MINERAL DEPOSITS

BY
WALDEMAR LINDGREN
Professor of Economic Geology, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology; Formerly Geologist, United
States Geological Survey

F o u rth E d itio n
R ev ised and R e s e t
T h ird I m pressio n

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

N E W YOB. K A N D L O N D O N
1933
 C o pyrigh t , 1933, by t h e
M c G raw -H il l B ook C om pany , I n c .
PR IN TE D IN T H E U N IT ED STATES OP AM ERICA
All rights reserved. This book, or
parts thereof, may not be reproduced
in any form without permission of
the publishers.

T H E M A PLE P R E SS C O M PANY, Y O RK , PA.

 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Mineral deposits are usually classified and described by the metals or
the substances which they contain; for instance, deposits of copper are
described together, with little or no effort to separate them into genetic
groups. Where a genetic treatment has been attempted it appears to
me to have failed in not giving due weight to the physical conditions
attending the genesis. Furthermore, it is the custom to divide the min­
eral deposits into two groups—the metallic and the non-metallic—a line
of division which can hardly be defended except on the ground of long-
established habit.
This book is the outcome of a desire to place the knowledge of mineral
deposits on the broader and more comprehensive basis of a consistent
genetic classification and thus bring it into a more worthy position as an
important branch of geology. Opinions may differ as to whether our
present knowledge is sufficient for such an undertaking. Believing that
the time has come for a first attempt, I present this volume, in the hope
that its shortcomings may be judged leniently.
The impetus of the work came during the preparation of a series of
lectures a few years ago, and a course along the general lines followed in
this volume has since then been presented annually at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
The general plan has been to select a few suitable examples to illus­
trate each genetic group of deposits. These examples have been chosen
regardless of their geographic location, and it was of course necessary to
give up any attempt to describe deposits in detail or to present all known
examples of any particular type. As the larger part of my experience has
been within the United States of America, a considerable number of
examples were gathered from this country. This experience I owe to the
United States Geological Survey, in which I have had the honor to serve
for many years. My indebtedness to my friends and associates in that
organization is greater than can be expressed in words.
W aldem ar L in d g r e n .
B oston , M ass .,
August, 1913.

vn
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P heface to t h e F o u rth E d it io n . . . . v

P reface to t h e F ir st E d it io n . vii

CHAPTER I
I n t r o d u c t io n ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Economic geology—Distribution of elements in the earth—The earth as a
whole—The composition of the “crust”—Minerals of the crust—Mineral
deposits—Processes of concentration—Technical considerations—Technical
utility—Ore and gangue—Tenor of ores—Iron—Copper—Lead—Zinc—Sil­
ver—Gold—Tin, etc.—Price of metals—Production of ore and metal—
Weights and measures—Conversion tables.
CHAPTER II
T he F orm ation of M i n e r a l s .................................................................................................... 20
Solution and precipitation—General features—Influence of pressure—Influ­
ence of temperature—Precipitation by evaporation of the solvent—Precipi­
tation by reaction between solutions—Precipitation by reactions between
aqueous solutions and solids—Precipitation by reactions between gases or
between gases and solutions—Crystalline minerals—Colloids.
CHAPTER III
Atm o sph ere , H y d ro sph ere and U n derground W a t e r s ........................................... 26
Introduction—The atmosphere—The hydrosphere—Ocean—Lakes and
rivers—The underground fluids—Fluids of meteoric origin—Petroleum—
Magmatic or juvenile fluids—Imprisoned fluids.
CHAPTER IV
T he F low of U nd erg rou n d W a t e r s ......................................................................................31
General statement—Pores and openings in rocks—Water in sands and
gravels—Water in rocks of uniform texture—Water in sedimentary rocks—
Influence of fractures—Influence of volcanism—Conclusions—Examples
of movement of water—Depth of water level—Total amount of free water in
earth’s crust.
CHAPTER V
T he C o m po sition of U n derground W a t e r s ....................................................................41
Introduction—Calcium carbonate waters in igneous rocks—Calcium car­
bonate waters in sedimentary rocks—Chloride waters in sedimentary rocks—
Infiltration from present oceans—Solution of saline deposits—Chloride
waters in igneous rocks—Sulphate waters in sedimentary rocks—Acid sul­
phate waters in igneous rocks—Sodium carbonate waters in sedimentary
ix
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rocks—Sodium carbonate waters in igneous rocks—Sodium sulphide waters
—Summary—Interpretation of water analyses—Mine waters—Chloride
waters—Carbonate waters—Sulphate waters—Oxidation of pyrite—
Examples.
CHAPTER VI
T he S pr in g D e po sits at th e S u r f a c e ..................................................................................65
Deposits of limonite and calcium carbonate—Deposits of silica—Deposits
of other gangue minerals—Summary.
CHAPTER VII
R ela tio n s of M in er a l D epo sits to M in er a l S prin g s 74
Summary.
CHAPTER VIII
O r ig in of U n derground W a t e r s ............................................................................................79
The underground fluids of meteoric origin—Magmatic or juvenile waters—
Examples of springs in volcanic regions—Salts of volcanic springs—The
gases in volcanic springs—Rarer elements in volcanic springs—The igneous
emanations.
CHAPTER IX
M eta m o rph ic Z ones and M in er a l D e p o s i t s .................................................................. 89
The chemical work of underground water—Stability of minerals and rocks—
Metamorphism—Metasomatism or replacement—The law of equal volume—
General definition of the metamorphic zones—Zone of weathering—The
epi-metamorphic zone—The meso-metamorphic and deeper zones—The
hypo-metamorphic zone—Relation of mineral deposits to the metamorphic
zones—Underground temperatures.
CHAPTER X
T h e M agma in I ts R ela tio n s to M in er a l D e p o s it s ....................................................103
Definition and constitution of the magma—Crystallization of magmas—
Causes of volcanism—Differentiation in magmas—Liquid immiscibility—
Differentiation by crystallization—The reaction series—Differentiation by
gas transfer—Relation of volcanoes and lava flows to mineral deposits—The
relations of intrusive magmas to mineral deposits—General review of ore
deposits with magmatic affiliations—The zonal theory—Succession of min­
erals in ores—Character of solutions forming mineral deposits.
CHAPTER XI
F olding and F a u l t in g ...................................................................................................................127
Folds—Faults—General Terms—General classification of faults—Faults of
parallel displacement—Faults in stratified rocks—Slip—Shift—Throw—
Offset—Faults classified according to the direction of the movement—Over­
thrusts—Mineralization of faults—Complexity of faulting—Joints.
CHAPTER XII
O pen in g s in R o ck s .............................................................................................................................144
Origin of openings—By the original mode of formation of the rocks—By
solution—By fractures of various modes of origin—Force of crystallization
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CHAPTER XIII
T he F orm and S tru c tu re of M in er a l D e p o s i t s ..........................................................154
Syngenetic deposits—Epigenetic deposits—Definitions—Spacial relations of
veins—Veins in relation to the country rock—Vein walls—Outcrops—Length
and depth of veins.
CHAPTER XIV
T exture of M in er a l D e p o s i t s .................................................................................................166
Filling and replacement—Introduction—Texture of deposits of igneous
origin—Texture of pegmatite dikes—Texture of sedimentary deposits—
Concretions—Texture of residual and oxidized deposits—The texture of
epigenetic deposits—Primary texture of filled deposits—Secondary textures
and structures of filled deposits—Metasomatism in mineral deposits—
Metasomatic processes—Mode of replacement—Diffusion—Texture of meta-
somatic rocks—Replacements at high temperature—Replacements at inter­
mediate temperature—Replacement at low temperature—Criteria of
replacement—Repeated replacements—The reaction series in hydrothermal
replacements—Unmixing—Role of colloids in filling and replacement.

CHAPTER XV
O re - s h o o t s ............................................................................................................................................191
Form of primary ore-shoots—Shoots of successive mineralizations—Super­
ficial or secondary shoots—Causes of primary ore-shoots—Decrease of pres­
sure and temperature—Character of wall rock—General structural conditions
—Impermeable barriers—Intersections.
CHAPTER XVI
C lassification of M in er a l D e p o s i t s .................................................................................. 203
Classification by form and substance—Genetic classifications—Geological
thermometry—Outline of proposed classification—Detrital and sedimentary
deposits—Concentration of substances contained in the rocks—Residual
weathering—Deep circulating waters—Regional metamorphism—Intro­
duced ores not connected with igneous rocks—Deposits genetically con­
nected with igneous rocks—Products of magmatic differentiation—Metamor­
phism and surface enrichment of deposits—A classification of mineral
deposits.
CHAPTER XVII
D eposits F ormed by M ech a n ica l P ro cesses o f T ra n spo rta tio n and C on ­
c e n t r a t io n ; D etr it a l D e p o s it s .................................................................................. 213
Introduction—Detrital quartz deposits—Detrital clay deposits—Fuller’s
earth—Placer deposits—Origin and distribution—Gold placers—Introduc­
tion—Origin of placer gold—Eluvial deposits—Processes of concentration—
Eolian deposits—Stream deposits—Classification of fluviatile and marine
placers—Marine placers—Buried placers—Size and mineral association of
placer gold—Fineness and relation to vein gold—Gold in relation to bed-rock
—-Grade of auriferous watercourses—The pay streak or “run of gold”—
Solution and precipitation of gold—Relation to primary deposits—Economic
notes—The gold-bearing conglomerates of South Africa—Platinum placers—
Cassiterite placers—Monazite placers—Other placers—Precious stones.
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CHAPTER XVIII
D epo sits P roduced by C h em ica l P ro cesses of C o n cen tra tio n in B o d ies of
S urface W a ter by R ea ctio n s b e t w e e n S o l u t io n s .......................................252
Changes during sedimentation—Biochemical processes—Sedimentary min­
eral deposits—Limestone—Definition and origin—Chalk—Lithographic
stone—Hydraulic limestone—Lime—Uses—Dolomite—Importance of car­
bonate rocks as related to ore deposits—Cherts and diatomaceous earth—
Sedimentary sulphide deposits—Sedimentary iron ores—Limonites in
swamps and lakes (bog iron ores)—Occurrence—Composition—Origin—
Examples—The siderites of marine and brackish-water strata—Occurrence—
Examples—The oolitic marine iron ores—The hydrous iron silicates of
sedimentary origin—The oolitic limonite ores—The oolitic pyritic ores—Dis­
tribution—Part played by organisms—The oolitic hematite ores—The Clin­
ton ores—The Jurassic iron ores of England—The oolitic iron ores of Lorraine
—The oolitic hematite-chamosite-siderite ores of Newfoundland—Review of
the sedimentary iron ores—Sedimentary manganese ores—Bog manganese
ore—Manganese in lacustrine and marine beds—Sedimentary phosphate
beds—Composition of the calcium phosphates—Other phosphates—Phos­
phate deposits—Use—Production—Origin of the phosphate rocks—Occur­
rences of phosphate rocks.
CHAPTER XIX
S ed im en tary I ron O r e s , R egio n a lly M e t a m o r p h o s e d ...........................................293
Processes involved—The banded quartz-hematite (magnetite) ores—Hema­
tite deposits of the Lake Superior region—General character, distribution—
Geology—The “iron formations’’—The iron ores—Form of ore-bodies—
Marquette range—Menominee range—Penokee-Gogebic range—Cuyuna
range—Mesabi range—Vermilion range—Origin of Lake Superior iron ores—
Later work—Michipicoten range, Canada—Other occurrences in the United
States—Other regionally metamorphosed iron ores—General features—
Swedish “ Dry Ores”—Norwegian ores—The Brazilian hematites.
CHAPTER XX
D epo sit s F ormed by E vaporation of B o dies of S u rfa ce W a t e r s ................... 315
The saline residues—Introduction—Types of water—Normal succession of
salts—Structural features—Gypsum and anhydrite—Occurrence—Uses—
Stability and solubility—Sodium carbonate and sodium sulphate—Occur­
rence—Sodium nitrate—Iodine—Borates—General occurrence—Marine
borate deposits—Borax marshes—Tertiary lake beds—Origin—Production
and uses—Sodium chloride—Occurrence—Examples—The salt domes of the
gulf coast—Composition, production and use—Bromine and calcium chloride
—The German potassium salts—Other sources of potassium salts—Potas­
sium in rocks and minerals—Potassium in brines.
CHAPTER XXI
M in er a l D epo sit s R e su l t in g from P ro c esses of R ock D ecay and W e a t h e r ­
ing ................................................................................................................................................344
General conditions—Decomposition of minerals—Examples of the chemical
changes by weathering—Clay—Definition—Transported clays—Residual
clays—Clay of hydrothermal origin—Use and properties—The clay min­
erals—Origin—Residual iron ores (limonite and hematite)—Origin—Classi­
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fication—Brown hematites of the Appalachian region—Iron ores of Bilbao,
Spain—Residual ores of Cuba—Distribution and stability of residual iron
ore—Residual manganese ores—Primary sources—Origin—Manganese
deposits in the United States—Brazil—India—West Indies—Africa—Pro­
duction and uses—Residual barite—Residual zinc ore—Residual ochers—
Residual phosphates—Deposits of hydrated silicates of nickel—Bauxite—
Introduction—Origin—Occurrences—Uses and production—The “ Dia-
spore” clays.
CHAPTER XXII
D eposits F ormed by C o n cen tra tio n of S u bstances C o n ta in ed in t h e S u r ­
ro unding R ocks , by M ea n s of C ircu la tin g W a t e r s ..................................379
General statement—Sulphur—Modes of occurrence—Sicily and Italy—
Louisiana and Texas—Origin of sulphur deposits in gypsum—Production—
Uses—Sulphuric acid—The magnesian deposits—Serpentine—Magnesite
—Origin—Occurrence—Production and use—Meerschaum—Talc and soap­
stone—General occurrence and origin—Occurrences—Production and uses—
Asbestos—Amphibole asbestos—Serpentine asbestos (chrysotile)—Uses—
The aluminous deposits—Pyrophyllite—Anhydrous aluminum silicates
—Alunite—Barite—Modes of occurrence—Deposits in the United States—
Foreign deposits—Origin—Uses and production—Celestite and strontianite
—Occurrence—Origin—Ores of copper, lead, vanadium, and uranium in
sandstone and shale—General features—Origin—European occurrences—
—American occurrences—Genesis of sedimentary copper ores—Vanadium
and uranium ores in sandstones—Composition—Occurrence—Genesis—
Production and use—The copper-bearing shales of Mansfeld—Copper
sulphide veins in basic lavas—General features—The Kennecott mine,
Alaska—Copper sulphide veins in intrusive basic rocks—Other veins
deposited by waters of the upper circulation.
CHAPTER XXIII
L ead and Z inc D epo sit s in S ed im en ta r y R o ck s ; O rig in I n d e pe n d e n t of
I g neous A c tiv ity ..................................................................................................................423
Characteristic features—Origin—Moresnet—Silesia—Alpine Trias—Other
European localities—The lead-zinc ores of the Mississippi valley—Arkansas
—Upper Mississippi valley—Virginia and Tennessee—Southeastern Missouri
—Genesis of the Mississippi valley deposits—Northern Rhodesia.
CHAPTER XXIV
E pith er m a l D e p o s it s ....................................................................................................................... 444
Metalliferous deposits formed near the surface by ascending thermal waters
and in genetic connection with igneous rocks—Character and origin—Gen­
eral features—Successive phases of mineralization—Paragenesis—Zeolitic
replacement—Primary ore shoots, oxidation, and sulphide enrichment—
Types of deposits—Older representatives of this class—Proof of depth below
surface—Proof of temperature—Genesis—Metasomatic processes—Extent
of alteration—Silicification—The development of kaolin—Prophylitization
—Sericitization and vein quartz—Alunitization—Metasomatic processes at
Thames and Waihi—Metasomatic processes at Tonopah—Marysville, Mon­
tana—Metasomatic processes at Silverton—Summary—Quicksilver deposits
—The ores and their general occurrence—Distribution, production and
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use—The Adriatic region—Almaden—California—Other districts—Genesis
—Relation to other ore deposits—Stibnite deposits—Mineralogy, production
and uses—Occurrence—Gold-quartz veins in andesite—Transylvania—
Hauraki Peninsula, New Zealand—E l"Oro, Mexico—Black Mountains,
Arizona—Gold-quartz veins in rhyolite—Argentite-gold-quartz veins—
Tonopah, Nevada—The Comstock lode—Argentite veins—Gold telluride
veins—Cripple Creek—Gold selenide veins—Occurrence of selenides—
Republic, Washington—Sumatra—The base-metal veins—The San Juan
region, Colorado—General features—Telluride district—Silverton district—
Rico district—Lake City district—Creede district—Summary—Casapalca,
Peru—Parral. Mexico—Gold-alunite deposits—General features—Goldfield,
Nevada.
CHAPTER XXV
D epo sit s of N ative C o p p e r ......................................................................................................... 514
General statement—The associated minerals—Source of copper—The Lake
Superior copper deposits—General occurrence—The Calumet conglomerate
—The amygdaloids—The veins—Mineral association—Origin—Mine waters
—Mining and smelting operations—The copper deposit of Monte Catini—
The copper deposits of Coro-Coro, Bolivia—Native copper with epidote in
basic lavas (Catoctin type).
CHAPTER XXVI
M esoth erm a l D e p o s it s .................................................................................................................. 529
Metalliferous deposits formed at intermediate temperatures by ascending
thermal waters and in genetic connection with intrusive rocks—General
features—Metasomatic processes—General character—Alteration of wall
rocks adjoining gold-quartz veins—Paragenesis—Gold-quartz veins of the
California and Victoria type—Principal characteristics—Gold-quartz veins
of the Sierra Nevada—The gold-quartz veins of the interior Cordilleran
region—Victoria, Australia—New South Wales and Queensland—Nova
Scotia—Gold-bearing replacement deposits in limestone—Gold-bearing
replacement deposits in porphyry—The silver-lead veins—General fea­
tures—Quartz-tetrahedrite-galena veins—Tetrahedrite-galena-siderite veins
(Wood River type)—Galena-siderite veins—Lead-silver veins with calcite,
siderite, and barite—Pyritic galena-quartz veins—The silver-tin veins of
Bolivia—The silver-lead replacement deposits in limestone—General fea­
tures—Park City, Utah—Tintic, Utah—Tsumeb, S. W. Africa—Aspen,
Colorado—Leadville, Colorado—The Leadville-Boulder County belt—
The tungsten deposits of Boulder County—Summary—The lead-silver
replacement deposits of Mexico—Deposits with native silver—The zeolitic
deposits—The silver-bearing cobalt-nickel veins of Saxony—The silver-
bearing cobalt-nickel veins of Ontario, Canada—Quartz-adularia-zeolite
veins (Alpine type)—Occurrence and mineral association—Origin—The
copper veins—Chalcopyrite-quartz veins—Bornite-quartz veins—Pyrite-
enargite veins—Butte, Montana—The pyritic replacement deposits—Copper
deposits of Jerome, Arizona—Copper deposits of Shasta County, California
—The copper deposits of Britannia mines, British Columbia—The copper
deposit of Mount Lyell, Tasmania—The pyritic deposits of Rio Tinto, Spain
—General features—Geological formations—The ores—Genesis—The pyritic
deposit of Rammelsberg, Germany—Disseminated copper deposits—The
copper deposits of the Belgian Congo and northern Rhodesia—The Katanga
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districts—The north Rhodesia districts—Origin—Cadmium ores—Arsenic
deposits—Fluorite deposits—Siderite deposits—Cobalt deposits.

CHAPTER XXVII
H ypothermal D e p o s it s ...................................................................................................................637
Veins and replacement deposits (excepting contact-metamorphic deposits)
formed at high temperature and pressure and in genetic connection with
intrusive rocks—General features—High-temperature minerals—Meta-
somatic processes—Temperature and pressure—Mode of Assuring and
filling—Classes of deposits—The cassiterite veins—Mineral association—
Production and use of tin—Metasomatic processes—General features—
Metasomatic processes in the deposits of Cornwall—Examples of alteration—
Alteration of sedimentary rocks—Origin of tin-bearing veins—The cassiterite
veins of Cornwall, England—Literature—Cassiterite veins of Saxony—
Bolivia—Tin deposits in other countries—United States—Tasmania—
Malaya—Japan—The cassiterite pipes—Cassiterite in rhyolite flows—
Wolframite veins—Gold-quartz veins—The veins of the Southern Appala­
chians—The gold-quartz veins of Ontario—The pre-Cambrian gold veins of
the Cordilleran region—The gold-quartz veins of southeastern Alaska—
Metasomatic processes in veins of southeastern Alaska—The gold-bearing
veins of Brazil—The gold-telluride veins of Western Australia—Gold-quartz
veins in South Africa—Gold-quartz veins in Europe—Copper deposits—
The copper-tourmaline deposits—Chile—United States—The gold-copper
deposits—British Columbia—Manitoba—Quebec—New South Wales—
Alaska—Sweden—The copper-bearing veins allied to contact-metamorphic
deposits and pegmatites—Copper-titanium veins—Copper-molybdenum
veins—The lead-silver-zinc deposits—Veins with tourmaline—Veins with
garnet—The Sullivan mine—The Mexican high-temperature lead deposits—
The cobalt-tourmaline veins.

