SIR J C BOSE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

WORSHOP PRACTICE I LAB MANUAL

 SUPREME KNOWLEDGE FOUNDATION GROUP OF
INSTITUTION
SIR J.C. BOSE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

NAME:
DEPARTMENT:
ROLL NO:
SUBJECT:
REG. NO:
 CARPENTRY

Carpentry is the process of shaping Timber, using hand tools. The products produced are used in
building construction, such as doors and windows, furniture manufacturing, patterns for moulding in
foundries, etc. Carpentry work mainly involves the joining together of wooden pieces and finishing the
surfaces after shaping them. Hence, the term joining is also used commonly for carpentry. A student
studying the fundamentals of wood working has to know about timber and other carpentry materials,
wood working tools, carpentry operations and the method of making common types of joints.
Materials Used in Carpentry:
Basic materials used in carpentry shop are timber and plywood. Auxiliary materials used are nails, screws,
adhesives, paints, varnishes, etc.
Timber:
Timber is the name given to wood obtained from exogenous (outward growing) trees. In these trees, the
growth is outward from the centre, by adding almost concentric layers of fresh wood every year known as
annual rings. After the full growth, these trees are cut and sawed to convert into rectangular sections of
various sizes for engineering purposes.
Timber is available in market in various shapes and size. The common shapes and sizes an: given below:
1. Log: This is the trunk of die tree which is tree from branches.
2. Balk: This is the log after sawing roughly to square cross section.
3. Deal: This is the log after sawing into rectangular cross section of width about 225 mm and
thickness up to 100 mm.
4. Plank: This is the timber piece having width more than 275 mm and thickness 50 lo 150 mm.
5. Board: This is the timber piece below 50 mm in thickness and above 125 mm in width,
6. Batten: This is the timber piece below 175 mm in width and thickness between 30 mm to 50 mm
in thickness.
7. Scantlings: These are timber pieces of various assorted and nonstandard sizesother than the types
given above.
Classification of Wood
The timber used for commercial purposes can he divided into two classes as soft wood and hard wood
Soft wood
A soft wood is light in weight and light colored. They may
have distinct annual rings but the medullar rays (radial lines)
are not visible and the color of the sap wood (outer layers) is
not distinctive from the heart wood (inner layers). These
woods cannot resist stresses developed across their fibers;
hence, not suitable for wood working.
Hard wood
In this type of wood the annual rings are compact and thin and
the medullar rays (radial lines} are Visible in most cases Figure6.1. Hard woods are nearly equally strong
both along and across the fibers. Hand wood is the material used for wood working
Classification of timber
According to the manner of growth of trees, timber can be classified as
i) Exogenous or out ward growing
ii) Endogenous or in ward growing
i) Exogenous or out ward growing
In exogenous trees the growth take place from the centre by the addition of concentric layers
of fresh wood every year, known as annual rings. These varieties of trees are suitable for building and
other engineering uses the exogenous trees are again classified as
a) Conifers or ever green trees

b) Deciduous or broad leaf trees

 The conifer give soft woods and the deciduous gives hard wood common example of hard wood are
Sal, teak, rose wood, sandal, shisham, oak beach, ash ebony, mango, neem, babool, etc., soft wood
include kail pine, deodar chair, walnut seemal etc.
ii) Endogenous or in ward growing timber
These trees grow in wards i.e. .every fresh layer of sap wood is added inside instead of outside cane,
bamboo, coconut
Seasoning
Seasoning of wood carried out for removing the sap and reducing the moisture content the presence of
sap and moisture will render the wood unsuitable for engineering works due to uneven shrinkage,
crack, wrapping and decay.
Different methods of seasoning
1. Air seasoning or Natural seasoning
2. Water seasoning
3. Electrical seasoning
4. Kiln seasoning

Ply wood
Thick sheet formed by pasting veneers of wood is called ply. Three or more plys joined by glues is
called plywood. The grains of adjacent layers are kept at right angle to each other in order to get better
strengthening both directions the outer layer are called facing plys and good hard wood veneers are used
for this inner ones are called core plys and low quality wood is used for this the ply wood is made by
either cold pressing or hot pressing.
Tools for wood working
The principle hand tools used in a carpentry workshop can be classified into
i) Marking and measuring tool
ii) Cutting tool
iii) Planning tool
iv) Boring tool
v) Striking tool
vi) Holding tool
Marking and measuring tool
a) Rules
Rules are used for measuring dimensions. For measuring and setting out
dimensions various types of rules are used in carpentry shop. Steel Rule-
Stainless Steel Rule of length 30cm and 60cm. Flexible Measuring Rule-
for measuring large dimensions as well as curved or angular surface
dimensions.
b) Straight Edge and Squares
This is a machined flat piece wood or metal having perfectly straight and parallel edges.
c) Steel Tape: It is used for large dimensions, such as marking on boards and checking the overall
dimensions of the work.
e) Gauges
Gauges are used to mark lines parallel to the edges of a wooden piece. It mainly consists of a wooden
stem sliding inside a wooden stock. The stem carries a steel point for marking lines. The stock
position on the stem can be varied and fixed rigidly by tightening the thumb screw.

