Lecture notes 1

Manufacturing Process
Technology part-1
Shantanu Bhattacharya
Overview of the Lecture
• Manufacturing systems approaches.
• Basic manufacturing processes. (Casting, Forming process,
Fabrication process, Material removal process)
• Advanced Machining processes (ECM, EDM, EBM, LBM, AJM,
USM processes)
• Micro-manufacturing processes (Etching, Deposition,
Lithography, Replication and molding, Dip-pen lithography,
Compression molding, Nano-imprint lithography)
 Manufacturing Systems Approach
Definition of Manufacturing Technology:

•Manufacturing technology provides the tools that enable production of all

manufactured goods. These master tools of industry magnify the effort of
individual workers and give an industrial nation the power to turn raw materials
into the affordable, quality goods essential to today’s society.
•Manufacturing technology provides the productive tools that power a growing,
stable economy and a rising standard of living. Thus manufacturing process really
represents adding value to a raw material and creation of wealth.
Replenish

Sales Production rate,

fluctuations quality and
Manufacturing delivery
Raw materials cost and
Manufacturing availability System
Business Profit
Facility Add environment
comprising of
Value Social Pressure manufacturing Reputation
Output Input processes
Resources and
plans

Wealth Manufacturing
Process is the key
to wealth
generation
 Casting Processes
• These are the only processes where liquid
metal in used.
• Casting is the oldest known manufacturing
process.
• It requires preparation of a cavity usually in
a refractory material to resemble closely to
the object to be realized.
• Molten metal is poured into this refractory
mould cavity and is allowed to solidify.
• The object after solidification is removed
from the mould.
Forming Processes
• These are solid state manufacturing processes involving minimum amount of
material wastage and faster production.
• Metal is heated to a temperature which is slightly below the solidus temperature
and then a large force is applied such that the material flows and take the desired
shape.
• The desired shape is controlled by means of certain tools called dies which may be
completely or partially closed during manufacture.
• These processes are normally used for large scale production rates.

Extrusion
Drop forging

Rolling Process

Wire Drawing
 Fabrication processes
• These are secondary manufacturing processes where the starting raw
materials are processed by any of the previous methods.
•It essentially involves joining pieces either temporarily or permanently so
that they would perform the necessary function.
•The joining can be achieved by both heat and pressure and / or a joining
material.
Gas Welding
Resistance Welding

Arc Welding
Material Removal Processes
• These are also secondary manufacturing processes where the additional unwanted
material is removed in the form of chips from the blank material by a harder tool so
that a final desired shape can be obtained.
• Material removal is the most expensive manufacturing process because more
energy is consumed, and also a lot of waste material is generated in the process.

Turning Shaping
Grinding

Milling Drilling
Sawing
 History of Machining
• Mankind used bones, sticks and stones as hand tools
since the earliest times

The most ancient Paleolithic stone tool During the Upper Paleolithic further
industry the Oldowan was developed by technological advances were made such
the earliest members of the genus Homo as the invention of Nets, bolas, the spear
such as Homo habilis around 2.6 million thrower the bow and arrow.
years ago. and contained tools such as
choppers, burins and awls.
 History of Machining
Hand held tools from Bronze Age
developed around 1 million years back.

Upto almost the seventeenth century all

tools were either hand operated or done
so by other very elementary methods.

Introduction of water, steam and later

electricity as useful sources of energy
led to the concept of power driven Ceremonial giant dirk of the
machine tools. Plougrescant-Ommerschans type, Bronze Age weaponry
Plougrescant, France, 1500-1300BC. and ornaments

John Wilkinson in 1774 first constructed a precision

machine for boring engine cylinders, powered by steam.
History of Machining

• 23 years later, Henry Maudslay made a further advancement in machining

when he devised screw cutting engine lathes.
• James Nasmyth invented the second basic machining tool for shaping and
planing.
First Universal Milling machine was built by J.R. Brown in
1862.