CHAPTER XXVIII
P yrom etasomatic D e p o s it s .......................................................................................................... 695
Introduction—General features—History—Contact metamorphism—Gen­
eral features—Form and texture—Mineralogy—Intensity of metamorphism
—Influence of composition of igneous rock—Alteration of the intrusive rock
—Succession of events—Succession of minerals—Volume relations—Mode
of transfer—Physical conditions at the contact—Depth of formation—Dis­
tribution—Principal types of contact-metamorphic deposits—Magnetite
deposits—General character—Foreign occurrences—Fierro, New Mexico—
Heroult, California—Iron Springs, Utah—Cornwall, Pennsylvania—Chalco-
pyrite deposits—General character—New Mexico—Clifton, Arizona—
Bisbee, Arizona—Silver Bell, Arizona—Cananea, Mexico—Bingham, Utah
—Ketchikan, Alaska—Zinc and lead deposits—Gold deposits—Gold-
arsenopyrite type—Cassiterite deposits—Scheelite deposits—Graphite—
Properties—General occurrence and origin—Occurrences—Production and
uses—Garnet—Pyrometasomatic deposits not related to contacts—General
features—Boundary district—Ducktown, Tennessee—Franklin Furnace,
New Jersey—I.&ngban, Sweden—Metasomatic magnetite deposits of Sweden
—Magnetite deposits in the United States—The iron ores of the Lahn syn­
cline, Germany—Pyrometasomatism of the cordierite type—Bavaria—
Sweden—Finland—United States.
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CHAPTER XXIX
R egio n a lly M etam orphosed S u l ph id e D e p o s i t s .........................................................746
The plastic deformation of minerals—Post-mineral reactions—The zinc
ores of Ammeberg, Sweden.
CHAPTER XXX
M in er a l D epo sit s of t h e P eg m a tite D i k e s ...................................................................752
Introduction—Mineralizers and the nature of their action—Occurrence and
general character—Types of pegmatites—Acidic pegmatites—Syenitic
pegmatites—Basic pegmatites—Economic features of pegmatite dikes—
Feldspar and quartz—Mica—Oxide ores—Wolframite—Columbite and
tantalite—Yttrium, thorium, cerium and uranium minerals—Zircon—
Apatite—Lithium minerals—Beryl—Cryolite—Precious stones—Native
metals, sulphides, and arsenides—Molybdenite.
CHAPTER XXXI
M in er a l D epo sit s F ormed by C o n cen tra tio n in M olten M a g m a s .................. 772
General features—Principal types of deposits—Diamonds—Other precious
stones—Platinum and palladium—Production and use—Late discoveries of
platinum metals—Occurrences in Hortonolite-dunite—Chromite deposits—
Platinum with small amounts of Ni-Co-Fe sulphides—Platinum-palladium
deposits of the Waterberg district—Production—Iron and nickel—Chromite
—Ilmenite or titanic iron ore—General features—Microstructure of ilmenite
—Irregular bodies—Dikes—Occurrences—Influence of pressure—Magnet­
ite—The iron ores of northern Sweden—The magnetites of the Ural
mountains—The magnetites of the Adirondacks—Corundum—General
mode of occurrence—Corundum in igneous magnesian rocks—Corundum
in syenite—Other occurrences—Production in the United States—Uses
—Sulphide ores of igneous origin—General principles—Types of deposits
—Sulphides in peridotites and gabbros—Sudbury, Ontario—South Africa—
Bornite deposits—Injected pyritic deposits—General features—Norway.
CHAPTER XXXII
O x ida tio n of M eta llic O r e s .................................................................................................... 813
General conditions—Depth of oxidation—Outcrops—Nomenclature—Prin­
ciples of oxidation—Textures and criteria of the oxidized zone—Textures of
the supergene sulphide zone—Solution—Precipitation—Supergene sulphides
—Criteria of supergene sulphide enrichment—Iron—Copper—Minerals—
Solutions and precipitation—Supergene copper sulphides—Theory of
supergene copper sulphides—The crystallization and relations of chalcocite,
bornite and covellite—Oxidation of chalcocite zones—Examples of oxidation
of copper deposits—General features—Rio Tinto—Mount Morgan—Ely—
Bingham—The southwestern chalcocite deposits—Ray and Miami—
Chuquicamata—Relation of the disseminated chalcocite ores to intrusives—
Zinc—Minerals—Solubility and mineral development—Supergene shoots of
zinc ore—Supergene zinc sulphide—Lead—Minerals—Reactions in the
oxidized zone—Supergene sulphides—Oxidation in the Coeur d’Alene district
—Oxidation in the Mississippi valley district—Gold—Examples of oxidation
of gold deposits—Silver—Minerals—Solubility and mineral development—
Precipitation—Supergene sulphide enrichment—Zones of supergene deposi­
tion—Enrichment at Granite-Bimetallic mine—Enrichment at George­
town—Enrichment at Tonopah—Enrichment at Chanarcillo—Silver enrich-
 CONTENTS xvii
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ment in Bolivia—Other metals—Platinum and palladium—Mercury—
Supergene sulphide of quicksilver—Cadmium—Nickel and cobalt—Chro­
mium—Manganese—Tin—Tungsten—Vanadium—Uranium—M o ly b -
denum—Bismuth—Arsenic—Antimony.
CHAPTER XXXIII
M eta llo gen etic E p o c h s .............................................................................................................. 878
Introduction—Main epochs—Europe—Pre-Cambrian epochs—Paleozoic
epochs—Hercynian epochs—Permo-Triassic epochs—Jurassic and Creta­
ceous epochs—Tertiary epochs—Asia—Africa—Australasia—South America
—Central America—The Antilles—North America—The pre-Cambrian
epochs—Paleozoic sedimentary epochs—Paleozoic intrusives—Paleozoic
epochs of saline deposits—Epochs of Triassic copper deposits—Cretaceous
and later periods of lead and zinc concentration—Tertiary and recent
periods of rock decay—The pre-Cambrian epochs—The early Mesozoic
epoch—The late Mesozoic epochs—The early Tertiary epoch—The late
Tertiary epoch—The post-Pliocene epoch—Cretaceous or later epochs of cop­
per concentration in sedimentary rocks.
I ndex of L o ca lities . ....................................................................895
I ndex of S u bjects . .911
 MINERAL DEPOSITS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
The application of geology to the practical problems of the industries
and the arts constitutes economic geology. This branch of the science
includes as its most important division the study of deposits of useful
minerals and rocks, but it also teaches the occurrence of underground
waters, explains the derivation and constitution of soils and applies
geologic principles to the planning of important engineering works.
Only a part of the whole field of economic geology will be covered in
these chapters. They will be confined to a description, by classes and
type examples, of the occurrence, structure, and origin of the principal
deposits of metallic and non-metallic minerals of economic importance.
The subjects of coals, mineral oils, and structural materials could not be
included without unduly increasing the bulk of the volume. Little
space has been given to statistics, while the problems of correlation and
origin have been treated rather fully. A general part describing prin­
ciples of universal application precedes the detailed characterization of
the various classes.
A complete treatment of the subject should also include discussions
of distribution, production, and valuation of deposits, as well as state­
ments of the uses of the materials mined, processes of mining and reduc­
tion, and criteria for judging the value of the products. Such a complete
presentation is not attempted in this volume. By examining the subject
from a scientific rather than from a utilitarian viewpoint, the student will
obtain a clearer insight into the geologic relationship of the various
deposits.
Throughout its broad domain economic geology stands on the funda­
mental sciences of chemistry and physics. It is related on one side to
theoretical geology, paleontology, mineralogy, and petrography; on
another side to mining, metallurgy, and many other technological arts;
on still another side to economics and finance. A student who tries to
approach the subject without the necessary knowledge of the allied
sciences and arts is building on poor foundations. Even with this aid
the study offers peculiar difficulties. The alteration of rocks close to
l
2 MINERAL DEPOSITS
many mineral deposits is intense and, as a result, the student who is
familiar with only the fresh, unaltered specimens finds himself in the
midst of puzzling and strange types that he is unable to classify with
certainty. Altered andesites may assume the aspect of quartzites; a
question may arise as to whether a silicified rock was once a limestone or
a porphyry; diabases may at some places be converted into white fine­
grained calcite-sericite-quartz rocks and at other places appear as aggre­
gates consisting mainly of epidote and chlorite. These examples suffice
to show that rock alteration is a subject of prime importance for the
mining geologist.
DISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH1
The Earth as a Whole.—In recent years a better understanding of the
interior of the earth has been obtained, based on the velocity of earth­
quake waves at different depths, on the analogy with meteorites, on the
compressibility of rocks, and on the chemistry of igneous rocks.
The earth is an essentially rigid spheroid of a specific gravity of about
5.52, and a radius of about 6,400 kilometers. The temperature of the
core is unknown, but it is probably not so high as the measured increment
at the surface would suggest. Local plasticity and fusion may result
in the surface shell by various changes in physical conditions or perhaps
by radioactive influences.
Washington holds that the core with a radius of 3,400 kilometers
consists of nickel-iron, its density being about 10. The central core
passes gradually, in about 1,400 kilometers, into a magnesium-iron silicate,
a shell of the composition of peridotite, with more or less oxides and
sulphides. The peridotite shell is held to have a thickness of 1,600 kilo­
meters and a specific gravity of 4 Above the peridotite shell is the
“ crust” of the earth, the thickness of which is from 60 to 100 kilometers.
The lower part is of basaltic or gabbroitic composition, and it grades
upward into the outermost shell, 15 to 20 kilometers thick, of granitic or
granodioritic composition and a density of 2.77 to 2.80. This is the only
portion of the globe that is more or less open to our inspection. It is
this very thin, uppermost shell that has usually been referred to in the
1 J. H. L. Vogt, Ueber die relative Verbreitung der Elemente, etc., Zeitschr. prakt.
Geol, 1898, pp. 225-238; 314r-325.
V. M. Goldschmidt, Der Stoffwechsel der Erde, Videnskapsselsk. 1, Skr. Math.-
Nat. Kl. 11, Oslo, 1922, 25 pp.
Geochemische Verteilungsgesetze der Elemente, I-V, idem,, 1923, 16 pp.
F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp.
12-44.
F. W. Clarke and H. S. Washington, Composition of the earth’s crust, Prof. Paper
127, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924.
H. S. Washington, The chemical composition of the earth, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th
ser., 9, 1925, pp. 351-378.
 INTRODUCTION 3
discussions of “the average igneous rock. ” The thickness of 10 miles or
16 kilometers is often assigned to it, and from it the material for all of
our rock analyses is taken. It consists of granitic rocks, gneiss and schist,
volcanic flows, intrusives of various kinds, and a thin veneer of
sediments.1
V. M. Goldschmidt and G. Tamman consider that the original fluid
earth separated by cooling into three fluid, immiscible phases: Metallic
melt, sulphide melt, and silicate melt, and one gas phase (the atmosphere).
Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the importance of the
sulphide melt as a separate phase. Influenced by gravity the three
melts assumed a concentric disposition. Goldschmidt also assumes the
existence of an eclogite shell of garnet and pyroxene, minerals stable under
conditions of greatest pressure, and below this a shell of mixed sulphides
and oxides. How far in depth crystallinity can exist seems, however,
uncertain.
The silicate shell separated by crystallization and gravity into heavier
and lighter parts. Mineral deposits were thus formed; most of them,
however, are buried beyond our ken. In the solidified crust chemical
processes of many kinds produced further differentiations, including the
development of many other mineral deposits.
The gas phase was further separated into a liquid and a gaseous phase
corresponding to the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. By the action
of these two on the silicate shell many separations and concentrations
of the elements took place and these processes produced the rest of the
mineral deposits.
On the assumption of a nickel-iron core several calculations of the
composition of the earth as a whole have been made, the latest by Wash­
ington (1925). He finds that such an earth would contain approximately;
metallic iron, 32 per cent; nickel, 3 per cent; oxygen, 28 per cent; iron (in
silicates), 8 per cent; magnesium, 9 per cent, all others 20 per cent.
On geological grounds it is to be expected that the rocks of the crust
increase in basicity with depth. Seismological observations12 show an
increase with depth of velocities of the longitudinal and transverse waves.
Comparison with the known compressibility of rocks indicates that the
upper layer is granite, that the intermediate layer may be basalt (glassy?),
and that the lowest may be peridotite. The granitic shell would have
a thickness of 10 kilometers, the intermediate layer 20 kilometers. The
velocities increase to a depth of about 1,500 kilometers and then become
constant and finally again decrease. This is interpreted by Jeffreys to
1 These designations correspond in a general way to Suess’ core, nife (nickel iron)
and to his outer shells of sima (magnesium silicate) and sial (silica, aluminum).
2 Harold Jeffreys, The earth, New York, 1929, pp. 116 and 137.
B. Gutenberg, Lehrbuch der Geophysik, Berlin, 1929, p. 262.
R. A. Daly, Igneous rocks and the depths of the earth, New York, 1933, 598 pp.
4 MINERAL DEPOSITS
indicate a central core beginning at a depth of about 2,900 kilom eters and
having a sharp boundary. This would be the “ nickel-iron” core.
It is well to bear in m ind that, however plausible, the “ nickel-iron
core theory” and the various shells cannot yet be accepted as proved facts.
The Composition of the “ Crust.”— The upperm ost thin shell of the
earth comprises the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the “ cru st.”
AVERAGE ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
IN A TEN-M ILE CRUST
Oxygen................................................................................ 46.59
Silicon................................................................................. 27.72
Aluminum.......................................................................... 8.13
Iron..................................................................................... 5.01
Calcium.............................................................................. 3.63
Sodium............................................................................... 2.85
Potassium.......................................................................... 2.60
Magnesium........................................................................ 2.09
Titanium............................................................................ 0.63
Phosphorus........................................................................ 0.13
Hydrogen........................................................................... 0.13
Manganese......................................................................... 0.10
Sulphur............................................................................... 0.052
Barium............................................................................... 0.050
Chlorine.............................................................................. 0.048
Chromium.......................................................................... 0.037
Carbon................................................................................ 0.032
Fluorine.............................................................................. 0.030
Zirconium.......................................................................... 0.026
Nickel.............................................................................. 0.020
Strontium.......................................................................... 0.019
Vanadium.......................................................................... 0.017
Cerium and Yttrium....................................................... 0.015
Copper................................................................................ 0.010
Uranium............................................................................. 0.008
Tungsten............................................................................ 0.005
Lithium.............................................................................. 0.004
Zinc..................................................................................... 0.004
Columbium and Tantalum.............................................. 0.003
Hafnium............................................................................ 0.003
Thorium............................................................................. 0.002
Lead.................................................................................... 0.002
Cobalt................................................................................ 0.001
Boron.................................................................................. 0.001
Beryllium........................................................................... 0.001
100.000

