ANITISM: A SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS NATIVE

TO THE PHILIPPINES
STEPHEN K. HISLOP

I. INTRODUCTION

The word anitism, or the Hispano-Filipino form anitismo, though not

in current usage, has been defined in Retana's glossary 1 as "Asociaci6n de
ideas religiosas que tiene por fundamento el culto a los anitos," citing Isabelo
de los Reyes, who further defines "anitos" as "almas de los antepasados.'' 2
Fernando Blumentritt characterizes primitive Tagalog religion as continual
invocation and adoration of the anitos, the souls or spirits of their ancestors. 3
From its original meaning of "ancestral spirit,'' the word anito acquired
throughout the Philippines the general meaning "spirit." 4
The other term in general parlance to describe Filipino primitive reli-
gion was aniteria, used mainly by Spanish missionaries, often in a very
derogatory sense. 5 Though Blumentritt 6 attempted to use the word in a
purely descriptive sense, the term aniteria appears too often in the mis-
sionary literature in a prejudicial sense; for this reason I have avoided
it in this paper, as I believe de los Reyes' word anitismo to be a more
useful term to describe the original religious system of the primitive Filipinos.
II. ORIGIN OF PHILIPPINE RELIGION
At first glance, the fact that the Filipinos worshiped the spirits of their
ancestors might tend to indicate Chinese influence. In fact, in the year 1375
the Chinese Emperor, during the height of friendly relations between the
two nations, incorporated into the Chinese religion the worship of Sulu's

1 W. E. Retana, "Diccionario de Filipinismos con la Revisii6n de lo que al respecta

lleva pubhcado La Real Academia Espafiol.'' Revue Hispanique, LI (1921), 32.
2 La R,eligz16n Antigua de los Filipinos (Manila: 1909), 11.
3 Diccionario Mitol6gico de Filipinas, 1895 (2nd ed.), 19. In fact, Protestant
Leo L positiv':ly "The dominating ideals of all pagan
re1Jgwn [m the Ph1hppmes] IS the behef m anzto, a class of supernatural beings''
(A Survey of Pagan Tribes in the Philippines and of Missionary Efforts Toward Their
Evangelization, Columbia: 1956, p. 7).
4 R. A. Kern, Journal of Studies, 1:2 (1956), 6. Accmding
to Kern the word amto IS of Malayan ongm and has spread Eastward of Polynesia
from the Philippines. He traces th.e root of the word to andito, "those there far
away'' (7). See also Blumentritt's summary of correspondences in Malaysian
with the Filipino anita "ancestor spirits'' in op. cit., 22-23.
5 For example, W. E. Retana, Un Libro de Aniterias: Supersticiones de los
Indios Filipinos (Madrid: 1894). The title gives somewhat of an indication of the
author's bias.
6 Op. cit., 20n. See also Retana, Revue Hispanique, Zoe. cit.

144
 ANITISM: A SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 145

rivers, mountains, and forests. 7 Other than this cne instance of incorpora-
tion, obviously for political purposes, there is no indication that either coun-
try influenced the other's religion. In fact, Blumentritt believed that the Ma-
layan demonology (anitism) was sufficiently diverse from Chinese religion
to prove it had an independent origin. 8
At present Chinese influence in the Philippines is seen mainly in the
instruments used in worship, such as Chinese jars and gongs. There are
indications from excavations in Palawan that these Chinese jars were used
even in ancient times. in the same way that today's Tagbanwas use them for
storing rice wine which is used in religious ceremonies for communication
with the spirits of the dead. 9
Other observers of Philippine primitive religion have traced it to a
likewise superficial basis, such as similarities in manner of dress and orna..
mentation. 1() A more serious attempt to link Filipino primitive religion with
Hinduism is in various explanations of the Filipino deity Bathala, although
there is no agreement on exactly what Sanskrit word is the origin of the
word Bathala.
Parece probable que deriva del Sans. bh:lttra, respectable, conSiiderable; pero tam-
bien pudiera ocurrir que proviniera de ay,·atara, avatar, es decir: : descendimiento
de un dios a Ia tierra bajo una forma visible. como los 10. avatares de Wishnu.
En Mal. berhala, que se a,-emeja a Ia forma Tag. signif<ica un idoio a que se
rinde culto divino. En Pam. batala, es un ave en quien tenian sus supersticiones.ll
A modern Spanish Jesuit, Pablo Pastells, 12 has still another theory,
that the word Bat-ala is derived from Bata-Allah, or "child of Allah''! The
fact that this was seriously believed by some of his predecessors may be seen
in an anonymous Manila Relaci6n of 1572, which forbade the use of this
name on the grounds of its supposed Muslim association. Perhaps the sim-
plest and most satisfactory explanation may be that the word is essentially
native Malayan, and not from a source as the above forced interpreta-
tions might indicate.
Of a different character is the Philippine word diwata, 13 which can
definitely be traced to India and beyond, to the same source as Greek theos,
Latin deus, Spanish dios, English deity. 14 However, in this case, although

