CHAPTER 5

SPECIAL OPERATIONS AND SITUATIONS

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FM 5-103

SPECIAL TERRAIN ENVIRONMENTS

JUNGLES
Jungles are humid, tropic areas with a dense high amounts of rainfall and poor soil
growth of trees and vegetation. Visibility is drainage, positions are built to allow for
typically less than 100 feet, and areas are good, natural drainage routes. This technique
sparsely populated. Because mounted in- not only prevents flooded positions but,
fantry and armor operations are limited in because of nuclear fallout washing down
jungle areas, individual and crew-served from trees and vegetation, it also prevents
weapons fighting position construction and positions from becoming radiation hot spots.
use receive additional emphasis. While jungle
vegetation provides excellent concealment Other considerations are high water tables,
from air and ground observation, fields of fire dense undergrowth, and tree roots, often
are difficult to establish. Vegetation does not requiring above-ground level protective con-
provide adequate cover from small caliber struction. A structure used in areas where
direct fire and artillery indirect fire frag- groundwater is high, or where there is a low-
ments, Adequate cover is available, though, pressure resistance soil, is the fighting
if positions are located using the natural position platform, depicted below. This plat-
ravines and gullies produced by erosion from form provides a floating base or floor where
the area’s high annual rainfall. wet or low-pressure resistance soil precludes
standing or sitting. The platform is con-
The few natural or locally-procurable mate- structed of small branches or timber layered
rials which are available in jungle areas are over cross-posts, thus distributing the floor
usually limited to camouflage use. Position load over a wider area. As shown in the
construction materials are transported to following two illustrations, satisfactory rain
these areas and are required to be weather shelters are quickly constructed using easily-
and rot resistant. When shelters are con- procurable materials such as ponchos or
structed in jungles, primary consideration is natural materials. Field Manual 90-5 provides
given to drainage provisions. Because of detailed information on jungle operations.

5-2
 FM 5-103

,,4

5-3
FM 5-103

MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
Characteristics of mountain ranges include protective walls, structural walls, and
rugged, poorly trafficable terrain, steep fighting positions. Gabions are constructed
slopes, and altitudes greater than 1,600 feet. of lumber, plywood, wire fence, or any suitable
Irregular mountain terrain provides numer- material that forms a stackable container for
ous places for cover and concealment. Be- soil or gravel.
cause of rocky ground, it is difficult and often
impossible to dig below ground positions; The two-soldier mountain shelter is basically
therefore, boulders and loose rocks are used a hole 7 feet long, 3 ½ feet wide, and 3 ½ feet
in aboveground construction. Irregular fields deep. The hole is covered with 6- to 8-inch
of fire and dead spaces are considered when diameter logs with evergreen branches, a
designing and locating fighting positions in shelter half, or local material such as topsoil,
mountainous areas. leaves, snow, and twigs placed on top. The
floor is usually covered with evergreen twigs,
Reverse slope positions are rarely used in a shelter half, or other expedient material.
mountainous terrain; crest and near-crest Entrances can be provided at both ends or a
positions on high ground are much more fire pit is sometimes dug at one end for a
common. Direct fire weapon positions in small fire or stove. A low earth parapet is
mountainous areas are usually poorly con- built around the position to provide more
cealed by large fields of fire. Indirect fire height for the occupants.
weapon positions are better protected from
both direct and indirect fire when located DESERTS
behind steep slopes and ridges. Deserts are extensive, arid, arid treeless,
having a severe lack of rainfall and extreme
Another important design consideration in daily temperature fluctuations. The terrain is
mountain terrain is the requirement for sandy with boulder-strewn areas, mountains,
substantial overhead cover. The adverse dunes, deeply-eroded valleys, areas of rock
effects of artillery bursts above a protective and shale, and salt marshes. Effective natu-
position are greatly enhanced by rock and ral barriers are found in steep slope rock
gravel displacement or avalanche. Construc- formations. Wadis and other dried up drain-
tion materials used for both structural and age features are used extensively for protec-
shielding components are most often in- tive position placement.
digenous rocks, boulders, and rocky soil.
Often, rock formations are used as structural Designers of fighting and protective positions
wall components without modification. Con- in desert areas must consider the lack of
ventional tools are inadequate for preparing available natural cover and concealment.
individual and crew-served weapons fighting The only minimal cover available is through
positions in rocky terrain. Engineers assist the use of terrain masking; therefore, posi-
with light equipment and tools (such as tions are often completed above ground.
pneumatic jackhammers) delivered to moun- Mountain and plateau deserts have rocky
tain areas by helicopter. Explosives and soil or “surface chalk” soil which makes
demolitions are used extensively for positions digging difficult. In these areas, rocks and
requiring rock and boulder removal. Field boulders are used for cover. Most often, para-
Manual 90-6 provides detailed information pets used in desert fighting or protective
on mountain operations. positions are undesirable because of probable
enemy detection in the flat desert terrain,
In areas with rocky soil or gravel, wire cages Deep-cut positions are also difficult to con-
or gabions are used as building blocks in struct in soft sandy areas because of wall

5-4
 FM 5-103

instability during excavations. Revetments equipment. The following areas offer good
are almost always required, unless excava- wind protection:
tions are very wide and have gently sloping
sides of 45 degrees or less. Designing over- . Densely wooded areas.
head cover is additionally important because
nuclear explosions have increased fallout ● Groups of vegetation; small blocks of trees
due to easily displaced sandy soil. or shrubs.

