent is asked to put his own words in an empty balloon
space provided for the purpose in the picture.
• Rorschach Test
It consists of ten cards having prints of ink blots.
The respondents are asked to describe what they perceive in such
inkblot, and responses are interpreted on the basis of pre-
determined psychological framework.
• Holtzman Inkblot Test
It consists of 48 inkblot cards, which are based on
color movement, shading and other facts involved in inkblot
perception.
• Tomkins- Horn Picture Arrangement Test
It consist of twenty five plates each containing three
sketches that may be arranged in different ways to portray a
sequence of events. The respondent is asked to arrange them in a
sequence.

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• Play Technique
In this the respondents are asked to act out a
situation in which they have been assigned various roles. The
researcher may observe such traits as hostility, dominance,
sympathy prejudice or the absence of traits.
• Quizzes, tests & examination
This is also a technique of extracting information
regarding specific ability of candidates indirectly. Through this,
the memorizing and analytical ability of candidates.
• Sociometry
It is a technique for describing the social
relationship among individual in a group. It attempts to describe
attraction or repulsions between individual by asking them to
indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations.

13. In-depth Interview

These are those interview that are designed to discover underlying motives and
desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interview are held to
explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents.
14. Content Analysis
It consists of analyzing the contents of documentary materials scuah as books,
magazines, newspapers and the content of other verbal materials which can be
either spoken or printed.

OBSERVATION METHOD
It may be defined as “sensible application of sense organs in understanding
less explained or unexplained phenomena”.

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Using the sense organs, one could see and understands things. Whenever a
researcher is unable to compile information through any other method, then he has to
effectively apply his sense organs to observe and explain
So it may be said that observation involves recording of information applying
visual understanding backed by alert sense organs.

TYPES
1. Structured Observation
When observation takes place strictly in accordance with a plan or a
design prepared in advance, it is called structured observation. In such a type the
observer decided what to observe what to focus on, who are all to be observed etc.
2. Unstructured Observation
In this type of observation there is no advance designing of what, how,
when, who etc of observation. The observer is given the freedom to decide on the
spot, to observe everything that is relevant.
3. Participant Observation
In this, the observer is very much present in the midst of what is observed.
He is physically present on the spot to observe and not influencing the activities. It
will help him to continuously observe and not everything that is happening around
him.
4. Non Participant Observation
In this observer remains detached from whatever is happening around and
does involve himself in any activities taking place. He is present only to observe and
not to take part in the activities.
5. Controlled Observation
In this case, the observer performs his work in the environment or
situation, which is very much planned or designed or set.
6. Uncontrolled Observation
The observer is at freedom to observer whatever is taking place around
him in the natural set up.

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MERITS:-
1. The scope for bias is very much minimized.
2. The current scenarios in which anything is happening, notices & explained.
3. As there is no need to get any reply or details from the respondent observation
does not required any co-operation of the respondents.
4. This is a fairly reliable method.
5. Whenever respondent are illetrate or incapable of answering any question it is
only method of data collection available.

LIMITATION:
1. This is a relatively costly method of data collection, because the observer has to
be present on the spot to observer whatever is happening.
2. Training an observer is the additional cost to be incurred.]
3. The scope for the biases of the observe interfering in what is observed and
understood is high.
4. It could be noticed that what is observed may bring out only part of the facts.
5. It may not be possible to observe what is targeted.
6. There is a lot of scope for the observer to get distracted by function.
7. The observer can effectively establish link among whatever he has observed to
give a meaningful interpretation.
INTERVIEW
Interview method involves direct or indirect meeting of the respondent by the
researcher. The researcher determines the questions to be raised at the time of interview
and then elicit the response for them. The reply given is either written down in a
notebook or recorded in audio or videocassette.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1. Direct Interview
In this type of interview, the interviewer and the interviewee meet
personally either with prior appointment or not. This method requires a interviewer to
ask questions in a face to face contact to the other person or persons.

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a. Structured Interview
In this type of interview the person collecting
information decided in advance the nature, scope, questions to be asked
the persons to be contacted etc in advance. At the time of interview no
deviation is made from the questions to be asked.
b. Unstructured Interview
In this type of interview, interview is conducted on the spot
without any preparation or advance information to the respondent. It does
not follow a system of pre-determined questions standardized techniques
of recording information. The interviewer has much freedom to ask in
case of need supplementary questions or at time he may omit certain
question of the situation so required.
c. Focused Interview
In this type of interview the object of the interviewer is to focus the
attention of the respondent on a specific issue or point. The interviewer
has the freedom to plan the interview and conduct it they way wants it.
The interviewer on the spot decides all the question sequence, wording of
questions etc.
d. Clinical Interview
The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feeling a
motivations or with the course of individuals life experience.
e. Non-Directive
In this interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the
respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning.
f. Telephonic Interview
This method of collecting information consists in
contacting respondent on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used
method but play, important part in industrial survey. There is no scope for
physical presence of both the partial to the interview.

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Merits
1. Interview enables personal contact with which factual information could be
obtained.
2. The interviewer can guide the respondent to understand the question and suitably
rephrase or modify the question.
3. The non response in this category of data collection is low
4. Spontaneous reply of the respondent can be obtained which would truly reflect their
opinion.
5. Interviewer has the flexibility to handle the interview to collect relevant
information.
6. The interviewer can combine observation with interview so that a lot of additional
information about the environment, nature, behavior and attitude of the respondent
could also be noted.
7. The interviewer can be persuasive to obtain the response of the respondent while
this may not be possible in the case of questionnaire method of data collection.
8. The interviewer can adopt himself better by using the language with which he can
reach the respondents better and the educational level of the respondent.
9. It is also possible to obtain personal information which will not be revealed through
questionnaire.

Demerits:
1. This method presupposes the existence of rapport between the respondent and the
interviewer.
2. It is costly method of data collection, as the interviewer should be trained,
oriented and supported.
3. The time taken for covering a large sample of respondents is more than what it is
under questionnaire method.
4. It is possible for a respondent to conceal his real opinion or views and so
genuine data may not be available.
5. The interviewer may also be biased and thereby his bias may influence the
interview outcome.

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6. Interview method requires an elaborate organizational arrangement.

7. Sometimes this method cannot be followed as it would require fixing up
appointment, specifying the questions that are to be answered duration of
interview, the person interviewing the organizational background, the purpose of
interview etc. Inspite of providing all these information it may not be possible to
get an appointment to conduct the interview.

HOW TO MAKE INTERVIEW SUCCESSFUL?

1. The interviewer should be carefully selected.
2. The interviewer should be trained properly.
3. Different methods of obtaining the response from the informants have to be
explored and the interviewer should be trained in all these aspects.
4. Unless the interviewer is experienced he would not be able to conduct the
interview properly. But without conducting interview he cannot be experience co
care, should be taken while selecting this method of data collection.
5. Honesty and integrity of the interviewer determine the outcomes of the interview
so the qualities of the interviewer should be objectively studied.
6. The interviewer should be fully equipped to clarify any questions raised by the
informant.
7. The interviewer must first create a report with the respondent and ensures
presence of cordial atmosphere to conduct the interview.
8. Qualities like courteousness, politeness, friendliness, conversational, unbiased are
all necessary to make the interview successful.
9. The interviewer should avoid showing his reaction to the response of the
respondent as otherwise the replies given may be biased.
10. The interviewer should be alert and intelligent with presence of mind to keep the
interview focused on the subject matter.

QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is the sheets of paper containing questions relating to certain
specific aspect regarding which the researcher collects the data. The questionnaire is

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given to the informant or respondent to be fitted up. This method of data collection is
quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.

Merits:
1. It involves lesser cost as questionnaire could be send by post to a wide area.
2. It does not interfere with the respondent while answering the question.
3. The bias of the investigator is completely eliminated.
4. Respondents are given sufficient time to fill up the questionnaire.
5. If respondents cannot be reached personally, questionnaire is the alternative
method available.
6. This method is useful when the sample size is very large.
7. if the questionnaire is designed properly with instructions then the training,
supervising and controlling the investigators is saved.
8. Confidentiality is ensured as the respondents directly send the filled up
questionnaire to the researcher.

Demerits:
1. It is always found that the response rate in questionnaire is very poor compared to
using schedules.
2. Bias of the respondent cannot be determined easily.
3. Only if the respondent is educated questionnaire could be used for collecting
information.
4. Follow up of non-response or unfilled questionnaire only adds to the cost and time.
5. There is no scope for giving any clarification to the respondent in case of need.
6. Accuracy of response cannot be ensured.
7. A lot of care is required to design and structure a questionnaire. Hence unless a
scholar is good at drafting a questionnaire, this method cannot be adopted for data
collection.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

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QUESTIONNAIRE

SELF ADMINISTERED INTERVIEWER

ADMINISTERED

DELIVERY & TELEPHONE

POSTAL COLLECTION QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE

STRUCTURED
INTERVIEW

1. Structured Questionnaire
It pose definite, concrete and preordained questions.
Additional questions may be thought of and asked only when some clarification is
needed or additional information is sought from the respondent. Answers to these
questions are normally very precise without any vagueness & ambiguity.
2. Closed Form Questionnaire
Questions are set in such a manner that leaves only a few
alternatives answers.
3. Open Ended Questionnaire
Here the respondent has the choice of using his own style. Diction,
expression of language, length and perception. The respondent are not restricted,
his replies to the questions, and his answers may be free and spontaneous
4. Unstructured Questionnaire
These contain a set of questions that are not structured in advance.
It gives sufficient scope for a variety of answers. It is used mainly for conduction

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interview. Its merit is flexibility. It aims to secure the maximum possible

information from the respondent.
5. Pictorial Questionnaire
In a pictorial questionnaire alternative answer in the form of
pictures are given and the respondent is required to tick the picture concerned to
indicate his selection. This type of questionnaire is useful for illiterate and less
knowledgeable respondent.

MAIN ASPECT OF QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation. Hence it
should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up then the survey is bound
to fail. This fact requires us to study the main aspect of a questionnaire.
1. General Form
The questionnaire can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire.
The form of the question may be either closed or open, but should be stated in
advance and not constructed during questioning. The question is presented with
exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents.
2. Question Sequence
The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly moving meaning
thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the
respondent with question that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The
opening questions should be such to arouse human interest after that questions that
are really vital to the research problem and a connecting thread should run through
successive questions.
3. Question formulation and Wording:
Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a logical
plan. The questions can be of any forms like :-
i. Multiple Choice
It refers to one which provides several set alternatives for its answer.

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ii. Dichotomous
It refers to one which offers the respondent a choice between only
two alternatives, and reduces the issue to its simplest terms.
iii. Close End Question:
It refers to those questions in which the respondent is given a
limited number of alternative responses from which he is to select the one
that most closely matches his/ her opinion or attitude.
iv. Open Ended Question
It refers to a quesdtion that has no fixed alternatives to which the
answer must conform.
v. Direct Question
They explicitly ask for the desired data.
vi. Indirect Data
It refers to those whose responses are used to indicate or suggests
data about the respondent other than the actual facts given in the answer.
vii. Checklists
It is simply a statement on a problem followed by a series
of answers from which the respondent can choose. A single questionnaire
may contain all type of questions. Researcher must pay proper attention to
the wordings of questions since reliable and meaningful returns depend on it
to a large extent. Simple words which are familiar to all respondent should
be employed. Words with ambiguous meanings must be avoided.

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE:

1. It should be comparatively short and simple.
2. Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult
questions.
3. Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
4. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should
be avoided in a questionnaire.

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5. Questions affecting the sentiments should be avoided.

6. Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire to help
editing and tabulation.
7. It should be attractive looking.
8. The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that is may attract
the attention of recipients.
9. The first part of the questionnaire should specify the object or purpose for which
the information is required.
10. It should not force the respondent to recall from his memory anything to answer.
11. If there I is instruction, it should be given separately specifying the question
number and the related instructions.
12. It should not require any referencing before replying.
13. Repetition of questions should be eliminated.
14. Questions which cross check the response, could be built in to the questionnaire.

PILOT STUDY:
It is a process of testing the questionnaire before it is finalized, the questionnaire
before it is finalized, that is after the questionnaire is drafted, to decide whether it is
comprehensive or not, it is used with a few respondents.
Their responses are studied to determine the need for restructuring the
questionnaire, re-sequencing the questions, addition or deletion of questions, giving more
instructions for filing up etc can also be decided. It will bring to light the weaknesses of
the questionnaire.

Basis Questionnaire Schedule

Usage Respondent himself records the Researcher/ enumerator records
answers obtained. the answers obtained.

Cost Relatively cheaper as it is sent by Costlier, as the investigator has

mail to the targeted respondent. to be appointed, trained and
meet every informant at the

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latter’s place.

Coverage Wide coverage possible as it can be Relatively limited coverage as

sent to any place by post. the investigator cannot be sent
to every place.

Degree of Less all the respondents, do not Relatively better as the

Freedom respondent investigator guides the
respondents in understanding
the questions in right context.

Quality of Not good, as the respondent answers Relatively better as the

response the questions the way it understood. investigator guides the
respondents in understanding
the questions in right context.

Identify of It is not known clearly who It is clearly known, as the

respondent answered the questionnaire and this enumerator himself elicits the
in turn might affect accuracy information so the accuracy of
information obtained. information is more.

Time Taken It cannot be established as the It is possible to plan the enquiry

for reply respondent may reply at his & depute the investigators
convenience. accordingly & collect
information within a targeted
time

Personal It is completely absent and to that It is absolutely possible and so

contact extent there is to no scope for giving the quality of response is better.
any clarification to respondents. The investigator can understand
the questions clearly.

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Sample It is possible to cover a wide range This is not possible as the

Coverage of sample elements as the investigator has to personally
questionnaire is only sent by post. contact each respondent.

Pre-condition The respondent should be a literate The literacy status of the

for use and co-operative respondent si not a limitation.
The investigator can explain the
question & obtain the response.

Accuracy of It is not likely to be high, as it Relatively accuracy is better in

Information depends on the structure of the this method as the investigator
questionnaire itself can determine the accuracy on
the field and adopt appropriate
methods to ensure accuracy.