7 Henry 0. Beyer, "The Philippines Before Magellan." Asia, November, 1921,

p. 966.
8 Op. cit., 20.
9 S·ee Robert B. Fox, Pre-History of the Philippines (Manila: 1967), 17.
10 See Juan R. Francisco, "Analagous Customs, Beliefs and Traditions in India
and the Philippines,'' Historical Bulletin, June, 1963, p. 145.
11 T. H. Pardo de Tavera, El San'SCrito en Ia Lengwa Tagalog (Paris: 1887), 23.
See Juan Francisco's critique of this book in Asian Studies, August, 1968.
12 Editor of Francisco Colin, Labor Evange/ica (Barcelona: 1904), 64n.
13 W!th the forms dewa, devata, dewata, divata, diua:ta (Blumentritt, op. cit., 44,
45).
14 "Diwata se deriva del sanscrito deva 6 devata, de modo que tanto el latin Deus
como el filipino Diwata tienen el mismo origen.'' (Ibid., 45n.) With this de los Reyes
is also in agreement: "La palabra diuata ... debe proceder de los devas · e devatas de
los hindus, dioses protectores." ( Op. cit., 40n.)
146 ASIAN STUDIES

the origin of the word is somewhat clearer, its use is much more diverse, I
have collected a list, by no means exhaustive, of sixteen uses of this word
in Philippine languages. Blumentritt catalogs the use of diwata in eight
languages of the Philippines. With the Bisayans, the word is the equivalent
of Tagalog anitoJ5 The Bataks of Palawan believe that diwata refers to all
spirits, good and bad. The Tagbanwas believe that these are invisible spirits.
The Mandayas limit the word to refer to one spirit, but the Manobos believe
it refers to spirits. The Subanos use diwata to refer to one of their gods.
The Tirurays believe diwata is a great eight-headed fish. The Maguindanaos
have images called diwata, but the word dewa refers to a goddess. 16 Among
the Magahats, diwa refers to a forest god and also to the spirit who owns
their land. Diwata is the thanksgiving feast with the offerings that are of-
fered.17 Among the Bukidnon, the diwata were believed to be men of
heaven. 18 The early Spaniard missionaries made the observation that the
Cebuanos used divata to refer to any god, especially an image of a god. 19
Among the Bilaans, some hold Dwata to be the god of goodness, older than
the evil god Mele, though others hold that he is younger than Mele, god
of evil. 20 It should be noted that the use of the word Diwata is confined
to the southern part of the Philippines. The Tagalogs, however, were aware
of the existence of Diwata, believing Him to be the universal Supreme Being,
whereas Bathala was the supreme deity of the Tagalog people only. 21
The word, therefore, which was not original in the Philippines, acquired
various meanings throughout the archipelago and did not in any case form
a basis for religious faith. The basis for religious faith had already been
established in the Philippines before this word had entrance; this already
existing basis is what is called in this paper anitism.
III. CHARACTERISTICS OF ANITISM
GENERAL CONCEPT

