Chapter 3

Firepower and Protection of the Force

Employing fire support systems, which are an integral part of maneuver,

is included in this chapter. This arrangement, however, does not suggest
any change in the close doctrinal relationship between fires and maneu-
ver during mountain operations.

SECTION I – FIREPOWER

FIELD ARTILLERY
3-1. The basic tactical principles for artillery remain valid in mountains,
subject to the limitations imposed by terrain and weather.

MOVEMENT AND POSITIONING

3-2. Rugged terrain and reduced mobility increase the reliance on field ar-
tillery fire support. However, the employment and positioning of field artil-
lery systems may be severely impacted by the extreme difficulty of ground
mobility in mountainous terrain. Self-propelled artillery is often limited to
traveling on the existing
road and trail networks CONTENTS
and positioning in their Section I – Firepower.................................... 3-1
immediate vicinity. Field Artillery ............................................. 3-1
Towed field artillery is Mortars ....................................................... 3-5
usually more maneuver- Air Support ................................................ 3-6
able; it can be brought Electronic Warfare .................................... 3-7
into position with the aid Section II – Protection of the Force............. 3-7
of trucks, tractors, and Air Defense Artillery.................................. 3-7
fixed or rotary-winged Engineer Operations................................. 3-9
aircraft. Therefore, gun NBC Protection........................................ 3-10
crews should be

3-1
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________

proficient in equipment-rigging techniques and air assault procedures, and

possess ample sling-load equipment. Field artillery emplaced by helicopter
normally requires continued airlift for subsequent displacement and ammu-
nition resupply, and often necessitates substantial engineer support.

3-3. Light field artillery may require forward displacement of gun sections
by helicopter to provide forward troops the necessary support. Medium field
artillery may give the longer range required, but may be limited by high-
terrain crest clearance. Normally, field artillery is employed far enough to the
rear to take advantage of increased angles of fall. Flat areas, such as dry riv-
erbeds, villages and towns, and farmland, can usually accommodate firing
units, however, these positions present particular problems in the mountains
for the following reasons:

• Dry riverbeds are hazardous because of the danger of flash flooding.

• Towns and villages usually have adequate flat areas such as parks,
schoolyards, and playing fields but they are relatively scarce and of-
ten targeted by the enemy.

• Farmland is often difficult to negotiate from spring to fall. In the win-

ter, if the ground is frozen, farmland may provide good firing posi-
tions; however, frozen ground may cause difficulty emplacing spades,
base plates, and trails.

3-4. Good artillery positions, selected for cover, flash defilade, and accessi-
bility to road nets and landing zones (LZs), are difficult to find, and their rela-
tive scarcity makes it easier for the enemy to target probable locations. In
some instances, it may be necessary to by-pass the best position for one less
suitable to reduce the enemy’s counterfire effects. Commanders must ensure
that positions on dominant terrain provide adequate defilade. Positions on
commanding terrain are preferable to low ground positions because there is–

• A reduction in the number of missions requiring high-angle fires.

• A reduced amount of dead space in the target area.

• Less exposure to small arms fire from surrounding heights.

• Less chance of being struck by rockslides or avalanches.

3-5. Some weapons may be moved forward to provide long-range interdiction

fires or, in extreme cases, direct fires to engage a road-bound enemy in moun-
tain passes or along valley floors. Because of rugged terrain, higher angles of
fire, and reduced ranges, it is generally necessary to displace artillery more
frequently than on level terrain to provide continuous support. In the moun-
tains, commanders must often employ field artillery in a decentralized man-
ner because of the limited space for gun positions.
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 3

ACQUISITION AND OBSERVATION

3-6. Because of high angle fire requirements, radar can be effective against
enemy indirect fire systems. In many instances, terrain masking and dimin-
ished line-of-sight may degrade its effectiveness. Sites should be selected on
prominent terrain to obtain the lowest possible screening crest. However, it is
often difficult to obtain a low and consistent screening crest in mountainous
terrain. Too low a screening crest drives the search beam into the ground. Too
high a screening crest allows the enemy to fire under the beam and avoid de-
tection. When positioning weapons locating radars, commanders should also
consider the following:

• Although time-consuming, visibility diagrams are extremely useful in

determining the probability of acquiring targets within the sectors of
search of the radar.

• To limit search areas, radars should focus on terrain that can be oc-
cupied by artillery and mortars.