Fig. Marking Gauge

 To mark a line parallel to an edge the gauge stock is held freely against the edge and pushed along it,
pressing the steel points to the surface

Fig. Mortise Gauge

c) Try square
Try square consists of rectangular steel blade fixed rigidly to cast iron stock. The length of blade
varies from 150mm to 300mm.
Marking Knife or Scriber
Marking Knives are used to convert the pencil lines drawn on the wooden surface into deep scratch
lines on the surface. They are made of steel with a sharp point at one end and flat blade at the other end.

Fig. Marking Knife

Bevel Square: it is also called sliding level. It is an adjustable try-sq uare used
for measuring/marking angles between 00 and 1800. Fig. Try Square

VI Holding tools
a) Work Bench
This is a table of having size and raised construction made of hard wood.
The size ranges from 50- 80 cm in length and about 90cm in width. Two

or four carpenters can work at a time on the work Fig. Bevel Square
bench.
Carpenters Bench Vice
It consists of jaw fixed on the table side and movable jaw
kept in position by means of screw and handle. The
body of vice is made of cast iron or steel. The jaws are
lined with hard wood which can be removed when it is
damaged.

Fig. Work Bench with Bench Hook

The screw moves inside the fixed half nut which can be
engaged or disengaged by operating the lever. This is made up of a bar of steel. The work is clamped
between jaws by rotating the screw using the handle. It is used for clamping glued pieces or holding the
work piece of larger size together for various operations.
a) Sash-cramp
 b) C Clamp: The clamp of the shape of letter C or G is used to clamp short pieces together as the
bar clamp. These clamps are available is sizes varying from 70 mm to 800 mm. it is used for
holding the planks after gluing

Fig. Carpenters Bench Vice Fig. Bar or T-Cramp

Fig. C- Clamp
Bar or T-cramp: it consists of a steel bar fitted with a threaded spindle and an adjustable shoe. It is used
for holding the glued pieces tightly or holding firmly two or more unglued pieces for fitting dowels or
doing other operations on them in assembled position.
II Cutting tools
a) Saws
Saw is a cutting tool which has teeth on one edge and cutting is affected by reciprocating motion
of the edge relative to the work piece. Cutting occurs during the forward motion; such a saw is called
push type saw, the cutting occurs during the backward motion.
i. Hand Saw- This saw is used for short straight cuts. It has a blade of 25-40cm length 6-
10cm width. The number of teeth per cm length ranges from 3-5.
ii. Tenon Saw (Back Saw)- It has a parallel blade of 25-40cm length and 6-10cm width. The
number of teeth per cm length ranges from 5-8.
b) Chisels
The common type of chisels used is briefly explained below.
i. Firmer Chisels- they are most common and general purpose chisel used by a carpenter. They have
flat blade of 15-50mm width and 125mm length.
ii. Dove Tail Chisel (beveled edge firmer chisel) - These chisels are used for fine and delicate works
as well as for cutting corners.
iii. Mortise chisel – These chisels are used for heavy and deep cut to remove large quantity of
wood. These chisels have width of about 15mm but the blade thickness may range from 6-
15mm.
 Fig. Saws

Fig. Parts of a Chisel

Fig. Cross-cut Saw

Fig. Rip Saw

Fig. Parts of Saw

Fig. Types of Chisels

III Planing Tools

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Planing tool is used to smoothen the wooden surfaces.
a) Wooden jack plane
This is the most commonly used plane in carpentry shop. The main part of a wooden jack plane is a
wooden block called sole, in which steel blade having knife edge is fixed at an angle with the help of
wooden edge. The angle of the blade is kept about 45 ° to bottom surface of the blade.
b) Metal Jack Plane
It serves the same purpose as the wooden jack plane but
facilitates a smoother operations and better finish. The
body of a metal jack plane is made from a grey iron
casting with the side and sole machined and ground to
better finish.

DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS:

a) Bradawl: It is a hand operated tool, used to bore
small holes for starting a screw or large nail.