Indigenous materials are usually used in ● The lee side of terrain elevations. (The
desert position construction. However, pre- protected zone extends horizontally up to
fabricated structures and revetments for three times the height of the terrain
excavations, if available, are ideal. Metal elevation).
culvert revetments are quickly emplaced in
easily excavated sand, Sandbags and sand- ● Terrain depressions.
filled ammunition boxes are also used for
containing backsliding soil. Therefore, camou- The three basic construction materials avail-
flage and concealment, as well as light and able in cold region terrain are snow, ice, and
noise discipline, are important considerations frozen soil. Positions are more effective when
during position construction. Target acqui- constructed with these three materials in
sition and observation are relatively easy in conjunction with timber, stone, or other
desert terrain. Field Manual 90-3 provides locally-available materials.
detailed information on desert operations.
Snow
COLD REGIONS Dry snow is less suitable for expedient con-
Cold regions of the world are characterized struction than wet snow because it does not
by deep snow, permafrost, seasonally frozen pack as well. Snow piled at road edges after
ground, frozen lakes and rivers, glaciers, and clearing equipment has passed densifies and
long periods of extremely cold temperatures. begins to harden within hours after distur-
Digging in frozen or semifrozen ground is bance, even at very low temperatures. Snow
difficult with equipment, and virtually im- compacted artificially, by the wind, and after
possible for the soldier with an entrenching a brief thaw is even more suitable for expe-
tool. When possible, positions are designed to dient shelters and protective structures, A
take advantage of below ground cover. Posi- uniform snow cover with a minimum thick-
tions are dug as deep as possible, then built ness of 10 inches is sufficient for shelter from
up. Fighting and protective position con- the weather and for revetment construction.
struction in snow or frozen ground takes up to Blocks of uniform size, typically 8 by 12 by 16
twice as long as positions in unfrozen ground. inches, depending upon degree of hardness
Also, positions used in cold regions are and density, are cut from the snow pack with
affected by wind and the possibility of thaw shovels, long knives (machetes), or carpen-
during warming periods. An unexpected thaw ter’s saws. The best practices for constructing
causes a severe drop in the soil strength cold weather shelters are those adopted from
which creates mud and drainage problems. natives of polar regions.
Positions near bodies of water, such as lakes
or rivers, are carefully located to prevent The systematic overlapping block-over-seam
flooding damage during the spring melt method ensures stable construction.
season. Wind protection greatly decreases “Caulking” seams with loose snow ensures
the effects of cold on both soldiers and snug, draft-free structures. Igloo shelters in

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FM 5-103

Ice
cold regions have been known to survive a The initial projectile-stopping capability of
whole winter. An Eskimo-style snow shelter, ice is better than snow or frozen soil; however,
depicted below, easily withstands above- under sustained fire, ice rapidly cracks and
freezing inside temperatures, thus providing collapses. Ice structures are built in the fol-
comfortable protection against wind chill lowing three ways:
and low temperatures. Snow positions are
built during either freezing or thawing if the Layer-by-layer freezing by water. This
thaw is not so long or intense that significant method produces the strongest ice but, com-
snow melt conditions occur. Mild thaw of pared to the other two methods, is more time
temperatures 1 or 2 degrees above freezing consuming. Protective surfaces are formed
are more favorable than below-freezing tem- by spraying water in a fine mist on a structure
peratures because snow conglomerates or fabric. The most favorable temperature for
readily and assumes any shape without dis- this method is -10 to -15 degrees Celsius with
integration. Below-freezing temperatures are a moderate wind. Approximately 2 to 3 inches
also necessary for snow construction in order of ice are formed per day between these
to achieve solid freezing and strength. If temperatures (1/5-inch of ice per degree below
water is available at low temperatures, expe- zero).
dient protective structures are built by
wetting down and shaping snow, with shov-
els, into the. desired forms.

Eskimo-style snow shelter

5-6
 FM 5-103

Freezing ice fragments into layers by

adding water. This method is very effective
and the most frequently used for building ice
structures. The ice fragments are about 1-
inch thick and prepared on nearby plots or on
the nearest river or water reservoir. The
fragments are packed as densely as possible
into a layer 8 to 12 inches thick. Water is then
sprayed over the layers of ice fragments.
Crushing the ice fragments weakens the ice
construction. If the weather is favorable (-10
to -15 degrees Celsius with wind), a 16- to
24-inch thick ice layer is usually frozen in a
day.