Presentation Questionnaire should be designed No such requirements is a

requirement properly and made attractive to condition
encourage the respondent to fill it.

Scope for This is not possible as the There is a lot of scope for the
application of questionnaire is sent to the investigator to apply
other methods respondent. observation method or interview
of data method of data collection along
collection. with the use of schedules.

Field control This is not possible as the There is good scope for
& testing. questionnaire is filled by the controlling editing and
respondent himself monitoring information on the
field itself

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Bias in There is no way to test the extent of If the investigator is trained and
information bias of the information given by the experienced then there is very
collected respondent. little scope for bias in
information content.

SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION: -

There are various methods of data collection; as such the researcher must
judiciary selects the method of his own study.
1. Nature, Scope and Object of enquiry: This constituted the most important factory
affecting the choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that
it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher.
2. Availability of Funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a
large extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the
disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively
cheaper method, which may not be as efficient and efficient as some other costly
method.
3. Time Factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a
particular method of data collection. Some method, take relatively more time
whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration.
4. Precision Required: The very important condition is the level of accuracy of the
data collected. In cases of compilation of data regarding the deviation from the
standard measurements in a workshop, the data should be cent % accurate.
Similarly the data regarding the patient condition explained through various
parameters should be very accurate.
5. Period of Study: A study based on historical data requires secondary data source
while the study on the patient status in a hospital require primary data.

TYPES OF SAMPLING PLAN

Sampling techniques are classified into two broad categories of probability
samples or non- probability samples.
Probability Sampling Technique
Probability samples are characterized by the fact that, the sampling units are

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selected by chance. In such case, each member of the population has a known,
non-zero probability of being selected. However, it may not be true that all
samples would have the same probability of selection, but it is possible to say the
probability of selecting any particular sample of a given size. It is possible that one
can calculate the probability that any given population element would be included in
the sample. This requires a precise definition of the target population as well as the
sampling frame.

Probability sampling techniques differ in terms of sampling efficiency which is

a concept that refers to trade off between sampling cost and precision.
Precision refers to the level of uncertainty about the characteristics being
measured. Precision is inversely related to sampling errors but directly related to cost.
The greater the precision, the greater the cost and there should be a tradeoff between
sampling cost and precision. The researcher is required to design the most efficient
sampling design in order to increase the efficiency of the sampling. Probability sampling
techniques are broadly classified as simple random sampling, systematic sampling, and
stratified sampling.
Simple Random Sampling
This is the most important and widely used probability sampling technique. They
gain much significance because of their characteristic of being used to frame the concepts
and arguments in statistics. Another important feature is that it allows each element in the
population to have a known and equal probability of selection. This means that every
element is selected independently of every other element. This method resembles lottery
method where a in a system names are placed in a box, the box is shuffled, and the names
of the winners are then drawn out in an unbiased manner.

Simple random sampling has a definite process, though not, so rigid. It involves
compilation of a sampling frame in which each element is assigned a unique
identification number. Random numbers are generated either using random number
table or a computer to determine which elements to include in the sample. For
example, a researcher is interested in investigating the behavioural pattern of
customers while making a decision on purchasing a computer. Accordingly,

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the researcher is interested in taking 5 samples from a sampling frame containing 100
elements. The required sample may be chosen using simple random sampling
technique by arranging the 100 elements in an order and starting with row 1 and
column 1 of random table, and going down the column until 5 numbers between 1
and 100 are selected. Numbers outside this range are ignored. Random number tables
are found in every statistics book. It consists of a randomly generated series of digits
from 0 – 9. To enhance the readability of the numbers, a space between every 4 digit
between every 10 row is given.
The researcher may begin reading from anywhere in the random number table,
however, once started the researcher should continue to read across the row or down a
column. The most important feature of simple random sampling is that it facilitates
representation of the population by the sample ensuring that the statistical conclusions are
valid
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a two-way process. It is distinguished from the simple
random sampling and systematic sampling, in that:
a) It requires division of the parent population into mutually exclusively and
exhaustive subsets;
b) A simple random sample of elements is chosen independently from each group or
subset.
Therefore, it characterises that, every population element should be assigned to one
and only
Stratum and no population elements should be omitted. Next, elements are selected
from each stratum by simple random sampling technique. Stratified sampling differs
from quota sampling in that the sample elements are selected probabilistically rather
than based on convenience or on judgmental basis.
Strata are created by a divider called the stratification variable. This variable divides
the population into strata based on homogeneity, heterogeneity, relatedness or cost.
Sometimes, more than one variable is used for stratification purpose. This type of
sampling is done in order to get homogenous elements within each strata and, the
elements between each strata should have a higher degree of heterogeneity. The

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number of strata to be formed for the research is left to the discretion of the
researcher, though, researchers agree that the optimum number of strata may be 6.
The reasons for using stratified sampling are
as follows:
a) It ensures representation of all important sub-populations in
the sample;
b) The cost per observation in the survey may
be reduced;
c) It combines the use of simple random sampling with potential gains in
precision

d) Estimates of the population parameters may be wanted for each sub-

population and;
e) Increased accuracy at
given

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Non-probability Sampling
Methods
Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection. It involves
personal judgement of the researcher rather than chance to select sample elements.
Sometimes this judgement is imposed by the researcher, while in other cases the
selection of population elements to be includes is left to the individual field
workers. The decision maker may also contribute to including a particular individual
in the sampling frame. Evidently, non probability sampling does not include elements
selected probabilistically and hence, leaves a degree of sampling error‟ associated
with the sample.
Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the
population. Therefore, while inferring to the population, results could not be reported
plus or minus the sampling error. In non-probability sampling, the degree to which the
sample differs from the population remains unknown However, we cannot come to a
conclusion that sampling error is an inherent of non probability sample.
Non-probability samples also yield good estimates of the population
characteristics. Since, inclusion of the elements in the sample are not determined in a
probabilistic way, the estimates obtained are not statistically projectable to the
population.
The most commonly used non-probability sampling methods are convenience
sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.
Convenience Sampling
Convenience samples are sometimes called accidental samples because the
elements included in the sample enter by „accident‟. It is a sampling technique where
samples are obtained from convenient elements. This refers to happening of the
element at the right place at the right time, that is, where and when the information for
the study is being collected. The selection of the respondents is left to the discretion of
the interviewer. The popular examples of convenience sampling include (a)
respondents who gather in a church (b) students in a class room (c) mall intercept
interviews without qualifying the respondents for the study (d) tear-out questionnaire
included in magazines and (e) people on the street. In the above examples, the people