Fig. Gimlet Drill

Fig. Plane
b) Carpenters brace: it is used for rotating auger bits,
twist drills, etc., to produce holes in wood. In some designs, braces are made with ratchet device.
c) Auger bit: it is the most common tool used for making holes in wood. During
drilling, the lead screw of the bit guides into the wood, necessitating only moderate
pressure on the brace. The helical flutes on the surface carry the chips to the outer
surface.
d) Hand drill: carpenter’s brace is used to make relatively large size holes; whereas
hand drill is used for drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with this tool. It
is small, light in weight and may be conveniently used than the brace. The drill bit is
clamped in the chuck at its end and is rotated by a handle attached to gear and pinion
arrangement.

e) Gimlet: it has cutting edges like a twist drill. It is used for drilling large diameter
holes with the hand pressure.
Striking Tools
a) Mallet
This is wooden headed hammer of round or rectangular cross
section. The striking face is made flat. Mallet is used for striking
the cutting tools and has wooden handle.
b) Claw Hammer
This is a hammer having steel head and wooden handle. The flat face of the head is used toFig. Mallet
drive nails
and claw portion for extracting nails out of the wood.

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 Fig. Pincer

Fig. Claw Hammer

c) Pincer: it is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for pulling-out small nails
from wood. The inner faces of the pincer jaws are bevelled and the outer faces are plain. The end of one
arm has a ball and the other has a claw. The bevelled jaws and the claw are used for pulling out small
nails, pins and screws from the wood.
d) Screw Driver: it is used for driving wood screws into wood or unscrewing them. The length of a screw
driver is determined by the length of the blade. As the length of the blade increases, the width and
thickness of the tip also increase.

Fig. Screw Driver

Wood rasp files: it is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth, remove sharp edges, and
finish fillets and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface for the purpose.
This file is exclusively used in wood work.

Fig. Wood Rasp files

EXPT.NO: CROSS HALF LAP JOINT DATE:
AIM:to make a cross half lap joint.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Teak wood (30mm*150mm*50mm)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:

1. Steel rule
2. Try square
3. Marking guage
4. Rip saw
5. Tenon saw
6. Mortise chisel
7. Mallet
8. Jack plane
9. Wood rasp file

OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:

1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiseling
5. Finishing

PROCEDURE:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack planeand for strraightness.
3. An adajacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking guage is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness and width
according to given figure
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiseled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiseled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiseled to exact lengths.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reaper should be free from moisture
2. Marking is done with out parallax error
3. Care shoukd be taken while chiseling
4. Matching of x and y pieces should be tight.
RESULT: The cross half lap joint is made success fully.
Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

FITTING
The term fitting, is related to assembly of parts, after bringing the dimension or shape to the required size
or form, in order to secure the necessary fit. The operations required for the same are usually carried out
on a work bench, hence the term bench work is also added with the name fitting.
The bench work and fitting plays an important role in engineering. Although in today's industries
most of the work is done by automatic machines which produces the jobs with good accuracy but still it
(job) requires some hand operations called fitting operations. The person working in the fitting shop is
called fitter

FITTING TOOLS:
Fitting shop tools are classified as below:
 Work Holding Devices/ Clamping Tools.
 Measuring and Marking Tools.
 Cutting Tools.
 Striking Tools.
 Drilling Tools.
 Threading Tools.
I. WORK HOLDING DEVICES /CLAMPING TOOLS:
1. Work Bench
A fitting process can be done at various places, but
most of the important operations of fitting are generally
carried out on a table called work bench.
The work bench is a strong, heavy and rigid table made
up of hard wood.
The size of the work bench required is about 150 to 180
cm length, nearly 90 cm width and approximately 76 to
84 cm height.

2. BENCH VICE:
It is firmly fixed to the bench with the help of nuts and bolts. It consists of a cast Iron body and cast
iron jaws. Two jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws. The holding surface of the jaw plates is knurled in
order to increase the gipping. Jaw plates are made up of carbon steel and are wear resistant. One jaw is
fixed to the body and the second slides on a square threaded screw with the help of a handle.
The jaws are opened upto required length; job is placed in the two jaws and is fully tightened with the
help of handle. Handle is used to move the movable jaw

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

3. V Block
In V Block, V grooves are provided to hold the round objects longitudinally. The screw of the
clamp applies the holding pressure. When the handle is rotated there is movement in the screw.

II. MEASURING TOOLS

1. Steel Rule
These are made up of stainless steel and are available in many sizes ranging from 1/2 ft. to 2 ft. These
are marked in inches or millimetres. All the faces are machined true. The edges of steel rule should be
protected from rough handling.

2. Calipers
These are generally used to measure the inside or outside diameters. Different types are:
i. Outside Caliper: It is used to measure the outside dimensions.
ii. Inside Caliper: It is used to measure the inside dimensions.
iii. Spring Caliper: Spring is provided to apply the pressure and lock nut is provided to lock any
desired position.
iv. Hermaphrodite, Jenny or Oddleg Caliper: One leg is bent at the tip inwardly and the other has a
straight pointed end. It is used to scribe lines parallel to the straight edges.