In the eyes of the early Spanish missionaries, the "Indios'' had no reli-
gion as they understood religion. They were observed to worship without

16 De los Reyes (lac. cit.) confirms this use.

16 Op. cit., 44-46.
17 Timoteo S. Oracion, "Ceremonial Customs and Beliefs Connected with Magahat
Koingin Agriculture.' Silliman Journal, July, 1955, pp. 224, 231, l32n.
18 Tranquilino Sitoy, "The Bukidnon Ascension to Heaven," Philippine Magazine,
October, 1937, p. 445.
19 .In the account of the discovery of the Santo Ni:iio image in Cebu City. See
Pedro Chirino, "Relation of the Filipinas Islands and of What Has There Been
Accomplished by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus,'' Emma Blair and James A.
Robertson, The Philippine Islands, XII, 181.
20 It was the former consideration which led the Philippine Bible Society (Pro-
testant) to adopt this name for God in their original gospel translation, as far as I
know, the first attempt to use a purely native word for God in the Philippines. Lorenzo
C. Genotiva, "Bilaan Religious Beliefs and Practices," Silliman Journal, 1st quarter,
1966, pp. 57, 58n.
21 See the Tagalog etiological myth "How Lansones Became Edible," Filipino
Popular Tales (Lancaster: 1921), 402.
 ANITISM: A SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 147

temples or organized priesthood, honored no founder, and used no script-

ures.22 To them it was a vast maze of pagan superstitions to be replaced
as quickly as possible. Patterns of worship by the Filipinos may be seen
in a sketch by the contemporary missionary, John A. Rich.23

SUPREME BEING
(Inaccessible)

DEAD ANCESTORS t'...,, -. ......

':4

SPIRITS OF NATURE EVIL SPIRITS

Seasons PRIESTS I PRIESTESSES Sickness
Life phases Misfortune

SPIRITS OF ANCESTORS

Both the "spirits of nature" and the "spiri.ts of ancestors" of the above
diagram are of course the anitos. 24 Though the theory that the word anito
was directly derived frcm the Sanscrit hantu ("death") may be doubted, 25
Pardo de Tavera was at least correct in identifying the anitos with the dead.
Jose Rizal traced the use of the word anita from "tutelary genius, either
of the family, or extraneous to it,'' to the final meaning in his day of "any
superstition, false worship, idol, etc." 26 In the usage of the word, it may be

22 Antonio de Morga, ''Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas,'' Blair and Robertson, op cit,.
XVI, 132. I have reserved a discussion of human sacrifice to the end of this section
(infra, n. 44, p. 13), as the sources are in much disagreement over whether such a
practice existed in the Islands. De Morga ( 133) denies it, but Silvestre Sancho ("Las
Creencies de los Primitivos Filipinos,'' MissivTUllia Hispanica, II, 1945, no 4, p. 16),
Retana (Un Libro de Aniterias, vi, n), and Blumentritt (op. cit., 70) affirm that it
occurred regularly.
23 "Religious Acculturation in the Philippines," Practical Anthropology, September-
October, 1970, p. 200. The dotted Enes are my addition, and show effects of both
sets of spirits on man, and also the effects of ancestral spirits on the other two sets.
24 Along with Bisayan diwata, Ilocano aroiaas, and the other terms locally used
for spirits of the dead.
25 See Juan R. Francisco, "Indian Influences in the Philippines with Special Re-
ference to Language and Literature," Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities R.eview,
January-September, 1963, p. 32n.
26 Editor of de Morga, op. cit., 13ln.
148 ASIAN STUDIES

seen .that it originally meant the spirits of ancestors, then all spirits, then the
images which were constructed to represent the household spirits. 27
The ancestors who had passed on went to the spirit-world and shared an
existence with the spirits who had never been mortal. These spirits of the
ancestors then had some kind of influence upon the other spirits who could
help or harm those stilli living. In order to keep on good terms with the
spirits that had been ancestors, it was believed necessary from time to time
to hold great feasts in their honor, so that they would intercede in behalf of
the living to the spirits of nature. The spirits of the dead were likewise
involved occasionally in causing the death of the living through sickness,
so that the afflicted would join his ancestor in the spirit-world. 28