In the late nineteenth century, the grinding machine was

introduced. An advanced form of this process is the lapping
process used to produce a high quality surface finish and a
very tight tolerance
History of Machining

• In the later part of 19th and 20th Centuries the machine tools became
increasingly electrically powered.
• The basic machine tools had further refinements; for instance multiple
point cutters for milling machines were introduced.
• The whole machining paradigm was however still related to an operators
judgment who by looking at a part and using his skills would set up an
operation sequence and use this for machining the work piece. Accuracy of
such a product would depend solely on the operator.
• The introduction of NC (numerical control) in 1953 lead to computer
numeric control and direct numeric control.
• Present capabilities of these tooling systems have enormously increased
due to development in electronic controls and computers and present
capabilities enable complex shapes to be produced with finishing accuracy
close to a + 1 Micron.
History of Machining
• In modern machining practices, harder, stronger, and tougher
materials that are more difficult to cut are used. So, processes
should be independent of material properties of the work piece.
• Non conventional machining practices came very handy as an
alternative to the conventional domain which could handle shape
complexity, surface integrity and miniaturization requirements.
• Hybrid machining made use of the combined enhanced advantages
of two or more participating processes.
• Micromachining had emerged because of this change of
capabilities.
• Recent applications of micromachining include silicon/ glass
micromachining, excimer lasers and photolithography.
History of Machining
• Machines such as precision grinders may be capable of producing an
accuracy level of + 1 microns that can be measured using laser
instruments and optical fibers.
• Future trends in micromachining include laser and electron beam
lithography and super high precision grinding, lapping and
polishing machines. For measurements high precision laser beam
based scanners are used for measuring surface finish etc.
• Nano-machining is a very recent trend in these processes wherein
atoms and molecules can be removed instead of chips in
conventional machines.
• Nano-machining was introduced by Tanigushi to cover the
miniaturization of components and tolerances in the range from
submicron level to that of an individual atom or molecule between
100nm and 0.1 nm.
Machining Accuracies
100 -1 microns

1 -0.01 microns

Micro-turning and Micro-Milling M/C

0.1 -0.001 microns

Classification of all Material Removal
Processes
Non Traditional Machining
• Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials using
tools that are harder than the materials themselves.
• New and novel materials because of their greatly improved
chemical, mechanical and thermal properties are sometimes
impossible to machine using traditional machining processes.
• Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining
hard materials like ceramics and composites or machining under
very tight tolerances as in micromachined components.
• New processes and methods play a considerable role in machining
for aircraft manufacture, automobile industry, tool and die industry
mold making etc.
• They are classified under the domain of non traditional processes.
Classification of Non Traditional Machining

Single action non traditional Machining processes:

For these processes only one machining action is used for material removal. These
can be classified according to the source of energy used to generate such a
machining action: mechanical, thermal, chemical and electrochemical.
 Mechanical Machining
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Waterjet Machining (WJM) are typical examples of
single action, mechanical non traditional machining processes.
• The machining medium is solid grains suspended in an abrasive slurry in the former,
while a fluid is employed in the WJM process.
• The introduction of abrasives to the fluid jet enhances the machining efficiency and
is known as abrasive water jet machining. Similar case happens when ice particles
are introduced as in Ice Jet Machining.
Introduction to Abrasive Jet Machining
(AJM)
• In AJM, the material removal takes place due to
impingement of the fine abrasive particles.
• The abrasive particles are typically of 0.025mm
diameter and the air discharges at a pressure of
several atmosphere.
Mechanics of AJM
• Abrasive particle impinges on the work surface at a
high velocity and this impact causes a tiny brittle
fracture and the following air or gas carries away the
dislodged small work piece particle.
Basics of the USM process
• The basic USM process involves a tool ( made of a ductile and tough
material) vibrating with a very high frequency and a continuous flow of an
abrasive slurry in the small gap between the tool and the work piece.
• The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
• The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and brittle work
surface, resulting in the removal of the work material in the form of small
wear particles.
• The tool material being tough and ductile wears out at a much slower rate.
Mechanics of USM
• The reasons for material removal in an USM process are believed to be:

1. The hammering of the abrasive particles on the work surface by the tool.
2. The impact of free abrasive particles on the work surface.
3. The erosion due to cavitation.
4. The chemical action associated with the fluid used.