• Accurate survey control is essential because of the extreme elevation

variations in mountainous terrain. Helicopters may be useful in per-
forming survey by use of the Position Azimuth Determining System
(PADS). If possible, digital radar maps may be used to minimize the
time required for height correction of the weapon system. Digital
maps allow the Firefinder systems to initially locate weapon systems
to within 250 meters. This allows the radar operator to make only two
to three visual elevation adjustments to accurately locate the weapon
system.

• Impact predict is computed at the radar’s elevation, therefore, exces-

sive errors in the impact predict can be expected.

• Firefinder radars in the same area must not face one another and ra-
diate at the same time. This causes interference and emissions burn-
out, resulting in equipment failure. If radars need to face one another
to accomplish the mission, commanders must coordinate to ensure
that they do not radiate at the same time.

• Computing track volume may become a critical task in determining a

radar’s effectiveness for a proposed position (see FM 3-09.12 for com-
putations).

• Units will use more shelling reports (SHELREPs) to determine enemy

firing locations.

3-7. The majority of all field artillery fires in mountains will be observed, es-
pecially close support and defensive fires. Unobserved fires are frequently
unreliable because of poor maps and rapidly changing meteorological condi-
tions that cause registration corrections for high angle fire to be valid for only
short periods of time.

3-3
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________

3-8. Generally, field artillery observation posts should be emplaced on the

highest available ground to increase observation. Low clouds or fog may re-
quire moving them to preplanned emplacements at lower elevations. Observ-
ers must be prepared to perform assault climbing to reach the most advanta-
geous observation site. Commanders may use aerial observers or unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs) to detect long-range targets and complement forward
observers by adjusting fires beyond terrain masks, in deep defilade, and on
reverse slopes. However, in extremely high mountains aerial observers may
be confined to valleys and lower altitudes due to altitude limitations on dif-
ferent types of aircraft.

3-9. Laser weapons demand increased emphasis on observation techniques.

Laser target ranging and designation systems help to overcome difficulties in
range estimation by providing accurate directional distance and vertical an-
gle information for use in locating enemy targets. However, when positioning
with a laser designator, an observer should consider line-of-sight with the
target, as well as cloud height. Cloud ceilings that are too low will not allow
laser guided munitions enough time to lock on and maneuver to the target.

TARGETING
3-10. Because of the decentralized nature of mountain operations, targets
warranting massed fires may present themselves less often than in open ter-
rain. However, narrow defiles used as routes of supply, advance, or with-
drawal by the enemy are potentially high payoff targets for interdiction fires
or large massed fires. Large masses of snow or rocks above enemy positions
and along main supply routes are also good targets, because they can be con-
verted into highly destructive rockslides and avalanches that may deny the
enemy the use of roads and trails, and may destroy elements in defilade. In
the mountains, suppression of enemy air defenses takes on added importance
because of the increased dependence on all types of aircraft. Commanders
and their staffs should carefully review FM 3-60. A clear understanding of
the targeting methodology combined with the knowledge of the capabilities
and limitations of target acquisition and attack systems in a mountain envi-
ronment is crucial to the synchronization of all available combat power.

3-11. To provide accurate and timely delivery of artillery fires in mountainous

terrain, commanders must take into account the following:

• High angles of elevation and increased time of flight for rounds to im-
pact.

• Targets on reverse slopes, which are more difficult to engage than

targets on flat ground or rising slopes, requiring more ammunition for
the same coverage.

• Increased amounts of dead space that cannot be hit by artillery fires.

• Intervening crests that require detailed map analysis.

_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 3

• When the five requirements for accurate predicted fire (target loca-
tion and size, firing unit location, weapons and ammunition informa-
tion, meteorological information, and computational procedures) are
not achievable, registration on numerous checkpoints becomes essen-
tial because of the large variance in elevation (see FM 3-09.40 for
more detailed information).

MUNITIONS
3-12. Terrain and weather also affect the use of field artillery munitions. Con-
siderations for munitions employment in the mountains are discussed below.

• Impact fuze, high explosives (HE) shells and dual-purpose improved

conventional munitions (DPICMs) are very effective on rocky ground,
scattering stones and splintering rocks, which themselves become
missiles. However, deep snow reduces their bursting radius, making
them approximately 40 percent less effective. The rugged nature of
the terrain may afford added protection for defending forces; there-
fore, large quantities of HE may be required to achieve the desired ef-
fects against enemy defensive positions.