OTHER SPIRITS
Not only people, but also animals, and indeed all visible objects pos-
sessed spirits. In addition, a peculiar belief of the lfugaos was that all
things and people had a "soul-stuff' differentiated from the soul itself; the
belief was that this "soul-stuff" was what gave desirable attributes to people
and things. 29
But the spirits themselves inhabited both animals and objects in the
same way in which they inhabited man. To the anitists, there was no such
thing as an "inanimate'' object. Anitos were represented in .their mythology
as having been in existence since the creation of the world,:w each anito
having its own "speciaL office," such as giving rain, making the rice grow,
increasing the quantity of the rice, etc.
Objects likewise. were believed to possess spirits. Often images were
made by one particularly skilled in carving or sculpting, 31 and through them
were worshiped the spirits of those who had died.
They possessed many idols called lic-ha, which were images with different
shapes; and at times they worshiped any little trifle, in which they adored ...
some particular dead man who was brave in war and endowed with special
faculties, to whom they commended themselves for protection in their tribula-
tions.32

27 Although images were made for the household anitos, anitos of the mountains,
the forests, the streams, and the sea were worshiped, but had no viisible representations
(Blumentritt, op. cit., 19-21 ).
28 From Glen Grisham, "Pagan Priests of Benguet," Philippine Magazine·, February,
1933, p. 399, and Barton, "My Ifugao Brother's Gods," Asia, October, 1929, p. 809.
29 For a further explanation of these beliefs, and their connection with head
hunting, see ibid., 813.
30 That the Tagalog myths attributed the origiin of anitos of nature to creation by
Batala may be seen in Miguel de Loarca, "Relation of the Filipinas Islands,'' Blair
and Robertson, op cit., V, 173.
31 The makers of these images were called in Tagalog manganito (Blumentritt,
op. cit., 75).
32 Juan de Plasencia, "Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods, and
Their Buri.als and Superstitions." Blair and Robertson, op. cit., VII, 189.
 ANITISM: A SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS BELffiFS 149

In addition to the good spirits (the anitos), the primitive Filipinos

venerated out of a feeling of fear evil spirits or mangalos. 33 Particularly
feared by the Tagalogs was the crocodile, to which they sacrificed pigs by
throwing them into the river or lagoon. They often reverenced the crocodile
by calling it nmw34 or "grandparent" and pleaded to it to be spared from
harm.:l 5 It was believed that .the nonos had given man five commandments,
curiously reminiscent of the Ten Commandments, which were, "Do not kill,
do not rob, do not commit adultery, do not lie, do not drink intoxicating
beverages. " 36
The nonos, like the an:itos, were "spiritualized" so that a folk-belief was
current among the Tagalogs that it was necessary to ask permission of the
anitos or nnnos before planting in a field or even before merely walking
through it (pasintabi sa nono). 3 7 The belief persists to the present day that
the farmer must offer sO'.!llething to the spirits of the rice in order that they
may ripen quickly. Thus, the farmer in Malitbog, central Panay, performs
the bari (breaking) ritual just before harvest, in which he breaks the heads
of a few stalks of rice in sacrifice to the spirit of the whole ricefield. As
one farmer explained his reason for performing this ritual, "The rice has
spirits, too, and when you dry some of the stalks their spirits would appeal
to the rest [for] sympathy and this hastens .the ripening of the entire
crop." 38
PLACE OF WORSHIP
The first Spanish missionaries were unanimous in their surprise at dis-
covering that the Filipinos did not worship in .temples. The worship of anitos
was consequently entirely home-centered. All homes, no matter how poor,
possessed an altar for anito-worship. 39
It is not quite accurate to say that the early Filipinos lacked buildings
of community worship, as there existed simbahan which were "semi-perma-
nent buildings intended for worship''4{) or sometimes caves.
33 Los Bisayas antiguos veneraban al Mangalo, teniendo que los devorase las
entra:iias invisiblemente, pues a el atribuan la muerte de los que fallecian no siendo
ya ancianos." (Blumentritt, op. cit., 80-81.)
34 The term nono appears to be another word for an ito. That is, both were terms
meaning the spirit of one who had lived before. The nonos could further be idenm-
fied as "visiting anitos." The use of the word nono was not confined by any means
to the crocodile; the belief appears also in the myth of the old man of the anthill
(matanda sa punso), in which the white ants (anay) were identiftied with nonos or
anito.s. (Ibid., 84.), The balete tree, according to some, was the favorite habitat of
the nonos (ibid., 88-89.)
35 De los Reyes, op. cit., 35-36.
36 Frank C. Laubach, The People of the Philippines (New York: 1925), 45.
37 Blumentritt, op. cit., 97.
38 Felipe L. Jocano, "Agricultural Rtituals in a Philippine Barrio,'' Philippine
Sociological Rniew, January-April, 1967, p. 6.
39, Masayoshi Shonago, "The Philippine Islands as Viewed from a Religious and
Social Standpoint, Especially Before the Introduction of Christianity,'' Tenri Journal
of Religion, March, 1955, p. 49.
40 Eufronio Alip, "Closing Remarks.'' The Beginnings of ChrfstiQllity in the
Phili;Jpi'nes (Manila: 1965), 230-231.
 ASIAN' STUDIES