• A no. of researchers have tried to develop the theories to predict the

characteristics of ultrasonic machining. The model proposed by M.C.
Shaw is generally well accepted and explains the material removal
process well.
Thermal Machining • Thermal machining removes the machining
allowance by melting or vaporizing the
work piece material.
• Many secondary phenomena occur during
machining such as microcracking, formation
of heat affected zones, striations etc.
• The source of heat could be plasma as
during EDM and PBM or photons as during
LBM, electrons in EBM, ions in IBM etc.
 Electric Discharge Machining
• EDM is the process of material removal by a controlled erosion
through a series of electric sparks.
• It was developed in USSR around 1943.
• The basic process is illustrated below.
• When a discharge takes place between two points of the anode
and cathode the intense heat generated near the zone melts and
evaporates the materials in the sparking zone.
• For improving the effectiveness the work-piece and the tool are
submerged in a dielectric fluid. (Mineral oils or hydrocarbons)

•Experiments indicate that in

case both electrodes are of
the same material there is
prominently more erosion of
the electrode connected to
the positive terminal.
 Schematic view of the e-beam machine
•The figure below shows the basic schematic view of the electron beam machine.
•The electrons are emitted from the cathode (a hot tungsten filament), the beam is
shaped by the grid cup, and the electrons are accelerated due to a large potential
difference between the cathode and the anode.
•The beam is focussed with the help of the electromagnetic lenses.
•The deflecting coils are used to control the beam movement in any required manner.
•In case of drilling holes the hole diameter depends on the beam diameter and the energy
density.
•When the diameter of the
required hole is larger than the
beam diameter, the beam is
deflected in a circular path with
proper radius.
•Most holes drilled with e-beam
are characterized by a small crater
on the beam incident side of the
work.
 Mechanics of Material Removal (LBM)
• The figure below shows a typical pulsed Ruby laser.
•A coiled Xenon flash tube is placed around the Lasing material and the internal surface of
the container walls containing the Lasing system is well polished and is made highly
reflecting so that maximum light falls on the ruby rod for pumping operation.
• The capacitor is charged and a very high voltage is applied to the triggering electrode for
the initiation of the flash.
•The emitted laser beam is focused by a lens system and the focused beam meets the
work surface, removing a small portion of the material by vaporization and high speed
ablation.

•A very small fraction of molten material is vaporized

so quickly that a substantial mechanical impulse is
generated, throwing out a large portion of the liquid
material.
•Since, the energy released by the flash tube is much
more than the energy generated at the lasing head
therefore the system needs to be continuously cooled.
Chemical and Electrochemical
Machining
• Chemical milling and
photochemical machining or
photochemical blanking all use a
chemical dissolution action to
remove the machining allowance
through ions in an etchant.
• Electrochemical machining uses
the electrochemical dissolution
phase to remove the machining
allowance using ion transfer in an
electrolytic cell.
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
•Electrochemical machining is one of the most unconventional machining
processes.
•The process is actually the reverse of electroplating with some modifications.
•It is based on the principle of electrolysis.
•In a metal, electricity is conducted by free electrons but in a solution the
conduction of electricity is achieved through the movement of ions.
•Thus the flow of current through an electrolyte is always accompanied by the
movement of matter.
•In the ECM process the work-piece is connected to a positive electrode and the
tool to the negative terminal for metal removal.
•The figure below shows a suitable work-piece and a suitably shaped tool, the gap
between the tool and the work being full of a suitable electrolyte.
 Electrochemical Machining
• With ECM the rate of metal
removal is independent of
the work-piece hardness.

•ECM becomes
advantageous when either
the work material possesses
a very low machinability or
the shape to be machined is
complex.

•Unlike most other conventional and unconventional processes, here there is

practically no tool wear.

•Though it appears that, since machining is done electrochemically, the tool

experiences no force, the fact is that the tool and work is subjected to large forces
exerted by the high pressure fluid in the gap.
 Introduction to MEMS fabrication
NEMS/ MEMS silicon fabrication
•Formation of structures that could be used to form
sensors and actuators.
•Processing of electrical or non electrical signals.
•Conventional and new semiconductor manufacturing
techniques are used.
•Etching, Deposition, Photolithography, Oxidation,
Epitaxy etc.
•Deep RIE, Thick plating etc.
Bulk and surface micromachining.
Manufacturing Properties of Materials
Structure of Matter:
Material properties are a function of the basic molecular structure.
Solids are known for their capability to retain definite shapes and thus
the bonding mechanics between the molecules forming a solid is very
important.
• Two atoms sufficiently close Bonding of solids
to each other have their
outer electrons shared by
both the nuclei which
results in an attractive force
between the two atoms.
• This force increases with the
decrease in distance
between the two atoms.
• However the two atoms do
not collapse as a repulsive
force is generated when the
two nuclei come very close.
• This repulsive force increases rapidly with decreasing inter-atomic
distance.
• The equilibrium inter-atomic distance de is the distance at which the
attractive and repulsive forces balance each other.
• The slope of the repulsive force curve is always more than that of the
attractive force curve at the point of intersection ‘A’ of the curves.
Therefore, the equilibrium is of a stable nature.
Bonding of solids
• The mechanism we have discussed is one
of the various possible interactions
resulting in bonding between atoms, and
is known as covalent bonding.
• In a given solid one or more bonding
mechanism can be simultaneously active.
• The nature of bonding mechanism
depends on the electronic structure of the
atoms involved.
• Some bonding mechanisms in solids are
metallic bonding, van der waals bonding.