By the last, rather arbitrary, term we mean the rocks which are directly
accessible to us by boring and mining operations or indirectly accessible
by faulting, folding, or erosion. The thickness of this crust is assumed
to be 10 miles or 16 kilometers.
 INTRODUCTION 5
In calculating the average composition of the crust it is necessary to
separate the igneous rocks from the sedimentary rocks. The latter are
derived by erosion and sedimentation from the igneous rocks and form
but a thin, irregularly distributed veneer on the crust. Clarke calculates
that the crust to the depth of 10 miles consists of 95 per cent of igneous
rocks, 4 per cent of shales, 0.75 per cent of sandstones, and 0.25 per cent
of limestones and dolomites. The sediments average poorer in calcium,
magnesium, and especially in sodium than the igneous rocks and thus
show the effect of leaching. They also contain more potassium and
carbon dioxide, but on the whole they are, as would be expected, similar
in composition to the igneous rocks.
Clarke and Washington have calculated the average composition of
igneous rocks in the crust from about 5,000 analyses from all parts of the
world. Their method of averaging is explained in their paper referred to
above.1 The data show that all of the elements are present in the crust,
though not in uniform distribution. Gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc
may be found, for instance, in practically all rocks, though special meth­
ods must sometimes be used to detect them. The same authors have
also estimated the amount of most of the rare elements probably present
though these estimates are not always of the same weight. The data
compiled by Clarke and Washington are shown in the table shown on
page 4.
On page 6, the rare elements are first stated in exponential form
as parts of a gram per gram of rock. The second figure indicates the
corresponding percentage. An n is used instead of x to indicate the
first significant though unknown integer. The last figure gives the
amount in more intelligible form as milligrams per metric ton.
The eight elements first named above make up 98.62 per cent of the
igneous rocks.
Among the six principal metals shown in the average composition
only iron, magnesium, and aluminum are of economic importance as
metals. The lighter elements predominate, the atomic weight of each
falling below 56 (Fe 55.9). In the average composition many of the
rarer metals are represented; but, except titanium which amounts to
0.63 per cent, all these metals average below 0.1 per cent. Platinum,
gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony, arsenic, tin, quicksilver, molyb­
denum, tungsten, and others are present in amounts less than 0.01 per
cent.2
1Prof. Paper 127, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp. 10-12. The method of compilation
has been criticised in some quarters, the assertion being that the result places too
much emphasis on rarer rocks and that the real composition should be more acidic.
However that may be, these are the best data we have at present.
2 In a paper by G. Berg (Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1925, pp. 73-79) the data of Clarke
and Washington are subjected to criticism. His estimates are in part as follows: Zn
0.006, Pb 0.000,8, Mo 0.000,6, Sn 0.000,5, As 0.000,45, Sb 0.000,025, Cd 0.000,01, Ag
6 MINERAL DEPOSITS
ESTIMATES OF THE QUANTITIES OF RARE ELEM ENTS IN IGNEOUS
ROCKS IN A TEN-M ILE CRUST
Element Parts per Per cent Milligrams per
gram metric ton
Molybdenum...................
Rubidium.........................
Arsenic.............................. > n X 10-6 O.OOOn 1,000 to 9,000
Tin.....................................
Bromine............................
Cesium..............................
Scandium..........................
Antimony......................... >n X 10“7 0.000,On 100 to 900
Cadmium.........................
Mercury............................
Iodine................................
Bismuth............................
Silver................................. ■ n X 10“8 0,000,OOre 10 to 90
Selenium...........................
Platinum.......................... 1
Tellurium......................... 71 X 10-9
' 0.000,OOOn 1 to 9
Gold..................................
Iridium............................. '
Osmium............................ \ n X 10-10 0.000,000,On 0.1 to 0.9
Thallium...........................
Indium..............................
Gallium.............................
Palladium......................... >n X 10-“ 0.000,000,OOra 0.01 to 0.09
Rhodium..........................
Ruthenium.......................
Germanium......................
Radium............................. n X 10-12 0.000,000,OOOn 0.001 to 0.009
The percentages of the useful metals in the rocks as given above do
not by any means indicate the amount available for industrial use. That
amount indeed is so infinitesimal in relation to the volume of the crust
that it can not be conveniently expressed on the basis of percentages.
The metals in the deposits of useful minerals then comprise only a minute
fraction of the quantity of metals in the crust—a fraction which has
been locally accumulated by this or that process of concentration.
In general, igneous rocks contain more of the heavy metals than do
the sedimentary rocks. We are well justified in regarding the former
as the original source of these metals. Dissipation by solution accom­
panies sedimentation and the many metals found in traces in the sea
water furnish evidence of this. On the other hand, it is true that certain*I.
0.000,004, Bi 0.000,003, Hg 0.000,002,5, Au 0.000,000,1, Pt n X 10-“, Irra X 10““,
Pd n X 10-13, Ra n X 10-14.
I. and W. Noddack (Die Naturwissenschaften, 18, Aug. 29, 1930) mixed and ana­
lyzed 118 common igneous rocks and obtained slightly different figures. See also
E. Troeger, Der Gehalt an Selteneren Elementen der Eruptivgesteine, Chem. Erie,
9(3), 1935, 286-310.
 INTRODUCTION 7
kinds of sedimentation will result in a local concentration of metals, such
as iron, zinc, cobalt, nickel, and vanadium.
Minerals of the Crust.—The bulk of igneous rocks consists of rela­
tively few minerals, mostly silicates and oxides. They comprise in the
main quartz, feldspar, leucite, nepheline, pyroxene, amphibole, muscovite,
biotite, olivine, garnet, magnetite, ilmenite, chromite to which should
be added the ever-present apatite. The crystalline schists contain
besides the minerals mentioned such secondary products as garnet,
staurolite, cyanite, andalusite, cordierite, chlorite, and sericite. The
sedimentary rocks may contain, besides fragments of the minerals men­
tioned, much calcite and dolomite and differentiated sedimentary prod­
ucts, such as salt, gypsum, iron ores, and phosphates. More than
1,200 mineral species are known but most of them come from mineral
deposits where special processes have been active.
Concerning the form in which the rarer elements enter into rocks we
do not have full information. Gold is probably always native metal.
Many metals like chromium, nickel, vanadium, titanium, and copper
may be contained in isomorphous mixture in silicates. But copper may
also be present as sulphide; chlorine, in apatite or in silicates; fluorine as
a fluoride or a fluosilicate; boron generally as a borosilicate; tin as oxide,
sulphide, or silicate. Much remains to be learned about the rarer ele­
ments in rocks by the X-ray method or by spectroscopy. According to
Goldschmidt the association is largely determined by the isomorphism
of the elements.
In the earlier editions of this book many data were given as to the
occurrence of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc in rocks. As these facts
are recited in Clarke’s “ Geochemistry” and in the Professional Paper
127 by Clarke and Washington they may be omitted here. Regarding
gold and silver reference should be made to Don’s1 work which showed
that these metals are readily introduced into rocks near precious metal
deposits. Luther Wagoner2 using the cyanide method found that many
igneous rocks contained gold to the extent of about 100 milligrams per
metric ton and silver of about 1,000 to 5,000 of the same units.
It is well known that sea water contains some gold and silver, the
various determinations ranging from 5 to 65 milligrams of gold per metric
ton of sea water; silver is present in larger amounts ranging up to
1,900 milligrams. Salt formed by evaporation of sea water also, natu­
rally, contains the precious metals. Wagoner found 457 milligrams of gold
and 54.4 grams of silver to the metric ton of such salt, and later reported
both metals in appreciable quantities in deep-sea dredgings. Latei
1 J. R. Don, The genesis of certain auriferous lodes, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng.
27, 1898, p. 564.
2 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 31, 1901, pp. 798-810; 38, 1907, p. 704
8 MINERAL DEPOSITS
examinations1 would indicate that the quantity of gold in sea water has
been overestimated and is rather about 1 milligram per ton.
Many cases of visible gold in rocks are known. These occurrences
though not of economic importance comprise pegmatite, granite, pitch-
stone, and porphyries of various kinds. The presence of some gold in
peridotite is inferred from occurrences in Tasmania. Visible gold has
also been observed in some crystalline schists,2 and, of course, in many
fragmental rocks.
The table shows (p. 4) that certain metals, regarded as rare, such
as titanium, chromium, zirconium, nickel, vanadium, and cerium are
relatively more abundant in the crust than such industrial metals as
copper, lead, and zinc.
Washington notes the difference between the “ petrogenic” elements
or those that make up the bulk of
the rocks, and the “ metallogenic ”
elements or “ ore elements” which
include those of economic impor­
tance. The former occur mainly as
s ilic a te s, oxides, fluorides, and
chlorides; the latter as sulphides,
arsenides, selenides, and tellurides.
The former are abundant in the crust,
the latter scarce and localized in
mineral deposits.
Considering this question from
a slightly different standpoint V. M.
Goldschmidt divides the elements
into three classes: (1) Associated in
the core of the earth (siderophile)
F ig . 1.—Diagram showing a t o m i c such as Fe, Ni, Cr, P, C, Pt, (Au?)j
elements. Group to r i g h t represents (2) Associated With sulphur or S lim -
metallogenic elements in the crust. {After lar elements: (chalcophile) S, Se, Te,
O .H .Erdm annsdorffer.) F e> C q. ^ ^ ^ pb; g ^
Ge, Mo; As, Sb, Bi; Ag, Au, Hg; Pd, (Pt); Ga, In, Tl; and (3) Asso­
ciated with silicate melts (lithophile): 0, (S), P, (H); Si, Ti, Zr, Hf,
Th; F, Cl, Br, I; B, Al, Cerium metals; Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; Be, Mg, Ca,
Sr, Ba; Fe, V, Cr, Mn, Ni; Nb, Ta, W, U, Sn.
Within the silicate zones the various elements show also a decided
preference for certain rocks. In the basic rocks we find phosphorus,
sulphur, nickel, iron, chromium, titanium, and platinum. In the acidic
1 F. Haber and J. Jaenicke, Zeilschr. f. anorg. Chemie, 147, 1925, pp. 156-170.
2 J. E. Spurr, Eng. and Min. Jour.-Press, 76, 1903, p. 500.
A. Lacroix, Sur l’origine de l’or de Madagascar, Compt. Rend., 132, 1901, pp. 180-
182.
 INTRODUCTION 9
rocks we find fluorine, boron, lithium, zirconium, tin, tungsten, tantalum,
cerium metals, molybdenum, thorium, and beryllium. Barium and
strontium are often concentrated in highly alkaline rocks. Gold and
silver accompany acidic or intermediate rocks, but in smaller amounts
may also follow more basic rocks. It seems that copper occurs in larger
quantities in basic than in acidic rocks. In the last differentiates of
rocks, namely pegmatites, we find these relations still further accentuated.
MINERAL DEPOSITS
The thin outermost crust of the earth, directly or indirectly accessible
to us, we have defined as a shell having a thickness of 10 miles or
16 kilometers^ while the radius of the earth is about 4,000 miles. The
deepest shaft is about 8,200 feet (on the Rand), the deepest bore hole
12,786 feet (in Western Texas). Many holes have reached 11,000 feet.
This crust consists, as explained above, mainly of silicate rocks or
their derivatives. The rocks consist of manifold mineral aggregates,
formed at different times and in various ways. Each individualized
mass of mineral aggregates—such as an intrusive mass, a lava flow, a
stratum, a dike, a vein, a lenticular mass—is called a “formation,” a
“member,” or in general a “geologic body.” Geologic bodies which
consist mainly of a single useful mineral—for instance beds of pure gyp­
sum or coal—or which contain, throughout or in places, valuable min­
erals which can be profitably extracted—for instance veins containing
disseminated gold—are called “mineral deposits.” Geologic bodies
that are not worked for any particular mineral or minerals, but for the
aggregate of minerals—the rock itself—are usually designated as deposits
of the particular rock. Thus a bed of roofing slate is not spoken of as a
mineral deposit but as a slate deposit. Economic geology treats of the
occurrence, composition, structure, and origin of those geologic bodies
which can be technically utilized; it shows where they may be searched
for and how their value may be ascertained.1
The mineral deposits which we know are all contained in the “ crust”
as defined above. Practically all of these were formed within 10 miles
and the great majority within 5 miles from the surface. They were
formed by many different processes, such as magmatic differentiation,
sedimentation, weathering, and, generally, by the action of solutions
of many kinds of the solid rocks of the crust.
The mineral deposits are thus local accumulations or concentrations
of useful substances. The science of the mineral deposits tries to trace
and explain these concentrations. In part they are caused by the pref­
erence of certain elements for certain rocks; for instance, tin, tungsten,
and molybdenum for acidic rocks; platinum, chromium, nickel, copper
1Stelzner and Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstiitten, 1, 1904, p, 1.
10 MINERAL DEPOSITS
for basic rocks. Useless, for instance, to look for tin deposits in basic
rocks, or platinum in acidic rocks.
The circulation of the elements is a fascinating study. We trace,
for instance, phosphorus from apatite in the igneous rocks to phosphate
in organisms and from there to sedimentary phosphate beds. Some
elements travel far and wide; others are averse to migration. Naturally,
solubility is the main factor.
Processes of Concentration.1 1. Differentiation by Fractional Crys­
tallization and Unmixing in Cooling Magmas.—Fractional crystallization
is most important here. The heavy minerals generally separate out first.
Thus there may result by settling of crystals, masses of magnetite, chro­
mite, ilmenite, the chromite sometimes carrying with it diamonds and
platinum; or the sulphides dissolved in the hot magmas may separate by
liquid unmixing carrying with them Ni, Cu, Au, Ag, Pt, and Pd. The
deposits are not abundant though often large and important.
Fortunately for humanity there is another process of differentiation
in magmas which works in another direction. The salic products are
carried upward and with them ascend gaseous products.
2. Salic Extracts, Mostly Represented in Pegmatite Dikes.—Alkali
feldspar and quartz tend to separate in the upper part of the molten
magma carrying with them tin, tungsten, beryllium, columbium, rare
earth metals, radium, uranium, phosphorus, fluorine, boron, rarely
sulphides, more commonly arsenides. The salic extracts are the first
and last deposits for many metals.
3. Gas-fluxing Components, Reaching Farther from the Magma than
the Salic Extracts.—In these products silica is again well represented
carrying with it much water of magmatic origin and other volatile sub­
stances. These waters, at first acid, ascend carrying carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, sulphur compounds, further fluorides, chlorides, phosphates,
arsenic and antimony compounds, selenides, and tellurides. The metals
are gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, zinc, bismuth, tin and tungsten, mer­
cury, manganese, nickel, cobalt, radium, and uranium.
The gas-fluxing components appear as sublimates in volcanic erup­
tions near the surface and as veins and replacement deposits above and
near igneous intrusions.
A large proportion of all metal deposits are formed in this way.
4. Concentration by the Solvent Power of Underground Waters.—Surface
waters descend through the rocks, constantly both depositing and dis­
solving. They may take up iron on their downward path and deposit it
1 W. Lindgren, Concentration and circulation of the elements, Econ. Geol., 18,
1923, pp. 419-442.
W. J. Vernadsky, Geochemie in ausgewahlten Kapiteln, Leipzig, 1930.
A. Fersmann, Geochemische Migration der Elemente, Abhandl. prakl. Geol. (G,
Berg), 18, 1929-1930, 116 pp.
 INTRODUCTION 11
again on their way upward. The effectiveness of the process depends on
the solubility of the rocks. Deposits of iron, copper, lead, zinc, and even
uranium and vanadium may be thus formed. This class does not as a
rule contain gold, silver, arsenic, antimony, tin, and mercury. The lead
zinc deposits of the Mississippi Valley are considered by many to have
been formed in this way, also the copper-vanadium deposits of the western
United States.
5. Concentration by Surface Waters in the Zone of Oxidation.—Close
to the surface the waters contain much oxygen and therefore tend to
decompose the rocks and to convert them to soil. Some difficultly soluble
minerals, however, remain and thus important concentrations may result,
for example, limonite deposits residual after limestone and serpentine,
as in the southern states or in Cuba, or residual after lean ferruginous
sediments as in the Lake Superior region. Extensive concentrations are
effected in the upper part of other ore deposits to form enriched oxidized
lead, zinc, and copper ores, and downward percolating solutions precipi­
tate valuable deposits of secondary sulphides, particularly chalcocite and
covellite. Phosphates, and manganese minerals may be concentrated.
Colloidal processes are important. The zone of weathering makes vege­
table and animal life possible.
Complex cycles of solution and deposition of calcium, iron, silica,
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, iodine, sodium, and potassium accompany
this process.
6. Concentration by Sedimentation.—The processes of erosion and dis­
integration, followed by transportation, give rise to sedimentation.
From the igneous rocks elements like sodium and calcium are leached
while other elements are concentrated. For our life these processes are
of supreme importance, for during this sorting process chemical and
biochemical reactions take place which result in deposits of iron, man­
ganese, phosphates, calcium and magnesium carbonates, gypsum, and
alkaline chlorides. One hundred grams of igneous rock contribute
97 grams to the sediments, the remaining 3 grams going to enrich the salts
of the sea. Gravity plays a strong part here producing placer deposits
of heavy minerals, and beds of kaolin and quartz sand.
7. Concentration by Biochemical Processes.—Plants and animals from
the largest to the most microscopic play an intense and dramatic part
in the concentration of certain elements. We recall that coal is con­
centrated by plants from the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere, that
petroleum is concentrated by the accumulated residues of animals and
plants. In about six transformations the phosphorus originally contained
in sea water comes to rest in deposits of guano, or phosphate beds. The
calcium carbonate of algae, and the silica of diatoms may accumulate to
valuable deposits. Iron and manganese bacteria may form bog ores:
sulphur bacteria may accumulate sulphur. Copper, zinc, arsenic, iodine,
12 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and vanadium are accumulated by many animals, and even barium and
strontium are so segregated. Much of these concentrations may revert
to the sea water from which they originated, but if they were suddenly
buried by sediments they may well form a source for a second concentra­
tion resulting in an ore deposit.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Technical Utility.—We designate as mineral deposits or ore deposits
those geological bodies which can be technically utilized. This limitation
must, of course, not be taken too literally, especially where questions of
origin are concerned, for here, as in many other phases of the subject,
applied geology merges into theoretic geology. Moreover, it is no uncom­
mon occurrence that the useless of yesterday becomes the useful of to-day.
About 1900 the cupriferous monzonite of Bingham, Utah, which yields
an average of 30 cents in gold and 14 cents in silver to the ton and 1.0
per cent of copper, would probably not have been classed as an ore, but
with modern methods of treatment it has become an important ore of
copper. The zinc minerals of the western states, valueless and even
causing loss in the marketing of ores, can now be profitably sold. The
tungsten and vanadium ores thrown over the dump not long ago may now
be very valuable. Low-grade gold ores—for instance, those of Mercur,
Utah—considered as hopelessly refractory before 1890, became rich
assets with the introduction of the cyanide process. Many iron ores
rich in phosphorus were neglected until the Thomas process provided
means for their profitable reduction. Monazite containing thorium
acquired importance with the invention of the incandescent mantle for
gas burners. New processes of reduction, the rising price of some com­
modity, inventions calling for rare and unused metals—any of these may
suddenly cause a geologic body that has previously been valueless to
become of great importance. Titanic iron ores form vast deposits, most
of which are now useless because of metallurgical difficulties but which
some day will be utilized. This principle also works the other way.
Decreasing prices may make a particular deposit unprofitable; that is
what happened to many silver mines during the great decline in the price
of silver which began in 1880. Great changes, mainly in the direction of
rising prices were brought about by the World War beginning in 1914.
A large number of metals doubled in price: They include silver, platinum,
copper, lead, zinc, tin, antimony, and aluminum. Gold alone, being the
standard by which other values are measured, remained apparently
stable.
Many radical changes, not easily predicted, have taken place since the
war ended, culminating in record low prices in 1932. Continued improve­
ment in technique decreases the cost of production. Differential flota­
 INTRODUCTION 13
tion for instance has rendered profitable many ore-bodies which formerly
could not be worked.
Ore and Gangue.—These considerations bring us to the terms ore
and gangue. “ Ore” is a word which has been used in several meanings.
An “ ore mineral” is a mineral which may be used for the extraction of
one or more metals. An “ ore,” as the term is used here, is that part of a
geologic body from which the metal or metals that it contains may be
extracted profitably. Thus galena and malachite are ore minerals. An
ore is practically always a mixture of minerals. Local usage has adopted
several terms as substitutes for “ ore.” In the lead-zinc district of
Missouri crude ore is called “ dirt,” while concentrates are called “ ore.”
In Michigan the ore is called “rock” and the concentrates are termed
“mineral. ” Gold-bearing gravels are not usually referred to as ore. The
use of the term “ ore” is not quite consistent. Ordinarily it implies a
metal, but the expression “sulphur ore,” meaning pyrite, is sometimes
seen, and occasionally such a term as “sapphire ore” is found. The
useless minerals occurring in the ore are termed “gangue.” Thus, a
gold ore may consist of quartz, calcite, siderite, native gold, auriferous
pyrite, and galena. Here the first three are called “ gangue minerals.”
The terms are not inflexible; for example, siderite may under some cir­
cumstances be utilized as an iron ore. Moreover, as stated above, what
to-day is useless gangue may prove valuable ore to-morrow. It is there­
fore safe to make the definition of an ore rather wider than the present
technical limits.1
It is hardly necessary to call attention to the differences in prices
of metals which cause wide disparity in the amounts of different metals
necessary to constitute ores. An iron ore must ordinarily contain at
least 30 per cent of iron—usually much more. A volcanic rock containing
15 per cent of iron is far from being an iron ore, but quartz containing
0.05 per cent of gold is a rich gold ore, worth $330 a metric ton; in fact,
as little as 0.0001 per cent of gold, equivalent to 1 gram to the metric
ton, or a value of 66 cents a ton, if occurring in an ore with other useful
substances, is ordinarily paid for by smelting works.
Tenor of Ores.—While it is not possible to give exact data as to the
minimum values which ores of the different metals should have for prof­
itable extraction, some approximate statements may be useful.2 Local
conditions, price of metals, the nature of the ores, and the association of
the metals must of course be considered. The following notes refer to
average conditions and prices.
Iron.—Iron ores from the Lake Superior region usually contain 50 to
60 per cent of iron; but iron ores which contain less than this may be
1For a full discussion of the subject see J. F. Kemp, What is an ore?, Jour. Cana­
dian Min. Inst., 12, 1910, pp. 356-367. Also, Min. and Sci. Press, March 20, 1909.
2 J. F. Kemp, Problem of the metalliferous veins. Econ. Geol., 1, 1905, pp. 207-232.
14 MINERAL DEPOSITS
utilized, especially where other conditions are favorable. The Clinton
ores of Alabama contain as little as 30 per cent of metallic iron; some
types of easily concentrated magnetites may contain as low as 25 per
cent and still yield a profit.
Copper.—Copper ores of the Lake Superior region may be treated
with profit, under favorable circumstances, with as little as 0.5 per cent
of metallic copper, though they ordinarily average somewhat higher.
Sulphide copper ore of the usual type can rarely be utilized if it contains
below 1.5 per cent of copper unless gold and silver are present also, and
in many districts the ores must average considerably higher than this.
Lead.—In northern Idaho lead ores which contain 5 to 6 per cent of
lead and 3 ounces in silver to the ton are profitably mined. Non-argentif-
erous ores which assay from 5 to 7 per cent of lead are utilized in south­
eastern Missouri.
Zinc.—Zinc ores vary considerably according to locality. At Joplin,
Missouri, much of the crude material hoisted yields less than 3 per cent
of zinc sulphide and a little lead. This is concentrated to about 60 per
cent of zinc. In localities more remote from markets, as in Colorado,
Utah, and Idaho, only zinc ores of higher grade can be profitably treated
or shipped.
Silver.—With average metal prices pure silver ores can be mined if
they contain not less than 15 ounces to the ton. The usual ores contain
silver in association with lead, copper, or gold, or with all three. In
complex ores smelters rarely pay for less than 2 ounces of silver and 0.01
ounce of gold to the ton. Gold and silver are separated from the lead
or copper bullion by zinc desilverization or electrolytic refining and the
cost of that process, of course, imposes the necessity of a certain minimum
tenor of gold and silver for profitable extraction, but at many plants gold
and silver, although present in less than these small quantities, are
obtained as by-products through the necessity of eliminating some objec­
tionable constituent, like arsenic, from the bullion.
Gold.—At the Alaska-Juneau mine gold is now profitably extracted
on a large scale from ores yielding somewhat less than $1 per ton, but the
ordinary gold quartz ores—for instance, those of California—yield about
$5 to the ton; those of Nevada, Colorado, and some other states usually
contain more. Gold ores containing from $2.50 to $3 a ton were worked
at the Treadwell mines in Alaska. In gold gravels worked by the hydrau­
lic process as little as 4 or 5 cents to the cubic yard may be profitable.
By dredging, gravels containing 8 to 15 cents a cubic yard may be utilized
in California; in Alaska they should contain from 50 cents to $1 a cubic
yard. The costs of gold dredging have lately been brought down to about
4 cents a cubic yard.
Tin, Etc.—Tin ores range from 1.5 to 5 per cent in tin, but in tin­
bearing gravels a much smaller tenor say 1 pound of cassiterite per cubic
 INTRODUCTION 15
yard of gravel is sufficient to yield a profit. Ores of quicksilver contain
at least 0.3 per cent of that metal; aluminum ores at least 30 per cent of
aluminum. Nickel should be present to the amount of 2 per cent or more
to constitute a workable nickel ore. Manganese ore should contain 50
per cent of that metal, but less is required if iron is also present. Chro­
mium ore must contain about 40 per cent of chromic oxide. Poorer
ores may be used if amenable to concentration.
PRICE OF METALS
The prices which the various metals bring express the result of their
abundance, of the demand for them, and of the cost of reduction of their
ores. The value of gold is fixed by international agreement, hence it
constitutes the standard by which the prices of all other commodities
are measured. Aluminum, the most common of all metals, brings a high
price because it can be produced from only a few of the minerals contain­
ing it.
In the following table the first column represents what may be called
the “normal” prices for metals. Even in normal times there are, of
course, constant fluctuations and some metals like copper, iron, and tin
are especially susceptible to economic influences. The World War
beginning in 1914 proved to have a potent influence on prices; the prices
of most metals had been doubled in 1918. Heavy liquidation and defla­
tion brought extremely low prices in 1931 and 1932.
In June, 1933, prices (in cents) were again moving upwards: Copper
8; Tin 41; Lead 4.1; Zinc 4.3; Silver 35.
COMPARATIVE VALUES OF METALS
M arch, 1914 F eb ru ary , 1918 M ay , 1927 D ecem ber, 1932

P latinu m ......... $44.00 p er tro y ounce $106.00 p er tro y ounce $8 6.0 0 per tro y ounce $30.00 p er tro y ounce
G old................... 2 0 .6 7 “ “ 2 0 .6 7 “ “ 2 0 .6 7 ..................... 2 0 .6 7 “ *'
Silver................ 0 .5 7 “ “ “ 0 .8 7 “ " 0 .5 6 “ “ 0 .2 1 5 “ “
Q uicksilver... 0 .5 2 per pound 1.71 per pound 1 .6 6 per pound 0 .6 5 p er pound
N ickel............... 0 .4 5 “ “ 0 .5 0 “ “ 0 .3 5 “ “ 0 .3 5 “
T in ..................... 0 .3 7 “ “ 0 .8 5 “ M 0 .6 5 “ “ 0 .2 3 "
A lum inum ___ 0 .1 9 “ “ 0 .3 7 “ “ 0 .2 6 “ “ 0 .2 3 "
C opper............. 0 .1 4 “ “ 0 .2 3 " “ 0 .1 2 8 “ “ 0 .0 4 8 "
A n tim o n y.. . . 0 .0 7 “ “ 0 .1 4 “ “ 0 .1 8 “ “ 0 .0 5 4 “
Zinc................... 0 .0 5 “ “ 0 .0 8 “ " 0 .0 6 1 “ “ 0 .0 3 1 “
L ead................... 0 .0 4 " “ 0 .0 7 “ “ 0 .0 6 7 “ “ 0 .0 3 0 “
Pig iron............ 0 .0 0 6 “ “ 0 .0 1 3 “ “ 0 .0 0 8 “ “ 0 .0 0 6 4 “

Many interesting data on the total quantities of metals produced in

the world and on the largest amounts mined in any one deposit are given
by J. H. L. Vogt.1
1 Beysehlag, Krusch and Vogt, Die Lagerstatten, etc., 1, 1909, pp. 187-200.
16 MINERAL DEPOSITS
PRODUCTION OF ORE AND METAL
An interesting table reducing metal production in the United States
to a uniform basis of short tons was formerly published annually in
Mineral Resources. From this it is seen that in 1925, for instance, were
produced 36,800,000 tons of pig iron, nearly 837,000 tons of copper, 655,-
000 tons of lead, 556,000 tons of zinc, 2,750 tons of silver, and 100 tons of
gold. Iron in long tons; others in short tons.
The ore production of the same year was as follows: Iron ores, 64,000,-
000; copper ore, 50,000,000; lead ore, 8,600,000; zinc ore, 16,500,000;
gold ore and silver ore, 9,000,000, all in round figures. Iron ores in long
tons; others short tons.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Before leaving this part of the subject a few words on weights and
measures may be added. The contents of base-metal ores, such as iron,
lead, zinc, and copper, are measured by percentage. For lead and copper
the figures given often do not mean the exact content by wet analysis,
but by the dry assay, which is l 1-^ per cent or more lower than the exact
content. In some cases the lead is determined by wet assay of the button
from a crucible assay, which places the percentage obtained still farther
below the actual content. The smelter pays for the metals by the “ unit, ”
which means 1 per cent, or 20 pounds to the ton, or else by a “ basis price”
for a given percentage of metal, say 55 per cent for bessemer iron ores
or 65 per cent for Joplin zinc concentrates. Tungsten ore is sold per
unit of tungsten trioxide for ore carrying 60 per cent or more of this
compound. Deductions and allowances based on the presence or absence
of certain elements and certain other rules complicate the smelter
schedules.1
Precious metals in ores are measured in England and its colonies by
troy fine ounces and pennyweights, per long or short ton. In the United
States decimal fractions are substituted for pennyweights; gold is often
reported in dollars and cents, $1 corresponding closely to 1 pennyweight.
Silver is measured in fine ounces, the pennyweights always being omitted.
The short ton is always used. Practically all other nations measure
these metals in grams per metric ton, a far more sensible way. For com­
parison the following data, computed and arranged by W. J. Sharwood,2
are given:
Conversion Tables.—The gram is taken as 15.4320 grains. The
value of a troy ounce of fine gold is assumed as being exactly $20.67,
1 C. H. Fulton, The buying and selling of ores and metallurgical products, Tech.
Paper 83, U. S. Bur. of Mines, 1915.
2 Conversion tables for assay valuations, Mines and Minerals, January, 1909, p.
250.
 INTRODUCTION 17
instead of $20.6718346+, resulting in an error of less than 1 in 10,000.
Values in English coin are based on the assumption that an ounce of fine
gold is worth 4.25 pounds sterling, or 85 shillings, or 1,020 pence; this
is too high by about 1 part in 2,000, the true value being 1,019.45 pence.
It is useless to attempt a closer approximation in practical work, for the
simple reason that gold bullion assays are rarely reported closer than the
nearest half millieme, or to within 1 part in 2,000. At the values adopted
one dollar is equivalent to 4.11224 shillings, and one pound sterling to
$4.86353.
VOLUME AND WEIGHT OF FIN E GOLD
One cubic One cubic One cubic
centimeter inch foot
Fine gold:
Weight: grams..................................... 19.3 316.269 546,513
Weight: troy ounces........................... .6205 10.1680 17,570.39
Value: U. S. gold-standard dollar.. . $12.8257 $210.17 $363,180
Value: gold-standard British pound £2.647 £43.214 £74,674
Value: U. S. dollars at $35C
per ounce $21.71 $355.82 $614,864

The gold standard (etalon d’or; Gold Munzfuss; padron de oro), which
defines the currency units as equivalent to a certain approximately uni­
form weight of gold, was adopted long ago by many countries. In 1931,
owing to various causes, Great Britain abandoned the gold standard
and several nations followed this movement of depreciation. By presi­
dential proclamation on Jan. 31, 1934 the value of the United States
dollar was fixed at 59.06 per cent of the gold dollar, which meant that
henceforth gold was valued at $35 per ounce instead of at $20.67+ per
ounce. Therefore, figures given in the following tables should be multi­
plied by 1.693 to obtain the value in the new United States dollar.
Approximately the same is true of the values given in pounds sterling
(also in Canadian dollars); the exact value varies with the market price
of gold, which thus far has been about $35. Opinions differ sharply as to
the wisdom or necessity of this depreciation by which many guaranteed
values were repudiated. Other changes may conceivably be made.
 00

ASSAY VALUATIONS
Per metric ton Per long ton of 2,240 pounds Per short ton of
2,000 pounds

Values One part Per cent United United United

in Troy States Troy Oz. Dwt. Gr. States Troy States
ounces dollars ounces dollars ounces dollars
(gold) (gold) (gold)

MINERAL DEPOSITS
One per cent.................................................. 100 1 321.50 6.645.4O0 10,000 326.666 326 13 s 6,752.20 291.666 6,028.75
One gram per metric ton one part per 1 000,000 , 0.0001 0.03215 0.6646 1 0.03266 15.68 0.676 0.029166 0.6029
million.
One troy ounce per short ton................... 29,166.66 0.00342857 1.1023 2 2 .7845 34.2857 1.120 1 2 9.6 23.15 1 20.67
One troy ounce per long ton. 32,666.66 0.0030612 0.9X4? 2 0.3434 30.612 1 1 20.67 0.892857 18.45"
One troy ounce per metric ton, 32,150 0.0031104 1 20.67 31.104 1.016 1 7.7 21.00 0.90720 18.75"
One dollar gold per short to n .. 602,875 0.00016587 .0533285 1.1023 1.6587 0.054185 1 2 1.12 0.048379
 CONVERSION TABLES— W EIGH TS
Fine gold value
Grains Penny­ Troy Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Grams
weights ounces ounces pounds
United States British

One grain......................... 1 0.041666 0.0020833 0.00228571 0.000142857 0.0648 4.306 cts. 2.125 pence
One pennyweight.......... 24 i 0.0500 0.0548571 0.00342857 1.5552 $1.0335 4.25 shillings
One troy ounce.............. 480 20 1 1.0971428 0.0685714 31.104 $20.67 85 shillings

INTRODUCTION
One troy pound............. 5,760 240 12 13.165714 0.822857 373.248 *248.04 £51
One avoirdupois ounce. 437.50 18.22917 0.911458 1 0.06250 28.35 *18.84 77.474 shillings
One avoirdupois pound, 7,000 291.666 14.58333 10 1 453.60 $301.4375 £61.97
One milligram................ 0.015432 0.000643 0.00003215 0.000035274 0.0000022046 0.0010 0.06645 ct. 0.033 penny
One gram ...................... 15.432 0.643 0.03215 0.035274 0.0022046 1 66.45 cts. 2.73275 shillings
One kilogram.................. 15,432 643 32.15 35.274 2.2046 1,000 1$664.54 £136.64
The price of silver in the United States i9 stated in cents per troy ounce 1000 fine; in England in pence per troy ounce of sterling silver 925 fine: 1
cent per fine ounce = 0.457 pence per ounce 925 fine; 1 penny per ounce 925 fine = 2.19 cents per fine ounce. With silver at 50 cents per ounce, 3
grams per ton equals about 5 cents United States currency.
Precious stones are measured by the carat One carat (diamond weight) is equal to 3.2 grains troy, or 206 milligrams. The "metric carat,” now
universally used, is equal to 200 milligrams.
1 The United States Mint Bureau uses $664.60. The British values are calculated on the basis of the gold-standard pound. The United States values
are calculated on the basis of the gold-standard dollar. At present the United States is off the gold standard and export of gold is prohibited except for
certain purposes. Thus gold producers must sell their product to the mint at $35 per ounce, United States currency. In the above table the values in
present United States currency are: 1 grain, 7.29 cents; 1 pennyweight, $1.75; 1 troy ounce, $35; 1 milligram, 0.1125 cents; 1 gram, $1,125; 1 kilogram,
$1125.07.