Laying ice blocks. This method is the

quickest, but requires assests to transport the
blocks from the nearest river or water reser-
voir to the site. Ice blocks, laid and overlapped
like bricks, are of equal thickness and uniform
size. To achieve good layer adhesion, the
preceding layer is lightly sprayed with water
before placing a new layer. Each new layer of
blocks freezes onto the preceding layer before
additional layers are placed.

Frozen Soil
Frozen soil is three to five times stronger
than ice, and increases in strength with lower
temperatures. Frozen soil has much better
resistance to impact and explosion than to
steadily-acting loads—an especially valuable
feature for position construction purposes.
Construction using frozen soil is performed
as follows:

. Preparing blocks of frozen soil from a

mixture of water and aggregate (icecrete).

s Laying prepared blocks of frozen soii.

. Freezing blocks of frozen soil together in

layers.

Unfrozen soil from beneath the frozen layer

is sometimes used to construct a position
quickly before the soil freezes. Material made

5-7
FM 5-103

of gravel-sand-silt aggregate wetted to satu- surface is reinforced with small branches to

ration and poured like portland cement con- initiate bullet tumble upon impact. Bullets
crete is also suitable for constructing posi- slow down very rapidly in snow after they
tions. After freezing, the material has the begin to tumble. The wall of logs directly in
properties of concrete. The construction front of the position safely absorbs the
methods used are analogous to those using slowed tumbling bullet,
ice, Fighting and protective positions in arctic
areas are constructed both below ground and Overhead cover is constructed with 3 feet of
above ground. packed snow placed atop a layer of 6-inch
diameter logs. This protection is adequate to
Below ground positions. When the frost stop indirect fire fragmentation. A layer of
layer is one foot or less, fighting positions small, 2-inch diameter logs is placed atop the
are usually constructed below ground, as packed snow to detonate quick fuzed shells
shown. Snow packed 8 to 9 feet provides before they become imbedded in the snow.
protection from sustained direct fire from
small caliber weapons up to and including
the Soviet 14,5-mm KPV machine gun, When Aboveground positions. If the soil is frozen
possible, unfrozen excavated soil is used to to a significant depth, the soldier equipped
form parapets about 2-foot thick, and snow is with only an entrenching tool and ax will
placed on the soil for camouflage and extra have difficulty digging a fighting position.
protection. For added frontal protection, the Under these conditions (below the tree line),
interior snow is reinforced with a log revet- snow and wood are often the only natural
ment at least 3 inches in diameter. The outer materials available to construct fighting

5-8
 FM 5-103

positions. The fighting position is dug at constructed in cold regions are excavated
least 20 inches deep, up to chest height, with combined methods using handtools,
depending on snow conditions. Ideally, sand- excavation equipment, or explosives. Heavy
bags are used to revet the interior walls for equipment use is limited by traction and
added protection and to prevent cave-ins. If maneuverability. Explosives are an expedient
sandbags are not available, a lattice frame- method, but require larger quantities than
work is constructed using small branches or, used in normal soil. Crater formation from
if time permits, a wall of 3-inch logs is built. surface bursts of explosives is possible and
Overhead cover, frontal protection, and side creates craters of a given depth and radius
and rear parapets are built employing the based on the information in the first table on
same techniques described in chapter 4. page 5-11. Crater formation by charges placed
in boreholes is a function of charge depth and
It is approximately ten times faster to build charge weight as shown in the second table
above-ground snow positions than to dig in on page 5-11. A 15- or 40-pound shaped charge
frozen ground to obtain the same degree of creates boreholes as indicated in the first
protection. Fighting and protective positions table on page 3-28.

SPECIAL COLD REGION POSITIONS

Dismounted TOW and machine gun positions in snow

A platform of plywood or
timber is constructed to the
rear of the frontal protection
to provide a solid base from
which to employ the guns.
Overhead cover is usually
offset from the firing position
because of the difficulty of
digging both the firing and
protective positions together
in the snow. The protective
position should have at least
3 feet of packed snow as
cover. The fighting position
should have snow packed 8 to
9 feet thick for frontal, and at
least 2 feet thick for side
protection as shown.
Sandbags are used to revet
the interior walls for added
protection and to prevent
cave-ins. However, packed
snow, rocks, 4-inch diameter
logs, or ammunition cans
filled with snow are
sometimes used to complete
the frontal and overhead
protection, as well as side and
rear parapets.

5-9
 FM 5-103

Individual fighting position in snow

Positions for individuals are

constructed by placing
packed snow on either side of
a tree and extending the snow
parapet 8 to 9 feet to the
front, as illustrated. The side
and rear parapets are
constructed of a continuous
snow mound, a minimum of
2 feet wide, and high enough
to protect the soldier’s head,

Snow trench with wood revetment

In deep snow, trenches and
weapon positions are
excavated to the dimensions
outlined in chapter 4.
However, unless the snow is
well packed and frozen,
revetment is required. In
snow too shallow to permit
the required depth
excavation, snow walls are
usually constructed, The walls
are made of compacted snow,
revetted, and at least 61/2 feet
thick. The table on page 5-12

: ..;, :-.
.., .- .. . +
contains snow wall
construction requirements.