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may not be qualified respondents, however, form part of the sample by virtue of
assembling in the place where the researcher is conveniently placed.
Convenience sampling is the least expensive and least time consuming of all
sampling techniques. The disadvantage with convenience sampling is that the
researcher would have no way of knowing if the sample chosen is representative of
the target population.
Judgment Sampling
This is a form of convenience sampling otherwise called as purposive
sampling because the sample elements are chosen since it is expected that they can
serve the research purpose. The sample elements are chosen based on the judgment
that prevails in the researcher’s mind about the prospective individual. The
researcher may use his wisdom to conclude that a particular individual may be a
representative of the population in which one is interested.
The distinguishing feature of judgment sampling is that the population elements
are purposively selected. Again, the selection is not based on that they are
representative, but rather because they

can offer the contributions sought. In judgement sampling, the researcher may be well
aware of the characteristics of the prospective respondents, in order that, he includes
the individual in the sample. It may be possible that the researcher has ideas and
insights about the respondents requisite experience and knowledge to offer some
perspective on the research question.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is another non-probability sampling. It attempts to ensure that
the sample chosen by the researcher is a representative by selecting elements in such
a way that the proportion of the sample elements possessing a certain
characteristic is approximately the same as the proportion of the elements with the
characteristic in the population.
Quota sampling is viewed as two-staged restricted judgemental sampling
technique. The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of
population elements. Control characteristics involve age, sex, and race identified
on the basis of judgement. Then the distribution of these characteristics in the

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target population is determined. For example, the researcher may use control
categories in that, he/she intends to study 40% of men and 60% of women in a
population. Sex is the control group and the percentages fixed are the quotas.
In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or
judgement. Once the quotas have been determined, there is considerable freedom to
select the elements to be included in the sample. For example, the researcher may not
choose more than 40% of men and 60% of women in the study. Even if the researcher
comes across qualified men after reaching the 40% mark, he/she would still restrict
entry of men into the sample and keep searching for women till the quota is fulfilled.
Snowball sampling
This is another popular non-probability technique widely used, especially in
academic research. In this technique, an initial group of respondents is selected,
usually at random. After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify
others who belong to the target population of interest. Subsequent respondents are
selected based on the information provided by the selected group members. The
group members may provide information based on their understanding about the
qualification of the other prospective respondents. This method involves probability
and non-probability methods. The initial respondents are chosen by a random
method and the subsequent respondents are chosen by non-probability methods.

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UNIT IV
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
I. UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS
It focus on the level coverage and distribution (variance) of a single variable
II. BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
It focuses on the degree of relationship (correlation or covariance) between two
variables.
III. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
It is the analysis of the simultaneous relationship among three or more variables.
In a multivariate analysis, the focus shift from paired relationships to the more complex
simultaneous relationships among three or more variables.
The multivariate technique can be broadly classified as dependence technique as
dependence technique or interdependence techniques.
Dependence techniques are appropriate when one or more variables can be
identified as dependent variable and the remaining as independent variables.
In the interdependence techniques the variables are not classified as dependant
or independent.

UNIVARIATE TECHNIQUE

NON PARAMETRIC PARAMETRIC TECHNIQUE

STATISTIC

ONE SAMPLE TWO OR ONE TWO OR

- Chi-Square MORE SAMPLE MORE
 Kolomogorov SAMPLES  T-TEST SAMPLES
Smirnov  Z-TEST
 Run

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INDEPENDENT
INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
 SIGN  T-TEST
 Chi-Square
 WILCOXON  Z-TEST
 RANK-SUM TEST
 MCNEMAR  ANOVA
 K-S
 ANOVA  COCHRANQ
DEPENDENT
PAIRED TEST

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MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUE

ARE SOME VARIABLES

DEPENDENT

YES NO

DEPENDENCE METHODS INTERDEPENDENCE METHODS

HOW MANY VARIABLES ARE INPUTS METRIC

ARE DEPENDENT

YES NO
ONE SEVERAL

IS IT METRIC ARE THEY  FACTOR

METRIC ANALYSIS
 CLUSTER
ANALYSIS
YES NO YES NO  METRIC
MDS

MULTI- CANONICAL
MULTIPLE MULTIPLE VARIATE ANALYSIS
REGRESSION DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE

LATENT
NON METRIC STRUCTURE
METHODS ANALYSIS

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VARIABLE IN MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS

1. Exploratory Variable
Explanatory variables are called external or exogenous variables. If x a
considered t be the cause of y, then x is the explanatory variable (or) causal or
independent variables.
2. Criterion Variable
These are called endogenous variables. In the above stated case y is called as
criterion (or) dependent resultant variable.
3. Observable & Latent variable
When explanatory variable are directly observable variable, they are termed
observable variable. However some unobservable variable may influence criterion
variable in which case they are called latent variables.
4. Discrete variable & Continuous Variable
Discrete variables are those that lake only the integer value when measured.
Continuous variables are those that when measured, can assume any real volume.
5. Dummy Variable
This term is used in a technical sense and is useful in algebraic
manipulations in the context of multivariate analysis

TECHNIQUES
I. MULTIPLE REGRESSION
When there are two or more than two independent variables, the equation
describing such a relationship is the multiple regression equation. In this situation the
results are interpreted as

Y= a + b1 x1+ b2 x2

X1, x2 = independent variable y = dependent variable

a, b1, b2 = constant

The constant can be solved by solving the following equation

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• The no of normal equation would depend upon the number of independent

variable. If there are two independent variables, then three equations, if there are
three independent variable then four equations and so on are used.
• In multiple regression analysis the regression co-efficient (b1,b2) become less
reliable as the degree of correlation between the independent variable (x1,x2).
• If there is high degree of correlation between independent variables. We have
what is commonly described as the problem of multicollinearity. In such a
situation we should use only one set of the independent variable to make our
estimate.
• Adding a second variable say x2 which is correlated with the first variable say x1
distorts the values of the regression co-efficient.
• The main objective in using this technique is to predict the variability the
dependent variable based on its covariance with all the independent variables.
• One can predict the level of the dependant variable through the multiple
regression analysis model given the levels of independent variables.
• When multiple independent variables are measured with different scales, it is not
possible to make relative comparisons between regressions co-efficient to see
which independent variables have the most influence on the dependent variable.
• To solve this problem, we calculate the standardized regression co-efficient. It is
called beta co-efficient and it is calculated from the normal regression co-
efficient.
• The beta co-efficient allows direct comparison between independent variables to
determine which variables have the most influence on the dependant measure.
• When using multiple regression analysis, it is important to examine the overall
statistical significance of the regression model. The amount of variation in the
dependant variable that you have been able to explain with the independent
measures is compared with total variation in the dependant measure. This
comparison result in a statistic allied a mode F Statistic

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Application:
 Used to predict the dependent variable, given knowledge of independent
variable.
 To understand the relationship between the dependent variable and
independent
variable.
Inputs:
Variable value for dependent and the independent variable.
Output:
It will output the regression coefficients and their associated beta coefficient and t-
Values which can be used to evaluate the strength of the relationship between the
respective independent variable and the dependent variable.
Statistical Test:
The hypothesis that a regression parameter obtained from the sample evidence is
zero or not is based on the t-value.
Limitation
 The knowledge of a regression coeffient and it’s t-value can suggest the extent
of association or influence that an independent variable has on the dependent
variable.
 The regression coeffient will reflect the impact of the omitted variable on the
dependent variable.
 The model is based on collected data that represent certain environmental
conditions.
 The model is limited by the methodology associated with the data collection
including the sample size and measures used.