• In a metal a large no. of free electrons are present, resulting in the formation of a
common electron cloud.
• The rest of the system consists of positively charged ions which are held together by
the cloud.
 Bonding of solids

• The mechanism of bonding in alloys is similar.

• In inert atoms as the free electrons, the metallic bonding mechanism
cannot be operative in inert atoms.
• In such cases a very weak short range force of attraction is generated
and this is known as Vander-waals force.
• The origin of this force is attributed to a rapidly-fluctuating dipole
moment.
 Bonding in Solids
• The figure shows two molecules at a
distance ‘d’ each of which has a
symmetric charge distribution.
• All the three different overall
configurations of the charge
distributions, shown in figure, lead to the
development of an attractive force
though individually the molecules are
neutral.
• This force is inversely proportional to d4

• This type of bonding is very weak and is active in weak and low
melting point materials such as paraffin and plastics.
• It is obvious that the strength of the bond controls the properties,
e.g., melting point, of a material.
 Crystal Structure
• The properties of a material not only
depends on the bond strength but also on
the arrangement of the atoms which are
very well arranged in a very well ordered
pattern in all metals and also many non
metallic solids.
• Such solids are commonly called crystalline
solids.
• In a large no. of situations, the whole solid
is seldom composed of one single crystal
and instead has a large no. of small,
randomly oriented crystalline grains from
the whole solid.
• Such materials are termed polycrystalline
solid.
 Crystal Structure
• In a crystal, we can identify the unit cell the repetition of which forms
the whole crystal.
• The structure of a crystal is identified and described by this unit cell.
• The three commonly observed crystal structures in metals are the
Body centered cubic (BCC), Face centered cubic (FCC) and the Close
packed hexagonal (CPH) out of which the FCC and the CPH have the
most dense packing.
• The inter-atomic distance in such crystals is of the order of 10-7mm.
 Body centered cubic structure

The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with
many unit cells.
 Face centered cubic structure

The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with
many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley &
Sons, 1976.
 Close packed hexagonal structure

The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells.
Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
Crystal structures of some common
metals
 Crystal Structure
• When a liquid metal solidifies by cooling, the atoms arrange themselves in regular
space lattices, forming a crystal.
•The crystallization starts simultaneously at various places within the liquid mass.
•As shown in the following figure the growth of crystal grains and the ultimate
formation of the polycrystalline structure with inbetween grain boundaries get
formulated.

• Most metals have only one crystal structure. A few metals can however
possess more than one crystal structure. Such metals are known as allotropic
metals.
• A number of material properties are dependent on the crystal structure. Like
BCC metals are usually harder , FCC are usually ductile. In CPH structures
the ductility is low.
Silicon for fabrication
• Silicon is the most popular Microelectronic material.
• Silicon and its compounds (Oxides, Nitrides, polysilicon) can be
categorized into three classes based on the amount and range of
order.
• These are single crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous
materials.
• In single crystalline materials, almost all of the atoms in the crystal
occupy well defined and regular positions known as lattice sites.
• Materials like silicon dioxide are amorphous which means that they
do not posses any long range order.
• The third class of material is polycrystalline and these are single
small crystals randomly oriented with respect to each other.
 Single Crystalline Silicon
•They are characterized by crystalline
orientation of their surfaces.
•The classification is based on Miller
indices as shown in the figure below.
•A particular direction is indicated with
square bracket such as [100].
•The set of equivalent directions is
described in angle brackets <100>.
•If this direction is the normal vector of a
plane, it is denoted with parenthesis
(100).

•The set of equivalent planes is described with braces, such as {100}.