Logs or
. .....
.. ,.:-,.:~. :. . ... .... .... f+ ~.r~”~:~~
. . . . . . . . . . ,, .:;.h1 # dimensioned timber
revetments JTt ,x -. .
?’
: +‘ .:z~.>
,->-.,:.---,-
.-, . . .
‘1 . . : . .. ...<.
. . ,-.f ..-.
- .. . .
. . . . ..-.%
.. ...

A .!3$$%!
~ ‘“: Compacted snow ‘>:
.J. :..
.. . . .. . . .. -... 1
.: ,
,-,y-. . .. / \ ?.
x., . . . . ‘ .: . ,.‘?-’,.,
..;4.-.. .- . ‘ : . ... .:.“.. . .. ‘.
:..-. .- ‘ ;.\.$
.:... ;?--- ‘ . *.. : \
;’?.
.... . .,. \ 1 *<4
.; / . -w..
.. ., !.... v.. .,.. .,.:.. . . .,.. ..~ .
f — \
-.— [ —
.
5 . ..7.. -i. # J . . .. . -..
.... ... ‘ \
v
Bearing plank
5-6% ft between supports

5-10
 FM 5-103

Crater Dimension (Surface Detonation)

Snow ice Frozen Ground

Crater depth, ft

Crater radius, ft 2.0 3~ 1.6 & 1.4 3&

Notes: (w} equals charge weight in pounds (untamped}

Verify calculations with test shots.

Crater Dimension (Using Borehotesj

snow km Frozen Ground

Depth of charge, ft 4.0 3* 3.0 3~ 2.5 3~

Crater depth, ft 5.1 3~ 3 . 3 ?/G- 2.7 VT

Crater radius, ft 3.3 3qr 3.9 3~r 3.1 3Jr

Notes: (w) equals charge weight in pounds {untamped)

Verify calculations with test shots.

5-11
FM 5-103

Snow Wall Construction for Protection From Grenades,

Small Caliber Fire, and HEAT Projectiles

Required
Snow Density Muzzle Minimum
(lb/cu ft) Projectiles Velocity Penetration, ft Thickness, ft

18.0 -25.0 Grenade frag (HE) 2.0 3.0

11.2 -13.0 5.56 mm 3,250 3.8 4.4
17.4 -23.7 5.56 mm 3,250 2.3 2.6
11.2 -13.1 7.62 mm 2,750 13.0 15.0
17.4 -23.7 7.62 mm 2,750 5.2 6.0
25.5 -28.7 7.62 mm 2,750 5.0 5.8
19.9 -24.9 12.7 mm 2,910 6.4 7.4
14.5 mm 6.0 8.0
28.1 -31.2 70 mm HEAT 900 14.0 17.5
31.2 -34.9 70 mm liEAT 900 8.7 -10.0 13.0
27.5 -34.9 90 mm HEAT 700 9.5 -11.2 14.5

Notes: These materials degrade under sustained fire. Penetrations given for
12.7 mm or smaller are for sustained fire (30 continuous firings into a
1 by 1 foot area),

Penetration characteristics of Warsaw Pact ammunitions do nut differ

significantly from US counterparts.

Figure given for HEAT weapons are for Soviet PRG-7 (70 mm) and
United States M67 (90 mm) fired into machine-packed snow.

High explosive grenades produce small, high veiocityfragments which

stop in about 2 feet of packed snow. Effective protection from direct fire
is independent of delivery method, including newer machine guns like
the Soviet AGS-17 (30 mm) or United States MK 19/M75 (40 mm).
Only armor penetrating rounds are effective.

5-12
 FM 5-103

Shelters
Shelters are constructed with a minimum skis, shelter halves, and ponchos are some-
expenditure of time and labor using available times used as protection against ground
materials. They are ordinarily built on frozen dampness and cold. The entrance to the
ground or dug in deep snow. Shelters that are shelter, located on the side least exposed to
completely above ground offer protection the wind, is close to the ground and slopes up
against the weather and supplement or into the shelter. Openings or cracks in the
replace tents. Shelter sites near wooded areas shelter walls are caulked with an earth and
are most desirable because the wood conceals snow mixture to reduce wind effects. The
the glow of fires and provides fuel for cooking shelter itself is constructed as low to the
and heating. Tree branches extending to the ground as possible. Any fire built within the
ground offer some shelter for small units or shelter is placed low in fire holes and cooking
individual protective positions, pits. Although snow is windproof, a layer of
insulating material, such as a shelter half or
Constructing winter shelters begins imme- blanket, is placed between the occupant and
diately after the halt to keep the soldiers the snow to prevent body heat from melting
warm. Beds of foliage, moss, straw, boards, the snow.