The Spanish missionary Juan de Plasencia carefully noted the worship

of anitos by the primitive Filipinos.
It is true that they have the name simbahan, which means a temple or place
of adoration; but this ds because formerly when they wished to celebrate a fes-
tiva)l, which they called pandot, or 'worship,' they celebrated it in the large
house of a chief. There they constructed for the purpose of sheltering the as-
sembled people, a temporary shed on each side of the house, with a roof, called
sibi, to protect the people from the wet when it rained ... During this time
the whole barangay, or family, united and jodned in the worship which they
call nagaanitos.4l
Jose Rizal notes that temples were built only for worship of anitos, and
these buildings were called ulango. No buildings were made for the worship
of Bathala.42
PRIESTHOOD
Though the native religious priesthood was apparently not so well-or-
ganized as the elaborate Catholic religious system, it was functional and a
duly recognized part of the primitive Filipino society. The services of the
priests were used by the people mainly in determining which anitos had
to be placated and how to do this. The primitive priesthood of the Kalinga
is still in existence. The Kalinga medium performs two duties: caring for the
departed and curing the sick by seeking and returning the soul of the af_
flicted. 43
SUMMARY

A modern Spaniard has summarized Filipino primitive religion by saying

it consisted of :!lour basic elements: animism, worship of spirits of ancestors,
almost no temples, and human sacrifice. 44 In view of the fact that there is
-such a scanty record of human sacrifices in the Philippines, it may be con-
duded that it was not a typical practice of .the primitive Filipinos. Instead,
the existence of a well-defined priesthood may be substituted, this priesthood
consisting of mediums ( katalonan) between man and the anitos.

41 Op. eft., 185-186.

42 Op. cit., 132.
43 Edward Dozier, Mountain Arbiters (Tucson), 165.
44 Sancho, loc. cit. I dO not believe he is being fair when he says that Filipino
primitive religion was "characterized by human sacrifice." The so-called "human
sacrifice" mentioned by Blumentritt (op. cit., 70) in his definition of Lalaon is a
killing of slaves of a wealthy person in order that they might accompany him to the
-spirit-world and serve him there. It was not therefore by any means a common occur-
rence. If human sacrifice played such an important part in Filipino religious observ-
ances there should be abundant references in missionary literature beyond the mere
statement that it was a common feature of pagan religious practice. As it is, to my
knowledge the only fully documented record of a regular (yearly) rite of human
sacrdfice may be found in Warren D. Smith's "An Account of a Human Sacrifice Held
by the Bagobos, District of Davao, Mindanao, P.I.," The Philippine Journal of Science,
June, 1908, pp. 194-196.
 ANITISM: A SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 151