O
 CHAPTER II
THE FORMATION OF MINERALS
SOLUTION AND PRECIPITATION
General Features.—A mineral is an inorganic1body of definite chem­
ical composition. Solid minerals12 are formed by changes in chemical
energy in systems which contain one fluid or vapor phase. Their develop­
ment, therefore, generally indicates a transition from a mobile to a less
mobile form of matter. In the great majority of cases the minerals in
nature are formed by precipitation from solutions,3 and this, therefore,
becomes a process of the highest importance for mineral genesis.
Supersaturation and consequently precipitation are controlled by
the thermodynamic environment of the system. Temperature and
pressure are the most important agencies though at times electric energy
and light may also be active.
Minerals may form:
1. By supersaturation in a solution.
2. By reactions between liquids or liquid solutions.
3. By reactions between gases or gaseous solutions.
4. By reactions between liquids or liquid solutions, and gases.
5 By reactions between solids and liquids, or liquid solutions or gases.
Few minerals are formed below the freezing point of water. Their
upper limit of development is marked by the temperature at which they
become unstable or melt.
1 This does not mean that minerals cannot be formed by organic processes. If
this were so, a large proportion of material in sedimentary rocks (calcite, phosphates,
silica) could not be considered as minerals.
2 The liquid minerals are practically confined to water, mercury and to certain
hydrocarbons. The last, as well as certain undercooled liquids like obsidian, are
not, however, considered as minerals as they have no definite composition expressible
in a chemical formula. To a small extent minerals may form by “unmixing” or
“exsolution,” when in a cooling solid solution (e.g. argentite in galena) a lesser con­
stituent is ejected at a certain temperature and crystallizes as inclusions. Here
apparently no fluid phase is involved.
3 Certain chemical reactions involving the formation of new minerals may appar­
ently take place by the interaction of solids under the influence of heat and pressure,
but it is possible that here too a vapor phase or a fluid phase is present in the system.
In minerals subject to polymorphism the arrangement of the molecules may
change at certain critical temperatures. In many cases no new names are used for
those products, e.g. a and (3 quartz, isometric and rhombic chalcocite. In other cases
new names are applied, e.g. sphalerite and wurtzite for isometric and rhombic ZnS.
20
 THE FORMATION OF MINERALS 21
After the inception of mineral formation concentration to larger
masses or deposits may be effected by the continuation of similar proc­
esses or reactions. Quite frequently, however, there are other causes
which have contributed: Gravity may cause the sinking of heavy min­
erals in lighter media as when anhydrite crystals sink to the bottom in
sea water, or when magnetite sinks in a residual rock melt. Solution and
disintegration may do its share, as when native gold is set free from a
quartz matrix, and is separated by gravity into workable gold deposits;
or, as when, in a rock composed of calcite and calcium phosphate, the
former is dissolved, leaving a phosphate deposit of economic value.
Influence of Pressure.—The effect of change of pressure, according
to LeChatelier’s law, is as follows: When the pressure in a system in
equilibrium is increased that reaction takes place which is accompanied
by a diminution in volume; and when the pressure is diminished a reaction
ensues which is accompanied by an increase in volume. “ The direction
in which change of concentration will occur with change of pressure can
be predicted, if it is known whether solution is accompanied by increase
or diminution of the total volume. If diminution of the total volume
of the system occurs on solution, as is the usual case, increase of pressure
will increase the solubility; in the reverse case increase of pressure will
diminish the solubility. ” 1 In general, a decrease of pressure, which
results when solutions ascend in the earth’s crust, will be favorable to
precipitation. The influence of pressure is, however, in most cases slight.
For instance, the solubility of sodium chloride (in grams of salt in 1 gram
of solution) at the pressure of one atmosphere is expressed by 0.264 and
at 500 atmospheres by 0.270. In systems in which one or more of the
components are volatile the effect of pressure may be very great; carbon
dioxide, for instance, held in water by pressure, may increase the solu­
bility of calcium carbonate owing to the formation of bicarbonate.
The effects of uniform, or hydrostatic, pressure are much less marked
than are the effects of stress, or unequal pressure. Under conditions
of stress a given pressure will lower the melting temperature far more
rapidly than when the pressure is equal from all sides. 12
Influence of Temperature.—In a solution of various salts in water
or in a silicate melt changes in temperature are far more effective in
producing precipitation than changes in pressure. Van’t Hoff’s law
states: When the temperature of a system in equilibrium is raised that
reaction takes place which is accompanied by absorption of heat; and,
conversely, when the temperature is lowered that reaction occurs which
1Alexander Findlay, The phase rule, 1923, p. 87.
2John Johnston and Paul Niggli, The general principles underlying metamorphic
processes, Jour. GeoL, 21, 1913, pp. 481-516; 588-624.
John Johnston, Pressure as a factor in the formation of rocks and minerals, idem,.,
23, 1915, pp. 730-747.
22 MINERAL DEPOSITS
is accompanied by an evolution of heat. 1 In the great majority of cases
increase of temperature promotes the solubility of salts, and decreasing
temperature—say by the cooling of ascending thermal waters or of
magmas—promotes precipitation. The common rule for salts—to which
a number of exceptions may be noted—is that the solubility increases to
temperatures of 75° C. or 150° C. beyond which a lessening of the quantity
dissolved may often be noted. Breaks in the solubility curve usually
indicate the limit of stability for a particular salt, less hydrated forms, for
instance, coming in at higher temperatures.
In any hot, complex solution, occurring in nature, decreasing tem­
perature will, in general, cause precipitation of some mineral; with con­
tinued cooling a series of other minerals may be precipitated, as the
solubility limit of each is reached.
As no compounds are absolutely stable under the varying condi­
tions obtaining in the crust, it follows that minerals once formed may
subsequently be brought into solution, transported, redeposited, or
indeed wholly decomposed so that their elements may enter into new
combinations.
Precipitation by Evaporation of the Solvent.—The salts contained in
a solution are naturally precipitated when evaporation at the surface
so reduces the amount of the solvent that supersaturation ensues. The
deposits of gypsum and salt in various formations are familiar results of
this process. In some cases carbon dioxide or other gases may be the
solvent; the precipitation of calcium carbonate follows, for instance, in
springs at their point of issue when the carbon dioxide escapes which holds
the salt in solution as a bicarbonate.
Precipitation by Reaction between Solutions.—Mingling of different
solutions is one of the most common occurrences in nature, as when rivers
discharge their waters into the sea or as when ascending hot waters meet
surface waters of different composition, or when different solutions meet
in the cells of organisms. Precipitation of chemical compounds results
when any combination of the various ions in. the solution can form to a
sufficient extent to be insoluble in the liquid present. Solutions in nature
are usually complex and the various reactions are more or less interfered
with. In general, according to Nernst’s law, the solubility of a given
salt is reduced by the presence in the solution of another salt which has a
common ion but is increased by the presence of another salt with no
common ion. For instance, the solubility of lead chloride is decreased
by the presence of the chloride of calcium or magnesium. The presence
of alkaline carbonates decreases the solubility of FeC03; the solubility
of NaCl is decreased by CaCl2; while the solubility of CaSCU (gypsum)
is increased in a NaCl solution. If calcite is treated with a saturated
1 Alexander Findlay, The phase rule, 1923, p. 46.
 THE FORMATION OF MINERALS 23
solution of FeC03, ZnC03, or MgC03, a part of the calcite will be dis­
solved while a corresponding part of the other carbonates is precipitated;
the solubility of CaC0 3 in water is increased by Na 2 SC> 4 or NaCl but
decreased by MgC03.
In mixed solutions precipitation is often delayed, as shown, for
instance, by the slow precipitation of barite (BaSOi) due to the presence
of sodium and magnesium chlorides in certain mine waters consisting of
salt brines. Nernst’s law offers an explanation of these anomalies.
Slow precipitation in dilute solutions generally results in large crystals
being formed, while rapid precipitation results in colloids or fine powders.
Precipitation by Reactions between Aqueous Solutions and Solids.—
In nature, solutions act constantly upon solid minerals. At the surface
all rocks and mineral deposits are moistened by rain water which also
may descend to great depths in porous, fissured, or broken material.
Rising hot waters soak into the rocks from the fractures up which they
ascend. Minerals are attacked to a greater or lesser degree by these
various kinds of waters; they are decomposed and partly or wholly go
into solution. From these solutions new minerals are deposited in
open spaces. This is a very common mode of mineral formation. But
the changes also proceed in the solid rocks themselves and such processes
by which new minerals may take the place of old ones are called meta­
somatism or replacement. The water penetrates the rocks in capillary
openings. By the phenomenon known as adsorption, the film of liquid
on the solid contains more than an average amount of material in solution
and these films are likely to become supersaturated in advance of the
remainder of the solution, so that chemical reactions will be facilitated.
In this manner the mineralogical and structural character of rocks may
be changed: Chlorite may replace augite, and sericite and quartz may
replace feldspars. Metallic ores are often formed by replacement.
Limestone may, for instance, be permeated by a solution of zinc sulphate
with the result that the calcium carbonate is replaced by zinc carbonate
with faithful preservation of the limestone structure, while calcium sul­
phate is carried off in solution. It is not even necessary that the replacing
mineral should have an element in common with the older mineral.
Pyrite or galena may replace feldspars or calcite grains. The replacing
mineral may even develop as perfect crystals in the older mineral. The
phenomena of replacement are of the utmost importance for the genesis
of mineral deposits.
Precipitation by Reactions between Gases or between Gases and
Solutions.—Gases may produce precipitation in solutions. Hydrogen
sulphide in some mine waters precipitates cuprous sulphide from cupric
sulphate. Less important is the action between gases: Native sulphur
may be precipitated in volcanic regions by a mixture of hydrogen sulphide
and sulphur dioxide.
24 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Crystalline Minerals.—The minerals may be precipitated as crystal­
loids or as colloids. In mineral deposits formed in depth and at tempera­
tures higher than those prevailing at the surface crystalloids are almost
exclusively present, as they also are in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
The molecules have been allowed to arrange themselves in the symmetry
of one of the six crystal systems and the minerals form homogeneous
grains or crystals. Crystalline minerals develop best by slow precipita­
tion in solutions contained in open spaces; under such conditions free
crystals may form in silicate melts or magmas and in aqueous solutions.
Crusts of minerals may develop where crystals adhere to walls of water-
filled fissures; this is a common feature in mineral veins. The first
impulse to crystallization may be given by adsorption and supersaturation
along the walls. Once started the larger crystals become further enlarged
because smaller crystals dissolve more rapidly than large ones and the
liquid remains supersaturated with reference to the larger growths.
When crystallization is progressing from a great number of points in
the solution, a granular texture is developed by the mutual interference
of the crystals. In mineral deposits the resulting textures are usually
rather coarse; only very rarely do we find fine-grained aggregates of
order of magnitude of the dense groundmass of igneous porphyritic rocks.
In mineral deposits a considerable variety of textures result by replace­
ment in solid rock; such textures are in general analogous to those found
in metamorphic rocks.
Colloids.1—Many minerals are deposited as gradually hardening
gelatinous or flocculent masses instead of assuming crystalline form.
These are called colloidal minerals or colloids. The colloid state con­
sists of electrically charged particles in a state of dispersion ranging from
comparatively coarse suspensions down to almost molecular subdivisions.
A colloid mixture is a heterogeneous, two-phase system in which one
phase divided into small separate volumes is known as the disperse phase,
and the other as the dispersion medium. In the cases here considered
the disperse phase may be a liquid or a crystalloid; the dispersion medium
a liquid, usually water. A disperse system of this kind is often apparently
homogeneous and transparent, sometimes opalescent; it is generally
called a sol. The disperse phase may separate from the mixture in a
gelatinous or flocculent form, still retaining some of the medium. Sols are
of two kinds:
1. Suspensoids.—In these sols the disperse phase is a solid. The
viscosity is low; they do not gelatinize, but the addition of an electrolyte
causes a flocculent precipitate, which can not readily be returned to the
state of a sol. The purple or red gold sols and many other metal sols
may serve as examples; also the sulphide sols, such as arsenic sulphide.
1 Emil Hatschek, An introduction to the physics and chemistry of colloids, London
and Philadelphia, 1922. Especially recommended for brevity and clarity.
R. Zsigmondy, Colloidchemie, Leipzig, 1926, 246 pp.
 THE FORMATION OF MINERALS 25
The latter sol is obtained as a yellow liquid when hydrogen sulphide is
added to a solution of arsenious oxide. A small quantity of a gelatinizing
colloid prevents the coagulation of colloidal suspensions by electrolytes.
Thus gelatine or a silica sol may keep silver chloride indefinitely in a
state of colloidal suspension.
2. Emulsoids.—In these sols the disperse phase is believed to be a
liquid. Upon cooling or evaporation a gelatinous mass—a gel—is
obtained. The emulsoids have a high viscosity and are not always
coagulated by electrolytes, though some electrolytes produce a sudden
setting of the sol to a gelatinous mass, which can again be brought into
solution. The sols of gelatine, albumen, silica, and cerium hydroxide
may serve as examples of emulsoids. The hydroxide sols, for instance,
those of tin, iron, chromium, and aluminum have some properties which
seem to connect them with the emulsoid sols.
The sols do not readily pass through membranes (like parchment
paper or bladder), probably because the disperse particles are larger
than the pores in the membranes. Electrolytes, on the other hand, pass
readily through such walls.
In the sols, surface and surface tension are two most important factors.
The reactions between sols are quite different from those taking place
between electrolytes. In nature, gels and colloid precipitates often
harden to rounded, reniform masses referred to as “ colloform. ” The
solidified colloids have a tendency to acquire crystallinity and may become
transformed into fibrous or cryptocrystalline aggregates. Such crys­
tallized colloids may be called metacolloids.1 The composition of colloid
minerals is often variable; this is caused by the peculiar quality of colloids
to adsorb foreign substances. Often they contain water.
Colloid minerals form in abundance in open space within the oxidized
zone and near the surface, but they may also develop at higher tempera­
tures to a degree formerly not suspected. In solid rocks colloid minerals
may replace older minerals, first as gels, later crystallized to metacolloids.
Among the amorphous gel minerals common in nature may be men­
tioned opal, limonite, halloysite, and garnierite. Examples of crystallized
colloids (metacolloids) are numerous. Pyrite, marcasite, wurtzite,
malachite, smithsonite, psilomelane, and chrysocolla are often of colloid
origin. 2
The great importance of colloidal solutions for ore deposition lies in
the fact that many difficultly soluble substances can easily be dispersed
to form relatively highly concentrated sols.
1E. T. Wherry, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 4, 1914, p. 112.
2 W Lindgren, The colloidal chemistry of minerals and ore deposits, in “Theory
and Application of Colloidal Behavior,” R. H. Bogue, editor, New York, 1924.
H. C. Boydell, Role of colloidal solutions in the formation of mineral deposits,
Trans., Inst. Min. and Met (London), 34, 1925, pp. 145-337.
H. C. Boydell, Operative causes in ore deposition, idem, 37, 1928, pp. 50-177
W. Lindgren, Metasomatism, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 36, 1925, pp. 247-261.
 CHAPTER III
ATMOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE, AND UNDERGROUND WATERS
INTRODUCTION
As minerals form mainly in the presence of a fluid phase it is pertinent
to consider the various forms of liquids and gases involved. They are in
brief: (1) The atmosphere; (2) the hydrosphere, including oceans, lakes,
and rivers; (3) the underground fluids.
THE ATMOSPHERE
The volumetric composition of the atmosphere is given in the follow­
ing table. It contains no other elements except as dust or colloid
dispersions. For the origin of mineral deposits it is highly important,
however, as the water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are fluids which pro­
mote the oxidation of rocks and the development of ore deposits in the
zone of weathering. The fixation of nitrogen by organic life or electricity
may be of geologic importance. Halogen salts are carried as dust in the
atmosphere from salt plains and oceans or from volcanic eruptions, and
form chlorides and bromides in the oxidized zones of ore deposits. A
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE!
(In Per Cent)
Volumetric composition of the Average composition of the
atmosphere ocean
Nitrogen.......................... 78.03 Oxygen................................... 85.79
Oxygen............................. 20.99 Hydrogen............................... 10.67
Argon............................... 0.94 Chlorine................................. 2.07
Water vapor................... Variable Sodium................................... 1.14
Carbon dioxide............... 0.03 Magnesium............................ 0.14
Hydrogen......................... 0.01 Calcium.................................. 0.05
Neon................................. 0.00123 Potassium.............................. 0.04
Helium............................. 0.0004 Sulphur.................................. 0.09
Krypton........................... 0.00005 Bromine................................. 0.008
Xenon............................... 0.000006 Carbon*................................ 0.002
* In carbonates and organic 100.000
matter.
Average salinity................... 3.5
1 F. W. Clarke and H. S. Washington, The composition of the earth’s
crust, Prof. Paper 127, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 33.
26
 ATMOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE, AND UNDERGROUND WATERS 27
little sulphur dioxide or hydrogen sulphide can be introduced by volcanic
eruptions or by industrial processes.
THE HYDROSPHERE
Ocean.—In the above table the average elemental composition of
the ocean is given according to Clarke and Washington in the quoted
publication. The conventional composition of the salts dissolved in sea
water is according to the same authority.
COMPOSITION OF THE OCEANIC SALTS
NaCl.. 77.76
MgCb. 10.88
MgSO, 4.74
CaSCV 3 60
K2S04. 2.46
MgBr2. 0.22
CaCOa. 0.34
100.00