Wigwam shelters

This shelter is constructed against a small tree so the cut saplings. Branches on the
easily and quickly when the ends extend about 7 feet up inside are trimmed off and
ground is too hard to dig and the trunk. The cut ends are placed on the outside to fill in
protection is required for a tied together around the tree the spaces. Shelter halves
short bivouac. The shelter with a tent rope, wire, or wrapped around the outside
accommodates three soldiers other means. The ground ends make the wigwam more
and provides space for of the saplings are spaced windproof, especially after it
cooking. About 25 evergreen about 1 foot apart and about is covered with snow. A
saplings (2 to 3 inches in 7 feet from the base of the wigwam is also constructed
diameter, 10 feet long) are tree. The branches on the by lashing the cut ends of the
cut. The limbs are left on the outside of the wigwam are saplings together instead of
saplings and are leaned placed flat against the leaning them against the tree.

-
‘“t
Free standing 1

5-13
 FM 5-103

Lean-to shelter
This shelter is made of the
same material as the wigwam
(natural saplings woven
together and brush). The
saplings are placed against a
rock wall, a steep nillside, a
deadfall, or some other
existing vertical surface, on
the leeward side. The ends are
closed with shelter halves or
evergreen branches. ---x ,“4,7,
---s

Shelter half
Snow cave
Snow caves are made by
burrowing into a snowdrift
and fashioning a room of the
desired size. This shelter gives
good protection from freezing
weather and a maximum
amount of concealment. The
entrance slopes upward for
best protection against cold
air penetration. Snow caves
~~c;A~;=--J-——--
‘New-’=..=+==
—-—
—._ —.—. ..: .*__
. ——-..=_
are usually built large enough
for severai soldiers if the ~=. -—-——
. —= __
consistency of the snow
prevents cave-in. Two ,~-: ~+. “
entrances are usually used
while the snow is taken out of /-
—g’i
..—
———
---w
~ .—.>—
- -—
- -74
“--~+’.

DOMED ROOF

the cave; one entrance is , . - —-

:—-
r~
- - . - WARM AIR U“,: ->
refilled with snow when the
—._ ._. _ ____ -
cave is completed. Fires in
snow caves are kept small to t
i -
S N O W BLOCK
prevent melting the structure,
To allow incoming fresh air, I
11
___ . -==. -= ——-
the door is not completely
sealed. A ___ .–. ---
. . . . —-- .= —=
——
~- _ _—
-----
-s

-=” — - —_—_. —
—-. -_=_-

5-14
 FM 5-103

Snow hole
The snow hole is a simple, of body length and width with sideways below the surface,
one-soldier emergency shelter an entrenching tool or helmet. filling the original ditch with
for protection against a snow At a depth of about 3% feet, snow that was dug out, until
storm in open, snow-covered the soldier lies down in the only a small breathing hole
terrain. The soldier digs a hole hole and then digs in remains.

Snow pit
The snow pit is dug vertically Added snow
with entrenching tools to
form a ditch. The pit is large R Oof
enough for two or three
soldiers. Skis, poles, sticks,
branches, shelter halves, and
snow are used as roofing. The
inside depth of the pit is deep
enough for kneeling and
reclining positions. If the
snow is not deep enough, the
sides of the pit can be made
higher by adding snow walls.
The roof should slope toward
one end of the pit.

Snowhouse with snow block walls

The size and roof of a
snowhouse are similar to
those of a snow pit. The walls
are made of snow blocks and
are usually built to the
soldier’s height. Snow piled
on the outside seals cracks
and camouflages the house.

... .” .’ ,. ’ ., .

5-15
FM 5-103

URBAN AREAS Below Ground Structures

Survivability of combat forces operating in A detailed knowledge of the nature and loca-
urban areas depends on the leader’s ability to tion of below ground facilities and structures
locate adequate fighting and protective posi- is of potential value when planning surviv-
tions from the many apparent covered and ability operations in urban terrain. Typical
concealed areas available. Fighting and pro- underground street cross sections are shown
tective positions range from hasty positions in the following figure.
formed from piles of rubble, to deliberate
positions located inside urban structures. Sewers are separated into sanitary, storm, or
Urban structures are the most advantageous combined systems. Sanitary sewers carry
locations for individual fighting positions. wastes and are normally too small for troop
Field Manual 90-10 contains detailed infor- movement or protection. Storm sewers, how-
mation on urban terrain operations. Urban ever, provide rainfall removal and are often
structures are usually divided into groups of large enough to permit troop and occasional
below ground and above-ground structures. vehicle movement and protection. Except for