Fig. Calipers

3. Vernier Caliper: It is used for measuring the outer dimensions of round, flat, square components and
also the inner size of the holes and bore. A narrow blade is used to measure the depth of bar slots etc. The
reading accuracy in metric system is 0.02 mm and British system it is 0.001”. It is made of stainless steel.

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

III. MARKING TOOLS:

1. Surface Plate
It is used for testing the flatness, trueness of the
surfaces. It is made up of cast iron or graphite. Its upper
face is planed to form a very smooth surface. It is also
used in scribing work.
While not in use, it should be covered with a wooden
cover.

2. Angle Plate
It is made up of cast iron in different sizes; it has two planed surfaces
at right angles to each other and has various slots in each surface to
hold the work by means of bolts and clamps.
Never do hammering on the angle plate to fasten (lighten) the nuts
and bolts.
3. Scriber and Surface Gauge
It consists of a cast iron bass on the center of which a steel rod is fixed vertically. Scriber is made
up of high carbon steel and is hardened from the front edge. It is used for locating the centres of
round bars or for marking of the lines.

Fig. Scriber and Surface Gauge

4. Punches
Punches are used for marking purposes. Dot punches are used for marking dotted line and centre
punch is used to mark the centre of hole before drilling. Punches are made up of high carbon steel
or high speed steels. One end is sharpened. Hammering is done on the second end while working.
For dot punch, angle of the punching end is 60 degree while in centre punch; angle of punching
end is 90 degree.

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

5. Try Square
It is used for checking squareness of two surfaces. It consists of a blade
made up of steel, which is attached to a base at 90 degree. The base is
made up of cast iron or steel. It is also used to mark the right angles and
measuring straightness of surfaces. Never use try square as a hammer.

6. Vernier Height gauge:

A Vernier height gauge consists of a heavy base, a graduated beam, a
sliding head with Vernier sliding jaws holding the scriber and a fine
adjustment clamp. It is similar to large Vernier calipers in construction,
except that it consists of a heavy base which allows the gauge to stand
upright instead of a fixed jaw in a Vernier. The movable jaw of Vernier
height gauge consists of a projection or extension which is levelled to
sharp edge for scribing lines at any required height.
METHOD OF MARKING
Marking means setting out dimensions with the help of a working
drawing or directly transferring them from a similar part. The procedure
of marking is as follows: Fig. Vernier height gauge
A-Fine Adjustment of nut B-Vernier
1. The surface to be marked is coated with the paste of chalk or red slide C-Scriber clamp screw D – Scriber E
lead and allowed to dry. – Vernier Scale F – Main Scale G – Base
X,Y – Lock Screws
2. Then the work is held In a holding device depending upon shape
and size. If it is flat, use surface plate, if it is round use V block and clamp, else use angle plate
etc.
3. Lines in horizontal direction are scribed by means of a surface gauge. Lines at right angles can be
drawn by turning the work through 90 degree and then using the scriber. If true surface is
available, try square can also be used.
4. The centre on the end of a round bar can be located by using an odd leg caliper, surface gauge etc.
5. The circles and arcs on a flat surface are marked by means of a divider.
6. After the scribing work is over, indentations on the surface are made using dot punch and
hammer.
IV. CUTTING TOOLS
1. Hacksaw
Hacksaw is used for cutting of
rods, bars, pipes, flats etc. It
consists of a frame, which is
made from mild steel. The
blade is placed inside the
frame and is tightened with
the help of a flange nut. The
blade is made up of high
carbon steel or high speed
Fig. Hand Hacksaws
steel.

The points of the teeth are bent in a zig-zag

fashion, to cut a wide groove and prevent the body

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

of the blade from rubbing or jamming in the saw cut. The teeth of the blades are generally forward cut so
in the case, pressure is applied in the forward direction only.
Depending upon the direction of cut, blades are classified as:
o Forward cut
o Backward cut.
Depending upon the pitch of the teeth (Distance between the two consecutive teeth) blades is classified as:
 Coarse (8-14 teeth per Inch)
 Medium (16-20 teeth per inch)
 Fine (24-32 teeth per inch)
2. Files
Files are multi points cutting tools. It is used to remove the material
by rubbing it on the metals. Files are available in a number of sizes,
shapes and degree of coarseness.
Classification of files
i. On the basis of length
4”,6”,8”,12”
ii. On the basis of grade:
 Rough (R)(20 teeth per inch)
 Bastard (B)(30 teeth per inch)
 Second cut (Sc) (40 teeth per inch)
 Smooth file (S)(50 teeth per inch)
 Dead smooth (DS)(100 teeth per inch)
Rough and bastard files are the big cut files. When the material removal is more, these files are used.
These files have bigger cut but the surface produced Is rough.
Dead smooth and smooth files have smaller teeth and used for finishing work. Second cut file has
degree of finish in between bastard and smooth file.
iv. On the basis of number of cuts:
 Single cut files.
 Double cut files.
 Rasp files.
In single cut files the teeth are cut in parallel rows at an angle of 60 degree to the face. Another row of
teeth is added in opposite direction in case of double cut files. Material removal is more in case of
double cut files.