IV. DEITIES
I have described first the spirits because these formed the major part of
early Filipino worship. As Rich's chart indicates, the Supreme Being was
considered unapproachable. The Filipinos were not ignorant of his existence,
of course, but did not believe that man was worthy to worship him directly.
The god Bathala 4 5 has already been mentioned. Its origin has been
variously conjectured, but little is known definitely; what is known is that
its use is widespread in the Philippine Islands. Sometimes Bathala was de-
scribed as a large bird ( Tigmamanukin), but the full term in Tagalog for
the Supreme Being was Bathala...Maykapa1l, which literally means Creator-
God. The Bisayans of the western islands worshipped Laon 46 as Supreme
·God, while those of the Eastern Visayas held Abba 47 as Supreme God.
Lesser deities of importance were Maylupa, god of the soil, and Nona,
who when elevated to deity, was god of the waters and was placated by
offerings thrown into the water from boats; others believed Nono to be a god
of the forests, and therefore, it was sacrilege to fell them. 48 Interestingly
enough, the supreme deity of the Ilocanos was Angngalo, the first man,
though they also believed in the Creator Maykapal. 49
The Pangasinans were noted for their gods of war, among them Apolaki,
Makanduk, Inaginid, and Barangao. The latter was known by various Fili-
pinos as god of the rainbow; the rainbow had an important place in their
cosmology as the bridge between this world and the spirit-world. 50
Among demigods, Ginarawan 51 was a named evil spirit of the Tagalogs.
At this point, the spiritual beings become more numerous and more familiar
to their WO!fshipers, for it is these lesser deities with whom the common
man feels he can deal directly. Such beings as the agta, the aghoy, the eng-
kantada, the buso, the aswang, and the myriad host of "myth-animals" and
"bad animals" were limited only by the exceedingly fertile imagination of
the rural Filipino.52

45 Other forms are R:Idhala, Badia, and Bahala (Blumentritt, op. cit., 27-28).
46 Whence comes the name of the volcano Kanlaon on Negros Island. See ibid.,
69-70.
47 This was the first of the deities of the Philippine I>.lands that the Spaniards
encountered. Antonio Pigafetta recorded of the Cebuanos that, "they have no other
worship than raising thei.r clasped hands and their face to tho sky; c.nd . . . they called
their god 'Abba.'" (First Voyage Around the World, Manila, 1969, p. 30.)
48 Sancho, op. cit., 19.
49 De los Reyes, op. cit., 95-96.
50 Colin, op. cit., 65. See also Sanch'O, op. cit., 38.
51 In Tagalog, si Ginarawan. S·ancho wrongly spells this as one word, Siguinarugan.
The use of this "pers.onal article'' si gives somewhat of an indication of more per-
sonality or humanity than of supremacy or divinity. For example, the Tagalog Bible
always has ang Dios, but si Jesus or si Cristo.
52 Brief description of the Bisayan agta and aghoy may be found in Richard Arens,
"Anim;sm in the Rice Ritual of Leyte and Samar," Philippine Sociological Review,
January 1956, p. 2n. In the same place he gives the particular characteristics of beliefs
in engkantada (fairies) in Leyte and Samar. An interesting description of the beliefs
· conne.cting wild and imaginary animals with the spirit-world may be found in Laura
152 ASIAN STUDIES