Cross sections of streets

COMMERCIAL STREET

RESIDENTIAL STREET
c

c =

Utility lines

Sanitary sewer

5-16
 FM 5-103

Aboveground Structures
groundwater, these sewers are dry during Aboveground structures in urban areas are
periods of no precipitation. During rain- generally of two types: frameless and framed.
storms, however, sewers fill rapidly and,
though normally drained by electrical pumps, Frameless structures. In frameless struc-
may overflow. During winter combat, snow tures, the mass of the exterior wall performs
melt may preclude daytime below ground the principal load-bearing functions of sup-
operations. Another hazard is poor ventila- porting dead weight of roofs, floors, ceilings;
tion and the resultant toxic fume build-up weight of furnishings and occupants; and
that occurs in sewer tunnels and subways. horizontal loads. Frameless structures are
The conditions in sewers provide an excellent shown below.
breeding ground for disease, which demands
proper troop hygiene and immunization. Building materials for frameless structures
include mud, stone, brick, cement building
Subways tend to run under main roadways blocks, and reinforced concrete. Wall thick-
and have the potential hazard of having ness varies with material and building
electrified rails and power leads. Passage- height. Frameless structures have thicker
ways often extend outward from underground walls than framed structures, and therefore
malls or storage areas, and catacombs are are more resistant to projectile penetration.
sometimes encountered in older sections of Fighting from frameless buildings is usually
cities. restricted to the door and window areas.

Thick walls Deeply recessed Small, vertically Thicker

windows aligned windows lower-story
.

CONCRETE

PREFABRICATED
WALL AND SLAB Cellular
room

Slab floors
I
! v
Solid Building face
end walls nearly all windows

5-17
Flbl 5-103

Frameless buildings vary with function, age, horizontal loads. Exterior (curtain) walls are
and cost of building materials. Older institu- nonload bearing. Without the impediment of
tional buildings, such as churches, are fre- load bearing walls, large open interior spaces
quently made of stone. Reinforced concrete is offer little protection. The only available
the principal material for wall and slab refuge is the central core of reinforced con-
structures (apartments and hotels) and for crete present in many of these buildings (for
prefabricated structures used for commercial example, the elevator shaft). Multistoried
and industrial purposes. Brick structures, the steel and concrete-framed structures occupy
most common type of frameless buildings, the valuable core area of most modern cities.
dominate the core of urban areas (except in Examples of framed structures are shown in
the relatively few parts of the world where the following figure.
wood-framed houses are common). Close-set
brick structures up to five stories high are Material and Structural Characteristics
located on relatively narrow streets and form Urban structures, frameless and framed, fit
a hard, shock-absorbing protective zone for certain material generalities. The first table
the inner city. The volume of rubble produced on page 5-19 converts building type and
by their full or partial demolition provides material into height/waH thicknesses. Most
countless fighting positions. worldwide urban areas have more than 60
percent of their construction formed from
Framed structures. Framed structures typi- bricks. The relationship between building
cally have a skeletal structure of columns height and thickness of the average brick
and beams which supports both vertical and wall is shown in the second table on page
5-19.

Framed building characteristics

HEAVY CLAD
LIGHT CLAD

h
-, — Central
Reinforced core
concrete for
Canital
columns services

Relatively Large
Shaft open
small Slab floors
windows bavs

w
Larger rooms
Pediment

Exterior nearly all

on ground floor glass or other thin material

5-18
FM 5-103

5-19
 FM 5-103

SPECIAL URBAN AREA POSITIONS

Troop Protection
After urban structures are classified as either Composition and thickness of both exterior
frameless or framed, and some of their mate- and interior walls also have a significant
rial characteristics are defined, leaders bearing on cover assessment. Frameless
evaluate them for protective soundness. The buildings with their strong weight-bearing
evaluation is based on troop protection walls provide more cover than the curtain
available and weapon position employment walls of framed buildings. However, interior
requirements for cover, concealment, and walls of the older, heavy-clad, framed
routes of escape. The table below summarizes buildings are stronger than those of the new,
survivability requirements for troop light-clad, framed buildings. Cover within
protection. these light-clad framed buildings is very
slight except in and behind their stair and
Cover. The extent of building cover depends elevator modules which are usually con-
on the proportion of walls to windows. It is structed of reinforced concrete. Familiarity
necessary to know the proportion of non- with the location, dimension, and form of
windowed wall space which might serve as these modules is vital when assessing cover
protection. Frameless buildings, with their possibilities.
high proportion of walls to windows, afford
more substantial cover than framed buildings Concealment. Concealment considerations
having both a lower proportion of wall to involve some of the same elements of building
window space and thinner (nonload bearing) construction, but knowledge of the venting
walls. (window) pattern and floor plan is added.