iii. On the basis of shape and size:

The length of the files varies from 4' to 14*. The various shapes of cross-section available are hand
file, flat file, triangular, round; square, half round, knife-edge, pillar, needle and mill file.

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

a. Flat file: This file has parallel edges for about two-thirds of the length and then it tapers in width
and thickness. The faces are double cut while the edges are single cut.
b. Hand file: for a hand file the width is constant throughout, but the thickness tapers as given in flat
file. Both faces are double cut and one edge is single cut. The remaining edge is kept uncut in
order to use for filing a right-angled corner on one side only.
c. Square file: It has a square cross-section. It is parallel for two-thirds of its length and then tapers
towards the tip. It is double cut on all sides. It is used for filing square corners and slots.
d. Triangular file: It has width either parallel throughout or upto middle and then tapered towards
the tip. Its section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces are double cut and the edges single
cut. It is used for filing square shoulders or comers and for sharpening wood working saws.
e. Round file: It has round cross-section. It carries single cut teeth all round its surface. It is
normally made tapered towards the tip and is frequently known as rat-tail file. Parallel round files
having same diameter throughout the length are also available. The round files are used for
opening out holes, producing round comers, round-ended slots etc.
f. Half-round file: Its cross-section is not a true half circle but is only about one-third of a circle.
The width of the file is either parallel throughout or upto middle and then tapered towards the tip.
The flat side of this file is always a double cut and curved side has single cut. It is used for filing
curved surfaces.
g. Knife edge file: It has a width tapered like a knife blade and it is also tapered towards the tip and
thickness. It carries double cut teeth on the two broad faces and single cut teeth on the edge. It is
used for finishing sharp corners of grooves and slots
h. Diamond file: Its cross-section is like a diamond. It is used for special work.
i. Needle file: These are thin small files having a parallel tang and a thin, narrow and pointed blade
made in different shapes of its cross-section to suit the particular need of the work. These are
available in sizes from 100 mm to 200 mm of various shapes and cuts. These files are used for
filing very thin and delicate work.

Methods of filing
The following are the two commonly used methods of filing:
1. Cross-filing 2. Draw filing.
Cross - filing. Refer Fig. (a).
This method is used for efficient removal of maximum amount of
metal in the shortest possible time. It may be noted that the file must remain
horizontal throughout the stroke (long, slow and steady) with pressure only
applied on the forward motion.

Draw filing. Refer Fig. (b)

This method is used to remove file marks and for finishing operations. Here, the
file is gripped as close to the work as possible between two hands. In this filing
method, a fine cut file with a flat face should be used.

FILE CARD:
It is a device fashioned like a wire brush used to clean dirt and chips
from the teeth of a file. When particles of metal clog the teeth the file is
said to the pinned, a condition that causes scratching of the surface of
the work. Files, therefore, require cleaning by means of a file card or
by dislodging the material between the teeth by means of a piece of
soft iron, copper, brass, tin plate and so on, sharpened at the end.
Hardened steel should never be used

Fig. File Card

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPT.NO: 01 SQUARE CUTTING Date

AIM: To make a Square fit from the given mid steel pieces.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: mild steel flat (40*40*3mm).
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1.6”try square
2. 6”sriber
3. Odd leg caliper
3.12”hack saw Frame
4 Blades (12 TPI)
5. 10”rough file
6. 10”smooth file
7. 10”Square file
8. Dot punch
9. Ball peen hammer (0.5 Ib).
10. Steel Rule
Sequence of OPERATIONS:
1. Filling
2. Marking
3. Punching
4. Sawing
5. Filling
6. Finishing

PROCEDURE:
1. The given mild steel flat piece is checked for given dimensions.
2. One edge of given is filled to straightness with rough and smooth files and checked with try square.
3. An adjacent is also filled such that is square to first edge and checked with try square.
4. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for making.
5. Lines are marked according to given figure, using odd leg caliper and steel rule.
6. using the dot punch are made along the marked lines.
7. The excess materials removed from the remaining two edges with try square level up to half of the
marked dots.
8. Finally buts are removed by the filling on the surface of the fitted job.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The perpendicularity of face ends edges is checked perfectly by using try square.
2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.
3. Marking is done without parallax error.