II. MULTIPLE DISCRIMINATE ANALYSIS

• It is a multivariate technique used for predicting group membership on the basis
of two or more independent variables. A discriminate function is a regression
equation with a dependant variable that represents group membership. This

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function maximally discriminate between members of the group. It tells us to

which group each member probably belong.
• It can be used to assign individual to groups on the basis of their scores on two or
measure. From those scores the best composite score based on least squares is
calculated. Then the higher R2 is the better predictor of the group membership.
• One can use discriminate analysis to classify objects into two groups (ie.,)
success, failure, default, non-default.
• In discriminate analysis a scoring system is used on the basis of which an
individual is classified as category.
• Suppose an individual is 25 years of age earns an annual income of Rs.60000/-
and has undergone formal education for a period of 17years. Each of three
variables is given a weight indicating its relative importance.
Y=dependant variable.
• A certain limit is fixed of the value of y below which all values will be classified
in Group I and the others in Group II. The values of b1,b2 and b3 indicae their
importance. The numerical value of y can be transformed into t probability of the
individual being credit worthy.
• It may be noted that in the linear discriminate, the “b” co-efficient are similar to
the regression co-efficient. However the main differences is that while the
regression co-efficient are used to predict the value of the dependant variable.
The discriminate co-efficient are used to classify correctly as many individual or
object as possible.
• One major advantage of linear discriminate analysis is that it enables the
researcher to know, by a simple device whether an individual is likely to belong
to one or the other category on the basis of his overall score. In this context, it is
not only the values of the discriminate coefficient but also their positive or
negative signs that are equally relevant.
• Given a certain minimum vale of Z and credit worthiness, it should be clear that
the higher the values of the independent variable provided the discriminate

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coefficient are positive, the more chances there are for the individual to be
classified under this category.

Application:
Used to identify variables that contribute to differences in the a priori defined
groups with the use of discriminate functions. It classify objects into one or more
groups that are already defined.
Inputs:
Variables values for the independent variable and dependent variable.
Output:
It provide the characteristics of the discriminate fuction., such as the variables that
contribute to each discriminate fuction. The significance of the fuction is also given.
Statistical Tests:
The significance of the discriminant fuction and the variables are evaluated
through through an F-statistic.
Limitation :
 It is similar to regression analysis such as intervariable correlations in the model,
correlation of variables with the omitted variables,and change of environment
condition.
 The assumption of the discriminant analysis has to be tested and it is often
possible that the assumption of equal variance –covariance matrices of the
Independent variable in each group is not met.

III. FACTOR ANALYSIS

It is a multivariate statistical technique that is used to summarize the information
contained in a large number of variables into smaller number of subsets or factors. The
purpose of factor analysis is to simplify the data with factory analysis there is no
distinction between dependent and independent variables rather all variables under
investigation are analyzed together to identify underlying factor.
There are two objects of factor analysis:-

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1. It simplifies the data by reducing a large number of variable to a set of a small

number of variables.
2. It analyses the interdependence of interrelationship among a total set of
variables.
Factor analysis is an appropriate technique in case where the variables have a high
degree of Interco relation.

METHODS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS:

I The Centroid method
It was developed by L.L. Thurstone in 1950. It tends to maximize the
sum of loadings, disregarding signs, it is the method which extracts the largest sum f
absolute loadings for each factor in turn. It is defined by linear conmbination in which
all weights are either + 1 or -1.
Steps:
1. Compute a matrix of correlations, R where unities are placed in the diagonal
spaces.
2. If correlation matrix happens to be positive manifold the centriod method requires
that the weights for all variables be +1.
3. The first centroid can be calculated as
a) Sum of the coefficients in each column of the correlation matrix is worked out
b) Then sum of these column sums (T) is obtained
c) The sum of each column obtained as per is divided by the square root of T .
This way each centroid loading is ( one loadings for one variable) computed. The
full set of loadings so obtained constitute the first centriod factor.
4. To calculate second centriod , obtain a matrix of residual coefficients. It can be
obtained by multiplying the loading for the two variables on the first centriod
factor.
5. This second matrix Q1, is subtracted element by element from the original matrix
R.
6. The resultant matrix may have negative signs for variables.
7. For those reflected variable signs for all column & row are changed.

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8. From this reflected matrix loadings , the second centriod factor loadings are
computed just like first centroid factor.
9. For subsequent factor the same process is repeated.

II . The Principal Components Method

It is developed by H.Hotelling. It seeks to maximize the sum of squared loadings
of each factor extracted in turn. The aim of the principal components method is the
construction out of a given set of variables X j ‘s ( j = 1,2,3 …….k) of new variables
(pi) called principal components which are linear combinations of the X.
The method is being applied mostly by the using the standardized variables,
The aij are called loadings and are worked out in such a way that the extracted
principal components satisfy two conditions i) Principal components are uncorrelated
ii) The first principal pi has the maximum variance, the second principal component
p2 has the next maximum variance and so on.

III .The Maximum likelihood method

It consist in obtaining sets of factor loadings successively in such a way that each
in turn explains as much as possible of the correlation matrix. It is a statistical
approach in which one maximize some relationship between the sample of data and
the population from which the sample was drawn. The loading obtained on the first
factor are employed in the usual way to obtain a matrix of the residual coefficient. A
significance test is then applied to indicate whether it would be reasonable to extract a
second factor. This goes on repeatedly in search of one factor after another. This
method is very difficult in comparison to the other methods.
Merits:
1. The technique of factor analysis is quite useful when we want to condense and
simplify the multivariate data.
2. the technique is helpful in pointing out important and interesting that were there all
the time, but not easy to see from the data alone
3. The technique can reveal the latent factors that determine relationship among
several variables.

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4. the technique may be used in the context of empirical clustering of products, media
or people ie., for providing a classification for providing a classification scheme
when data scored on various rating scales have to be grouped together.

Application :
It is used to identify underlying dimensions or constructs in the data and to reduce
the number of variables by eliminating redundancy.
Inputs :
Usually a set of variables values for each individual or object in the sample.
Output ;
The factor loadings ie correlation between the factors and the variables are used to
interpret the factors.
Key assumptions:
The list of variables are complete and adequate for each factor.
Limitation
1. It involves laborious computations involving heavy cost burden.
2. the results of a single factor analysis are considered generally less reliable.
3. It can be used only when researchers has good knowledge and experience in
handling.
4. It is highly subjective process.
5. No statistical tests are regularly employed in factor analysis.

IV. CLUSTER ANALYSIS

• The basic idea of cluster analysis is to group similar objects together.
• A cluster is consists of variables that have high correlation with one
another and
Comparatively low correlation with variables other clusters.
• The objective of cluster analysis is to determine how many mutually and
exhaustive groups or clusters, based on the similarities profiles among entities
really exist in the population and then to state the composition of such groups.
• There are two approach to clustering. Hierarchical and Non-Hierarchical.

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• Hierarchical clustering can start and divide and in one cluster and divide
and sub
divide them until all objects are in their own singly object cluster. This is called
the top-down or decision approach.
• In contrast the bottom up or agglomerate approach can start with each
object in its
own cluster and systematically combine cluster until all objects are in one cluster.
• When one objects is associated with another in a cluster, it remains
clustered with
that object.
• The non-Hierarchical clustering differs from clustering only in that it
permits
objects to leave one cluster and join another as clusters are being formed if the
clustering criterion is improved by doing so.
• Instead of using the tree like construction process found Pn Hierarchical
clustering, cluster seeds are used to group objects within a pre-specified distance
of the seeds. Cluster seeds are initial centroids or starting points of the cluster.
• Hence in this approach a cluster center is initially selected and all objects
within a
pre-specified threshold distance are included in that cluster.
• There are several methods of groupings objects into cluster. In the
Hierarchical
approach the commonly used methods are singly linkage, complete linkage
,average linkage, ward’s method & the centroid method.
• In Non-Hierarchical methods the three most commonly used approaches
are
sequential threshold parallel threshold and optimizing procedures.