Substances present in small amount in the sea water may be tabulated

as follows, mainly from data in Roth’s “ Allgemeine und Chemische
Geologie,” vol. 1; in Krummel’s “ Handbuch der Oceanographie ” ; and
in Clarke’s “ Geochemistry,” where the originals are cited. All figures
in milligrams per liter.
Aluminum, maximum few milligrams Iron, present2 few milligrams
Ammonium (NH3) ......... 0.13-1.34 Lead, present3
Arsenic.............................. 0.01-0.08
Lithium, present
Boron, present, small Manganese, present
Barium, present Nickel and cobalt4
Cesium, present Phosphorus, less than 1.0
Copper,1 present Rubidium................................ 15.0
Fluorine................................. 0.3-0.8
Silica, present, 1.0 in average
Gold, present (see p. 7) Silver, present (see p. 7)
Iodine...................................0.05-2.38
Strontium, present
Vanadium6
Zinc..............................................0.002
1 In molluscs and seaweed; Dieulafait says also in sea water.
2 Abundant in ashes of organisms.
3 In ashes of seaweed.
4 In ashes of seaweed.
6 In holothurians.
The sea water also contains about 45 milligrams of C0 2 per liter and
amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and other inert gases which differ according
to the temperature. W. Dittmar1 found from 14 to 28 cubic centimeters
of air per liter of sea water containing, respectively, 35.01 and 33.11 per
cent oxygen. The dissolved air is thus much richer in oxygen than the
1Challenger Repts., 1, 1884, p. 203.
28 MINERAL DEPOSITS
air. The amount of free C0 2 and HC0 3 is variable but there is, in fact,
about 27 times more C0 2 in sea water than in the air. An unstable equi­
librium exists between the free C0 2 and that combined as HC0 3 in
the bicarbonates. The ocean may be considered as the great regulator of
the carbon dioxide in the air.
In closed or poorly ventilated basins the sea water may contain
hydrogen sulphide; the Black Sea, for instance, contains in its deepest
layers 600 or 700 cubic centimeters per liter of this gas. Gaseous hydro­
carbons may be locally formed in the presence of much organic matter
close to the shores.
In the littoral and neritic (shallow water) environments of the oceans
many mineral deposits may form such as mineral salts, iron ores, man­
ganese ores, phosphates, clay, limestones, mainly by manifold chemical
and biochemical reactions between sea water and organisms or between
sea water and rocks or between sea water and river water, or finally by
evaporation.
The relation between the constituents in ocean waters is always as
follows: Cl > S0 4 > C03; Na > Mg > Ca.
Lakes and Rivers.1—The water of rivers and drained lakes is often
very pure, as it is derived directly from the rain which falls on the land.
Particularly does this apply to the waters of glaciated areas of crystalline
rocks. The salinity of such waters may run as low as 14 parts per million.
Almost always the relation prevails that C0 3 > SO4 > Cl and Ca >
Na > Mg. Silica is variable but often high—as much as 20 per cent of
the dissolved material. Iron as Fe2 0 3 and alumina as A12 0 3 are each
frequently above 1 per cent of the total solids.
In waters of the arid regions and in sedimentary rocks the salinity
increases rapidly, often to several hundred parts per million. The SO4
radical also increases, also Cl, in places so as to change the above relation
to S0 4 > C0 3 > Cl.
In tropical regions of heavy vegetation the organic matter carried
may increase to 50 per cent of the total residue. In such cases the silica
may also greatly increase and this increase is usually accompanied by
considerable amounts of Fe2 0 3 and A12 0 3, both probably present as
colloids. Some of the rivers of the Amazon region carry up to 13 per
cent of A12 0 3 + Fe2 Oa in terms of the total solids. Manganese is
probably universally present in river waters.
Primarily the composition of the river waters depends on the geological
formations traversed. They are, therefore, in unstable equilibrium,
changing continually by chemical reactions of various kinds. Human
contamination by sewage, industrial plants, etc. is apparent in many
places.
1 F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, Chap. 3, 1924.
 ATMOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE, AND UNDERGROUND WATERS 29
Some mineral deposits are formed in lakes and rivers. Among them
are clays, iron ores, manganese ores, infusorial earth, and saline residues,
but in importance they hardly compare with those originating along the
shores of the ocean.
THE UNDERGROUND FLUIDS
Fluids of Meteoric Origin.—The most abundant of these is water of
atmospheric (meteoric) origin derived from the rain that falls on the
surface, or from water courses, or from lakes, or from the present oceans.
It descends into the earth in cavities, fissures, or capillary openings. In
part these waters remain stored in the rocks. In part they ascend under
hydrostatic conditions and rejoin hydrosphere and atmosphere. 1 The
gases, in part dissolved in water, include oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium,
carbon dioxide, and methane. In part they are generated by under­
ground reactions.
Petroleum.—Liquid hydrocarbons of varying composition are found
in sedimentary rocks, often in large amounts. They are derived by slow
distillation of organic material deposited with the sediments and are
usually accompanied by gas of variable composition and by salt water of
meteoric origin.
Magmatic or Juvenile Fluids.—The water of magmatic origin existed
in the molten silicate solution which constitutes a magma. It is the
most abundant of the volatile constituents and many of the latter are
entrained with it or dissolved in it when it is liberated by crystallization
or by the irruption of the magma into higher levels of the crust. The
magmatic gases include nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sul­
phide, and others. They are in part dissolved in water, in part free. In
part they join the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The dissolved salts
are silica, chlorides, sulphates, borates, etc. The quantity of new mag­
matic water is far smaller than that of meteoric origin.
Imprisoned Fluids.—Smaller parts of meteoric or magmatic solutions
or gases may permanently or temporarily be withdrawn by being held
firmly by capillarity, by forming inclusions in minerals or by entering
chemical compounds. Heat, pressure, and chemical action may release
part of these imprisoned fluids when rocks sink into warmer zones or
are engulfed by rising magmas. While no one may doubt that the magma
111. A. Daly, Genetic classification of underground volatile agents, Econ. Geol.,
12, 1917, pp. 487-504. Daly shows that Posepny’s term “vadose” (vadus =
shallow) was applied by him to the descending waters above the water level, that is to
the zone of gathering (p. 34). Authors have used it since with different meanings, in
each case including a certain part of the atmospheric waters. It seems as if the
science could dispense with the word vadose. Daly following Archibald Geikie has
suggested “epigene” to cover the underground activities of both fresh and marine
waters. The term phreatic, applied by Daubrce to a somewhat indefinite part of the
meteoric waters, may likewise be dispensed with.
30 MINERAL DEPOSITS
contains primary water a certain small part of it may be derived by the
melting rocks immersed in magmas. 1 Connate water2 is sea water of
ancient oceans which for geologic periods has been included in the sedi­
ments of these seas. There are no physical or chemical criteria by which
the origin of a certain water can be determined beyond question. All
of these waters are really solutions which range from very dilute to
highly concentrated. The rain water is, of course, the purest, followed
in order by those of rivers, springs, and oceans. If it should be possible
to distinguish between surface waters and magmatic waters, the evidence
must be circumstantial and depend on geologic structure, igneous history,
rainfall, and drainage basins. Magmatic solutions are naturally likely
to be diluted along their upward path by waters of meteoric origin.
'It. A. Daly, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 26, 1908, p. 48. Igneous rocks and their
origin, New York, 1914, p. 249. Daly terms such waters re-surgent.
2 A. C. Lane, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 19, 1908, p. 502.
 CHAPTER IV
THE FLOW OF UNDERGROUND WATERS
General Statement.1—Much of the rain water which descends upon
the land runs off in surface drainage, and a smaller part evaporates, but
a certain quantity sinks down into the soil and into the porous and frac­
tured rocks. This part of the precipitation adds to the ground water and,
if there is a sufficiency of rainfall, it saturates the material at a certain
varying depth below the surface. This upper limit of the saturated zone
indicated by the depth at which water stands in wells or shafts is called
the water level, ground-water level, water table, or hydrostatic level.
It is, as a matter of fact, a warped surface which feebly reflects the topo­
graphic features (Fig. 2). The water may penetrate to considerable
depths, particularly along fissures; gravity and heat often establish a
circulation of the ground water so that it may again reach the surface
after a long underground journey. The ground water performs important
geologic work by solution and precipitation which may result in concen­
trations of useful minerals. The branch of geology which deals with the
underground waters is called Hydrology.
There is a small class of hot waters, ascending from great depths, which
is believed by many geologists to be of magmatic origin, that is, given off
by cooling magmas. However important such waters may be in the
formation of certain kinds of mineral deposits, they are insignificant in
1C. R. Van Hise, A treatise on metamorphism, Mon. 47, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1894,
pp. 123-191 and 657-670.
C. S. Slichter, Theoretical investigation of the motion of ground waters, Nine­
teenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1898, pp. 301-304. Also Water-supply
Paper 67, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1902, 106 pp. L. C. Graton and H. J. Fraser, Porosity
and permeability, Jour. Geol., 1935.
F. H. King, Principles and conditions of the movements of ground-water, Nine­
teenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1898, pp. 59-294.
J. F. Kemp, Igneous rocks and circulating waters, etc., Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 33, 1903, pp. 707-711.
J. W. Finch, The circulation of underground aqueous solutions and the deposi­
tion of lode ores, Proc., Colo. Sci. Soc., 7, 1904, pp. 193-252.
M. L. Fuller, Total amount of free water in the earth’s crust, Water-supply Paper
160, U. S. Geol. Survey. 1906, pp. 59-72.
K. Keilhack, Lehrbuch der Grundwasser- und Quellenkunde, Berlin, 1935, 575 pp.
O. E. Meinzer, The occurrence of groundwater in the United States, Water-supply
Paper 489, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1923, 321 pp. Also Water-supply Paper 494, 1923.
Ed. Imbeaux, Essai d’hydrogcologie, Paris, 1930, 704 pp.
31
32 MINERAL DEPOSITS
quantity compared with the great mass of water of atmospheric origin
which is contained in the rocks.
Pores and Openings in Rocks.—All rocks
contain interstitial openings and are capable of
absorbing water. By porosity is understood the
percentage of pore space referred to the total
volume of the rock. The ratio of absorption is
the ratio between the weight of the water
absorbed and the weight of the rock tested.
When the pores are completely filled the rock is
said to be saturated, but a saturated rock after
being drained always retains a certain amount
of water which adheres to the walls of the pores.
The pore space in rocks varies from a fraction
of 1 per cent to 40 per cent. In fresh granites
and similar compact rocks the porosity is from
0.2 to 0.5, in limestones from 0.53 to 13.36, in
sandstones from 5 to 28, and in loose sands and
gravels from 26 to 65 per cent.
Under the assumption that a sandstone con­
sists of spherical grains packed in the most com­
pact arrangement possible, the space between
the spheres would amount to 25.95 per cent.
The porosity is independent of the size of the
grains.
The absorbed water may be called “free
water” in contrast to that existing in chemical
combination in the minerals of the rock. All of
the free water is not “ available,” for instance
in wells, because some rocks, like clays, have the
peculiarity of holding in their pores great
quantities of water which is released only at an
extremely slow rate.
On the basis of size, openings in rocks may
be divided into (1 ) openings which are larger
than those of capillary size, or super-capillary
openings; (2) capillary openings; and (3) sub­
capillary openings. For water, openings larger
than capillary openings may be considered as
circular tubes which exceed 0.508 millimeter in
diameter, or sheet openings, such as those
furnished by faults, joints, etc., whose width exceeds 0.254 milli­
meter. Capillary tubes or sheet spaces are those smaller than the
dimensions indicated but larger than the openings in which the molec­
 THE FLOW OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 33
ular attraction of the solid material extends across the space, and to such
openings the laws of capillary flow apply. In sub-capillary openings the
attraction of the molecules extends from wall to wall, and this class
includes tubes smaller than 0 . 0 0 0 2 millimeter in diameter and sheet open­
ings smaller than 0.0001 millimeter in width. According to G. Bakker1
the spheres of molecular attraction are only six to seven times the molec­
ular diameter and consequently, if this be true, capillary movement can
take place in tubes very much smaller than 0 . 0 0 0 2 millimeter.
The flowage of water through super-capillary openings nearly follows
the ordinary laws of hydrostatics, but is subject to a certain retardation
on account of friction. The super-capillary openings include the greater
number of faults, joints, partings, and the openings in coarser sediments.
In capillary openings the movement is very slow indeed, so that many
rocks in which they occur, as shales and clays, are spoken of as imper­
meable. In sub-capillary openings the water is held firmly as a film
glued to the walls by adhesion; there is no free water and the flow is
practically nil.
The capillary forces play a considerable part in the movement of
underground waters; but, in general, they cannot produce a continuous
flow, and they are of secondary importance in comparison with the hydro­
static pressure. At higher temperatures the capillary action decreases
and becomes zero at the critical points.
The height to which water can rise by capillarity in porous soils is
considered to be from 3 to 8 feet, the maximum being seldom reached.
Openings in rocks do not persist indefinitely in depth, though hard
rocks like granite will sustain very heavy loads. The experiments of
F. D. Adams2 indicate that small cavities may exist in granite to a
depth of at least 11 miles, or 17,600 meters. Most rocks tend to become
plastic at far lesser depths and will then become deformed and flow
without fracture. Under such conditions an active circulation of water
is difficult. Super-capillary openings will be closed.
Later Bridgman3 arrived at similar conclusions on basis of extensive
experiments. He thinks it extremely probable that minute crevices,
at least large enough for the percolation of liquids, exist in the stronger
rocks at depths corresponding to pressures of 6,000 to 7,000 kilograms
per square centimeter (a depth of about 2 0 + kilometers).
Water in Sands and Gravels.—We may first consider the simpler
case of loose material such as sands and gravels, which are so abundant
in the uppermost part of the crust, in comparison with which the
underlying compact rocks may be regarded as impermeable. Under the
1Zeitsckr. f. phys. Chem., 80, 1912, p. 129. See also J. Johnston and L. H. Adams,
Jour. Geol., 22, 1914, p. 13.
i Jour. Geol., 20, 1912, pp. 97-118.
3 P. W. Bridgman, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 45, 1918, pp. 243-280.
34 MINERAL DEPOSITS
influence of gravity the water descends until a depth is reached where
the material is saturated, this being the water level. In the valleys the
water level will lie close to the ground while it rises slightly under the
ridges. The ground water is not stationary but moves slowly from the
higher ground toward the valleys; and underneath the valleys a percepti­
ble movement continues down stream until ultimately, with lack of
grade, for instance where a river valley opens toward the sea, the move­
ment will become slow and almost imperceptible. That such a movement
actually takes place has been proved by the use of fluorescein and other
indicators in wells and bore holes.
Water in Rocks of Uniform Texture.—In uniform rocks, like granite,
water is not only contained in the pores but moves more easily on the
ever-present seams and joints. Considerable water may be stored,
though the quantity per unit volume of rock will be much smaller than
in sands and gravels. The water table is here also a warped surface which
follows approximately the topographic relief but is less accentuated.
The elevation of the water table or water level may fluctuate considerably,
dependent upon seasonal rainfall. A permanently moist fringe may
extend for several feet above the water level. This rise is caused by the
capillarity of the rock.
In his paper, previously cited, J. W. Finch distinguishes the space
above the water level as the gathering zone or zone of percolation, in which
water and air are both present, and in which the water is conducted to the
saturated belt. Even in very arid regions there is usually a zone of satura­
tion. It would also be possible, however, to have no belt of saturation
and the water would then simply percolate feebly downward until the
quantity is diminished to zero.
The zone of discharge “embraces that part of the belt of saturation
which has a means of horizontal escape” by continuous gravitative flow.
The movement of the water is usually more rapid in the upper part of
this zone than in the lower part, where, in spite of greater pressure, the
obstructions and the increasing compactness of the rock retard the flow.
The air or gas filling the pore space must also be driven out before the
water can enter, and the evaporation of water in the underground atmos­
phere may, under some conditions, also become an important factor in
reducing the supply of water. Still another portion of the water enters
into chemical combination by hydration.
The static zone is the third and deepest of the divisions proposed by
Finch. It extends below the level of the lowest point of discharge and
the water in it is stagnant or moves very slowly. It depends upon the
zone of discharge for its water, as it is simply the bottom part, with a
gradually diminishing quantity of water, of a belt of saturation of which
the zone of discharge is the upper and flowing part. The lower limit of
the third zone, where the quantity of water becomes exceedingly small, is
 THE FLOW OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 35
not entirely a matter of speculation, for definite Vk

F ig . 3.— Profile showing the gradient in head of artesian w ater of the D akota sandstone from intake to outflow. Vertical scale exaggerated. (After
data are supplied by mining operations and in o
many places it is not more than 1,500 feet below 't
the surface. Large quantities of water may be u 5 I
stored in the third zone, as, for instance, in the 0
deep artesian basins where impermeable beds pre­
vent escape. A certain amount of “ rock moisture ”
undoubtedly persists to great depths.
Water in Sedimentary Rocks.—In a series of
sedimentary beds it is common to find imperme­
able rocks, like clay and shale, alternating with
more porous beds, like sandstone and limestone.
Under such conditions the distribution of the de­
scending surface waters is likely to be irregular.
Near the surface there may be a local water level
but below this beds heavily charged with water
may alternate with almost dry strata. Each bed
may, in a way, be considered as a unit and if it out­
crops it has its own zone of gathering, zone of dis­
charge and its static zone. The Cretaceous Dakota
sandstone presents an excellent example of a porous
stratum in which a large amount of water can be
stored. Throughout the Great Plains this is a
veritable reservoir of water, which can be tapped
by artesian wells as far as 300 miles from its out­
crop and at depths of a few hundred to 3,000 feet
(Fig. 3). But this stratum at present simply con­
tains a stagnant body of water; and, as in most
other artesian basins, the quantity is not inex­
haustible. This very case proves how impervious
the adjacent sedimentary beds are, for neither
upward nor downward is an avenue of escape
afforded in spite of the strong pressure. Should
profound fissuring take place in the Great Plains
a natural avenue of escape would, of course, be
opened and a deep circulation established. Kemp
and Fuller have both brought out the fact that
the deep sedimentary beds are often remarkably
dry. The well 4,262 feet deep at Wheeling, West
Virginia, was in absolutely dry rocks for the lower
1,500 feet. Wells sunk at Northampton, Massa­
chusetts, and at New Haven, Connecticut, to
depths of 3,800 feet have failed to obtain water.
The Goff well, and the Lake well, both in West
Virginia, and the Geary well, Pennsylvania, were
36 MINERAL DEPOSITS
drilled to depths of 7,386, 7,579, and 7,248 feet. All three were in sedi­
mentary rocks. In the Goff well no water entered below 2,307 feet,
in the Lake well none below 2,118 feet. In the Geary well some beds
below 6,045 feet yielded large amounts of salty water under pressure.
It is possible, however, that the deep strata in the first two wells, though
generally non-porous, may have held more or less rock moisture. 1
In limestone regions much water is often stored in solution cavities
which follow bedding and jointing. Larger open caves are found above
the water level and sometimes contain underground water courses.
Influence of Fractures.—The simple conditions outlined above are
seriously disturbed where extensive fracturing has taken place and paths
have been laid out on which the water may move under approximately
normal hydrostatic conditions. There may be a comparatively slow
descent of the water along devious joints and fractures and a rapid rise
under hydrostatic head where the descending water reaches the open
paths of important faults and fissures. Friction during the descent
undoubtedly seriously diminishes the theoretical head; but the evidence
is perfectly clear that in regions of dynamic disturbance, such as the
Alps and the Rocky Mountains, strong ascending springs may result
from these conditions.
At the point of issue such springs may be warm and their tempera­
ture, in regions where no recent igneous action has taken place, may be a
good indication of the depth attained by the water. Such springs seldom
have a temperature higher than 65° C., and the composition of their salts
corresponds to the character of the beds traversed. On the supposition,
believed to be well founded, that only a moderate loss in heat takes place
during the ascent, a water of the temperature named would be derived
from a depth of about 5,500 feet. Large regions of the earth, such as the
Scandinavian Peninsula, contain no warm springs; and the eastern part
of the American Continent yields very few of them. Fuller says:
The results of drilling in sedimentary and crystalline rocks, as well as the studies
of deep mines, show that in all probability water does not commonly exist in the rocks
under great pressure, although such may be exerted in an occasional crevice. It is
not believed that hydrostatic waters exist, except possibly rare instances, at depths
of over 10,000 feet, and that in reality the estimate of a depth of 6,520 meters, or
20,000 feet, as the limit of the zone of open cavities is closely approximate to the truth
. . . If waters were freely circulating at great depths, within the zone of fracture,
hot springs would certainly be more common along the numerous faults of the
Piedmont, Appalachian, and similar regions.2
Van Hise suggests that the decreased density and viscosity of water
at higher temperatures may lessen the head necessary for ascending
1 O. E. Meinzer, Water-supply Paper 489, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1923, p. 44.
E. W. Shaw, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917, p. 610.
2 Water-supply Paper 160, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906, p. 64.
 THE FLOW OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 37
springs, but it may be doubted whether these factors would ever offset
the great friction encountered during the downward passage. Faulting
and mountain-building processes develop heat and this disturbance of
the conditions of temperature may result in an increased circulation of
the water stored in the rocks.
Influence of Volcanism.—When magmas are intruded into the zone
of fracture the conditions become more complicated. It is thought by
some that atmospheric waters are able to descend into the deep regions
and become absorbed by the magmas, but this view appears improbable.
Before its irruption into the zone of fracture the magma is assuredly far
beyond the reach of any waters percolating from the surface. Daubree’s
well-known experiment has often been cited, as showing how water may
pass through a disc of sandstone against a certain counter pressure of
steam. Recent critical examination1 has shown the fallacies involved
in the experiment, and indicates that “the probabilities are all against
the notion that appreciable amounts of meteoric waters can ever penetrate
into deep-seated and highly heated rock masses.” Nevertheless, it is
probable that in certain volcanoes where surface waters are abundant,
the latter may reach the hot lavas and increase their activity and
temperature. 12
The presence of a heated body in the zone of fracture would undoubt­
edly quicken the circulation of water by inducing strong convection
currents and expelling the stored water from its reservoir. Whether
this action is sufficient to account for the remarkable number and volume
of hot springs rising in volcanic regions may well be doubted; and it is
thought that the magma itself gives up most of its constitutional water,
partly when moving up to higher levels, partly when crystallizing to
solid rocks.
Conclusions.—In conclusion it is believed that water in quantities
sufficient to supply an ascending circulation can only exceptionally attain
a depth of 1 0 , 0 0 0 feet and that, except in regions of permeable sedimentary
rocks, the active circulation is confined to the uppermost few thousand
feet. More commonly the depth of active circulation is measured by the
level of surface discharge and the water below that level is practically
stagnant; the lower limit of the body of stagnant water then forms an
irregular surface descending to greater depths along the fractures and
rising higher in the intervening blocks of solid ground.
Examples of Movement of Water.—According to Fuller, water sup­
plies in wells in crystalline rocks are usually found within 200 or 300 feet
of the surface and it is ordinarily useless to go below a depth of 500 feet
1John Johnston and L. D. Adams, Observations on the Daubree experiment, etc.,
J Geol., 22, 1914, pp. 1-15.
out.
2 A. L. Day and E. T. Allen, The volcanic activity and hot springs of Lassen Peak,
Publ. 360, Carnegie Inst., Washington, 1925, 190 pp.
38 MINERAL DEPOSITS
(Fig. 4). The occurrence of porous strata which are capable of holding
immense quantities of water but in which none whatever is actually found
is, according to Fuller, a common experience of drillers in this country,
even where the upper strata contain a well-defined water table.
Investigations of joints in the crystalline rocks of Connecticut have
shown, according to Fuller, that the water occurs largely in the vertical
joints, which have an average spacing of 3 to 7 feet at the surface. In
depth these joints diminish rapidly or close up and it is therefore not
advisable to go below 250 feet in search of water.
The evidence from many mining regions is of considerable importance.
In the Sierra Nevada of California deep canyons are separated by broad-
backed ridges capped with Tertiary gravels and andesitic tuffs. For
the Sierra as a whole the Great Valley of California forms the ultimate
level of discharge. In the whole western part of the range there are no
D E

F ig . 4.— Section illustrating flow of w ater in jointed crystalline rocks. A , C , flowing