• Variable time (VT) or time fuzes should be used in deep snow condi-
tions and are particularly effective against troops on reverse slopes.
There are some older fuzes that may prematurely detonate when
fired during heavy precipitation (M557 and M572 impact fuzes and
M564 and M548 time fuzes).

• Smoke, DPICM, and illuminating fires are hard to adjust and main-
tain due to swirling, variable winds and steep mountain slopes.
Smoke (a base-ejecting round) may not dispense properly if the canis-
ters become buried in deep snow. In forested mountains, DPICMs
may get hung up in the trees. These types of munitions are generally
more effective along valley floors.

• Using the artillery family of scatterable mines (FASCAM) and Cop-

perhead is enhanced when fired into narrow defiles, valleys, and
roads. FASCAM may lose their effectiveness on steep terrain and in
deep snow. Melting and shifting snow may cause the anti-handling
devices to detonate prematurely the munitions, however, very little
settling normally occurs at temperatures lower than 5 degrees Fahr-
enheit. Remote antiarmor mine system (RAAMS) and area denial ar-
tillery munitions (ADAM) must come to rest and stabilize within 30
seconds of impact or the submunitions will not arm, and very uneven
terrain may keep the ADAM trip wires from deploying properly.

MORTARS
3-13. Mortars are essential during mountain operations. Their high angle of
fire and high rate of fire is suited to supporting dispersed forces. They can
deliver fires on reverse slopes, into dead space, and over intermediate crests,

3-5
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________

and, like field artillery, rock fragments caused by the impact of mortar
rounds may cause additional casualties or damage.

3-14. The 60mm mortar is an ideal

supporting weapon for mountain combat
because of its portability, ease of
concealment, and lightweight ammunition.
The 81mm mortar provides longer range
and delivers more explosives than the 60mm
mortar. However, it is heavier and fewer
rounds (usually no more than two per
soldier) can be man-packed. The 120mm
mortar may be more desirable in some
situations, since they can fire either white
phosphorous (WP) or HE at greater ranges
than lighter mortars and have a
significantly better illumination capability.
However, because of the weight of these mortars and their ammunition, it
may be necessary to transport fewer of them into mountainous terrain and
use the remaining gun crews as ammunition bearers, or position them close
to a trail network in a valley or at lower elevations. The second technique
may be satisfactory if the movement of the unit can be covered and sufficient
firing positions exist.

AIR SUPPORT
3-15. Air interdiction and close air support operations can be particularly ef-
fective in mountains, since enemy mobility, like ours, is restricted by terrain.
Airborne forward air controllers and close air support pilots can be used as
valuable sources of information and can find and designate targets that may
be masked from direct ground observation. Vehicles and personnel are par-
ticularly vulnerable to effective air attack when moving along narrow moun-
tain roads. Precision-guided munitions, such as laser-guided bombs, can
quickly destroy bridges and tunnels and, under proper conditions, cause
landslides and avalanches to close routes or collapse on both stationary and
advancing enemy forces. Moreover, air-delivered mines and long-delay bombs
can be employed to seriously impede the enemy’s ability to make critical
route repairs. Precision-guided munitions, as well as fuel air explosives, can
also destroy or neutralize well-protected point targets, such as cave entrances
and enemy forces in defilade.

3-16. Low ceilings, fog, and storms common to mountain regions may degrade
air support operations. Although, global positioning system (GPS) capable
aircraft and air delivered weapons can negate many of the previous limita-
tions caused by weather. Terrain canalizes low altitude air avenues of ap-
proach, limiting ingress and egress routes and available attack options, and
increasing aircraft vulnerability to enemy air defense systems. Potential tar-
gets can hide in the crevices of cliffs and the niches of mountain slopes, and
on gorge floors. Hence, pilots may be able to detect the enemy only at short
distances, requiring them to swing around for a second run on the target and
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 3

giving the enemy more time to disperse and seek better cover. Additionally,
accuracy may be degraded due to the need for pilots to divert more of their at-
tention to flying while simultaneously executing their attack.

ELECTRONIC WARFARE
3-17. The ability to use electromagnetic energy to deceive the enemy, locate
his units and facilities, intercept his communications, and disrupt his com-
mand, control, and target acquisition systems remains as important in the
mountains as elsewhere. The effects of terrain and weather on electronic war-
fare (EW) systems are often a result of the effects on the components of those
systems (particularly soldiers, communications, and aviation). Although a
number of the effects are discussed in more detail elsewhere in this manual
(and in applicable FMs and TMs), for ease some of the more common de-
grading effects of the mountainous environment on the components of elec-
tronic warfare systems are described in Figure 3-1 on page 3-8.