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 FM 5-103

These patterns vary with type of building Possibilities range from small buildings with
construction and function. Older, heavy-clad front street exits (posing unacceptable risks),
framed buildings (such as office buildings) to high-rise structures having exits on sev-
frequently have as full a venting pattern as eral floors, above and below ground level,
possible, while hotels have only one window and connecting with other buildings as well.
per room. In the newer, light-clad framed
buildings, windows are sometimes used as a Fighting Positions
nonload bearing curtain wall. If the windows Survivability requirements for fighting posi-
are all broken, no concealment possibilities tions for individuals, machine guns, and
exist. Another aspect of concealment— antitank and antiaircraft weapons are sum-
undetected movement within the building—- marized in the table below.
depends on a knowledge of the floor plan and
the traffic pattern within the building on Individual fighting positions. An upper
each floor and from floor to floor. floor area of a multistoried building generally
provides sufficient fields of fire, although
Escape. In planning for escape routes, the corner windows can usually encompass more
floor plan, traffic patterns, and the relation- area. Protection from the possibility of return
ships between building exits are considered. fire from the streets requires that the soldier

5-21
FM 5-103

know the composition and thickness of the grazing fire. In brick buildings, the lower
building’s outer wall. Load bearing walls floors have the thickest walls and thus the
generally offer more protection than the greatest degree of cover. In frame buildings,
curtain walls of framed buildings. However, walls are the same thickness on every floor
the relatively thin walls of a low brick and thus the ground floor provides no advan-
building (only two-bricks thick or 8 inches) is tage. Another consideration is the nature of
sometimes less effective than a 15-inch thick the local terrain. Should a building selected
nonload bearing curtain wall of a high-rise for a machine gun position lie over the crest
framed structure. of a hill, grazing fire is sometimes not possible
from a ground floor. In such cases, depending
The individual soldier is also concerned about on the area’s slope angle, grazing fire is
the amount of overhead protection available. achieved only from a higher floor.
Therefore, the soldier needs to know about
the properties of roof, floor, and ceiling Antitank weapon positions. The posi-
materials. These materials vary with the tioning of antitank weapons within buildings
type of building construction. In brick demands consideration of the critical need
buildings, the material for the ceiling of the for cover. Buildings with fairly thick walls
top floor is far lighter than that for the next have rooms that are too small to permit firing
floor down that performs as both ceiling and of heavy antitank weapons, such as the
floor, and thus is capable of holding up the TOW. Therefore, only the LAW, Dragon, and
room’s live load. the 90-mm recoilless rifle (RCLR) are usually
fired from these buildings. When antitank
Machine gun positions. Machine guns are weapons are fired, backblast is present as
usually located on the ground floor to achieve illustrated below.

Extent of backidast in open areas

LAW

$%
Danger 0
z o n e 10
A
25 ft
*
Caution
G
zone m
A~

L----l
90 MM RCLR
Dragon
.- —-— ——
Wear ear- 1

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 FM 5-103

When weapons are fired in enclosed areas in For heavy ATGMs (TOWS) designed for effec-
structures, the following conditions are tiveness up to 3,750 meters, there is an acute
required: need to select light-clad framed buildings
that have considerable fields of fire.
● The area must have a ceiling at least 7 feet
high. Minimum floor sizes by weapon and Antiaircraft weapon positions. The de-
type of construction are as shown in the ployment of antiaircraft weapons can also be
table below. related to a consideration of building charac-
teristics. An ideal type of building for such
● Approximately 20 square feet of ventilation deployment is a modern parking garage (one
is necessary to the rear of the weapons. An with rooftop parking). It offers sufficient
open door normally provides adequate cover, a circulation pattern favoring such
ventilation. weapons carried on light vehicles, and fre-
quently offers good lines of sight.
● Small, loose objects and window/door glass
are removed from the firing area. Other Planning Considerations
Fighting and protective positions located
● Combustible material is removed from inside urban buildings sometimes require
behind the weapon, Curtains and over- upgrade or reinforcement, Prior to planning
stuffed furniture out of the blast area are building modification, the following factors
usually left in place to help absorb sound. are considered:

● For ATGMs, vertical clearances between . Availability of materials such as fill for
the bottom of the launch tube and the wall sandbags.
opening are 6 inches for TOW and 9 inches
for Dragon. . Transporting materials up stairwells and
into attics.
● Occupants must be forward of the rear of
the weapon and wear helmets and . Structural limitations of attics and upper
earplugs. level floors (dead load limitations).