wells fed by joints; B, interm ediate well of greater depth, with no w ater; D, deep well not
encountering joints; E , pum p well adjacent to D, obtaining w ater at shallow depth; S, dry
hole adjacent to spring. (After M. L. Fuller, XJ. S. Geol. Survey.)
thermal springs and very few strong ascending springs, in spite of the
prevalent fissility and jointing in the rocks. Hot springs are encountered
only along the eastern slope of the range, a region which in the late Ter­
tiary and Quaternary was the scene of great dislocations and volcanic
activity. In the gold-quartz veins contained in the old rocks of the west­
ern slope much water is found in fissures to a depth of about 800 or
1,000 feet. Below this little water is met and many stopes and drifts are
entirely dry; and this applies both to mines high up on the slope, as at
Nevada City and Grass Valley, and to the Mother Lode mines of the
foot-hill region.
Cripple Creek, Colorado, is another interesting example. Here we
have a granitic plateau at an elevation of 9,000 feet above the sea; this
plateau contains a volcanic plug about 2 miles in diameter which is
largely filled with porous breccias and tuffs. The water fills the volcanic
rocks as in a sponge inserted in a cup and the mining operations to a
depth of 3,000 feet have tapped heavy flows. But even in this water­
logged mass there are solid intrusive bodies, for instance at the Vindicator
mine, at a depth of 1 , 0 0 0 feet, which are so dry that water must be sent
down for drilling. The data thus far available have led Ransome to
the conclusion that even at Cripple Creek the water is slowly diminishing
in quantity at increasing depth. The granite which surrounds this water-
 THE FLOW OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 39
soaked plug contains very little water and at most places is practically dry,
in spite of the great hydrostatic pressure. The ultimatelevelof possibledis-
charge wouldbe inthe valley of the Arkansas, 2,500feetlowerandmanymiles
distant, but it may be gravely doubted whether any water from the Cripple
Creek mines ever finds its way through the granite mass to this level. 1
In the copper mines of Butte, Montana, where the granitic rocks are
greatly faulted, much water was encountered, extending in places down
to the bottom of the mines. A high range adjoins the mines on the east
and conditions seem to be favorable for deep circulation yet the water is
probably almost stagnant, and Weed mentions the existence of large
bodies of dry rock. 2 Kemp states that the total water pumped in Butte
from an area of two square miles to a depth of 2 , 2 0 0 to 2,800 feet is only
3,500 gallons per minute.
At the United Verde Mine, Arizona, only about 50 gallons per minute
are pumped from the 3,000-foot level. In the Morning Mine, Coeur
d’Alene district, Idaho, only 73 gallons per minute are pumped from the
deepest level, 2 , 2 0 0 feet below the main adit.
Leadville, Colorado, is another place where the faulting is extensive
and of comparatively recent date. At 1,500 feet, the greatest depth
attained, there is still much water, mainly along the faults.
At Rossland, British Columbia, according to Bernard McDonald, 3
the water level is at 40 feet and the quantity increases to a depth of
200 to 350 feet. Below 350 feet a decrease begins, slowly at first but
soon more rapid, until at 900 feet there is only a slight seepage and below
1 , 0 0 0 feet the mine is dry. Weed4 states that in the copper mine at Ely,
Vermont, an inclined shaft was carried down for a length of 3,600 feet,
attaining a vertical depth of 1,700 feet. There is no water here below a
vertical depth of 600 feet. At Przibram, Bohemia, the workings are dry
and dusty at a depth of 3,000 feet. In Cornwall, and in Newfoundland
mines have been worked underneath the sea, and sometimes close to the
sea bottom, without irruptions of salt water. 5 Where fissures exist such
irruptions are possible, however. The case of the Alaska-Treadwell
mine is well known. In 1917, this property worked to a depth of
2,400 feet below sea level was suddenly flooded by salt water and had
to be abandoned.
One of the most convincing examples is that furnished by the deep cop­
per mines of Michigan and fully set forth by A. C. Lane. 6 He shows that
1Lindgrcn and Ransome, Prof. Paper 54, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906, pp. 233-251.
J. W. Finch, Proc., Colo. Sci. Soc., 7, 1904, p. 204.
2 M. L. Fuller, Water-supply Paper 160, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906, p. 65.
3T. A. Rickard, Min. and Sci. Press, June 27, 1908.
4 M. L. Fuller, Water-supply Paper 160, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906, p. 65.
5For other examples see J. F. Kemp, The ground waters, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 45, 1914, pp. 3-25.
6 Mine waters, Trans., Lake Superior Min. Inst., 12, 1908, pp. 154-163.
40 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the surface waters are of the normal, potable type and that they descend
in diminishing quantities only to a depth of about 1,000 or 1,500 feet
below the surface. Below this depth moisture is scant, but where it
appears it consists of drippings of strong calcium chloride brine which
cannot in any way be explained as being derived from the surface water.
Many levels are absolutely dry and water must be sent down for drilling.
This case is particularly convincing, for we have here many features in
favor of a strong circulation: Moist climate, inclined position of beds,
and great permeability.
The gold mines of St. John del Rey in Brazil and Kolar in India have
both passed the 7,000-foot level. In both cases, according to information
received from Prof. L. C. Graton, the rocks are dry at that depth. At
the Rand in South Africa, there is some difficulty to obtain exact data,
for in order to abate the danger of silicosis no attempt is made to keep the
surface water down. Water is supplied to all the workings.
Depth of Water Level.—In moist climates the water level is usually
found within 50 feet of the surface, but in regions with less rainfall there
is great diversity in the location of this upper limit of the zone of satura­
tion. In the more arid regions the water is often met 300 or 400 feet
below the surface. At the Abe Lincoln gold-quartz mine, New Mexico,
a little water began to come in 1,300 feet below the surface. In the rich
deposits of Tintic, Utah, the water level in limestone lies 1,700 to
2 , 0 0 0 feet below the surface, but in mines in andesite and porphyry in the
same district water may be found at much less depth.
When water is being drained or pumped from a mine the water level
is artificially depressed, in the form of a flat funnel. The pump, in this
case, does not merely drain the bottom level, but receives water from
higher levels farther away from the shaft. It is important to note this,
for the water thus obtained from the bottom of a wet mine may not have
the same composition as that originally belonging to this level.
Total Amount of Free Water in Earth’s Crust.—Several estimates
have been made of the total amount of uncombined water contained in
the upper crust. The older estimates by Delesse, Dana, and Slichter
were very high. Van Hise1 reduced the estimate materially and con­
cluded that it would be equivalent to a sheet of water 226 feet (69 meters)
thick over the continental areas.
Fuller12 estimates, after a careful study of the problem, that the total
water would be equivalent to a uniform sheet 96 feet thick over the entire
surface of the earth. This estimate is probably more nearly correct
than any of the others.
1 A treatise on metamorphism, Mon. 47, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 128-129,
570-571.
2 M. L. Fuller, op. cit., p. 72.
 CHAPTER V
THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS
INTRODUCTION
Water is continually evaporated from sea and land. From the gath­
ered clouds it is precipitated as pure rain water, which, by the aid of
absorbed oxygen and carbon dioxide immediately begins the attack on
disintegrating rocks. The rivers finally carry suspended particles and
dissolved salts to the sea. Considered more closely, the rivers are the
combined products of the weak solutions of the immediate run-off and
the stronger ground-water solutions from the zone of discharge which
have been in longer contact with the rocks and leached them more thor­
oughly. This inconspicuous process of decomposition of rocks and
solution of resulting salts is one of scarcely realized geologic importance.
F. W. Clarke1 states that the Mississippi annually carries to the sea about
108 metric tons of salts from each square mile of territory drained; the
Colorado abstracts about 51 tons from the same unit area.
A smaller part of the ground water sinks to enrich the static zone of
stagnant waters, and ultimately becomes highly charged with salts. A
still smaller part of the water is permanently withdrawn by entering
hydrated compounds like kaolin.
To complete the picture we must not overlook the ascending hot
solutions which come from great depths and which in part at least are
derived from rising magmas.
As most mineral deposits have been formed by aqueous solutions the
composition of the waters of rivers, lakes, and seas becomes a study of
importance. Even more important is the composition of the underground
waters of wells and springs. In considering them from a chemical stand­
point it will be best to attempt no artificial distinction between thermal
or cold, mineral or non-mineral waters.
The substances dissolved in the ground water depend upon the forma­
tions which it traverses. At the immediate surface organic life may
influence the composition. In general, each formation yields its charac­
teristic salts to the percolating waters. Each natural water is a chemical
system of balanced constituents of more or less dissociated electrolytes,
of colloids, and of gases.
1 F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 116.
R. B. Dole and H. Stabler, Water-supply Paper 234, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909,
p. 78.
41
42 MINERAL DEPOSITS
CALCIUM CARBONATE WATERS IN IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks, of deep-seated origin, as well as crystalline schists
contain only small amounts of soluble salts. The surface waters pene­
trating them are charged with more or less carbon dioxide, which, at
ordinary temperatures, gradually decomposes the silicates, particularly
the pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, and the calcium feldspars; the alkali
feldspars are more slowly attacked. As a result the springs in such
terranes will have a low salinity, rarely above 1 , 0 0 0 parts per million, and
will contain principally calcium carbonate, with more or less of the corre­
sponding magnesium salt; a smaller amount of sodium carbonate and
much less of potassium carbonate are present. There will be little
chlorine and sulphuric acid radical. The silica is relatively high.
Such calcium carbonate waters are characteristic not only of superficial
springs, but also of the deeper circulation in crystalline terranes; in the
latter case the waters may be warm, though usually they are cold. The
spring-fed rivers in such terranes have a similar composition.
Where magnesian rocks, like basalt and serpentine, abound, the under­
ground waters are richer in magnesia than usual; and this substance may
even equal the calcium. Waters of this calcium carbonate type are com­
mon and, when encountered as ascending springs or elsewhere, justify
the presumption of surface origin. It often happens that hot springs
which are not characterized by an abundance of calcium carbonate are
accompanied by numerous other springs of somewhat lower temperature.
A comparison of analyses will usually show that in proportion to the
lowering of the temperature the quantity of calcium carbonate increases;
this indicates a cooling admixture of surface waters bearing calcium.
Waters of the kind described above are generally poor in the rarer
metals. A little arsenic is found in some cases and traces of barium,
strontium, lithium, boron, and phosphorus are sometimes recorded.
Where they traverse mineral deposits, metals contained in the deposits
will, of course, be dissolved. The springs may, under favorable condi­
tions, form crusts of calcium carbonate and hydroxide of iron, but as a rule
their powers of solution and deposition are weak. Where the rocks con­
tain much pyrite, as often is the case in mining districts, the sulphates,
especially calcium sulphate, rapidly increase in the waters.
CALCIUM CARBONATE WATERS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Waters of the type described above are not confined to igneous rocks.
They are often found in circulation in glacial drift and also in sedimentary
rocks—sandstones, limestones, and dolomites. Such waters sometimes
contain hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide. The derivation of the
latter is not always easily explained. In some cases the gas may emanate
from a deep-seated magma, but more commonly it is formed by decom­
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 43
position of carbonates. An example of such water is furnished by the
cold Cresson Spring in Pennsylvania, which issues from a shale member
between sandstones in a 3,000-foot series of Coal Measures, containing
practically no limestone. This water is pure, its salinity being only 442
parts per million, and of this 272 may be calculated as calcium carbonate,
76 as sulphates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium, and 11 as sodium
chloride. According to a careful analysis by Genth this water contains
traces of nickel, cobalt, iron, manganese, copper, strontium, barium, and
fluorine, 0.17 part per million of the last-named element being present.
Several analyses of similar well-known waters are quoted below.
COMPOSITION OF SALTS AND TOTAL SALINITY OF CALCIUM CARBONATE
WATERS IN SEDIM ENTARY AND CRYSTALLINE ROCKS

A B C D E F
c o 3...................... 47.14 57.80 38.46 40.02 41.47 48.641
S04...................... 6.67 3.10 15.35 21.73 3.93 6.30
Cl......................... 4.18 1.30 2.81 0.64 1.27 5.40
s ................................................. 0.50
P04 0.03
no 3 ................ 0.23
Ca........................ 22.67 13.90 13.24 23.35 23.54 16.56
Mg....................... 6.17 2.30 4.33 5.82 2.56 7.64
Mn....................... 0.10 0.17
Na........................ | 5.32 ) 5.50 12.86 1.81 2.38 10.36
K......................... | 0.40 3.76 2.04 0.80
(A1 Fe)20 3.......... 1.70 0.58 0.10 0.60
NHi..................... 0.03
SiCK..................... 7.85 13.40 9.19 4.01 22.85 4.50
BO2 . . 0.64
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Salinity, p a rts
per million.... 280 245 282 563 199 222
1 HC03.
N otes R ela tin g to A bove A nalyses
A. Aztec Spring, 4 miles east of Santa Fe, New Mexico. In schist and
granite. Cold. Analysis by F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, 1924, p. 68.
B. Cold spring in Federal Loan mine, in granite and schist, Nevada
City, California. Approximate analysis by W. F. Hillebrand; contains a
little manganese and trace of lead. Deposits calcium carbonate, limonite,
and some arsenic. Sulphur probably due to reduction from small amount
of H 2S after bottling. Seventeenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2,
1896, p. 121.
C. Cold water from 500-foot level, Geyser mine, Silver Cliff, Colorado.
Analysis by W. F. Hillebrand. In “The mines of Custer County, Colorado,”
by S. F. Emmons. Seventeenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1896,
p. 461. Free and semi-combined CO2, 38.8 parts per million.
44 MINERAL DEPOSITS
D. Virginia Hot Springs, Virginia. Analysis by F. W. Clarke, Data
of geochemistry, 1924, p. 194. Temperature tepid. Issues from Paleozoic
sediments. See also Bull. 32, U. S. Survey, 1886, p. 61.
E. Hot Springs, Arkansas. Spring No. 16. Temperature 62° C. Issues
from sharply compressed folds of Silurian sandstone and shale. C 02 from
bicarbonates 28.34 cc. per liter; nitrogen 8.39 cc. per liter; oxygen 2.49
cc. per liter; H2S none. Arsenic none; trace iodine and bromine. Analysis
by J. K. Haywood. The Hot Springs of Arkansas, Senate Doc. 282, Fifty-
seventh Congress, First Session, 1902, p. 94. Recalculated by F. W. Clarke,
Data of geochemistry, 1924, p. 196.
F. Cold water from well of Missouri Lead and Zinc Company, Joplin,
Missouri. Depth 1,387 feet. In Paleozoic limestone. Analysis by Cleve­
land and Miller Laboratory. Water-supply Paper 195, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1907, p. 137. Recalculated.
These waters frequently form ascending springs, but are generally of
meteoric origin.
Carbonate waters are undoubtedly active in solution and deposition
in the upper part of the crust, and especially in the formation of concen­
trations from weathering rocks. They may deposit calcareous sinters
and effect concentrations of iron and manganese. Some lead and zinc
deposits in limestone may also be genetically connected with them; their
power of solution and concentration of rarer metals appears to be weak,
unless they contain carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Such waters
in Kansas, Missouri, and Kentucky have been found to contain zinc and
probably also lead and copper.
The salts are surely obtained from the rocks traversed.
CHLORIDE WATERS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Infiltration from Present Oceans.—Wells and springs along the sea
coasts usually contain a higher percentage of sodium chloride than those
farther inland; this may be caused either by infiltration of sea water into
sediments or porous igneous rocks, or by winds carrying finely divided salt
from the spray of the waves.
Solution of Saline Deposits.—Many past geologic periods included
epochs of desiccation and desert climate when salt was precipitated from
evaporating waters of closed basins. Surface waters encountering such
sedimentary deposits easily dissolve the sodium chloride, and wells and
springs rich in this salt are characteristic of many regions. Besides
sodium these waters contain calcium and magnesium, and are often
rich in calcium chloride. They are poor in silica and potassium and
rarely contain much calcium which can be combined with carbon dioxide.
The presence of bromine is almost characteristic; traces of iodine and
boron are often found. Barium and strontium are almost always present,
the former sometimes in considerable amount. Free carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide are sometimes found, the latter especially where there
is an abundance of calcium sulphate. Waters of this general type are
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 45
characteristic of certain Paleozoic beds in the eastern United States, as
for instance, the Silurian of New York and Michigan and certain parts
of the Carboniferous in Michigan. In the western States the “ Red
Beds,” generally of Permian or Triassic age, are sometimes rich in salt
and gypsum; and this combination appears in the waters of these terranes.
There are many similar springs and wells in Pennsylvania, and in
fact, all through the interior Paleozoic basin, from Arkansas to Canada.
The Saratoga Springs of New York, issuing from Silurian limestones,
probably belong to this class. Their temperature is about 50° F.; the
total solids amount to about 1 1 , 0 0 0 parts per million, of which the larger
part is sodium chloride. Barium is conspicuously present, in some anal­
yses to a maximum of about 34 parts per million, likewise bromine to
about 1.20 parts per million. Small amounts of silica, iron, and lithium,
and traces of boron, iodine, and fluorine are recorded. The origin of the
C02 so abundant at Saratoga Springs is uncertain. J. F. Kemp believed
it to be of magmatic derivation. Examples of such waters are given in
the table of analyses on page 46.
Certain of these waters are abnormally rich in calcium chloride, that
most easily soluble salt which remains as the last liquid residue in evapo­
rating brines. Several instances of such waters have been interpreted as
residual or connate brines, remaining in early isolated Paleozoic basins. 1
In the lower peninsula of Michigan brines are obtained from deep wells
in the Carboniferous and Silurian. One of the springs in this region
contains 1 2 , 0 0 0 parts per million in total solids, with 6 , 0 0 0 calculated as
NaCl, 1,600 as MgCl2, and 4,100 as CaCl2. The researches of A. C. Lane
have shown that the scanty waters in the deep levels of the copper mines
of Michigan have a similar composition, except that here calcium chloride
prevails.
In oil-bearing districts salt waters are of very frequent occurrence.
They are rich in sodium chloride and often also contain the chlorides of
calcium and magnesium, as well as more or less bicarbonates. They are
always poor in sulphates, and this is perhaps due to their reduction by
the hydrocarbons. Such salt solutions have been variously interpreted
as connate waters, as solutions of saline deposits, as of magmatic
origin, 12 or as resulting from long-continued base exchange (p. 53).
In the western states many similar waters occur in the Red Beds, but,
as stated, they are usually also rich in calcium sulphate. As an example
may be cited the tepid Quelites Spring in New Mexico, 3 which ascends
1E. M. Shepard, Underground waters of Missouri, Water-supply Paper 195, U.
S. Geol. Survey, 1907, p. 81.
2 C. W. Washburne, Chlorides in oil field waters, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 45,
1915, pp. 687-693. G. S. Rogers, Chemical relations of the oil field waters in the San
Joaquin Valley, California, Bull. 653, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917.
3 F. A. Jones, New Mexico mines and minerals, 1904, p. 309.
46 MINERAL DEPOSITS
through “Red Beds” and contains about 2.6 per cent of solids; one-half
of which is calculated as sodium chloride and the larger part of the
remainder as calcium sulphate. Bromine, boron, and barium are present.
The Triassic strata of the French Alps and the Pyrenees are rich in
similar waters, many of which are warm. The mineral combination is
COMPOSITION OF SALTS AND TOTAL SALINITY OF CHLORIDE WATERS
{C ited fr o m C la rk e 's D a ta o f G eo ch em istry, 1924, pp. 183-188)

A B C D E F

Cl.......................... 55.83 58.79 42.00 62.31 63.55 56.58

Br ................... 0.04 1.13 0.53 0.04
I .......... 0.03 0.02 0.01 trace
SO,...................... 3.12 0.94 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.78
CO,...................... 2.63 0.61 18.59 0.27 0.01 3.13
B.O. . . 0.01
Na........................ 33.09 30.38 27.62 18.35 5.63 32.60
K ............... 0.27 3.76 0.78 1.55 1.16
Li .................. 0.08 0.04 0.04
NH, 0.23 0.07
Ca......................... 3.72 4.90 6.03 13.86 30.78 4.05
0.09 0.01
Sr 0.12
Mg........................ 1.13 0.40 3.41 2.53 0.01 0.61
Al O 0.02 0.02
Fe20 3 0.06 0.03
Fe* 0.25 0.04
SiOj..................... 0.08 0 .2 0 0.14 0.02 0.01 0.76
100.00 1 0 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Salinity, parts 10,589 23,309 12,022 309,175 212,300 8,241
per million.

N o tes R ela tin g to A bove A nalyses

A. Cincinnati artesian well, Cincinnati, Ohio. Analysis by E. S. Wayne,
cited by A. C. Peale, Bull. 32, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1886, p. 133. This
water contains considerable quantities of free H 2S and CO2.
B. Utah Hot Springs, 8 miles north of Ogden, Utah. Temperature
55° C. Analysis by F. W. Clarke, Bull. 9, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1884, p. 30.
C. Congress Spring, Saratoga, New York. Analysis by C. F. Chandler,
cited by A. C. Peale, in Bull. 32, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1886, pp. 38, 39. Traces
of F, P, B, Sr, and Al. Contains much free CO>.
D. Brine from well 2,667 feet deep at Conneautville, Pennsylvania.
Analysis by A. E. Robinson and C. F. Mabery, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc.,
18, 1896, p. 915. A little H2S is present.
E. Water from the deep levels of the Quincy mine, Hancock, Michigan.
Analysis by George Steiger.
F. The Kochbrunnen, Wiesbaden, Germany. Analysis by C. R. Fresen-
ius. This water also contains traces of I, P, and As.
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 47
a characteristic mingling of chlorides and sulphates, and undoubtedly
all of the constituents are derived from the sedimentary rocks mentioned.
A celebrated group of these chloride springs are found in Germany
on both sides of the Rhine. Among them are the waters of Soden, Hom-
burg, Wiesbaden, Kreutznach, Kissingen, and Nauheim. Most of them
issue from or ascend through salt-bearing beds of Permian or Triassic
age, and their composition is similar. The springs of Kreutznach are
especially rich in calcium chloride. Some of the springs cited are hot,
others cold; some are rich in carbon dioxide. In regard to Kreutznach
and Wiesbaden there is room for doubt, for the former springs stand in
intimate relation to eruptive rocks, while the latter issue from a gneiss
and are by some authors considered of juvenile origin. The majority
of them, at any rate, have certainly derived their salts from sedimentary
beds.
The chloride waters, described above, are capable of dissolving and
depositing many metallic substances and have strong dehydrating power.
Their relation to mineral deposits will be mentioned later.
CHLORIDE WATERS IN IGNEOUS ROCKS
Waters rich in chlorine are sometimes found as ascending springs in
igneous rocks, but almost always close to regions of comparatively recent
volcanic activity. Their composition is somewhat different from the
brines resulting from the dissolving of salts from sedimentary beds.
Bromine is seldom present except in mere traces, while boron appears in
considerable amounts. Such tepid salt waters arise, for instance, in the
volcanic region around Clifton, Arizona. The Paleozoic rocks of this
region are not known to contain either salt or gypsum. Another case
is the Glenwood Hot Springs in western Colorado; the springs at this
place issue from limestone, but the structural relations show that the
basal granite underlies this limestone at slight depths. The temperature
is 49.5° C.; the water contains a large amount of sodium chloride and
relatively small amounts of carbonates and sulphates. Hydrogen sul­
phide and free carbon dioxide are present. Still another case is Steam­
boat Springs, Nevada, which issue from granodiorite near the eastern
base of the Sierra Nevada in a region of Tertiary volcanism.
Many of these springs are rich in carbon dioxide and hydrogen sul­
phide; they often contain many of the rarer elements, as shown in the
analyses quoted below, and they usually appear in regions rich in ore
deposits. Doubt as to the derivation of the salt may, of course, exist in
some cases. Another notable instance of chloride springs of this class is
mentioned by Daubree1 from the provinces of Antioquia and Cauca in
Colombia, where they issue in great abundance from granite, crystalline
schist, and late volcanic rocks. Great difficulties arise in attempting to
1Les eaux souterraines, etc., II, 2, Paris, 1887, p. 106.
48 MINERAL DEPOSITS
trace the origin of the sodium chloride in springs of this class to surround­
ing rocks, even admitting that granite and other crystalline rocks may
contain traces of this salt. Sinters of calcium carbonate and silica are
often deposited at the orifices of these springs.
COMPOSITION OF SALTS AND TOTAL SALINITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE AND
SILICA WATERS
{ A fte r C la rk e's D a ta o f G eo ch em istry, 1924, pp. 188 and 197)

A B C D E

Cl........................................... 35.00 36.61 31.64 13.52 37.52

Br.......................................... 0.25
SO*........................................ 4.58 1.84 1.30 9.01 4.96
S............................................ 0.22 0.32
CO,........................................ 5.08 0.15 8.78 10.16
PO,........................................ 0.03 0.08
0.24
B.Cb...................................... 8.88 2.24 1.19
Na......................................... 30.35 21.44 26.42 19.71 24.22
K ........................................... 3.79 4.45 1.93 1.88 0.36
Li........................................... 0.27 0.22 0.40
NH*....................................... 0.02 0.28
0.25 0.39 0.11 2.59
Mg......................................... 0.01 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.19
Fe..........................................
As.......................................... 0.10
Sb.......................................... 0.02
A120 3..................................... 0.01 0.76 0.12 0.35
Si02....................................... 11.41 31.72 27.58 45.04 29.81
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Salinity, parts per million. 2,850 1,830 1,388 1,131 2,735