Methods of Grouping Clusters

I. Hierarchical Clustering

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a. Single Linkage
It is based on the shortest distance. It finds the two individual
separated by the shortest distance and places them in the first cluster and places
them in the first cluster. Then the next shortest distance PS found and either a
third individual joins the first wo to form a cluster or a new two individual cluster
is formed. The process continues until all individual are in one cluster. This
procedure is also referred to as the nearest neighbor approach.
b. Complete Linkage
This procedure is similar to singly linkage except that the
clustering criterion is based on the longest distance. For this reason, it is
sometimes referred to as the farthest neighbor approach. The distance between
tow clusters is the longest distance from a point in the first cluster to a point in the
second clusters.
c. Average Linkage
It start out the same as single linkage and complete linkage but the
clustering criterion is the average distance from individuals in one clusters to
individuals in another such technique do not use extreme values as do single
linkage or complete linkage and partitioning is based on all members of the
clusters rather than on a single pain of extreme members.
d. Ward’s Method
It is based on the loss of information resulting from grouping
objects into clusters as measured by the total sum of square deviation of every
object from the mean of the cluster to which the object is assigned. As more
clusters are formed the total sum of squared deviations increases. At each stage in
the clustering procedure the error sums of square is minimized over all partitions
obtainable by combining tow clusters from the previous stage. This procedure
tends to combine clusters with a small number of observations. It is also biased
toward producing clusters with approximate the same number of observations.
e. Centroid Method
In the centroid method the distance between the group centroid is
measured. The centroid is the point whose co-ordinates are the means of all the

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observations in the cluster when two clusters combine a new cluster is computed.
Thus cluster centroids migrate or move as the clusters are combined.

II. Non-Hierarchical Clustering

1. Sequential Threshold
In this case a cluster centroid is selected and all objects
within a pre-specified threshold value are grouped. Then a new cluster center is
selected and the process is repeated for the unflustered objects, and so on for
unclustered objects, and son on. Once objects enter a cluster, they are moved
from further procession.

2. Parallel Threshold
This method is similar to the proceeding one except that severe
cluster centers are selected simultaneously and objects within the threshold level
are assigned to the nearest center. The threshold level can then be adjusted to
admit fewer or more objects to the cluster.
3. Optimizing
This method modified the previous two procedures in that objects
can later be reassigned to clusters by optimizing some overall criterion measure.
Such as the average within cluster distance for a given number of cluster.
Number of Clusters
1. The analyst can specify the number
2. He can specify the level of clustering with respect to the clustering criterion.
3. Determine the number from the pattern of clusters, the program generates.
4. The rate of total withing group variance to between grouped variance can be
plotted against the number of cluster.
1. Application
Cluster analysis is used to group variables, objects or people
2. Input
It is any valid measure of similarity between objects such as correlations
3. Output

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The output is the formation of clusters.

4. Key assumptions
 The basic measure similarity on which the clustering is based is a valid
measure of the similarity between the objects.
 There is theoretical justification for structuring the objects into clusters.
Advantages:
1. Main use of cluster analysis in marketing is market segmentation
2. It provides better understanding of buyers behaviour.
3. It can also be used in the development of potential new products.
4. It helps for reducing a large mass of data into meaningful aggregate which are far
more manageable than a large number of individual observation.
Limitation
1. the lack of specificity has resulted into several methods of cluster analysis
2. cluster analysis lacks standard statistical tests
3. It requires a good deal of computational time almost as much as factor analysis
needs.

CANONICAL CORRELATION ANALYSIS

When the researcher has two criterion variables (dependant variable) and
multiple predictors variables (independent variable) canonical correlation analysis is an
appropriate statistical technique. Multiple regression analysis investigates the linear
relationship between a singly dependant or criterion variable and multiple independant
variables. Canonical correlation is a extension of multiple regression. It focuses on the
relationship between two sets of interval scale variables.
For eg. The relationship between the performance of a brand (measured as
sales, marker share, growth in sales, profit etc) and marketing-mix variables (price,
promotion, distribution, advertising etc) can evaluated through canonical analysis.

Application
Suppose we wish evaluate the association between a set of export-interest
variable (criterion set) and some firm characteristic (predictive set) e want to know how
several from characteristic such as willingness to export (y 1) and level of interest on
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seeking government assistance (y2) influence export interest behavior. Computing the
canonical correlation assesses the relationship between the y-set and x-set of variable.
Canonical correlation can be defined as the correlation between the linear
combination of the dependant variables and the linear combinations of the independent
variables.
Calculations of the canonical correlation maximize the correatlion between
two linear combinations for eg. The linear combination for firm characteristics might
and the linear combination for the export interest variables might be
Then the correlation between W and Y is defined as canonical correlation.

Application
Canonical analysis is a technique to assess relationship between multiple
dependant and multiple independent variables.

Input
The inputs are the variables value for both the dependant and the
independent variables.

Output
It helps to assess relationship between the linear composites of the dependant
variable s with linear composite of the independent variables.

Statistical Test
The significance of canonical function and the variable are evaluated with an
F- Statistic.

LIMITATIONS

1. Canonical weight is derived to maximize the correlation between the linear

composites and not the variance extracted.
2. It reflects shared variance between the linear composites and not the variance
extracted.
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3. Canonical weights are subject to a great degree of instability.

UNIT - V

RESEARCH REPORT
Research report is a written document through which the researcher intimates
to the world the findings of this study, the design of the study, his conclusions, the
suggestion and recommendations based on his findings, the details of data collected, the
method he has adopted for selecting the sample, the tools he used for analysis the
hypotheses he has set his set objectives, the limitation of his study etc..It is the end
product of research activity. It is a technical activity that demands all the skills and
patience of the researcher.
A vast amount of planning and preparation is necessary for organizing and
writing the report. Perfection in a research report is achieved by continuous and persistent
thought and creative and intelligent writing. There are no standard criteria for the
organization of a report. They depend on problem, novelty, familiarity, nature, volume of
facts, technique of analysis and so on.

Objectives of a Report:-
1. Reports provide information to those who are in need of it.
2. It provides information for planning and co-ordination o business activities.
3. Reports give information to investors speculators, government, customers and the
people at large.

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4. This provides base to formulate alternative proposals relating to an issue.

5. Reports act as an a historical document to take decision in future.
6. Report normally presents facts and suggestions to an enquiry.
7. It acts as a tool in conducting performance appraisal.
8. An effective report should be simple, clear, brief and should be based on reliable
factual information.