Minimum Floor Sizes for Firing Weapons in Enclosed A reas

Minimum Floor Size, ft

Frame Masonry

TOW 20x 32 20x 20

Dragon 15x16 10X2O

90mm RCLR 15x16 10X2O

LAW 7x12 Minimum of 4?4 ft

to back wall

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FM 5-103

COMBINED OPERATIONS
The United States maintains substantial last 8 months out of the year. Terrain is
forces in Europe for North AtkmticTreaty generally very lightly wooded and suscep-
Organization (NATO) operations and forces tible to flooding in many areas.
in Korea as part of the combined forces
command (CFC). In these areas, established ALLIED FORCES, CENTRAL EUROPE
command and control arrangements permit (AFCENT)
detailed peacetime planning, base develop- Allied Forces, Central Europe (AFCENT)
ment, and host nation support agreements. includes most of Western Europe—specif-
In most potential combat theaters, however, ically West Germany. The climate of this
international agreements with United States area is usually cold and wet. The terrain is
allies on principles and procedures do not generally rolling and open, with many urban
exist or are only partially developed, In both and built-up areas of 50,000 population and
types of possible theaters of operations, upward.
combat activities will involve combined op-
erations with allied forces. ALLIED FORCES,
SOUTHERN EUROPE (AFSOUTH)
Interoperability is the capability of multi- Allied Forces, Southern Europe (AFSOUTH)
national forces to operate together smoothly. includes Italy, Greece, Turkey, and countries
Commanders involved in combined surviv- in the Mediterranean area, Generally, this
ability operations must have a knowledge of area has a warm and comfortable climate,
standing operating procedures (SOPS), stand- but it also includes some bitterly cold regions.
ardization agreements (STANAGS), and any The terrain of northern Italy, Greece, Turkish
other procedural agreements made between Thrace, and eastern Turkey is mountainous
forces. In addition, a commander should and affords excellent natural protection. The
maximize training and use of equipment and plains of the Po River Valley, however, pro-
supplies organic to friendly foreign forces. vide unrestricted mobility and direct fire, and
Host nation support agreements may provide require substantial protection activities.
equipment and indigenous labor for protec-
tive construction. These assets require full PACIFIC COMMAND (PACOM)
identification and use, Interoperability is United States forces stationed from the west
discussed in FM 100-5. coast of the Americas to the east coast of
Africa and in the Indian Ocean come under
Terrain and climate characteristics of the the umbrella of the Pacific Command
following three NATO regions are critical to (PACOM). Two important areas of the com-
the survivability planner in Europe. mand are Japan and Korea. As in NATO,
important differences in capabilities, doc-
ALLIED FORCES, trine, and equipment exist among various
NORTHERN EUROPE (AFNORTH) national forces in PACOM. Unlike NATO,
The Northern European Command, also few STANAGS exist to negotiate the
known as Allied Forces, Northern Europe differences.
(AFNORTH), is made up of Norway,
Denmark, and that portion of the Federal Korea
Republic of Germany north of the Elbe river. The powerful North Korean army is a threat
The climate of this area includes subarctic to the Republic of Korea (ROK). It is con-
and arctic winters which, in some locales, tinually poised for attack along the 151-mile

5-24
 FM 5-103

Japan
demilitarized zone (DMZ). The area in which The five major islands of Japan have a
protection activities would take place includes climate similar to that of the east coast of the
mountainous, rugged terrain with a tem- United States. The islands are mostly moun-
perate, monsoonal climate. Most of the terrain tainous, with the urban areas and huge
favors light infantry operations, yet two population centers situated in and around
major avenues of approach from the north the remaining habitable areas. Operations in
allow mechanized activity. Because of the Japan are governed by the provisions of the
segregation of US and ROK units, existing Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security
survivability /interoperability problems are between the United States and Japan. Signif-
considered when protection activities are icant efforts are required to ensure inter-
planned. operability of forces. Survivability tasks will
most likely center around protection of built-
UP areas.

CONTINGENCY OPERATIONS
Contingency operations, generally initiated strategic deployment by air. At the same
under circumstances of great urgency, are time, it must possess sufficient combat power
geared to protect vital natural resource and equipment to provide necessary engineer
supplies or assist a threatened ally. The US support. The lack of logistic support for the
contingency force must have the capability deployed task force requires a capability to
to defeat a threat which varies from terrorist fully exploit whatever host nation support is
activity to well-organized regional forces available.
armed with modern weapons. Contingency
forces must prepare for chemical and nuclear Deployed engineer forces are responsible for
warfare, and also for air attack by modern, all engineer functions. Initially, there is little
well-equipped air forces. Fighting and pro- back-up support for engineers organic to
tective positions are initially prepared for combat forces; however, engineer support in
antitank weapons, ADA forces, and field the survivability effort is essential. Surviv-
artillery weapons in order to deny the enemy ability missions in contingency operations
both air superiority and free ground maneu- are of primary importance after deployment.
ver, Most potential locations for contingency The force requires protection at all levels
operations are relatively undeveloped. Logis- since the enemy often expects the force’s
tics and base support requirements will arrival, and since assembly areas are limited
dictate operational capabilities to a much until specific missions are developed. Due to
greater extent than in a mature theater. the light force structure and limited logistical
Planners must provide ample logistic basic support, priorities are established to deter-
loads for initial construction and use locally mine where the engineers should dedicate
available materials for expedient structures. their resources. Conditions such as delayed
supply and resupply operations, and scarcity
General contingency plans must allow for of engineer equipment, demand force maneuv-
rapid changes in the tasks, organization, and er units or light forces to prepare their own
support to adapt to widely-varied potential fighting and protective positions. The situa-
threats and environments. The composition tion will determine whether shifts from those
of the contingency force must permit rapid priorities are necessary.

5-25