A. Steamboat Springs, Nevada. Analysis by W. H. Melville, given by

G. F. Becker in Mon. 13, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1888, p. 349. Bicarbonate
reduced to normal salts. Temperature 85° C. Contains free carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide. Traces of iron and quicksilver; deposits cinnabar
and stibnite.
B. Coral Spring, Norris Basin, Yellowstone National Park. Analysis by
F. A. Gooch and J. E. Whitfield, Bull. 47, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1888. Tem­
perature 73° C. H2S none. Free C 02, 42.5 parts per million.
C. Old Faithful Geyser. Same locality and analysts. Temperature
84°-88° C. BUS, 0.2 part per million.
D. Great Geyser, Iceland. Analysis by F. Sandberger.
E. Water of the pink terrace, Roturoa geyser. Analysis by W. Skey.
Closely related to this group are the predominant springs in the
great geyser regions of Yellowstone National Park, New Zealand, and
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 49
Iceland. 1 They are essentially sodium chloride waters with large amounts
of silica, a large quantity of free carbon dioxide, and a little hydrogen
sulphide. Large amounts of boron, usually calculated as sodium borate,
are often present, and also frequently arsenic. Bromine is rarely recorded
in quantities approaching those in the brines from sedimentary forma­
tions. The waters are always hot and usually ascend through volcanic
rocks, mostly rhyolite; from these the silica is supposed to be derived, but
no such explanation seems sufficient to account for the predominating
salt, sodium chloride, or for the boron. In the Yellowstone Park a
number of the springs issuing near limestone bear evidence of their pass­
age through this rock in increased quantities of calcium and magnesium.
Others are rich in sulphate of sodium and other sulphates, but these
springs give an acid reaction and the sulphates may be due to the oxida­
tion of hydrogen sulphide.
SULPHATE WATERS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The waters which traverse sedimentary rocks are often rich in salts,
particularly in sulphates. The gypsum waters have been mentioned and
are connected with the sodium chloride waters in a manner corresponding
to the association of gypsum and rock salt. By interaction of calcium
sulphate and magnesium carbonate, the sulphate of magnesium may be
formed, or it may be derived from the decomposition of a pyritic dolomite.
Sodium sulphate waters are almost characteristic of certain forma­
tions in the western Cretaceous, for instance; these formations consist
mainly of sandstones and carbonaceous shales, the latter often pyritiferous;
and the whole series mainly a product of near-shore deposition. The
oxidation of the pyrite furnishes solutions containing free sulphuric acid,
and by reaction between this and various other substances sulphates of
calcium, magnesium, and sodium will be formed. The lowest member
of this series, the Dakota sandstone, is particularly noted as a water­
carrying formation. The water, which is under artesian pressure, pene­
trates this formation for several hundred miles underground from its
outcrop and in places contains so much sodium sulphate as to be unfit
for irrigation purposes when tapped by deep wells. There is no evidence
that this water has formed mineral deposits in the sandstone.
In land deposits contained in many series of sedimentary rocks sodium
carbonate and sodium sulphate are formed by several well-established
reactions, and percolating waters will easily abstract these salts. The
interaction of calcium sulphate and sodium carbonate results in sodium
sulphate and precipitation of calcium carbonate. Sodium sulphate2 in
1E. T. Allen, and A. L. Day, Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park,
Carnegie Institute, Washington, D. C., 1935, 525 pp.
2 F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, 1924, p. 241; E. W. Hilgard, Am. Jour. Sci.,
4th ser., 2, 1896, p. 100; Cameron and Bell, Bull. 33, Bureau of Soils, 1906; F. K.
Cameron, Bull. 17, Bureau of Soils, 1901.
50 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the presence of free carbon dioxide will dissolve calcium carbonate, form­
ing sodium bicarbonate and a precipitate of gypsum. Reactions in
soils between sodium chloride and calcium sulphate result, accord­
ing to Cameron, in calcium chloride and sodium sulphate; and simi­
lar reactions take place between sodium chloride and calcium
carbonate.
In many waters in sedimentary formations chlorides and earthy car­
bonates appear mixed with sulphates. Waters from artesian wells at
Roswell, New Mexico, about 400 feet deep, derived from Permian lime­
stones, 1 have a temperature of 64°-70° F. and contain from 600 to 1,200
parts per million of solid salts, of which 300 to 576 are calcium and mag­
nesium sulphates and the remainder carbonates and chloride of sodium.
In regions of dislocations such waters may be hot and then the ordinarily
low percentage of silica may increase considerably. The Arrowhead
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION AND TOTAL SALTS AND ACIDS OF SULPHATE
WATERS AND ACID WATERS
A B C D E F G
0.18 5.60
9.37 1.29 59.11 31.38
h 3b o 3 .......... 2.73
Cl ............................. 0.48 11.10 0.32 0.81
s ............................... 0.04
sc ..................................... 66.28 59.68
>4 76.57 68.21 67.66 20.21 46.95
co3 .... 0.60 1.67
N©3 ............................... 0.02
30.46 13.89 1.19 0.22 0.73 8.35 h i . 47
K..................................... 1.08 0.49 0.11 0.24 0.32
Li .............. 0.01
NH4 .. .. 22.85
Ca.................................... 0.67 2.91 5.82 0.38 1.18 0.47 1.62
0.41 10.19 3.39 1.11 0.36 0.22 2.48
Fe" .......... 4.28 1.19 trace 5.74
Fe'"................................. 0.33 8.22
A1..................................... 7.36 11.08 0.10 trace none
Si02................................. 0.02 0.07 1.39 7.11 2.67 5 .3 9 1.27
100.00 100.00 100.00 99.10 100.00 1 0 0.00 100.00
Salinity, parts per mil­
lion .............................. 74,733 15,682 3,303 464 3,365 1,862 9,760
A. Abilena Well, Abilene, Kansas, 130 feet deep. Analysis by E. H. S.
Bailey, Geol. Survey Kansas, 7, 1902, p. 166. In Permian strata. From
Clarke’s Data of geochemistry, 1924, p. 189.
1C. A. Fisher, Report on the Roswell artesian area, Water-supply Paper 158, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1906.
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 51
B. King’s Mineral Spring near Dallas, Indiana. Twenty-sixth Ann.
Repl., Indiana Dept. Geol., 1901, p. 32. Traces of Al, Fe, Ba, Sr, Li, Mn,
Ni, Zn, Br, PO4, and B 4O7. Geological horizon Paleozoic shale.
C. Alum Well, Versailles, Missouri. Analysis by P. Schweitzer, Geol.
Survey Missouri, 3, 1892, p. 131. In Pennsylvanian shale.
D. Rockbridge Alum Springs, Virginia. Analysis by M. B. Hardin.
Cited in Clarke’s Data of geochemistry, 1924, p. 199. From pyritic shale.
Contains also 0.69 Mn, 0.01 Li, 0.05 Co, 0.07 Ni, 0.08 Zn, and traces of Cu,
HN03, and P 04.
E. Devil’s Inkpot, Yellowstone National Park. Analysis by F. A. Gooch
and J. E. Whitfield, Bull. 47, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1888, p. 80. Contains
also 65 parts of free C 02 and 5 parts of H2S per million. Cited in Clarke’s
Data of geochemistry, 1924, p. 200.
F. Cameron’s Bath, Roturoa geyser district, New Zealand. Analysis by
W. Skev, Trans., New Zealand Institute, 10, 1877, p. 423. Contains 6
parts per million of H2S. Cited in Clarke’s Data of geochemistry,
1924, p. 201.
G. Water at Sulphur mine of Cove Creek, Beaver Valley, Utah. Analy­
sis by W. M. Barr, Water-supply Paper 217, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, p. 20.
Contains also much free H2S.
Spring1 of San Bernardino Valley in southern California, issuing from
Tertiary sediments, has a temperature of 184° F. and contains 1,086
parts per million of solids, of which 735 are calculated as sodium sulphate,
69 as potassium sulphate, 23 as calcium sulphate, 3 as magnesium sul­
phate, 141 as sodium chloride, and 23 as calcium carbonate; 85 are present
as silica. In well waters of the same valley the solids range from 191
to 260 parts per million and the relation is CaC0 3 > MgC0 3 = Na 2 SC>4 >
Na2 C0 3 > > NaCl. Silica amounts to 24 to 32 parts per million.
Waters percolating through oxidizing pyritic shales sometimes contain
large amounts of the sulphates of aluminum and ferrous iron; evidently
this happens only when comparatively large amounts of sulphuric acid,
which is capable of attacking aluminous silicates, are set free.
Many such waters are found in the eastern and central states and
usually contain small amounts of rarer metals; traces of nickel, zinc, and
arsenic are common. The sulphate waters, especially those rich in iron
and aluminum, are of great importance in the genesis of deposits in the
oxidizing zone, and may form, at their orifices, large quantities of ocherous
deposits. Many waters of this kind are known from Virginia, issuing
from pyritic shales, and Peale2 quotes some interesting and reliable anal­
yses. A water from Alleghany Springs in Montgomery County, analyzed
by Genth, contained 3,129 parts per million of solids, of which the prin­
cipal constituents were calculated as 1,955 parts CaSC>4 , 225 parts MgS04,
and 61 parts CaC03. Small quantities of strontium, barium, fluorine,
1W. C. Mendenhall, Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, Water-supply Paper 142,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
2A. C. Peale, Lists and analyses of the mineral springs of the United States, Bull.
32, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1886, pp. 58-65.
52 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and silica and traces of zinc, lead, copper, and cobalt are noted. Some
free carbon dioxide and a trace of hydrogen sulphide are present.
The Jordan Alum Springs in Rockbridge County, Virginia, of which
several analyses by J. W. Mallet are recorded, contain from 306 to 935
parts per million of solid salts, of which the larger amount consists of
aluminum sulphate, 35 to 85 parts of ferric sulphate, and from 8 to 17
parts of manganese sulphate. Small quantities of copper, zinc, cadmium,
nickel, and cobalt are determined, also a trace of fluorine. One of the
waters contained 1 0 2 parts of copper and 9 parts of zinc. Springs of
similar composition are found in Pennsylvania and other eastern States.
All these acid springs are poor in silica and contain very little chlorine.
ACID SULPHATE WATERS IN IGNEOUS ROCKS
Sulphate springs in connection with igneous rocks and volcanism are
in part at least products of the oxidation of ascending waters of alkaline
reaction, containing free hydrogen sulphide. In regions of volcanic
activity such oxidation may take place on a large scale. These acid
waters effect rock alteration by attacking aluminum silicates and develop­
ing alunite. Free hydrochloric acid may be generated in large amounts
by decomposition of chlorides by sulphuric acid.
Such waters occur near the orifices of alkaline hot springs, as well as at
volcanoes. The development of free acid, of course, displaces the equilib­
rium and the oxidized water may differ greatly from its parent liquid;
thus it happens that a single ascending hot spring may yield a whole
series of derivatives of varying temperature and composition by mingling
with other waters and by oxidation.
The peculiar water from the Yellowstone National Park known as the
Devil’s Inkpot contains, besides free acids, a large amount of sulphate of
ammonia.
At the geysers of Sonoma County, California, 1 are a great number of
springs of varying temperature and composition, all of them heavily
charged with hydrogen sulphide. The primary water at a temperature
of 110° F. appears to contain chiefly carbonate of magnesium with some of
calcium. The total solids amount to about 568 parts per million, most
of which consist of the above-mentioned carbonates; there are 92 parts
of silica per million. This water is probably of mixed origin; the car­
bonates are clearly derived from the serpentinoid rocks of the vicinity,
but the hydrogen sulphide is most likely of magmatic origin. Oxidation
gives rise to a long series of peculiar sulphate waters, most of them rich
in dissolved solids and of high temperature. Allen and Day consider
these acid springs as the normal emanations from magmas though admixed
1 Winslow Anderson, Mineral springs, etc., of California, 1892, pp. 13G-154.
G. A. Waring, Springs of California, Water-supply Paper 338, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1915, p. 109.
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 53
with meteoric waters. If this is true they must originate from near­
surface intrusions or from flows, because no deep-seated water could
retain its acidity during a long ascent.
Finally, acid water may result directly from the oxidation of deposits
of sulphur. A water of the latter type from Beaver County, Utah, is
described by W. T. Lee.
SODIUM CARBONATE WATERS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Waters containing sodium carbonate in large amounts are not common
in sedimentary rocks, but here and there wells or springs of this character
are encountered; they are usually cold and often contain some free carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. The alkaline carbonate is probably, as
suggested above, derived from a reaction between sodium sulphate and
calcium carbonate or between sodium chloride and calcium carbonate.
Waters of this kind occur at a few places in the eastern and central states.
A good instance is furnished by some Missouri waters in Carboniferous
limestone, one of which is quoted under E in the following table. Similar
waters are those of the wells at La Junta, Denver, and Greeley, Colorado.
The artesian wells at Denver, about 1,200 feet deep, are in the Arapahoe,
Eocene, while the Greeley well, of the same depth, is sunk in Laramie
sandstone. The maximum of total solids is about 1,530, divided between
sodium carbonate and sodium chloride. Some free C02 is present.
Many artesian waters in New South Wales are rich in sodium carbonate.
Sedimentary beds containing volcanic tuffs often yield sodium carbonate
waters. An explanation of this has been given by B. C. Renick.1 He
shows that waters rich in the carbonates and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium are converted to sodium carbonate by an exchange of bases,
effected by certain hydrous silicates in the sedimentary tuffaceous beds.
SODIUM CARBONATE WATERS IN IGNEOUS ROCKS
Ascending sodium carbonate waters are mainly found in regions of
subsiding or expiring volcanism. During surface eruptions alkaline
chlorides and carbonates always appear as sublimates; and waters travers­
ing tuffs, breccias, and lava flows may dissolve these salts together with
other volcanic exhalations such as borates. The characteristic sodium
carbonate waters are, however, of deep-seated origin and usually break
through the older igneous or metamorphic rock underlying the lavas
in regions where the active volcanism has ceased; the prevailing opinion
is that these waters with their charge are in whole or in part of magmatic
origin. They rarely contain much calcium and are poor in silica,
but are usually heavily charged with carbon dioxide and sometimes hydro­
gen sulphide. They almost always contain many rarer substances such
as boron, fluorine, iodine, arsenic, and various metals.
1 Water-supply Paper 520, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1925, pp. 53-72.
54 MINERAL DEPOSITS
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF SALTS AND TOTAL SALINITY OF SODIUM
CARBONATE WATERS
( C ited fr o m C la rk e 's D a ta o f g e o c h e m istry , 1924, pp. 192-194, and 198)

A B C D E F

Cl......................... 6.17 8.85 11.52 13.57 6.63 4.01

F ........................... 0.19 0.03
SO........................ 3.75 5.77 31.19 0.32 6.21 4.26
s ........................... 0.06
c o a...................... 45.57 41.91 19.15 22.38 44.76 47.45
P O ...................... 1.52 6.01 0.01
AsO,.................... 0.04
B40 7..................... 0.16 27.98
N a ....................... 35.27 38.08 32.49 33.97 41.07 40.09
K .......................... 2.88 1.20 1.35 0.48 0.38
NH4...................... 0.05
Li .’...................... 0.12
Ca......................... 2.29 0.87 2.23 0.41 0.30 0.27
Sr.......................... 0.04 0.05 0.01
Mg........................ 1.11 0.41 0.65 0.11 0.12 0.15
Mn........................ 0.01
Fe......................... 0.02 0.14
Fe2Oa................... 0.04 0.06
A ljoj................... 0.02 0.20
Si02”................... 1.32 2.30 1.34 0.73 0.85 3.05
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Salinity, parts 5,249 2,614 5,431 5,096 2,069 1,668
per million

N o tes R e la tin g to A bove A nalyses

A. The Grand-Grille spring, Vichy, France. Analysis by J. Bouquet.
Small quantity of fluorine present. Temperature 44° C. Issues from
Tertiary beds.
B. Ojo Caliente spring, near Taos, New Mexico. Analysis by W. F.
Hillebrand. Trace of barium and arsenic. In lake beds and gneiss.
C. The Sprudel, Carlsbad, Bohemia. Analysis by F. Ragzsky. Con­
tains 0.76 gram free and half-combined CO2 per kilogram. Traces of Br, I,
Li, B, Rb, and Cs. Temperature 72° C. In granite.
D. Hot water from the Hermann shaft, Sulphur Bank, California.
Analysis by W. H. Melville. A little H 2S and a considerable amount of
CO2 present. Temperature 80° C. In basalt and sandstone.
E. McClelland well, Cass County, Missouri, 45 feet deep, in Carbonif­
erous limestone. Analysis by P. Schweitzer. Contains H 2S.
F. Artesian water, La Junta, Colorado. Well 386 feet deep. Analysis
by W. F. Hillebrand. In Cretaceous beds.
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 55
Such waters should attack silicates with great energy; and it is sug­
gested that their strong percentage of sodium may have been leached
from walls of the fissures, during the conversion of sodium silicates to
potassium silicates as in the process of sericitization, so common in min­
eral veins. It is certain that these waters are of the utmost importance
in the genesis of ore-bearing veins.
An excellent instance of a province of such waters is furnished by the
volcanic district of central France.1 An analysis of the celebrated Vichy
Springs is given in the table on page 54. Sodium preponderates as
bicarbonate, but smaller quantities of sodium chloride and sulphate are
also present. The whole region of the Central Plateau is rich in carbon
dioxide, occurring both in springs and as exhalations (for instance, at the
Pontgibaud lead-silver mines). The magmatic source of the gas is
rarely questioned whatever opinion may be held about the origin of the
water.
At the foot of the Erzgebirge, in the Tertiary volcanic region of north­
ern Bohemia, issue a series of hot springs, extending from Teplitz to
Carlsbad and Eger. Most of these belong to the class of sodium car­
bonate waters with free carbon dioxide. They contain an abundance of
salts, and in the Teplitz and Bilin springs sodium carbonate predominates.
In the Carlsbad (C in table on p. 54) and Marienbad springs the sul­
phuric acid radical is prominent and must largely exist in sodium sulphate.
The Carlsbad springs contain fluorine and barium with traces of many
rarer metals which are mentioned above.
In the Cordilleran ranges in North America and South America sodium
carbonate waters are abundant and always closely connected with areas
of Tertiary volcanic activity.
In New Mexico the Ojo Caliente (B in analyses on p. 54), Faywood,
and Las Vegas springs may be mentioned; in Colorado the Idaho Springs,
Middle Park Springs, Poncha Springs, and the water in the Geyser mine
at Silver Cliff; in Idaho the Boise Hot Springs. In California sodium
carbonate waters are especially abundant and characteristic; they follow
the Coast Range from San Diego to Mendocino County and appear to
stand in some causal connection with the late Tertiary or Quaternary
eruptions of basalt. Some of the waters are clearly admixed with mag­
nesium from the serpentinoid rocks which they have traversed, but in
general the type is perfectly distinct. The data on p. 56 are taken from
the U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 32, by A. C. Peale.
An interesting type of these waters is represented by the hot spring of
Sulphur Bank (D in analyses on p. 54), which contains boron and is
depositing cinnabar. On the whole these waters are rich in unusual
constituents and have great solvent powers.
1 Jacquot and Willm, Les eaux minerales de la France, Paris, 1894.
56 MINERAL DEPOSITS

Salinity,
Source of water parts per Composition and quantity of
principal salts
million

San Juan Capistrano (T. 50° C.). 290 HNaCOa> NaCl > Si02
111 105 70
Skaggs Springs (T. 54° C .)........ 2,556 HNaCC>3> B 4O7 >SiC>2
2,083 176 151
Paso Robles Springs (T. 42° C.). 1,581 HNaCOa > NaCl >N a2SO<
850 469 136
New Almaden Vichy (T. 17° C.). 7,361 HNaCOa t> CaSO* CaCOa
3,400 680 544
Napa Soda (T. 17° C.)................. 1,156 HNaCOa > MgCOa > NaCl
561 187 85
Pacific Congress (T. 10° C.)....... 5,678 HNaCOa > NaCl > CaCOa
2,091 1,923 289
Ukiah Vichy (T. 34° C.).............. 4,624 HNaCOa > NaCl > MgCOa
3,369 459 374

SODIUM SULPHIDE WATERS

It is believed that in some of the springs already referred to—for
example, Steamboat Springs, Nevada—sodium sulphide is present. In
the Pyrenees of France and Spain is found a group of springs in which
sodium sulphide is constantly present. These springs have a high tem­
perature and a low salinity, containing from 250 to 350 parts per million
of salts; they usually issue in crystalline schists or on the contact of the
schists with Paleozoic strata. A characteristic spring mentioned among
others by Jacquot and Willm1 contains total C02 52, S (in sulphides) 31,
Na 97, C0326, Cl 55, and Si0293 parts per million. Some organic matter
is present and strong traces of boron, arsenic, copper, etc., are mentioned.
There appears to be considerable difficulty in the explanation of this
combination on the hypothesis of leaching from the surrounding country
rock. Where contaminated by surface water or where locally issuing
through Triassic strata they become calcic. By oxidation they acquire
hyposulphites.
SUMMARY
In sedimentary formations, beyond the influences of igneous activity,
the waters are of many differing types dependent upon the composition
of the rocks traversed. Some contain mainly calcium carbonate; others
are of the chloride type, with sodium or calcium as the prevalent base;
still others, a very abundant class, are rich in calcium or sodium sulphates;
a rarer type is that of the sodium carbonate waters. Naturally many
1Les eaux rnincrales de la France, Paris, 1894.
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 57
waters show a mingling of these types. Most of these waters are cold;
many are tepid; few of them are hot. Whether warm or cold, both hydro­
gen sulphide and carbon dioxide may be present.
In older igneous rocks where the effects of volcanism have subsided
the types vary less widely. The ordinary surface waters are always—
unless some disturbing influence interferes—of the calcium carbonate
type, often with sodium chloride, ferrous and magnesium carbonate, and
considerable silica, but low salinity. These waters sometimes, but not
often, appear as tepid ascending springs. If the rocks contain iron disul­
phide the waters may locally contain free sulphuric acid and the sulphates
of calcium, aluminum, and iron.
The remaining classes of water in igneous rocks are ascending and
confined to regions of recent or Tertiary volcanic activity. They are
tepid to hot, though cold waters are also known. They easily fall into
two classes: (1) the sodium chloride waters, of which the siliceous “geyser
waters” form a sub-class; (2) the sodium carbonate waters, which are
generally rich in free carbon dioxide. Transitions between the two classes
are plentiful, and such waters may also contain notable amounts of sodium
sulphate; of this class the Carlsbad Springs form a prominent example.
Acid waters may result from the oxidation of rocks containing sulphides
or sulphur; or they may form from the oxidation of ascending hot waters
containing H 2 S; or, near volcanoes, they may develop from admixture of
hot acidic emanations with surface waters. It is clear that no acid waters
can travel far without becoming alkaline or neutral.
INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
Analyses of waters are usually stated in parts per million of radicals
and metals. From this form a calculation will be necessary to ascertain
whether the water is alkaline, neutral, or acid.
Stabler1has suggested that for this purpose the quantities determined
may be multiplied by the reciprocals of the equivalents. The products
are called the reacting values. If the water is neutral the reacting values
of acids and basic radicals should balance. Palmer,12 in his method of
geological interpretation of water analyses, finds it convenient to express
the reacting values in percentages, thus eliminating the factor of concen­
tration. Palmer’s classification emphasizes the fact that a solution in
which strong acids are exactly balanced with strong bases is relatively
inert, whereas one in which either group exceeds the other is relatively
1Herman Stabler, The mineral analysis of water for industrial purposes and its
interpretation by the engineer, Eng. News, 60, 1908, p. 356. Also, chapter on the
industrial application of water analyses in Water-supply Paper 274, U. S. Geol. Sur­
vey, 1911, pp. 165-181.
2 Chase Palmer, Geochemical interpretation of water analyses, Bull. 479, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1911.
58 MINERAL DEPOSITS
active. It is of special use in showing the relationship and the nature of
chemical action of different waters.
Alkalinity and salinity are the fundamental properties. Salinity is
measured by the strong acid radicals (SO4, Cl). If the basic radicals are
partly or wholly alkaline metals their proportion of the salinity is said to
be primary. The remaining salinity due to radicals Ca, Mg, Fe is called
secondary. If the acid radicals are in excess, tertiary salinity or acidity
results. The measure of primary alkalinity is the excess of alkaline metal
radicals over the strong acids; the weak-acid radicals C03 and HC03
which balance any excess of the alkaline earth metals over the stronger
acids produce secondary alkalinityA
In spite of an objectionable terminology Palmer’s method furnishes a
convenient basis for comparative study but as a classification of natural
waters it is unwieldy and uncertain. It is not always a safe guide to the
geological history of the water.
The constants used in converting grains per gallon to parts per million
and vice versa are as follows:
1 grain per U. S. gallon = 17.138 parts per million
1 grain per Imperial gallon = 14.285 parts per million
1 part per million = 0.0588 grain per U. S. gallon
1 part per million = 0.07 grain per Imperial gallon
MINE WATERS2
Chloride Waters
Mine waters consist as a rule of the normal ground waters of the
region modified by the salts resulting from the decomposition of the ores.
In districts free from sulphides the mine waters of the upper levels are
ordinarily of the potable calcium carbonate type, but as depth is gained
they acquire much more chlorides. Examples of such waters are found
in the iron and copper mines of Michigan. In the following table analyses
1 and 2 represent average waters of the upper circulation; 3 and 4 give
the composition of the deep waters of the same region, which differ very
materially from the shallow waters and contain an abundance of calcium
chloride. The deep waters in the copper region contain some copper,
zinc, nickel, and traces of boron.
1 Cf. F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 616, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1916, p. 63.
G. S. Rogers, The interpretation of water analyses by the geologist, Econ. Geol.,
12, 1917, pp. 56-88.
2 W. H. Emmons and G. L. Harrington, A comparison of the waters of mines and
of hot springs, Econ. Geol., 8, 1913, pp. 653-659.
E. T. Hodge, The composition of waters of sulphide ores, Econ. Geol. 10, 1915,
pp. 123-139.
W. H. Emmons, The enrichment of ore deposits, Bull. 625, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1917, pp. 83-106.
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 59
ANALYSES OF M INE W ATERS FROM UPPER AN D LOWER LEVELS OF IRON
AND COPPER MINES OF MICHIGAN
(Parts per Million)
1 2 3 4
Cl............................................ 3.5 6.00 25,360 176,027
Br........................................... 2,200
C03......................................... 24.2 41.60 Not det.
S04......................................... 18.8 12.10 1,045 110
Ca........................................... 12.9 15.20 7,902 86,478
Mg........... ........................... 2.0 9.60 566 20
Na.......................................... 11.3 4.00 | 7,290 i 15,188
K ..................................... 1.50 / 411
A I2 O 3 J
4.0 \ 0.60 | 700 10
) \ 1.23
Mn......................................... 4
Cu........................................... 16
Ni........................................... 6
14.5 8.43 20
2.8
Total..................................... 94.0 100.26 42,863 280,490