•Single crystalline silicon is mostly fabricated with Czocharalski growth method. A small
seed crystal with a given orientation is dipped into a highly purified silicon melt. The
seed is slowly pulled out of the melt while the crucible is rotated.
•The other method is floating zone method where a polysilicon rod is used as a starting
material.
•A seed crystal at the end of the rod defines the orientation . A radio frequency heater
locally melts the polysilicon rod. Crystal growth starts with the end from the seed.
Single Crystalline silicon formulation (Czochralski’s
growth method)
• Single crystal silicon is formulated with
Czochralski growth method.
• A small seed crystal with a given
orientation is dipped into a highly
purified silicon melt.
• The seed is slowly pulled out of the
melt while the crucible containing the
melt is rotated.
• The material is polycrystalline silicon
and is 99.9999% pure.
• The poly is loaded into a fused silica
crucible that is contained in an
evacuated chamber.
• The chamber is back filled with inert
gas and the crucible is heated to 1500
deg. C.

• The seed crystal is a small chemically etched crystal lowered into contact with
the melt. This must be carefully oriented since it will serve as the template for
growth of the much larger crystal.
Czochralsky’s Growth Method
Czochralsky’s Growth Method
Czochralsky’s Growth Method
Czochralsky’s Growth Method

•In reality, the maximum pull rate is not normally used.

•The crystalline quality is a sensitive function of the pull rate.
•The material near the melt has a very high density of point defects. So quick cooling
would help to prevent these defects to go into the formulating crystal.
•However, too much gradient may create large thermal stresses and thus
dislocations, particularly in larger diameter wafer.
Single Crystalline silicon formulation (Float zone
method)
•This method is used for extremely
high purity silicon growth.

•A rod of high purity polycrystalline

material is held in a chuck while a
metal coil driven by a high power radio
frequency signal is slowly passed
along its length.

•Alternatively, a focussed e-beam can

also be used for heating the rod.

•The field setup by the RF power leads

to eddy currents and joule heating and
the material is melted.
• To enhance the growth along the preferred crystal orientation a seed crystal is
injected into the top of the molten rod.
•In this technique a thin neck of 3mm diameter and 10-20mm long is pulled and
the pull rate and the temperature lowered to shoulder the crystal out to a larger
diameter.
Epitaxial Silicon
• Epitaxy is the single crystalline layer growth from another single crystalline
substrate.
• The most important technique for epitaxy growth is CVD.
• The table below lists the set of reactions for CVD using silane or
dichlorosilane at high temperature 1200 deg. C.

•The epitaxial layer can be doped if

dopant gases like diborane for p-type or
phosphine for n-type are mixed during
CVD process.

•Epitaxy can be also grown by MBE

(molecular beam epitaxy). The process
is similar to an evaporation process
using silicon melt in a crucible. MBE is
carried out under ultra high vacuum and
temperatures between 400 and 800
deg. C.
Polysilicon
• Polycrystalline silicon is refered to as polysilicon, which is deposited
with LPCVD process with silane.
• The deposition temperatures range from 575 deg. C to 650 deg. C.
• At temperatures below 575 deg. C, the silicon layer is amorphous.
• The grain size is .03-.3 microns.
• Poly-silicon can be doped in situ with same gases as used for
amorphous silicon.
• In surface micro machining poly-silicon is used directly as mechanical
material.
• In microfluidics poly-silicon can be used for making channel walls
and also sealing etched channel structures.
• Because of the high temperature annealing process the intrinsic
stresses are reduced.
 Crystal Imperfections
• As some of the properties of a crystalline solid heavily depend on the crystal
structure thus they should vary a lot based on imperfections in such structures.
•These imperfections govern most of the mechanical properties of the crystalline
solid.
•The study of crystal imperfections and their effects on the properties of a material
is a vast research area.
• We would just like to study the various phenomena associated with different
manufacturing processes, e.g., plastic deformation and heat treatment.
• The table below shows a classification of property dependent on basic crystal
structure and those dependent on crystal imperfection.
Classifications of Crystal imperfections
•Point defect:
If an imperfection is restricted to the neighborhood of a lattice point, the imperfection is
referred to as point defect .
There can be three different typed of point defect as shown in the figure below:
(1)Vacancy: This gets formulated as one lattice atom is missing. Since an atom
vibrates about its lattice position, the tendency of the atom to jump out of its regular
position creating a vacancy increases rapidly with its energy ,i.e., the temperature. For
example the usual order of vacancy at 500 deg. C is one in 1010 which increases to
one in 300 at 2000 deg. C. It is possible to increase the vacancy density at a given
temperature by rapid cooling or extensive plastic deformation.
(2) Interstitial impurity atom: This gets formulated when an atom occupies an
abnormal position. Such an atom is called an interstitial impurity atom. An interstitial
impurity can get realized when an atom possesses large enough thermal energy or
when its energy is increased by nuclear bombardment.
(3)Substitutional impurity atom: This happens when a regular lattice position is
occupied by an atom of a different material.
 Crystal Imperfection
• Line defect:
If an imperfection extending along a line has a length much larger than the lattice
spacing, the imperfection is called a line defect or, commonly a dislocation.
(1)Types of line defect:
When an extra half plane of atoms is accommodated by distorting the regular
lattice arrangement as done with plane marked XX’ in the figure, the resulting
defect is termed edge dislocation:
When the lattice
atoms move from
their regular ideal
position such a
defect is called
screw dislocation.