SECTION II – PROTECTION OF THE FORCE

AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY

3-18. The severe mountain environment requires some modification of air de-
fense employment techniques. Suitable positions are scarce and access roads
are limited. In some instances, supporting air defense weapons may not be
able to deploy to the most desirable locations. Consequently, the man-
portable air defense systems (MANPADS) may be the only air defense
weapon capable of providing close-in protection to maneuver elements.

3-19. Mountain terrain tends to degrade the electronic target acquisition ca-
pabilities of air defense systems. This degradation makes it more difficult for
the air defense planner to locate and select position to provide adequate cov-
erage for the force, and increases the importance of combined arms for air de-
fense (CAFAD) and passive air defense measures (see FM 3-01.8). Individual
and crew-served weapons can mass their fires against air threats. The
massed use of guns in local air defense causes enemy air to increase their
standoff range for surveillance and weapons delivery, and increase altitude in
transiting to and from targets. These reactions may make the enemy air more
vulnerable to air defense artillery (ADA).

3-20. Enemy aircraft will probably use defiles and valleys in mountainous
terrain for low-altitude approaches to take advantage of terrain masking of
radar. Congested roads and trails, and their junctions, may become lucrative
targets for enemy air strikes. Enemy pilots may avoid early detection by us-
ing terrain-clearance or terrain-following techniques to approach a target.
Rugged mountain terrain degrades air defense detection, but, at the same
time, mountain ridges and peaks tend to canalize enemy aircraft. Detailed
terrain analysis, coupled with predictive analysis to identify probable enemy
air avenues of approach, aids in effective site selection.

3-7
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________

ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS
T
C
E
EW L R S W T
F R REMARKS
COMPONENT O A N I E
O R
U I O N M
G A
D N W D P
I
S
N
■ Clouds, fog, precipitation, and terrain affect
visibility and observation.
Soldiers
1
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ■ Precipitation, temperature, and the rugged terrain
affect soldier performance and ability to operate
systems.
■ Extreme cold, combined with rugged terrain,
Electronics and- increases fragility and breakage.
wire/cables
2 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ■ Precipitation and humidity affect electronic com-
ponents.
■ Strong winds damage or prevent erection.
■ Precipitation and cold create ice, causing break-
2 age (increased load and wind resistance) and
Antennas ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ reduce effectiveness.
■ Terrain affects masking and line-of-sight
restrictions.
■ Clouds, fog, and precipitation degrade visibility
and may prevent aircraft from flying under visual
flight rules (VFR), precluding missions requiring
3 aircraft landing at unimproved mountain LZs.
Aircraft ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ■ Cold and precipitation lead to icing, which im-
pedes lift.
■ Compartmented terrain affects flight routes and
target acquisition.
Vehicles ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ■ Rain, snow, and rugged terrain decrease mobility.
■ Wind increases background noise, reducing
efficiency.
■ Terrain affects masking and line-of-sight
Radars/ Sensors ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ restrictions.
■ Fog and precipitation decrease infrared and
electro-optical systems effectiveness.
■ Terrain reduces effectiveness and battery life –
Batteries ✔ some systems may not even work under reduced
power.
1 See Chapter 1 (Effects on Personnel)
2 See Chapter 2 (Communications)
3 See Chapter 4 (Helicopters) and the Previous Section (Air Support)
Figure 3-1. Effects of the Mountainous Environment on EW Systems
3-21. Movement to and occupation of positions in mountainous terrain require
additional time. Planners must consider slope (pitch and roll), site
preparation, and access route improvement prior to movement. Bradley
Stinger fighting vehicle (BSFV) units often are unable to accompany small,
lightly equipped maneuver elements, and may be restricted to supporting
elements in more accessible areas of the battlefield. Avenger fire units can be
sling-loaded by heavy lift aircraft and MANPADS airlifted into otherwise
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 3

inaccessible positions.
However, equipment
emplaced by helicopters
is resupplied and
repositioned by the
same means. When
moving dismounted,
MANPAD teams are
limited to one missile
per soldier, unless other
members of the unit are
tasked to carry
additional missiles.

