Electronic Instruments

Disadvantages of PMMC voltmeter

Low input impedance: Loading
effect
Insufficient sensitivity to detect low
level signal
Approach
Utilized electronic devices such as
BJT, FET or op amp to solve the
above problems

Electronic voltmeters

Analog instrument
Digital instrument
 Rm

Voltmeter

R1

EB

Rs Basic PMMC

Ammeter Ohmmeter
D Rm

AC voltmeter
 Electronic
voltmeter

RS
Ammeter

R1

Electronic Electronic
R2 voltmeter EB R1 voltmeter

Basic Electronic
voltmeter
Voltmeter Ohmmeter
D

Electronic
voltmeter

AC voltmeter
Loading Effect

R1 5V 100kΩ 6.7 V
100kΩ
10 V 10 V
R2 5V 100kΩ 3.3 V V 100kΩ
100kΩ

100 // 100
Vmeas = 10 V = 3.3 V
100 + 100 // 100

Circuit before measurement Circuit under measurement

100kΩ 6V 100kΩ 5.2 V

10 V 10 V
100kΩ 4.8 V V
100kΩ 4V V 200kΩ 1000kΩ

200 // 100 1000 // 100

Vmeas = 10 V = 4.0 V Vmeas = 10 V = 4.8 V
100 + 200 // 100 100 + 1000 // 100
 Loading Effect
Example Find the voltage reading and % error of each reading obtained with a voltmeter on (i) 5 V
range, (ii) 10 V range and (iii) 30 V range, if the instrument has a 20 kΩ/V sensitivity, an accuracy
1% of full scale deflection and the meter is connected across Rb

SOLUTION The voltage drop across Rb with output to the voltmeter connection

Ra
45kΩ
50 V
Rb V Rm
5kΩ
Loading Effect

Range Vb . Loading Meter Total % error

(V) (V) error (V) error (V) error (V)
5 4.78 -0.22 ± 0.05 ± 0.27 ± 5.36
10 4.88 -0.12 ± 0.1 ± 0.22 ± 4.40
30 4.95 -0.05 ± 0.3 ± 0.35 ± 6.10
 Transistor Voltmeter: Emitter Follower
+
Basic concept IB
+
VBE IE = Im
Emitter
Voltage to be Vin Rs
VCC
follower
measured
Vin Rm
Vin
Ri =
IB
reduce
increase input resistance
output resistance - -

Voltage drop across meter: Vm = Vin − VBE PMMC

where VBE is base-emitter voltage ~ 0.7 V for Si Schematic diagram of emitter follower

Vin − VBE
Meter current: Im =
Rs + Rm
IE hFE = Transistor current gain (Typical
Transistor base current: IB ≈
hFE values ~ 100-200
Transistor Voltmeter: Emitter Follower
Vin V
Circuit input resistance: Ri = ≈ hFE in ≈ hFE ( Rs + Rm )
IB IE

Example The simple emitter-follower circuit has VCC = 20 V, Rs+Rm = 9.3 kΩ, Im = 1mA at
full scale, and transistor hFE = 100
(a) Calculate the meter current when Vin = 10 V
(b) Determine the voltmeter input resistance with and without the transistor.
+ SOLUTION
IB
+
VBE IE = Im

Rs
VCC
Vin Rm
Vin
Ri =
IB

- -
 Transistor Voltmeter: Emitter Follower

*The base-emitter voltage drop (VBE) introduces some limitations in using emitter
follower as a voltmeter:
•The circuit cannot measure the input voltage less than 0.6 V
•a non-proportional deflection: error
From the above experiment, if we apply Vin with 5 V, the meter should read half of full
scale I.e. Im = 0.5 mA. But, the simple calculation shows that Im = 0.46 mA

