1

You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 2
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 3
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 4
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 5
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 6
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 7
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 8
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 1000 Hz >> 34.34 cm
3000 Hz >> 11.4 cm

9
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 A head shadow or acoustic shadow is a region of reduced amplitude of
a sound because it is obstructed by the head (diffracted).[1][2] Sound may have to
travel through and around the head in order to reach an ear. The obstruction
caused by the head can account for a significant attenuation (reduced amplitude) of
overall intensity as well as cause a filtering effect. The filtering effects of head
shadowing are an essential element of sound localisation—the brain weighs the
relative amplitude, timbre, and phase of a sound heard by the two ears and uses
the difference to interpret directional information.
The shadowed ear, the ear further from the sound source, receives sound slightly
later (up to approximately 0.7 ms later) than the unshadowed ear, and the timbre,
or frequency spectrum, of the shadowed sound wave is different because of the
obstruction of the head.
The head shadow causes particular difficulty in sound localisation in people
suffering from unilateral hearing loss.[3] It is a factor to consider when correcting
hearing loss with directional hearing aids

10
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 11
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 The ossicles (also called auditory ossicles) are three bones in either middle ear that
are among the smallest bones in the human body. They serve to
transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea). The absence of
the auditory ossicles would constitute a moderate-to-severe hearing loss. The term
"ossicle" literally means "tiny bone". Though the term may refer to any small bone
throughout the body, it typically refers to the malleus, incus, and stapes (hammer,
anvil, and stirrup) of the middle ear.

12
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 13
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 14
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 Place theory: Also known as the Resonance Theory, this theory was proposed by
Helmholtz in 1857. But, it is worthy to note that crude forms of the Place Theory
had been created as early as 1605. Helmholtz' modern theory of hearing states that
incoming sounds from the environment are, in a spectral representative form,
extracted by the inner ear. The inner serves as a tuned resonator that passes the
spectral representation to the brainstem, and then to the auditory cortex via the
auditory nerve. The basilar membrane of the ear resonates the sound with a
corresponding characteristic frequency or CF. For instance, if a sound stimulus has a
tone of 300 Hz, the part of the basilar membrane that has a CF of 300 Hz would be
stimulated. This process is also called frequency place-mapping. Critics of the Place
Theory of hearing argued that most often than not, characteristic frequencies are
hard to determine below 120 Hz. Perception of sound stimuli accounting for low
frequencies are associated with the frequency theory.

Place theory is a theory of hearing also known as Resonance theory states that our
perception of sound depends on where each
component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this
theory, the pitch of a sound, such as a human voice or a musical tone, is determined
by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding
to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons.[1][2]
More generally, schemes that base attributes of auditory perception on the neural
firing rate as a function of place are known as rate–place schemes.[3]
The main alternative to the place theory is the temporal theory,[2] also known as
timing theory.[1] These theories are closely linked with the volley principle or volley 15
theory, [4] mechanism by which groups of neurons can encode the timing of a
You created this PDF fromaan application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 16
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 17
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 18
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 19
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 20
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 The interaural level difference is the difference in loudness and frequency
distribution between the two ears. As sound travels, its strength dissipates. For
example, if you are very close to a loud sound, it will sound loud to you. But if you
are some distance from the same loud sound, it will not be as loud. Think of a dog
barking. If it is right in front of you, it will sound loud, but if the same dog barks
across a big grassy field, the sound will be much less loud to you. Amazingly, our
ears can detect loudness differences between the left and right ears. However,
more important for sound localization is that the head casts an acoustic shadow,
which changes the loudness and frequency distribution of sound going to each ear.
We can define the acoustic shadow as the area on the side of the head opposite
from the source of a sound in which the loudness of a sound is less because of
blocked sound waves. The acoustic shadow is much more prominent for high-
frequency sounds than it is for low-frequency sounds. In this illustration, you can
manipulate the different features of a tone to see how interaural level differences
contribute to our perception of auditory direction.

21
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 22
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 23
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 24
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 25
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 26
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 27
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 28
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 29
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 30
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 Head-related transfer function (HRTF) is a function used in acoustics that characterizes how
a particular ear (left or right) receives sound from a point in space. A pair of two transfer
functions, one for each ear, is used for sound localization which is very important for
humans.

Head-related transfer functions (HRTF) capture transformations of a sound wave

propagating from the source to our ears. Some of the transformations include diffraction
and reflections on the parts of our bodies such as our head, pinnae, shoulders and torso. As
a consequence, with these two functions we are able to create the illusion of spatially
located sound [3]. HRTF is a Fourier transform of a head-related impulse response (HRIR). It
should be emphasized that it is a complex function defined for each ear, having both
information about the magnitude and the phase shift. The HRTF is also highly dependent
on the location of the sound source relative to the listener, which is a main reason we are
able to locate the sound source. We will denote the impulse responses for the left and the
right ear in the time domain as hL(t) and hR(t), respectively.

In the frequency domain we will denote the responses by corresponding capital letters -
HR(ω) and HL(ω). 1 Let the function x(t) describe the pressure of the sound source and let
functions xL(t) and xR(t) be the pressure at the left and the right ear, respectively. In the
time domain, the pressure at the ears can be written as a convolution of the sound signal
and the HRIR of the corresponding ear: xL,R(t) = hL,R(t) ∗ x(t) = Z ∞ −∞ hL,R(t − τ )x(τ )dτ.
(2.1)

In the frequency domain, convolution is transformed into multiplication: XL,R(ω) = F

(hL,R(t) ∗ x(t)) = HL,R(ω)X(ω).

A pair of HRTFs for two ears can be used to synthesize a binaural sound that seems 31
toPDF
You created this come from
from a particular
an application point
that is in space.
not licensed It istoa novaPDF
to print transferprinter
function, describing how a
(http://www.novapdf.com)
 If the distance from the sound source to the center of the head is greater than 1.0 m, the
HRTF is approximately independent of distance and so the measurements are called far
field measurements, where the loudspeaker can be approximated as a point source. When
the distance is less than 1.0 m the HRTFs vary with distance and are thus called near-field
HRTFs [5]. Near-field measurement is more difficult because you need a near-field point
source and so an ordinary loudspeaker is no longer a suitable choice, due to its size,
directivity and multiple scattering between source and the subject. Secondly, measurement
is much more time consuming since measurements of HRTFs at various distances are
required due to the strong distance dependency of the near field. This means that it is
almost impossible to obtain a near-field transfer function of a human subject.

32
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 The "Haas effect" derives from a 1951 paper by Helmut Haas.[5] In 1951 Haas
examined how the perception of speech is affected in the presence of a single,
coherent sound reflection.[6] To create anechoic conditions, the experiment was
carried out on the rooftop of a freestanding building. Another test was carried out
in a room with a reverberation timeof 1.6 ms. The test signal (recorded speech) was
emitted from two similar loudspeakers at locations 45° to the left and to the right in
3 m distance to the listener.
Haas found that humans localize sound sources in the direction of the first arriving
sound despite the presence of a single reflection from a different direction. A
single auditory eventis perceived. A reflection arriving later than 1 ms after the
direct sound increases the perceived level and spaciousness (more precisely the
perceived width of the sound source). A single reflection arriving within 5 to 30 ms
can be up to 10 dB louder than the direct sound without being perceived as a
secondary auditory event (echo). This time span varies with the reflection level. If
the direct sound is coming from the same direction the listener is facing, the
reflection's direction has no significant effect on the results. A reflection with
attenuated higher frequencies expands the time span that echo suppression is
active.Increased room reverberation time also expands the time span of echo
suppression

33
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)
 34
You created this PDF from an application that is not licensed to print to novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com)