RESULT: The Square cutting is done successfully

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPT.NO: 02 V-FITTING
AIM: To make a V-Fit from the given mid steel pieces.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Mild steel flat (40*40*3mm).
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1.6”try square
2. 6”sriber
3. Odd leg caliper
3.12”hack saw Frame
4 Blades (12 TPI)
5.10”rough file
6.10”smooth file
7.10”triangle file
8. Knife Edge file
9. Dot punch
10. Ball peen hammer (0.5 Ib)
11. Steel Rule
Sequence of Operations:
1. Filling
2. Marking
3. Punching
4. Sawing
5. Filling
6. Finishing

PROCEDURE:
1. The given mild steel flat piece is checked for given dimensions.
2. One edge of given is filled with rough and smooth files and checked with try square for
straightness.
3. An adjacent edge is also filled such that it is square to first edge and checked with try square.
4. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for marking.
5. Lines are marked according to given figure, using odd leg caliper and steel rule.
6. Using the dot punch, punches are made along the marked lines.
7. The excess materials removed from the remaining two edges with try square level up to half of
the marked dots.
8. Finally buts are removed by the filling on the surface of the fitted job.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The perpendicularity of face ends edges is checked perfectly by using try square.
2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.
3. Marking is done without parallax error.

RESULT:
The V-fit is done successfully.

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 FORGING
Blacksmithy or Forging is an oldest shaping process used
for the producing small articles for which accuracy in size is
not so important. The parts are shaped by heating them in an
open fire or hearth by the blacksmith and shaping them
through applying compressive forces using hammer.
Thus forging is defined as the plastic deformation of metals at
elevated temperatures into a predetermined size or shape using compressive forces exerted through some
means of hand hammers, small power hammers, die, press or upsetting machine. It consists essentially of
changing or altering the shape and section of metal by hammering at a temperature of about 980°C, at
which the metal is entirely plastic and can be easily deformed or shaped under pressure. The shop in
which the various forging operations are carried out is known as the smithy or smith’s shop.
Hand forging process is also known as black-smithy work which is commonly employed for
production of small articles using hammers on heated jobs. It is a manual controlled process even though
some machinery such as power hammers can also be sometimes used. Black-smithy is, therefore, a
process by which metal may be heated and shaped to its requirements by the use of blacksmith tools either
by hand or power hammer.
Forging by machine involves the use of forging dies and is generally employed for mass-
production of accurate articles. In drop forging, closed impression dies are used and there is drastic flow
of metal in the dies due to repeated blow or impact which compels the plastic metal to conform to the
shape of the dies.
Applications of forging
Almost all metals and alloys can be forged. The low and medium carbon steels are readily hot forged
without difficulty, but the high-carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to forge and require greater care.
Forging is generally carried out on carbon alloy steels, wrought iron, copper-base alloys, aluminum alloys,
and magnesium alloys. Stainless steels, nickel-based super alloys, and titanium are forged especially for
aerospace uses.
FORGEABILITY
The ease with which forging is done is called forgeability. The forgeability of a material can also be
defined as the capacity of a material to undergo deformation under compression without rupture.
Forgeability increases with temperature up to a point at which a second phase, e.g., from ferrite to
austenite in steel, appears or if grain growth becomes excessive.
COMMON HAND FORGING TOOLS
For carrying out forging operations manually, certain
common hand forging tools are employed. These are
also called blacksmith’s tools, for a blacksmith is one
who works on the forging of metals in their hot state.
The main hand forging tools are as under.
Tongs
The tongs are generally used for holding work while
doing a forging operation. Various kinds of tongs are
shown in Figure.
a) Straight-lip fluted tongs are commonly used for holding square, circular and hexagonal bar stock.
b) Rivet or ring tongs are widely used for holding bolts, rivets and other work of circular section.
c) Flat tongs are used for mainly for holding work of rectangular section.
d) Gad tongs are used for holding general pick-up work, either straight or tapered.

Flatter
Flatter is shown in Fig. 14.7. It is commonly used in forging shop to give smoothness and accuracy to
articles which have already been shaped by fullers and swages.

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Swage
Swage is used for forging work which has to be reduced or finished to round, square or hexagonal form. It
is made with half grooves of dimensions to suit the work being reduced. It consists of two parts, the top
part having a handle and the bottom part having a square shank which fits in the hardie hole on the anvil
face.
Fuller
Fuller is used in forging shop for necking down a forgeable job. It is made in top and
bottom tools as in the case of swages. Fuller is made in various shapes and sizes
according to needs, the size denoting the width of the fuller edge
Punch
Punch is used in forging shop for making holes in metal part when it is at forging heat.