+VCC Bridge configuration

R4
Vm = VE1 − VE 2
Q1 V Q2 R5

Vin
Rs Rm
VP
where VE1 = Vin − VBE1 VE 2 = VP − VBE 2
R2 VE1 VE2 R3 R6
I2 I3 Zero adjust
-VEE
Use negative supply also to
PMMC measure Vin < 0.6 V
Practical emitter-follower voltmeter using second transistor Q2 and voltage divider R4, R5
and R6 to eliminate VBE error in Q1
Transistor Voltmeter: Emitter Follower
At the condition of Vin = 0, Vp should be set to give zero meter reading, Vm = 0.
Therefore, the potentiometer R5 is for the zero adjust.
If transistors Q1 and Q2 are identical, VBE1 = VBE2
Vm = VE1 − VE 2 = Vin − VBE1 − (V p − VBE 2 ) = Vin − V p

At Vin = 0 -> Vm = 0, give Vp = 0

Consequently, if Vp is set properly, Vm will be the same as Vin

Example An emitter-follower voltmeter circuit as shown in the previous picture has R2

= R3 = 3.9 kΩ and supply with ±12 V. Calculate the meter circuit voltage when Vin = 1 V
and when Vin = 0.5 V. Assume, both transistors have VBE = 0.7 V

SOLUTION when Vin = 1 V

when Vin = 0.5 V

 Voltage Range Changing: Input Attenuator

Input
The input attenuator accurately divides the voltage to
Range Switch
be measured before it is applied to the input transistor.
800k Ra 1V
Calculation shows that the input voltage Vin is always 1
5V
V when the maximum input is applied on any range
100k Rb
Voltage to
10V Vin To meter
be measured E
60k Rc
25V Example On the 5 V range:
40k Rd
Rb + Rc + Rd
Vin = 5 V ×
Ra + Rb + Rc + Rd
The measurement point always sees a 100 kΩ + 60 kΩ + 40 kΩ
= 5 V×
constant input resistance of 1 MΩ 800 kΩ + 100 kΩ + 60 kΩ + 40 kΩ
=1 V
FET Input Voltmeter

The addition of FET at the input gives higher input resistance than can be achieved
with a bipolar transistor
Input FET Emitter
attenuator input stage follower

+VCC
800k Ra 1V
R4
5V

Rb
100k Q1 V Q2
10V EG VG S R5
E
VS VP
60k Rc
Rs+Rm
25V I2 R2 R3
R6
I3
40k Rd
-VEE

PMMC
A FET Input Voltmeter
Vm = VE1 − VE 2 where VE1 = EG − VGS − VBE1 VE 2 = VP − VBE 2

In general, it is not simple to calculate VGS, for simplicity, we assume that VGS will be given.
 FET Input Voltmeter

Example Determine the meter reading for the FET input voltmeter in the previous figure,
when E = 7.5 V and the meter is set to its 10 V range. The FET gate-source voltage is –5 V,
VP = 5 V, Rs+Rm = 1 kΩ and Im = 1 mA at full scale

SOLUTION On the 10 V range:

Input FET Emitter

attenuator input stage follower

+VCC
800k Ra 1V
R4
5V

Rb
100k Q1 V Q2
10V EG VG S R5
E
VS VP
60k Rc
Rs+Rm
25V I2 R2 R3
R6
I3
40k Rd
-VEE
Operational Amplifier Voltmeter

Op-Amp Amplifier Voltmeter

R4
Non-inverting
amplifier
meter
circuit
Vout = (1 + )E
R3
+VCC
The voltage gain
+
R4
E Av = (1 + )
- I4 R4 Vout Rs+Rm R3
-VEE

IB
Selection of R3 and R4
I3
R3
E Vout − E
R3 = and R4 =
I3 I3

The non-inverting amplifier gives a very high input impedance and very low output
impedance. Therefore, the loading effect can be neglected. Furthermore, it can
provide gain with enabling to measure low level input voltage.
 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter

Example Design an op-amp Voltmeter circuit which can measure a maximum input of
20 mV. The op-amp input current is 0.2 µA, and the meter circuit has Im = 100 µA FSD
and Rm = 10 kΩ. Determine suitable resistance values for R3 and R4

SOLUTION To neglect the effect of IB, the condition of I4 >> IB must be satisfied.
The rule of thumb suggested I4 should be at least 100 times greater
than IB
Non-inverting meter Select I4 = 1000 x IB = 1000 x 0.2 µA = 0.2 mA
amplifier circuit