V. TODAY'S CULTURAL MINORITIES

It is the beliefs of the still-remaining mountain-dwellers who have never
accepted either Christianity or Islam that the various primitive beliefs may
still be seen. These have been thoroughly studied by many anthropologists,.
and there is abundant literature concerning these tribes' beliefs, especially
since the arrival of the Americans. It may be presumed that many of these
beUefs are similar to the beliefs of the lowlanders before they accepted a
more organized religious system. A few of these persisting beliefs should
therefore be examined to give a full view of Filipino primitive religion.
The most notable characteristics of "primitive religion" of the moun-
tains of Luzon are prayer and sacrifice, with which is connected the kanyao
or feast. The prayers cannot be easily separated into prayers of petition and
prayers of worship, for life in the mountains is not divided into "sacred''
and "secular" aspects, as is the life of the more "civilized" people. It may
even be said that worship forms an integral part of the mountaineers' social
structure.53
Perhaps the most interesting of the mountain peoples, and certainly
the most studied, are the Ifugaos. The number of deities worshiped by these:
people is almost countless. In modern times there has been an attempt to.
elevate one of these gods to the position of Supreme God, probably in a
desire to prove their native religion has teachings equivalent to those of the:
Christian missionaries.i54 The two principal native gods considered by moun-
taineers to be the equivalent of the Christian's god are Lumawig and Ka-
bunyan. Missionary William Scott in examining beliefs concerning these:
deities concludes "that Cabunian is a class or place of deities; that Lumawig:
is a culture hero turned into a god; and that either or both have become
the subject of an apo-dios concept through religious acculturation."55 Another
lfugao "deity," Muknongan, has been called supreme god, but the word.
merely signifies "one to whom sacrifice is due." 55

W. Benedict, A Study of Bagobo Ceremonial, Magic and Myth (New York: 1916)r
31-40.
53 William H. Scott, "Worship in lgorot Life," Philippine Sociological Review,.
July-<ktober, 1960, p. _19. "lgorot pagan worship penetrates into almost every aspects-
of lgorot life, and actual prayers, rites, and religious songs accompany every phase or
step of his life he considers· significant." (Ibid., 21.)
54 This Supreme Being they term the Apo-Dios (Lord-God''), But there is much•
disagreement among themselves as to which god to be accorded the honor of greatest.
For a discussion of this problem in the light of religious acculturation, see William
Henry Scott, "The Apo-Dios Concept in Northern Luzon," Practical Anthropology,.
September-October, 1961, pp. 207-216. &ott believes that the idea of one supreme god
is a borrowing from Christianity, because none of the native gods bears sufficient
similarity to Dios of the Christian Filipinos.
55 Ibid., 216.
56 Lourdes S. Dulawan, "The Ifugaos,'' Unitas, March. 1967, P. 33. The whole'
subject is obscure, due to the fact that Christian observers themselves may
be in disagreement as to the meaning of supreme god among a primitive people.
In the examination of the controversy converning the origins of the word diwata,.
it was Eeen that though the Tagalog; believed Bathala to be their supreme deity,
they recognized Diwata as the supreme deity of the universe. It appears that singling.
 ANITISM: A SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 153

Rather than attempt to interpret Ifugao religion on a hierarchical basis,

the fact must be accepted that it is thoroughly polytheistic and without gra-
dations of deities. A natural question to ask is, why do so many gods exist?
For an answer to this query, lfugao society itself must be examined, for it
is natural for a people to construct their religious systems in terms of their
own society.
. . . in the Ifugao society the looseness in organization and vagueness in de-
finttion of their local units and the great emphasis upon kinship relation have
made the priests to be derived, and to function primarily on the basis of kinship
groups, that is, the relationship between practitioners and participants of a
ceremonial rite is almost exclusively based on kinship ties. In the dispersion
of kindred and the emphasis of nuclear family as corporate groups have resulted
in the development of a large number of priests in the Ifugao pantheon. As
every priest invokes for his own gods, a great number of priests will obviously.
create a great number of deities.57
The religious practices of today's Kalingas may be characterized as pre-
occupation with the propitiation of evil spirits. The good spirits and the
deities of kabuniyan (the "sky-world") do not need worship, since they do
not harm man.os This is in agreement with the records of other primitive
peoples in the Philippines, that is, the lack of concern for worshiping the
higher deities, and a preference for dealing with the more familiar spirits.
The Negritos of the Philippines, the one race indigenous to the Philip-
pine Islands that is not of Malayan stock, nevertheless have apparently
similar beliefs to those of the Malay Filipinos. For exaniple, the Negritoes
of the Visayas worship engkantos and taglogars as well as the spirits of their
ancestors, just as do the Bisayans. Two differences may be noted; the spirits
of the Negritos' ancestors wander underground, and the spirits of nature are
not given individual names but are instead considered collectively as the
enkanto.59
VI. INFLUENCES OF ANITISM ON CHRISTIANITY
Even among lowlanders today, Christian observers are alarmed at the
extent of pagan practice among those who are called Christians, to the ex-