Rivet header
Rivet header (Fig. 14.7) is used in forging shop for producing rivets heads on parts.

Chisels
Chisels are used for cutting metals and for nicking prior to breaking. They may be hot or cold depending
on whether the metal to be cut is hot or cold. A hot chisel generally used in
forging shop is shown in Fig. 14.7. The main difference between the two is in
the edge. The edge of a cold chisel is hardened and tempered with an angle of
about 60°, whilst the edge of a hot chisel is 30° and the hardening is not
necessary. The edge is made slightly rounded for better cutting action.

Hand hammers
There are two major kinds of hammers are used in hand forging:
a. The hand hammer used by the smith himself and
b. The sledge hammer used by the striker.
Hand hammers may further be classified as (a) ball peen hammer, (b)
straight peen hammer, and (c) cross peen hammer.
Sledge hammers may further be classified as (a) Double face
hammer, (b) straight peen hammer, and (c) cross peen hammer.
Hammer heads are made of cast steel and, their ends are hardened and tempered. The striking face is made
slightly convex. The weight of a hand hammer varies from about 0.5 to 2 kg whereas the weight of a
sledge hammer varies from 4 to 10 kg
Set hammer
A set hammer generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig. 14.9. It is used for finishing corners in
shouldered work where the flatter would be inconvenient. It is also used for drawing out the gorging job.

Anvil
An anvil is a most
commonly tool used in
forging shop which is
shown in. It acts as a
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support for blacksmith’s work during hammering. The body of the anvil is made of mild steel with a tool
steel face welded on the body, but the beak or horn used for bending curves is not steel faced. The round
hole in the anvil called pritchel hole is generally used for bending rods of small diameter, and as a die for
hot punching operations. The square or hardie hole is used for holding square shanks of various fittings.
Anvils in forging shop may vary up to about 100 to 150 kg and they should always stand with the top face
about 0.75 mt. from the floor. This height may be attained by resting the anvil on a wooden or cast iron
base in the forging shop.

Swage block
Swage block generally used in forging shop is shown in figure. It is mainly used for heading, bending,
squaring, sizing, and forming operations on forging jobs. It is 0.25 mt. or even more wide. It may be used
either flat or edgewise in its stand.

FORGING OPERATIONS:
The following are the basic operations that may be performed by hand forging:

1. Drawing-down:
Drawing is the process of stretching the stock while reducing its cross-section locally. Forging the
tapered end of a cold is an example of drawing operation.
2. Upsetting:
It is a process of increasing the area of cross-section of a metal piece locally, with a corresponding
reduction in length. In this, only the portion to be upset is heated to forging temperature and the work is
then struck at the end with a hammer. Hammering is done by the smith (student) himself, if the job is
small, or by his helper, in case of big jobs, when heavy blows are required with a sledge hammer.
3. Fullering:
Fullers are used for necking down a piece of work, the reduction often serving as the starting
point for drawing. Fullers are made of high carbon steel in two parts, called the top and bottom fullers.
The bottom tool fits in the hardie hole of the anvil. Fuller size denotes the width of the fuller edge.
4. Flattering:
Flatters are the tools that are made with a perfectly flat face of about 7.5 cm square. These are
used for finishing flat surfaces. A flatter of small size is known as set-hammer and is used for finishing
near corners and in confined spaces.
5. Swaging:
Swages like fullers are also made of high carbon steel and are made in two parts called the top and
swages. These are used to reduce and finish to round, square or hexagonal forms. For this, the swages are
made with half grooves of dimensions to suit the work.
6. Bending:
Bending of bars, flats, etc., is done to produce different types of bent shapes such as angles, ovals,
circles etc. Sharp bends as well as round bends may be made on the anvil, by choosing the appropriate
place on it for the purpose.
7. Twisting:
It is also one form of bending. Sometimes, it is done to increase the rigidity of the work piece.
Small piece may be twisted by heating and clamping a pair of tongs on each end of the section to be
twisted and applying a turning moment.
Larger pieces may be clamped in a leg vice and twisted with a pair of tongs or a monkey wrench.
However, for uniform twist, it must be noted that the complete twisting operation must be performed in
one heating.
8. Cutting (Hot and Cold Chisels):
Chisels are used to cut metals, either in hot or cold state. The cold chisel is similar to fitter’s
chisel, except that it is longer and has a handle. A hot chisel is used for cutting hot metal and its cutting
edge is long and slender when compared to cold chisel. These chisels are made of tool steel, hardened and
tempered.