The dislocation density is

defined as the total length
of all dislocation lines per
unit volume.
In a single crystal, the minimum attainable dislocation density is of the order of 100-
1000 per cm2 .
In a polycrystalline solid this is as high as 107-108 per cm2
 Crystal Imperfections
• As some of the properties of a crystalline solid heavily depend on the crystal
structure thus they should vary a lot based on imperfections in such structures.
•These imperfections govern most of the mechanical properties of the crystalline
solid.
•The study of crystal imperfections and their effects on the properties of a material
is a vast research area.
• We would just like to study the various phenomena associated with different
manufacturing processes, e.g., plastic deformation and heat treatment.
• The table below shows a classification of property dependent on basic crystal
structure and those dependent on crystal imperfection.
Classifications of Crystal imperfections
•Point defect:
If an imperfection is restricted to the neighborhood of a lattice point, the imperfection is
referred to as point defect .
There can be three different typed of point defect as shown in the figure below:
(1)Vacancy: This gets formulated as one lattice atom is missing. Since an atom
vibrates about its lattice position, the tendency of the atom to jump out of its regular
position creating a vacancy increases rapidly with its energy ,i.e., the temperature. For
example the usual order of vacancy at 500 deg. C is one in 1010 which increases to
one in 300 at 2000 deg. C. It is possible to increase the vacancy density at a given
temperature by rapid cooling or extensive plastic deformation.
(2) Interstitial impurity atom: This gets formulated when an atom occupies an
abnormal position. Such an atom is called an interstitial impurity atom. An interstitial
impurity can get realized when an atom possesses large enough thermal energy or
when its energy is increased by nuclear bombardment.
(3)Substitutional impurity atom: This happens when a regular lattice position is
occupied by an atom of a different material.
 Crystal Imperfection
• Line defect:
If an imperfection extending along a line has a length much larger than the lattice
spacing, the imperfection is called a line defect or, commonly a dislocation.
(1)Types of line defect:
When an extra half plane of atoms is accommodated by distorting the regular
lattice arrangement as done with plane marked XX’ in the figure, the resulting
defect is termed edge dislocation:
When the lattice
atoms move from
their regular ideal
position such a
defect is called
screw dislocation.

The dislocation density is

defined as the total length
of all dislocation lines per
unit volume.
In a single crystal, the minimum attainable dislocation density is of the order of 100-
1000 per cm2 .
In a polycrystalline solid this is as high as 107-108 per cm2
 Crystal Imperfections
• When an imperfection extends over a surface, the imperfection is known as surface
defect.
•The figure below shows a common type of surface defect known as twin.
•Twins are normally produced when a metal is stressed at low temperature.
•The grain boundaries in a polycrystalline solid can also be considered as a surface
defect.
 Slip and Twinning
Figure 1.8 Permanent deformation (also
called plastic deformation) of a single
crystal subjected to a shear stress: (a)
structure before deformation; and (b)
permanent deformation by slip. The size
of the b/a ratio influences the magnitude
of the shear stress required to cause slip.

Figure 1.8 (a) Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile

load. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the direction
of the pulling force. This behavior can be simulated using a deck of
cards with a rubber band around them. (b) Twinning in a single crystal
in tension.
Slip Lines and Slip Bands
Figure 1.8 Schematic illustration of slip lines
and slip bands in a single crystal (grain)
subjected to a shear stress. A slip band consists
of a number of slip planes. The crystal at the
center of the upper illustration is an individual
grain surrounded by other grains.
 Elastic and plastic deformation
• Most conventional manufacturing processes involve the deformation of the work
material.