3-22. Because of terrain masking of radars and the difficulty in establishing

line-of-sight communications with the Sentinel or light and special division
interim sensor (LSDIS) radar, early warning for short-range air defense
(SHORAD) systems may be limited. Soldiers must maintain continuous vis-
ual observation, particularly along likely low-level air avenues of approach.
Therefore, when possible, Sentinel or LSDIS radars should be emplaced on
the highest accessible terrain that provides the best air picture for target de-
tection and early warning, not necessarily peaks and summits.

ENGINEER OPERATIONS
3-23. Engineer combat support requirements increase in mountainous terrain
because of the lack of adequate cover, the requirement for construction of
field fortifications and obstacles, and the need to breech or reduce enemy ob-
stacles. With such an enormous multitude of tasks, effective command and
control of engineer assets is essential for the optimal utilization of these rela-
tively scarce resources (see also the discussion of engineer augmentation and
employment in the mobility section of Chapter 4).

3-24. Digging fighting positions and creating temporary fortifications above

the timberline is generally difficult because of thin soil with underlying bed-
rock. As described in Chapter 2, boulders and loose rocks may be used to
build hasty, aboveground fortifications. Well-assembled positions constructed
in rock are strong and offer good protection, but they require considerable
time and equipment to prepare.

3-25. Engineers assist maneuver units with light equipment and tools carried
in or brought into position by ground vehicles or helicopters. Bulldozers, ar-
mored combat earthmovers (ACEs), and small emplacement excavators
(SEEs) can be used in some situations to help prepare positions for command
bunkers and crew-served weapons. They can also be used to prepare positions
off existing roads for tanks, artillery, and air defense weapons. Conventional
equipment and tools are often inadequate in rocky terrain, and extensive use
of demolitions may be required. In the mountains, a greater number of engi-
neer assets will be devoted to maintaining mobility and maneuver and unit
commanders should assume that available engineer support will be limited to

3-9
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________

assist them with their survivability efforts. To enhance survivability and mo-
bility a minimum of two soldiers per maneuver platoon should be capable of
using standard demolitions.

NBC PROTECTION
3-26. Terrain and weather dictate a requirement for a high degree of nuclear,
biological, and chemical (NBC) defense preparedness in mountainous areas.
Due to limited mobility, viable tactical positions, and limited communication
abilities, friendly units must be self-sufficient in protecting themselves
against NBC weapon system effects.

3-27. Wearing mission-oriented protective posture (MOPP) gear at high ele-

vations, when possibly combined with altitude sickness, increased dehydra-
tion, and increased physical exertion, degrades performance and increases
the likelihood of heat casualties. Commanders should make every effort to
keep soldiers out of MOPP gear until intelligence indicators reveal that an
NBC attack is imminent or it is confirmed that a hazard actually exists (see
FM 3-11.4 for a discussion on vulnerability analysis). When precautions must
be taken against hazards, commanders must make decisions early and allow
extra time for tactical tasks. Commanders should also refer to TC 3-10 for
greater detail on tactics, techniques, and procedures necessary to operate un-
der NBC conditions.

NUCLEAR
3-28. A mountainous environment can amplify or reduce the effects of and
distort the normal circular pattern associated with nuclear blasts. The ir-
regular patterns reduce the accuracy of collateral damage prediction, damage
estimation, and vulnerability analysis.

3-29. Air blast effects are amplified on the burst side of mountains (see Figure
3-2). Mountain walls reflect blast waves that can reinforce each other, as well
as the shock front. Therefore, it is possible that both overpressure and dy-
namic pressure, and their duration will increase. An added danger is the
creation of rockslides or avalanches. A small yield nuclear weapon detonated
30 kilometers or more from the friendly positions may still cause rockslides
and avalanches, and easily close narrow roads and canalized passes. On the
other hand, there may be little or no blast effects on the side of the mountain
away from the burst.

3-30. Hills and mountains block thermal radiation, and trees and other foli-
age reduce it. Low clouds, fog, and falling rain or snow can absorb or scatter
up to 90 percent of a burst's thermal energy. During colder weather, the
heavy clothing worn by soldiers in the mountains provides additional protec-
tion. However, the reflection from snow and the thin atmosphere of higher
elevations may increase the effects of thermal radiation. Snow and ice melted
by thermal radiation can result in flash flooding.

3-31. Frozen and rocky ground may make it difficult to construct shelters for
protection from the effects of nuclear weapons. However, natural shelters
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 3

such as caves, ravines, and cliffs provide some protection from nuclear effects
and contamination. In some instances, improvised shelters built of snow, ice,
or rocks may be the only protection available. The clear mountain air extends
the range of casualty-producing thermal effects. Within this range, however,
the soldiers' added clothing reduces casualties from these effects.