At full scale: Im = 100 µA

+VCC

E
- I4 R4 Vout Rs+Rm
-VEE

IB
I3
R3
Operational Amplifier Voltmeter

Op-Amp Amplifier Voltmeter: voltage to current converter

+VCC Since I3 >> IB, therefore Im= I3
+ E
Meter current I m = I3 =
EB
-
R3
Im
Rs+Rm
-VEE Rm
Meter voltage Vm = E
R3
IB
if Rm > R3, voltage E is amplified by the ratio of Rm/R3
I3
VR3 R3
Current Measurement with Electronic Voltmeter
Electronic
voltmeter
+VC
C

-
Rs+Rm
-VEE
E

R3

+ + RS - -
I
Ammeter
terminals

An electronic voltmeter can be used for current measurement by measuring the voltage
drop across a shunt (Rs). The instrument scale is calibrated to indicate current.
 Electronic Ohmmeter: Series Connection

standard range
resistor switch

llu
al r f
1MΩ

s c ete
M
e
100kΩ
R1
R1 1kΩ A
100Ω Rx = 0 Rx = ∞
EB +
10Ω Electronic
1.5V Rx E voltmeter
(1.5 V range)
-
Ohmmeter scale for electronic instrument
B

Series Ohmmeter for electronic instrument

At Rx = ∞ or open circuit, the voltmeter indicate full scale defection (E = 1.5 V) and Rx =
0 or shorted circuit, since E = 0, no defection is observed. At other values of resistance,
the battery voltage EB is potentially divided across R1 and Rx, given by
Suppose that R1 is set to 1 kΩ
Rx 1 kΩ
E = EB E = 1.5 V × = 0.75 V (50% defection)
R1 + Rx 1 kΩ + 1 kΩ
Thus if Rx = R1, half scale will be indicated
 Electronic Ohmmeter: Series Connection

Example For the electronic ohmmeter in the Figure, determine the resistance scale
marking at 1/3 and 2/3 of full scale

Rx
standard range SOLUTION From E = EB
resistor switch R1 + Rx
1MΩ
R1
100kΩ Rearrange, give us Rx =
EB −1
R1 1kΩ A E
100Ω
EB +
1.5V
10Ω
Rx E
Electronic
voltmeter At 1/3 FSD; E = EB/3
(1.5 V range)
-
R1 R
Rx = = 1
B
EB × 3
−1 2
ll

EB
u
al r f
s c ete

At 2/3 FSD; E = 2EB/3

M
e

R1/2 R1 2R1
R1
Rx = ∞ Rx = = 2 R1
Rx = 0 EB × 3
−1
2 EB
 Electronic Ohmmeter: Parallel Connection

+ At Rx = ∞ or open circuit,
R1 R2
4kΩ E = EB
R1 + R2
A
6V
1.33 kΩ
+
= 6 V× = 1.5 V
R2
Rx E
Electronic
voltmeter
4 kΩ + 1.33 kΩ
1.33kΩ (1.5 V range)
-
Therefore, this circuit give FSD, when Rx = ∞
-
B
When, Rx = 0 Ω, E = 0 V, therefore, the meter
Shunt Ohmmeter for electronic instrument gives no defection.

R2 || Rx
At any value of Rx E = EB
R1 + R2 || Rx

So, the meter indicates half-scale when Rx = R1|| R2

AC Electronic Voltmeter

Principle
Most ac measurements are made with ac-to-dc converter, which
produce a dc current/voltage proportional to the ac input being measured

Vin ac to dc converter dc meter

Classification:
Average responding
periodic signal only
Peak responding
RMS responding (True rms meter) any signal
AC Electronic Voltmeter
The scale on ac voltmeters are ordinarily calibrated in rms volts

Average responding meter

Form factor is the ratio of the rms value to the average value of the wave form

Vrms
Vin ac to dc converter dc meter Form Factor =
Vaverage

It should be noted that the rms value is calculated from Vin, while the average value is
calculated from the output of ac-dc converter.
Peak responding meter
Form factor is the ratio of the peak value to the rms value of the wave form