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9. Iron-Carbon Alloy:
If the carbon is less than 2% in the iron-carbon alloy, it is known as steel. Again, based on the
carbon content, it is called mild steel, medium carbon steel and high carbon steel. The heat treatment to be
given to these steels and their applications are shown in table below.
Carbon Hardening Tempering Applications.
% temp. 0C temp. 0C
0.1 800-840 250-300 Chains, rivets, soft wire, sheet
0.25 800-840 250-300 Tube, rod, strip
Mild Steel
0.5 800-840 250-300 Girders
0.6 800-840 250-300 Saws, hammers, smith’s and general
purpose tools
Cold chisels, smith’s tools shear blades,
0.75 760-800 250-300
table cutlery
0.9 760-800 250-300 Taps, dies, punches, hot shearing blades
Medium Drills, reamers, cutters, blanking and
Carbon steel 1.0 760-800 250-300 slotting tools, large turning tool

Small cutters, lathe and engraving tools,

1.2 720-760 250-300 files drills
Extra hard, planning, turning and slotting
High Carbon 1.35 720-760 250-300
tools, dies and mandrels
1.5 720-760 250-300 Razor blades

NOTE: The forging produced either by hand forging or machine forging should be heat treated.
The following are the purposes of heat treatment:

i. To remove internal stresses set-up during forging and cooling.

ii. To normalize the internal structure of the metal.
iii. To improve machinability.
iv. To improve mechanical properties, strength and hardness.
SAFE PRACTICES:
1. Hold the hot work downwards close to the ground, while transferring from the hearth to anvil, to
minimize danger of burns; resulting from accidental collisions with others.
2. Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work. These should hold the work securely to prevent
its bouncing out of control from repeated hammer blows.
3. Care should be exercised in the use of the hammer. The minimum force only should be used and
the flat face should strike squarely on the work; as the edge of the hammer will produce heavy
bruising on hot metal.
4. Water face shield when hammering hot metal.
5. Wear gloves when handling hot metal.
6. Wear steel-toed shoes.
7. Ensure that hammers are fitted with tight and wedged handles.

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXP: 1 S-Hook Date

Aim: To make an S-hook from a given round rod, by following hand forging operation.
Tools required:
Smith’s forge, Anvil, 500gm and I kg ball-peen hammers, Flatters, Swage block, Half round tongs, Pick-
up tongs, Cold chisel.
Sequence of operations:
1. One end of the bar is heated to red hot condition in the smith’s
forge for the required length.
2. Using the pick-up tongs; the rod is taken from the forge, and
holding it with the half round tongs, the heated end is forged into
a tapered pointed end.
3. The length of the rod requires for S-hook is estimated and the
excess portion is cut-off, using a cold chisel.
4. One half of the rod towards the pointed end is heated in the forge
to red hot condition and then bent into circular shape as shown.
5. The other end of the rod is then heated and forged into a tapered
pointed end.
6. The straight portion of the rod is finally heated and bent into
circular shape as required. S- HOOK
7. Using the flatter, the S-hook made as above, is kept on the anvil
and flattened so that, the shape of the hook is proper.
NOTE: In-between the above stage, the bar is heated in the smith’s forge, to facilitate forging
operations.
Result:
The S-hook is thus made from the given round rod; by following the stages mentioned above.
Precautions:
1. Hold the job carefully while heating and hammering
2. Job must be held parallel to the face of the anvil.
3. Wear steel-toed shoes.
4. Wear face shield when hammering the hot metal
5. Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work.

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Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXP: 2 Square Rod Date

Aim: To make a Square rod from a given round rod, by following hand forging operation.

Tools required:
Smith’s forge, Anvil, 500gm and I kg ball-peen hammers, Flatters, Swage block, Half round tongs, Pick-
up tongs, Cold chisel.

Sequence of operations:
1. Take the raw material from stock i.e.,
mild steel 10 mm round shaped, cut the
length of 50 mm.
2. Handle specimen with round tong and
heat in blacksmith’s forge upto the part
appears as red cherry color code.
3. The required piece heated upto it gets the
recrystalization temperature.
4. The part is taken out from the forge and
blow with sledge hammer for obtaining
the square shape on all edges.
5. The hammering is done on the anvil.
6. The above mentioned all steps are done,
after the specimen bent in required shape.
7. Check the dimensions after cooling the job by quenching process.

NOTE: In-between the above stage, the bar is heated in the smith’s forge, to facilitate forging
operations.

Result:
The square rod is thus made from the given round rod.

Precautions:
1. Hold the job carefully while heating and hammering
2. Job must be held parallel to the face of the anvil.
3. Wear steel-toed shoes.
4. Wear face shield when hammering the hot metal
5. Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work.

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