TYPES OF BUSINESS REPORTS:

I. On the Basis Of Legal Formalities:
a. Informal Report: It is usually in the form of a person-to-person
communication. It may range from a short almost fragmentary statement of
facts on a singly page to a more developed presentation taking several
pages.
b. Formal Reports: A Formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed
form and is presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed
authority.
II. On the Basis Of Frequency:
a.Periodic or Routine: These are prepared and presented at regular prescribed
interval in the usual routine of business.
b. Special Reports: These are related to a singly occasion or situation. A
report on the desirability of opening a new branch or on the unrest among
staff in a particular branch is special reports.
III. On the Bases of Function:
a. Information: If a report merely present facts pertinent to an issue or a
situation it is informative.
b. Interpretative: If it analyses the fact, draws conclusions and makes
recommendations it is analytical or interpretative or investigative.
IV. On the Bases of the Nature of the Subject dealt with

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b. Problem determining report: It determine causes the underlying a problem

or to ascertain whether or not the problem actually exists.
c. Technical Report: In this present data on a specializes subject with or
without comments.
V. On the Basis of the Number of Persons entrusted with Drafting of Reports:
a. Report by Individual: Report submitted by an individual like personnel
manager and related to the work in their own department.
b. Report By Committee: The report prepared by a group members ie.,
committee in formal style.

CHARACTERISTIC OF A GOOD REPORT

1. Precision
In a good report the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing
it. Precision gives a kind of unity an coherence to the report and makes it a valuable
document.
2. Accuracy Of Facts
The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report since
reports invariable lead to decision-making, inaccurate facts may lead to disastrous
decisions.
3. Relevance
The facts presented in a report should be not only accurate but relevant
also. While it is essential that every fact included in a report has a bearing on the
central purpose it is equally essential to see that nothing relevant has escaped
inclusion.
4. Reader-Orientation
A good report is always reader oriented while drafting a report it is
necessary to keep in mind the person who is going to read it.
5. Objectivity of Recommendation
If recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial
and objective. They should come as a logical conclusion to investigation and
analysis. They must not reveal and self interest on the part of the writer.

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6. Simple and Unambiguous Language

A good report is written in a simple, unambiguous language. It is a kind
of scientific document of practical utility, hence it should be free from various forms
of poetic embellishment.
7. Clarity
A good report is absolutely clean clarity depends on proper arrangement
of facts. The report writer must process systematically.
8. Brevity
A report should be brief. It is not difficult to define brevity in absolute
terms nor can brevity be laid down as a rule. All that can be said is that a good report
is as brief as possible.
9. Grammatical Accuracy
The grammatical accuracy of language though listed at last in the
characteristics of a good report is of fundamental importance. It is one of the basic
requisites of a good report as of any other piece of composition.

RESEARCH REPORT- TYPE

a. Technical Report
In this type of report the scholar should focus on
1. The methods employed.
2. assumptions made in the course of the study
3. The detailed presentation of the findings.
Output
1. Summary of results (executive summary)
2. Nature of the Study
3. Objectives, hypothesis
4. Data types, & analysis
5. Tools of analysis
6. Methodology – sample design, size, selection.
7. Data – Sources, characteristics & limitation

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8. analysis of data & presentation of findings.

9. Conclusions
10. Bibliography
11. Technical apprentices
12. Index

The order presented may vary in different reports even the different sections
outlined above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any
particular report.

b. Popular Report
The popular report is one, which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical details and liberal use of charts
and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings over an
occasional cartoon is the characteristic feature of the popular report.
Outline
1. The findings and their implication.
2. Recommendation for action
3. Objective of the study
4. Methods employed
5. Results
6. Technical appendices.
There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be
prepared, the only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on
simplicity and policy implications from the operational point of view avoiding the
technical details of all sorts to the extent possible.
c. Oral Presentation

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This type of reporting takes place in public viva voce examination. The
researcher would present the details of his work orally. He may use different
methods of presentation like overhead projector , slide projector, simple presentation
on board, printed matter etc.
The flow of language style adopted, delivery speed, gestures and
gesticulation, body language etc will all determine the effectiveness of oral
presentation. In such presentation, the researcher should avoid unnecessary
elaborations, affecting sentiments, creating controversies attack on any ideals or
beliefs and most important details which are not most important details which are not
supported by facts or evidences.He should maintain a logical sequence in his
presentations.

MECHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

1. Size and Physical Design
The report should have a margin of at least one and one-half inches should be
allowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand of the paper.
There should also be one-inch margin, top and bottom. The paper should be double
spaced on one side of the page.
2. Procedure
The subject matter of a report can be arranged either logical sequence or
chronologically.
3. Layout
Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the
report should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted eg. Technical,
popular
4. Quotations
It should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced forming an
immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a text. But if a quotation is of a
considerable length then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch
to the right of the normal text margin.
5. The footnotes

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The footnote serve two purpose viz., the identification of materials used in
quotations in the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to be
body of the research text but still of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes
are meant for cross-references, citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement
and elucidation or explanation of a point of view. It should always be kept in view
that footnote is neither an end nor a means of the display of scholarship. The modern
tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes for scholarship does not need to be
displayed.
6. Documentation Style
Regarding documentation, the first footnotes reference to any given works
should be completed in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the
edition used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common
order may be described as under.
i. Regarding the single volume reference
a. Author’s name in normal order followed by comma
b. Title of work, underline to indicate italics
c. Place and date of publication.
d. Pagination references (The page number).
ii. Regarding multivolumed references.
a. Author’s name in normal order
b. Title of work, underline to indicate italics
c. Place and date of publication
d. Number of Volume
e. Pagination references.
iii. Regarding works arranged alphabetically.
For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedia and
dictionaries, no pagination reference is usually needed.
7. Punctuation and Abbreviations in Footnotes:
The first item after the number in the footnote is the
author’s name, given in the normal signature order. This is followed by comma.
After the comma, the title of the book is given : the article is omitted and only the

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first word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized. A comma follows the
title. Information concerning the edition is given next. A comma follows this
entry. The place of publication is then stated; it may be mentioned in an
abbreviated form, if the place happens to be a famous one such as Lond. For
London, N.Y for New York and so on. This entry is followed by comma. Then
the name of the publisher is mentioned and a comma closes this entry.
8. Use of Statistics, Charts and Graphs
A judicious use of statistics in research reports if often considered a virtue
for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification of the
material and research results. One may well remember that a good picture is often
worth more than thousand words. Statistics are usually presented in the form of
tables, charts, bars and line – graphs and pictograms. Such presentation should be
self explanatory and complete in itself. It should be suitable and appropriate looking
to the problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation should be neat and attractive.
9. The final draft:
Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report shuld be done ith great
care before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to
himself questions like. Are the sentences written in the report clear ? are they
grammatically correct ? Do they say what is meant ? Do the various points
incorporated in the report fit together logically ? “ Having at least one colleague read
the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful.. sentences that seem
crystal clear to the writer may prove quite confusing to other people ; a connection
that had seemed self evident may strike others as non-sequitur.
10. Bibliography
Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as
discussed earlier.
11. Preparation of Index
At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given, the value of
which lies in the fact that it acts a good guide to the reader. Index may be prepared both
as subject index and as author index. The former gives the names of the subject-topics or
concepts are long with the number of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in

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the report, whereas the latter gives the similar information regarding the names of
authors. The index should always be arranged alphabetically. Some people prefer to
prepare only one index common for names for authors, subject-topics, concepts and the
like ones.

PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS

Research Report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the
readers of the report. A good research report is one which does this task efficiently and
effectively. As such it must be prepared keeping the following precautions in view :
1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary
greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long
enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest. In fact,
report writing should not be a means to learning more and more about less
and less.
2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be such
as to sustain reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research
report. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible.
This, in other words, mean that report should be written in an objective style
in simple language, avoiding expression such as “it seems”, “there may be”
and the like.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main
findings and such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings.
For this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the
various results in the main report in addition to the summary of important
findings.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate
and in accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6. Appendices should be enlisted in respected of all the technical data in the
report.

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7. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must of a good report and must

necessarily be given.
8. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be
prepared and appended at the end.
9. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or
printed.
10. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated in the report.

STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

1. Logical Analysis of the subject Matter
It is mainly concerned with the development of a subject. A research
subject matter may be arranged in two ways
• Logical
It is concerned with the mental connections and associations between the one
thing and another by means of analysis. Among other things it h develops a
material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
• Chronological
It is based on a connection or sequences in time or occurrence. The direction
for doing or making something usually follows the chronological order.
2 Preparation of the Report Outline
Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are
constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a
reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.
3. Preparation of the rough draft.
Here the researcher enumerates what he has done in the context of his
research study. Here he explain the procedure adopted by him in collecting the
material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of

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analysis adopted by him. The broad findings and generalization and the various
suggestions he wants to offer regarding.
4. Redrafting the report
Here the researcher has to spend more time than the writing of the rough
draft. Here the researcher also examines the weakness in logical development or
presentation. He should check the mechanics of writing, grammar, & usage.
5. Final Settings including bibliography
It is the last part of the research report which contains alost of books in
some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those
works which the researcher has consulted. Te bibliography should be arranged
alphabetically and may be divided into two parts the first part may contain the
names of book and pamphlets and the second part may contain the names of
magazine and newspaper articles.
6. Preparation of the Final Draft
A researcher has to write the final draft in a concise and objective style
and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions. In the final draft the researcher
should not use technical jargons.

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A
comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise.
1. PRELIMNARIES
 Title Page
 Certificate from the Guide
 Declaration by the scholar
 Preface, Acknowledgement
 Table of Contents.
 List of Tables.
 List of Figures
 List of Appendixes.

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2. CONTENT OF THE REPORT

a. Introduction
 Objectives of the Study
 Statement of the problem.
 Hypothesis & definition of concepts
 Review literature & research studies.
 Time, Place and materials of the survey
 Scope, assumptions and limitations.
 Organisation and sampling procedures.
 Methods, tools and techniques employed for data collection.

c. Analysis & Presentation of Results

 Report of facts, nature , volume and dimension
 Statistical analysis of data
 Summary of findings and recommendations.
3. END MATTER
• Bibliography
• Appendices : a) Questionnaire b) Statistical table.
• Glossary of terms
• Index.
1. Title Of The Page
The title page must give the title of the research project. It must give
information about who prepared it, who supervised it, who sponsored it, date on
which it was presented and place where it was presented.
2. Certificate From The Guide
Normally this is issued and signed by the guide/supervisor stating that the
theses is the contribution made by the scholar and that the the guide has provided
only general guidance in shaping the work.
3. Declaration By The Candidate

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This is a certificate submitted by the scholar in which he states, that the

thesis is the result of his own efforts and is not a copy of any theses or publication
already submitted or published to any agency.
4. Foreword
It is generally given by a person whim the researcher think is highly a
expert on the pursued research project.
5. Preface
It gives a general introduction to the project and says a few words about its
importance. The researcher express his gratitude to others, he puts his signature,
place and date at the end of the preface.
6. Table Of Content
The chapters, sections and other headings used in the report and the pages
on which each of them is found
7. List Of Tables
All the tables used to present the data must be given along with the pages
on which they appeared in the report.
8. List Of Figures
All the figures, charts, diagrams, pictures etc given within the report must
be indicated along with the pages on which they have appeared.
9. List Of Appendixes
In this part of the contents the scholar would specify items included under
the appendixes. He would indicate the items in serial order, its title and the page
number where it is found eg. Govt policy, questionnaire etc.
10. Acknowledgement
In this page, the scholar expresses his gratefulness to all those who have
helped him in the course his research work.
11. Objectives Of The Study
The objectives established and to be accomplished during the research are
to be highlighted in this problem.
12. Hypothesis
These are the assumptions the researcher holds regarding the problem.

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13. Statement Of The Problem

It gives the background of the problem, importance of the problem,
dimensionality of the problem. The problem is fully explained here.
14. Review Of Literature
A review of earlier researcher done in relation to the research project is
given in this chapter
15. Period Of Study
This refers to the duration of the study ie. Whether the study is analyzing
the fact for a period of 10 years or is it focusing on the current status alone must
be indicated.
16. Place Or Area Of The Study
The area where the study was undergone should be mentioned. This
should also be supported by the reasons why this specific area was taken up for
the research.
17. Limitation Of The Study
In this section the scholar should be honest to state the limitation of the data
used, analyses applied, validity of conclusions etc.
18. Sample Design
It refers to the method of sampling adopted for data collection. He should
explain how the sample characteristic was established, how the sample size was
determined and how the data was collected.
19. Methodology
It deals with the research design to be used, data collection methods to be
used. Sampling techniques to be used, field work to be carried out, analysis and
interpretation to be done.
20. Research Design
It gives details about the exploratory, explanatory or descriptive or
experimental nature of the research work. Why a particular design is used and
what is its importance.

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21. Scope
What aspects are to be covered in the research are to be highlights in brief
in the section of methodology.
22. Tools Of Analysis
In this researcher explain the tools that he has adopted for analyzing the
data. The researcher should select the tools of analysis by considering the
objectives set for the study.
23. Report Of Results, Facts
The researcher will present the results of the analyses he had adopted in his
study. Each result will be discussed and interpreted.
24. Statistic Tools
Various statistical tools to be used to analyze and interpret the collected
data are mentioned. Eg. Average, percentage, measures of dispersion etc. The
advance analysis like factor analysis, cluster analyses are to be used. These must
be mentioned and justification for their use must be put forward in this section.
25. Findings
Here results and findings are given and discussed. The information which
have bearing on the objectives of the research should be included in the report.
26. Recommendation
The recommendation must not be made just on assumption basis. The
resources of the company to which recommendation are being made must be kept
in mind. It should not be a very expensive proposition which company cannot
implement owing to lack of funds. The recommendations must be such that could
be implemented.
27. Appendices
The information which is not directly related to the main body of the
research report should be included in the appendices for those readers who want
to go in depth of certain aspects of the research work.
28. Bibliography
It will contain the details of journal and books used and referred in the
course of the study. The details like, name of the book, author name, title of the

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book; publisher’s name, year of publication, place of publication and edition are
all provided.
29. Index It
refers to an alphabetical list of name of author or subject matter provided at the
end of research reports. It enables the reader to locate the author of subject matter
easily.
30. Glossary
It refers to the definition of the technical terms used in the report.

************** ALL THE BEST **************

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