out one god for absolute supremacy is a concept foreign to at least some p11imitive
religions; Christian evaluators of these religions are incorrect when they attempt to
force these beliefs into categories which are almost meaningless to the primitive
people.
57 Yih-Yuan Li, "The Structure of the Ifugao Religion," Bulletin of the Institute
of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, spring, 196{), p. 397. In the Chinese text, there is a
diagram of the Ifugao's conception of the un!vt!'rse whose center is of course Ifugao-
land. See also Francis Lambrecht, "Ancestors' Knowledge Among the Ifugaos and Its
Importance in the Religious and Social Life of the Tribe,'' The University of Manila
of East Asiati'C Studies, July-October, 1954, pp. 359-365. His theory explaining
the multiplicity of Ifugao deities connects the deities with ancestors. In fact, many of
the deities of Filipinos may definitely be traced to the first men of the tribe (Genotiva,
op. cit., 66n).
os Dozier, op. cit., 162.
59 Timoteo S. Oracion, "Notes on the Culture of Negrdtos on Negros Island,"
Silliman Journal, third quarter, 1960, p. 215.
154 ASIAN STUDIES

tent that their true religion may be considered paganism, with Christianity
merely an addition to their paganism rather than a replacement of it.60
This may be seen, for example, in practices connected with honoring
one's ancestors. Observers have seen here a clear and rather free inter-
change of pagan and Christian elements. Among Filipino fishermen an es-
pecially large catch is expected on All Souls' Day, because then the spirits
of their ancestors are helping them. Though this is an official church saints'
day, the observances of the day are more akin to pagan observances. The
spirits are believed to expect a good meal either in the home or at the
cemetery in return for their "aid" to the fishermen. 61
In fact, the rural Filipinos in general believe the Christian santos are
either the same, or in the same class as, the anitos of pagan belief.62 This is
a serious problem for the Catholic Church. From the very beginnings of
Christianity in the Islands, the same images through which the anitos were
worshiped were then used to worship the santos of the Church.63
The influence of primitive religion still lingers on, even among those
nominally converted to Christianity. Rural Filipinos may, more often than
not, still feel it more important to pay one's respects to inhabitants of the
spirit-world, rather than to the one Spiritual Father of all. One who bas the
responsibility for religious training in the barrio must bear this in mind, ·and
must also cope with the pagan attitude of atte'mpting to get something from
the higher power or higher powers, rather than the desire to give oneself to
God's service in unselfish dedication to a life of helping one's brethren.
Finally, we who are more highly educated must resist the tendency to despise
primitive Filipinos as possessing unscientific and superstitious notions about
God. The Christian engaged in church or social work in rural areas must
guard himself against the greatest evidence of paganism-self-centeredness.
If he can throw off this sin, he can then be in a better position to aid his
less-educated brothers. "How dare you say to your brother, 'Please, let me
take that speck out of your eye, when you have a log in your own eye?
You imposter! Take the log out· of your own eye first, and then you will be
able to see and take the speck out of your brother's eye." 64

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60· For example, tlhis is Leeder's evaluation of the !sinai ( op. cit., 15).
61 Richard Arens, "Animistic Fishing Ritual in Leyte and Samar,'' Philippine
Sociological Review, October, 1956, p. 28.
62 F. Landa Jocano, "Filipino Folk Catholic:sm," The Philippine Educational Fo-
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63 Alip, op. cit., 230.
64 Jesus' "Sermon on the Mount.'' (Matthew 7:4,5; Good News for Modern Man.)
 ANITISM: A SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 155

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156 ASIAN STUDIES

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