•Atomistically, in the absence of any external force, the distance between a pair of
atoms is de .
• The net inter-atomic force varies with the
atomic spacing in a manner shown in the
figure on the left.
• Under the application of an external tensile
force, the inter-atomic distance increases
beyond de to maintain the equilibrium.
• If the external tensile load is of the magnitude
‘P’ , then the inter-atomic distance should be da
so that the inter-atomic force is an attractive
force of the same magnitude.

• If da is not very much different than de (of the order of 5%), then upon removal of the
external force the atoms attain their original position.
• With an external compressive force (when da<de) the interatomic force should be
repulsive in nature. This behavior is known as elastic behavior of solids.
• The phenomenon we have described for a pair of atoms is true also for normal
solids even on a macroscopic scale.
 Elastic and Plastic deformation
• Now, let us consider a crystal lattice with regularly spaced atoms, as shown in
Figure below.

• Under the externally applied shear force, the upper layers of the atoms move to
the right and the lower layers move to the left.
•When the applied force reaches a sufficiently high value, the crystal lattice looks
as in figure 1.20 (b).
•Here all atoms are in equilibrium and will remain thus if external force is removed
and thus a permanent deformation is produced in the crystal lattice.
• This permanent set is termed as plastic deformation and cannot be recovered
after withdrawal of the external load.
Elastic and plastic deformation
Elastic and Plastic Deformation
Elastic and Plastic Deformation
The Carpet Analogy
Tensile Testing
Stress Strain Relationship for engineering materials
 Tensile Testing
• The strength of a material in the elastic and the plastic regions is represented
by the yield stress (σY ) and the ultimate strength (σu ), respectively.

•The capability of withstanding plastic deformation is another important

mechanical property of an engineering material.

•This reflects the property of the material to distribute the localized stresses, thus
lowering the tendency of crack formation . This property is commonly referred to
as the ductility of the material.

• Ductility is expressed by the percentage elongation, i.e., the percentage strain

at fracture point.

•Thus the larger % elongation , i.e., the percentage strain at fracture point. Thus
larger % elongation means higher ductility.

•Moreover, the strain at the point ‘D’ (where necking starts) represents the
amount of plastic strain a material can withstand without localized deformation

•In the linear region the constant of proportionality between the engineering
stress and strain is known as the Young’s modulus or the modulus of elasticity.
 Tensile Testing
•Unlike Mild Steel most other materials do not
have a sharply defined proportional limit or yeild
point.

•In such instances, the yield stress is defined by

drawing a parallel lineto the tangent of the stress
strain curve at the origin from a point on the x-
axis representing 0.2% strain.

• The line intersects the stress strain curve at

the point Y. The stress level at Y is the yield
stress in this case.

• The typical stress-strain curve for a brittle (nonductile)

material is shown in the figure on the left.

•As can be seen, the material fractures with very little or no

plastic strain. (If the % elongation is less than 5 the material
is brittle)
 Toughness
• Yet another important material property is its ability to absorb energy in the
plastic range. (Toughness)
• The index commonly used to describe this is the total area under the stress-
strain curve up to the fracture point.
•It represents the work done on a material per unit volume.
•The figure on the bottom compares two different materials, of which one is
stronger and the other is more ductile.
•It is obvious that toughness is representative of the effect of both strength and
ductility.
• Referring to the stress-
strain curve, it is obvious that
when the deformation of a
specimen is no longer
negligible, the actual stress
should be defined as the ratio
of the load (P) and the
instantaneous area (Ai)
rather than the original area.
•This new ratio (P/Ai) is
known as the true stress of
the material
 True Stress and True Strain
True Stress = P/ Ai

• The true strain versus true

stress curve is indicated by
the dashed line.

•This curve shows a

continuous strain hardening
of the material up to fracture
point, a phenomena not
revealed by a stress strain
curve.
 Idealized Stress Strain Curves of
Materials
• The stress strain curves of a material is too complicated to be represented by a
simple mathematical relationship amenable to analysis.

•As such, for the purposes of analysis, the curve is idealized in various ways,
keeping only those basic features that are important.
• Let us now see what happens if a
material is loaded beyond the yield
point, is unloaded completely and
reloaded.
•If the material is unloaded from the
point B, the unloaded curve BC is
then parallel to the initial elastic
curve given by the line OA.
•The permanent strain is represented by OC, whereas the amount of strain
recovered is given by CB’.
•Thus the total strain at B is thought of as consisting of two parts, viz., the elastic
part CB’ and the plastic part OC.
•The reloading curve follows the line CB and BD.