Typical Radius of
Effect on Flat
Terrain

Probable
Limit of
Effects
Caused by
the Terrain

Figure 3-2. Effects of Mountains on Radiation and Blast

3-32. In mountainous regions, the deposit of radiological contamination is
very erratic in speed and direction because of variable winds. Hot spots may
occur far from the point of detonation, and low-intensity areas may occur very
near it. Limited mobility makes radiological surveys on the ground difficult,
and the difficulty of maintaining a constant flight altitude makes air surveys
highly inaccurate. Additionally, melting snow contributes to the residual ra-
diation pattern. After a nuclear detonation, streams should be checked for ra-
diation contamination before using them for drinking or bathing. As with the
other effects, the pattern of initial and induced nuclear radiation may be
modified by topography and the height of the burst.

BIOLOGICAL
3-33. Most biological pathogens and some toxins are killed or destroyed by the
ultraviolet rays in sunlight. Above the timberline, there is little protection
from the sun; thus, the effectiveness of a biological attack may be reduced.
Downwind coverage may be greater because of the frequent occurrence of
high winds over mountain peaks and ridges. Additionally, inversion condi-
tions favor the downwind travel of biological agents through mountain val-
leys. Typically, winds flow down terrain slopes and valleys at night and up
valleys and sunny slopes during the day. The effects of mountainous terrain
and rapidly changing wind conditions on the ability to predict and provide
surveys of contamination for biological agents are similar to that for nuclear
radiation.

3-11
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________

3-34. Temperatures and humidity also affect the survivability of biological

agents. Generally, cool temperatures favor survival, and higher humidity in-
creases the effectiveness of the agents. Extreme cold weather and snow de-
posited over a biologically contaminated area can lengthen the effective pe-
riod of the hazard by allowing the agent to remain alive but dormant until it
is disturbed or the temperature rises. If the use of biological agents is known
or suspected, commanders should ensure that soldiers pay added attention to
personal hygiene and consume only purified/treated water.

CHEMICAL
3-35. Wind and terrain can also cause the effectiveness of chemical agents to
vary considerably. Depending on conditions, effects can be significantly en-
hanced or almost ineffective. High winds and rugged terrain cause chemical
agent clouds to act in a manner similar to radioactive fallout. Inversions in
mountain valleys may also effectively cap an area, slowing the dissipation
rate. Because of terrain and winds, accurate prediction of the downwind
travel of toxic agent clouds is difficult.

3-36. In mountain warfare, chemical munitions are likely to be delivered by

air. The generally cooler daytime temperatures in mountainous terrain slow
the evaporation process, thus allowing a potential contamination hazard to
remain active longer. Midday temperatures favor using persistent or blister-
type agents, since nonpersistent agents dissipate too rapidly to cause any ef-
fect and unsupervised personnel are more likely to remove protective clothing
for comfort.

3-37. The actions to protect against chemical agents in the mountains are not
significantly different than from the requirements in less mountainous ter-
rain. However, in extreme cold weather, survey and monitoring is often lim-
ited to the individual team mission, the FOX system may be limited to roads
and trails, and the detection of vapor hazards is limited when the tempera-
ture falls below 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Decontamination may be more diffi-
cult due to freezing conditions, and the virulency period of contamination
hazard for persistent agents may increase.

SMOKE AND OBSCURANTS

3-38. Smoke operations in mountainous areas are characterized by difficulties
encountered due to terrain and wind. Inadequate roads enhance the military
value of existing roads, mountain valleys, and passes and add importance to
the high ground that dominates the other terrain. Planners can use smoke
and flame systems to deny the enemy observation of friendly positions, sup-
ply routes, and entrenchments, and degrade their ability to cross through
tight, high passes and engage friendly forces with direct and indirect fires.

3-39. Thermally induced slope winds that occur throughout the day and night
increase the difficulty of establishing and maintaining smoke operations, ex-
cept in large and medium sized valleys. Wind currents, eddies, and turbu-
lence in mountainous terrain must be continuously studied and observed, and
their skillful exploitation may greatly enhance smoke operations rather than
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 3

deter them. Smoke screens may be of limited use, due to enemy aerial obser-
vation, to include UAVs, and observation by enemy forces located on high
ground. Smoke units may be required to operate for extended periods with
limited resupply unless petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) supplies are
emplaced in hide positions with easy access.

3-13