V peak
Crest Factor =
Vrms
Average-Responding Meter
In this type of instrument, the ac signal is rectified and then fed to a dc millimeter.
In the meter instrument, the rectified current is averaged either by a filter or by the ballistic
characteristics of the meter to produce a steady deflection of the meter pointer.
+VD- +VD- output
+ + waveform

- + - +
D1 D1
E Input E Input
waveform
output Vm waveform Vm
waveform
Vout Vout
- -

Conventional half-wave rectifier precision rectifier

For the positive cycle, Vout = E
For the positive cycle, Vout = Vm = E
Vm = E − VD
where VD = cut-in voltage ~0.6-0.7 for Si For the negative cycle, Vout = 0
For the negative cycle, Vout = E
Therefore, the voltage drop in the forward
Vm = 0 bias can be compensated by this
Since Diode D1 is revered bias, no configuration
current flow through meter
Average-Responding Meter

V2
Vin

V1

V2
Vin

V1
 Average-Responding Voltmeter

Voltage to current converter

precision
rectifier
precision
rectifier
+VCC
C1 D1 D3
+VCC
+ + VF -
C1
Im Rs+Rm
R1 +
E - D1
Rs+Rm R1
meter
E current
-VEE -
meter
current -VEE
D2 D4

R3
R3

Half-wave rectifier Full-wave rectifier

Ep Ep
Ip = Meter peak current Ip =
Meter peak current R3
R3
2
Average meter current I = 1 I = 0.318I Average meter current I av = I p = 0.637I p
av
π
p p π
 Average-Responding Voltmeter
Example The half-wave rectifier electronic voltmeter circuit uses a meter with a FSD
current of 1 mA. The meter a coil resistance is 1.2 kΩ. Calculate the value of R3 that will
give meter full-scale pointer deflection when the ac input voltage is 100 mV (rms). Also
determine the meter deflection when the input is 50 mV.
SOLUTION at FSD, the average meter current is 1 mA

precision
rectifier

+VCC
C1
+ + VF -
R1
E - D1
Rs+Rm
-VEE
meter
current

R3
Peak-Responding Voltmeter
The primary difference between the peak-responding voltmeter and the average-
responding voltmeter is the use of a storage capacitor with the rectifying diode.

dc
amplifier

VD~0.7V

+
Vin C R
Vin C VC R
- the input impedance
Discharge cycle of the dc amp
Charge cycle

In the first positive cycle: VC tracks Vin with the difference of VD, until Vin reaches
its peak value. After this point, diode is reversed bias and the circuit keeps VC at
Vp – VD. The effect of discharging through R will be minimized if its value is large
enough to yield that RC >> T.
Peak-Responding Voltmeter

VC tracks Vin

VC

Vin
RMS-Responding Voltmeter
Suitable for: low duty-cycle pulse trains
voltages of undetermined waveform
T
1 2
T ∫0
RMS value definition: Mathematic Vrms = v (t )dt

Vin Vout
x
2
∫
RMS value definition: Physical
rms voltage is equivalent to a dc voltage which generates the same amount
of heat power in a resistive load that the ac voltage does.
Millivoltmeter

TC output (mV)
Temp. rise ∝ Vrms Non-linear
Thermocouple Difficult to calibrate scale

I
heating wire
Temp(oC)
RMS-Responding Voltmeter
Null-balance technique: non-linear cancellation

Compare the heating power generated by input voltage to the heating

power generated the dc amplifier
Measuring thermocouple

ac input ac dc
voltage Amplifier Amplifier
-
- +
Balancing Feedback
thermocouple current

Heater +
Vin A Vout
& TC
-

Heater
& TC
 Negative Feedback

VT1
+ Ve
Vin Heater A Vout
& TC
-

VT2 Heater
& TC

Vout = Ve = A (VT 1 − VT 2 )

Let, VT1 = k Vin and VT2 = k Vout where k is proportional constant of the heater and TC in
the system. Note that k may depend on the level of the input signal

Vout = A ( kVin − kVout )

Vout Ak
= If A is large Vout ≈ Vin
Vin 1 + Ak
If the amplifier gain is very large, Vout is equal to Vin, this means that the dc voltage
output is therefore equal to the effective, or rms value of the input voltage