1. Mass copper mine, Michigan. Water from upper levels. Analyst,

Dearborn Chemical Works, Chicago. A. C. Lane, Mine waters. Thir­
teenth Annual Meeting, Lake Superior Mining Institute, June, 1908, p. 31.
2. Newport mine, Gogebic district, Michigan. Water from upper levels.
Analyst, R. D. Hall, Free CO2 18.0. Residue dried at 100° C. 108.30.
Van Hise and Leith, Mon. 52, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911, p. 543.
3. Republic iron mine. Seventeenth level. Temperature 57° F. Anal­
yst, G. Fernekes. Calculates to NaCl 18,510 and CaCl2 21,800. A. C.
Lane, op. cil., p. 10.
4. Quincy copper mine. Drippings on fifty-fifth level. Similar waters
from the Calumet and Hecla mine also contain some zinc. Analyst, G. Fer­
nekes. Chiefly calcium and sodium chlorides and sodium bromide. Op. cit.,
p. 48. Trace boron and strontium. No barium or carbon dioxide.
Salt waters, containing mainly sodium chloride to the amount of
several per cent, are reported from the Kalgoorlie mines in Western
Australia, where they began to come in at water level, a few hundred feet
below the surface. At the Great Boulder Proprietary the water contained
9 per cent of sodium chloride and also much magnesium chloride.1 Simi­
lar waters came into the deep levels of the Bendigo mines.12 Sulphides
are not abundant in these mines. The analysis of a sample taken 4,280
1T. A. Rickard, Formation of bonanzas, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 31, 1901,
pp. 198-220.
2 W. J. Rickard, Deep mining at Bendigo, Mining Mag., 1910, p. 281.
60 MINERAL DEPOSITS
feet below the surface, in the Victoria Reef quartz, where the temperature
of the water is 114° F., is as follows, contained in parts per million:
NaCl, 1,308.45; Na2S04, 75.79; Na2C 03, 37.18; CaCO.,, 124.41; MgC03, 45.76;
Si02, 21.45; (Al,Fe)20 3, 2.86; total, 1,615.90.
According to T. A. Rickard1 the mine water at Mammoth, Pinal
County, Arizona, contains 86 parts per million of sodium chloride, and
that from Stratton’s Independence mine, at Cripple Creek, Colorado, 51
parts of the same salt.
Carbonate Waters
The mine waters from the Wardner lead mines, in the Coeur d’Alene
district, Idaho, are rich in ferrous carbonate (from siderite in the ore)
and deposit abundant limonite. A sample from the Reed level, Bunker
Hill and Sullivan mine, showed 70 parts per million of total solids, chiefly
bicarbonate and sulphate of calcium.2
A number of analyses of waters from the lead mines of southeastern
Missouri are given by E. R. Buckley.3 The waters come from the La
Motte sandstone and Bonneterre dolomite, generally at depths of a few
hundred feet. The total solids are at most 500 parts per million, of
which 200 parts or more are calculated as calcium-magnesium carbonates.
The sulphates, calculated as the magnesium salt, are at most 200 parts
per million, while sodium chloride averages only 50 parts. Silica is low.
All contain a little lead, at most 1 part per million, calculated as lead
sulphate, and generally a trace of zinc. They are weak waters mainly on
account of the small amount of pyrite in the deposit.
Sulphate Waters
Oxidation of Pyrite.—Where pyrite is present in notable quantities
its oxidation materially changes the composition of the waters. The
sulphuric acid radical increases rapidly and displaces the equilibrium so
that the normal calcium carbonate waters are changed into those contain­
ing mainly calcium sulphate. When the free sulphuric acid increases
still further the water becomes rich in the sulphates of aluminum (by the
decomposition of sericite and other silicates) and iron, the latter present
as both ferrous and ferric sulphate. Free hydrochloric acid is sometimes
present. In waters above or at the water level these sulphates may be
present in large quantities. Below the water level free acid is rarely
found and the sulphate of aluminum is absent. The iron is present as
ferrous sulphate and d minishes in quantity with increasing depth. The
characteristic calcium sulphate waters persist for wide spaces around
1 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 31, 1901, pp. 198-220.
2 F. L. Ransome, Prof. Paper 62, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
3 Missouri Bur. Geol. and Mines, 9, pt. 1, 1909, p. 249.
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 61
pyritic deposits and also reach considerable depths. Besides the sul­
phates mentioned, the mine waters of the oxidized zone contain almost
all the metals occurring in the deposit. Zinc sulphate is especially abun­
dant; copper sulphate is usually present, lead much more rarely; arsenic
is common and antimony rare.
The waters of coal mines show plainly the result of the oxidation of
the pyrite and marcasite occurring in the beds. Such waters are often
rich in the sulphates of ammonium, calcium, iron, and aluminum, and
even in free sulphuric acid. In the drainage from the mines the iron
appears as ferrous sulphate, from which, by oxidation, ferric sulphate is
formed. Coarsely crushed coal washed with distilled water is said to
yield free sulphuric acid in the filtrate. Mine waters from coal mines
occasionally contain zinc, copper, cobalt, and nickel. A water from the
coal mine of the Dravo-Doyle Company, in Pennsylvania, showed, as
analyzed by the Pittsburgh testing laboratory of the Bureau of Mines:
Free H 2SO4.............................................. 117 parts permillion
Fe2(S0 4)3 .................................................. 4,970 parts permillion
A12(SO<)j .................................................. 140 parts permillion
FeSC>4........................................................ 54 parts permillion
More or less of the sulphates of calcium and magnesium are also usually
present.
ANALYSIS OF M INE WATERS FROM THE COMSTOCK LODE
(Parts per Million)

1 2 3

Cl............................ 1.27 19.00 127.60

so, ......................... 380.38 474.00 209,100.00
CO,......................... 115.03 20.45
K ............................ 8.39 53.40
Na.......................... 57.13 132.00 535.00
Ca........................... 148.10 10 0.10 1,286.00
Mg.......................... 154.03 5.88 6,590.00
A1 ............. 1.37 9,670.00
Mn.......................... 885.10
147.50
Si0 2........................ 30.50 133.40 616.00
Fe............................ 6.33 5,025.02
IT ......................... 2,575.00

Total salinity... 894.83 945.93 236,557.22

1. Water from the 600-foot level of the Savage mine. G. F. Becker,

Mon. 3, U. S. Gcol. Survey, 1882, p. 152.
2. Waters from the C. and C. shaft at the 2,250-foot level. John A.
Keid, Bull. California Univ. Dept. Geology, 4, 1905, pp. 177-199. Contains
2.92 milligrams of silver and 0.298 milligram of gold per ton of solution.
3. Surface water from the Central tunnel. Idem.
62 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Examples.—Analyses (page 61) of the Comstock waters, Nevada,
by J. A. Reid well illustrate the occurrence of sulphate waters. No. 3
is a concentrated sulphate water from the oxidized zone; Nos. 1 and 2 are
ANALYSES OF M INE WATERS

1 2 3 4 5
Cl...................... 2.7 12.4 6.8 13.0 08
h c o s................ 13.5 210 0
SOi.................... 6,163.2 124.8 406.5 2,672.0 1,088.0
107.6 18.0 23 0 47.7 64.0
Ca..................... 345.3 46.4 151.2 132.5 564 7
Mg.................... 25.2 14.5 28.2 61 6 22 4
Na ................... 49.9 16 2 39 6 51.2
K ....................... 0.5 71 13.1 7.1
Fe".................... | 474.6 6.6
Fe'".................. 159.8
Mn.................... 1.7 0.5 12.0
Zn...................... 2,412.0 8.9 0.3 852.0
Cd..................... 90 41.1
A l .............................. 142.1 83.5
Cu..................... 3.7 Trace. 59.1
C o+N i............. 0.5
Sn.!.................. 17.0
9,727.5 231.6 655.1 4,204.5 2,008.2
1. Water from Alabama Coon mine, Joplin, Missouri. H. N. Stokes,
analyst.
2. Water from the Rothschonberger Stolln, Freiberg, Saxony, at point of
discharge. Analysis by Frenzel. Recalculated by F. W. Clarke, Data of
geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 647.
3. Water from 2,200-foot level, Green Mountain mine, Butte, Montana,
remote from veins. W. F. Hillebrand, analyst.
4. Water from 1,200-foot level, crosscut St. Lawrence, Butte, Montana.
Tin possibly accidentally introduced? Faintly acid. W. F. Hillebrand,
analyst. Fe" probably changed to Fe"'during exposure to air.
5. Cripple Creek, Colorado, water from El Paso Tunnel draining the
lowest workings. R. C. Wells, analyst. Fe + Al, etc., 0.6. Free CO2
trace.
deeper hot waters, resulting from the reaction between an ascending
sodium-carbonate water and sulphuric acid from the upper zones. The
ores contain mainly gold and silver and are not rich in pyrite.
 THE COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 63
Some more recent analyses of Comstock waters are discussed by
E. S. Bastin.1 He also presents analyses of mine waters from the San
Juan districts, Colorado.
Some of the mine waters of the Joplin zinc region, where the deposits
contain, besides sphalerite and galena, some pyrite or marcasite, are
extremely rich in zinc sulphate and contain also the sulphates of iron and
aluminum. (See analysis No. 1 in the table, p. 62.)
The water of the Rothschonberger tunnel, draining the mines at
Freiberg, Saxony, is a good example of a dilute mine water which has
traversed the old workings of veins carrying pyrite, galena, and sphal­
erite. (See analysis No. 2, p. 62.)
ANALYSES OF M INE WATERS FROM DUCKTOWN, TENNESSEE. AND
CANANEA, MEXICO
G. W. Hawley, Analyst (Cananea); R. C. Wells (Ducktown)
(Parts per Million)
1 2 3 4
s o 4................................... 5,064 4,457 415.8 476.8
Cl..................................... Not determined 22 0.7 0.4
Si02.................................. 76 56 47.0 49.9
A1..................................... Not determined 22 14.5 19.1
Fe".................................. 305 524 71.4 89.2
Fe'"................................. 20.3 55.9
Ca.................................... 436 753 19.7 30.4
Mg................................... 61 86 5.2 6.2
Mn................................... 236 153 0.2 0.1
Zn.................................... Not determined 252 2.4 2.9
Cu.................................... 1,659 60 28.1 11.0
K...................................... Not determined | 198 ) 2.7 2.2
Na....................................
Acidity as (H2S04) ....... 970
1 Nil
\ 5.2
210.2
5.5
97.5
1. Cananea 300-foot level.
2. Cananea 900-foot level.
3. Calloway shaft, Ducktown, Tennessee, standing water, at water level,
90 feet below surface.
4. Calloway shaft, Ducktown, Tennessee, standing water 37 feet below
water level.
The same principle is illustrated by the analyses of two waters from
the mines at Butte, Montana. No. 3 is from a deep level, but rather
far from the principal vein system; No. 4 is from the 1,200-foot level in
one of the principal mines; it has acquired the habit of a water of the
upper oxidized zone because the water level has been artificially lowered
and the oxidation of the pyrite is progressing rapidly. No. 5 is a deep
water from Cripple Creek (p. 62).
Bull. 735, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1923, pp. 57, 67, and 107.
64 MINERAL DEPOSITS
A. C. Lawson1 describes the mine water from the Ruth mine 335 feet
below the surface, in the chalcocite blanket in the porphyry of Ely,
Nevada. The temperature was 16° C., decidedly higher than the average
annual temperature of the region. The total solids were 1,094 parts
per million, of which 359 parts were calculated as calcium sulphate, 130
as magnesium sulphate, 93 as alkaline chlorides, 160 as ferrous sulphate,
and 7 as ferric sulphate.
Four analyses of the mine waters at the copper mines of Cananea,
Mexico,12 and Ducktown, Tenn.,3illustrate the change as depth is gained.
The Cananea waters come from an upper and a deeper level and have
percolated through a sericitized rock with a considerable amount of
chalcocite and pyrite. The Ducktown waters are also acid and are taken
from the upper part of the groundwater (p. 63).
The deeper waters contain much more calcium sulphate as well as
ferrous sulphate, but much less copper. Chalcocite probably reduces the
ferric sulphate to ferrous.
In mines containing molybdenite the waters from the oxidized zone
may contain this metal usually as the blue oxide. Such a water from a
tunnel in the Gilpin County gold mines contained nearly 8 grams per
liter of a molybdenum oxide. The water had a deep greenish-blue color.
1 Bull. California Univ. Dept. Geol., 4, 1906, pp. 287-357.
2 W. H. Emmons, Enrichment of ore deposits, Bull. 625, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917,
p. 87.
3 W. H. Emmons and F. B. Laney, Prof. Paper 139, idem, 1926, p. 69.
 CHAPTER VI
THE SPRING DEPOSITS AT THE SURFACE
Dissolving and precipitating processes are in continual progress in
the underground waters. As will be seen later the conclusion seems
justified that a majority of mineral deposits have resulted from reactions
in the underground solutions. Only at the surface or in mines, however,
is it possible to study the actual progress of these chemical changes, and
great interest, therefore, attaches to the deposits formed by the natural
waters where they issue as springs from their underground path. The
precipitation taking place in rivers, lakes and seas will be described in
later chapters.
On the whole the composition of the material deposited by springs is
simple. Three main divisions are recognized: deposits of limonite (iron
hydroxide), calcium carbonate, and silica. Mixtures of two or all of these
substances are frequently observed. The deposits are known as (1)
ochers, (2) tufas, travertines, or calcareous sinters, (3) sinters or siliceous
sinters.
The precipitation is in part due to oxidation, cooling, or escape of
carbon dioxide but algte and micro-organisms frequently aid by secreting
silica jelly, calcium carbonate, colloidal ferric hydroxides, or manganese
dioxide.1
Deposits of Limonite and Calcium Carbonate.—Limonite is frequently
deposited by superficial meteoric waters which contain ferrous carbonate
and ferrous sulphate. Many such ochers contain a little manganese and
traces of copper, arsenic, nickel, and cobalt. Other waters also deposit
some limonite so that many sinters and tufas are stained by this com­
pound. Analyses of such ochers are quoted by F. W. Clarke.12
Calcium carbonate is probably the most common spring deposit,
though the ordinary dilute surface waters rarely are able to form impor­
tant precipitates. Hot carbonated waters issuing from limestone often
deposit large masses of such tufa, covering many acres with thick terraced
beds. The Mammoth Hot Springs in the Yellowstone Park offer a
beautiful example of such tufa. The precipitates are almost pure calcium
carbonate with a little magnesium carbonate. In many of these springs
1W. H. Weed, Ninth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1889, pp. 613-676.
It. Molisch, Die Eisenbakterien, Jena, 1910.
Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 92, pt. 2, 1907, p. 888, abstract.
2 Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 206.
65
66 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the calcium carbonate is the least soluble constituent which remains
after the others have been carried away. Thus, the sodium chloride
springs of Glenwood, Colorado, yield a considerable deposit, and the
sodium carbonate springs of Ojo Caliente, New Mexico, which are very
poor in calcium, deposited at their former point of issue a porous tufa
containing over 90 per cent of calcium carbonate. This carbonate is no
doubt deposited in crystalline form, though it is usually fine grained.
Such deposits are not always calcite, for the presence of aragonite has
been proved in many spring deposits, for instance those of Hammam
Meskoutine, in Algeria, and of Carlsbad, in Bohemia.1
Deposits of Silica.—At hot springs containing much silica, this sub­
stance is abundantly precipitated because of evaporation, through mix­
ture with other waters, or, according to W. H. Weed, by the action of
certain hot-water algae. The material is deposited as a colloid gel which
subsequently crystallizes to opaline or chalcedonic silica. Such sinters
are formed by the hot springs of the Yellowstone Park and may contain
up to 95 per cent of silica. Sodium is often present as chloride or car­
bonate. The Steamboat Springs of Nevada12 deposit a sinter of pure
silica or mixtures of calcium carbonate and silica, the latter being present
as chalcedony, or small crystals of quartz (see Fig. 5). This sinter
contains weighable quantities of sulphides of mercury, lead, copper,
arsenic, and antimony; the presence of gold and silver was also deter­
mined, and traces of manganese, zinc, cobalt, and nickel were found.
Antimony sulphide (Sb2S3) is deposited as the amorphous “ metastibnite”
in quantities large enough to color the sinter red in places. In a shaft
sunk into the gravel immediately adjoining the granite hill from which
the springs issue, Lindgren3 discovered delicate crystals of stibnite cover­
ing the pebbles and associated with thin crusts of black opal and grains
of pyrite or marcasite.
The opaline sinter (Fig. 7) of the Yellowstone Park often contains
arsenic, especially in the form of scorodite (FeAsC>4.2H20), and near one
of the springs which was impregnated with pyrite Weed noted rhyolite
that contained traces of gold and silver. On the whole, however, the
Yellowstone spring deposits are poor in the rarer metals. The same
author, associated with Pirsson,4 reports the occurrence of orpiment and
realgar with native sulphur in a siliceous sinter from the Norris geyser
basin. De Launay mentions a deposit containing orpiment at St. Nec-
taire, Puy-de-Dome, France.
1 H. Vater, Zeitschr. Kryst. u. Min., 35, 1902, p. 149.
2 G. F. Becker, The quicksilver deposits of the Pacific coast, Mon. 13, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1888, p. 341.
3W. Lindgren, Trans., Am. Inst.Min. Eng., 36, 1906, pp. 27-36.
4 Occurrence of sulphur, orpiment, and realgar in the Yellowstone National Park,
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 42, 1891, pp. 401-405.
 THE SPRING DEPOSITS AT THE SURFACE 67

F ig. 5.—Section of chalcedonic spring deposits from Steam boat Springs, Nevada, showing
colloform structure. W hite areas m icrocrystalline quartz. Magnified 25 diam eters.

F ig. 6.—Section of chalcedonic spring deposits, from DeLam ar, Idaho, showing vegetable
remains. Magnified 35 diam eters. O rdinary light.
68 M INERAL DEPOSITS
A calcareous sinter deposited by an ascending sodium carbonate
spring in the Geyser mine, Silver Cliff, Colorado, on the 2,000-foot level,
yielded traces of lead, copper, zinc, nickel, and cobalt. At Hammam
Meskoutine, in Algeria, a similar spring, according to Daubrce, deposits
tufas and pisolitic sinters in which, in the concretions, shells of calcium
carbonate alternate with shells of pyrite; strontianite is deposited by the
same spring.
Quicksilver, gold, and silver have been recognized in the spring deposits
of the geyser districts in New Zealand. From the Whakarewarewa hot

F ig . 7.—Section of opaline silica showing colloform structure.

Yellowstone National Park.
Magnified 32 diameters. (After H. C. Boy dell, “ Economic Geology.”)
springs at Roturoa (sodium chloride-silica type) sinters1 have been ana­
lyzed which yielded nearly 5 ounces of silver and about $1 in gold per ton.
At De Lamar, Idaho, Lindgren found spring deposits of flinty chal­
cedony in rhyolite, which included casts of vegetable remains and yielded
traces of gold and silver12 (Fig. 6).
It has been shown that springs, hot or cold, may deposit limonite in
abundance, with arsenic, manganese, and traces of other metals; and it is
likewise proved that the carbonate and silica sinters of hot springs, partic­
ularly those of the NaCl or Na2C03 type, contain small quantities of the
rarer metals, including gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony, arsenic,
tin, and quicksilver. In very few instances has commercial ore been
1 J. M. Bell, First Ann. Rept., N. Z. Geol. Surv., 1907, p. 100.
2 The gold and silver veins of Silver City, etc., Twentieth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol.
Survey, pt. 3, 1898, p. 187.
 THE SPRING DEPOSITS AT THE SURFACE 69
obtained from spring deposits at the surface. Quicksilver ores have been
mined in New Zealand and ores of iron and manganese have been utilized
in rare instances. The evidence that such waters have formed workable
ore deposits is therefore strong but hardly conclusive; the remarkable
poverty in metals of the deposits of the springs in the Yellowstone
National Park, for instance, will to many seem an argument against the
hydrothermal theory of the genesis of ore deposits.
Deposits of Other Gangue Minerals.1—Calcite, quartz, chalcedony,
and opal are common products of deposition at the surface, but besides
these the mineral deposits often contain such minerals as barite, ankerite
and siderite, fluorite, and more rarely gypsum, strontianite, celestite,
and zeolites.
Fluorine is present in traces in many waters, both superficial and deep,
but appears in larger quantities in waters of the sodium carbonate type.
Few authenticated instances of actual deposition of fluorite by springs
are recorded; the substance rarely occurs in crystallized form and the
chemists have probably often neglected to test the sinters for fluorine.
The Carlsbad Springs deposit a pisolitic sinter of aragonite and calcite.
According to Berzelius2 and later chemists this contains a notable quan­
tity of calcium fluoride. A limonitic variety of the spring deposit yielded
0.272 per cent arsenic.3 The following analyses also demonstrate that
various phosphates may be precipitated as well as the carbonates of iron
and strontium.
COMPOSITION OF DEPOSITS OF CARLSBAD SPRINGS
Berzelius, Analyst

A B

12.13
19.35 0.43
trace
53.20 96.47
0.30
1.77
0.60 0.10
0.06
0.99
3.95
9.00 1.59

1The best resume of the older data regarding spring deposits are found in Roth,
Allgemeine und Chcmische Geologie, 1, 1879, pp. 564-596.
2Pogg. Ann., 74, 1823, p. 149.
3 Blum and Leddin, Am. Chem. Pharm., 73, 1850, p. 217.
70 MINERAL DEPOSITS
At Plombieres, in the Vosges, springs with a temperature of 70° C.
issue from granite. They have a low salinity (360 parts per million) and
contain mainly sodium sulphate and silica, also traces of arsenic and
fluorine. The derivation of these salts is doubtful and the springs are
apparently not directly related to volcanic rocks. They issue from well-
defined fissure veins containing quartz and fluorite, and Daubree1 found
that the waters had actually deposited calcite, aragonite, and fluorite.
The bricks and cements used by the Romans 2,000 years ago in the con­
struction of the baths at Plombieres were found to contain zeolites, chiefly
apophyllite (containing fluorine) and chabazite, with opal and chalcedony.
Chabazite is also reported by Daubree as deposited from springs at
Luxeuil and at Bourbonne-les-Bains, which have a temperature of 46°
and 68° C. respectively.
Crystals of gypsum occur commonly near springs charged with cal­
cium sulphate. Weed12 has described how the Hunter Hot Springs, near
Livingston, Montana, deposit this mineral in fractures in Tertiary sand­
stone; stilbite, a zeolite, is forming with the gypsum. The springs have a
temperature of 64° C. and are weak mineral waters. The presence of
stilbite has also been noted by Weed3in the vein-like deposits, containing
gold and silver, believed to be made by the present Hot Springs at Boul­
der, Montana; the stilbite occurs in the predominating quartz, chalcedony
and calcite. Lindgren noted the presence of a little adularia in the
material.
Hewett4 describes a mildly alkaline spring in basalt, which appears
to deposit calcite, chabazite, mesolite, analcite, stilbite, and opal.
According to Lindgren5 a spring deposit in New Mexico contains
about 89.60 per cent of calcium carbonate and 0.9 per cent of calcium
fluoride. There are no springs now at this place, but it is probable that
the sodium carbonate water of Ojo Caliente, a short distance lower down
in the valley, formerly issued here. As shown by an analysis on page 54,
the water contains a notable amount of fluorine. A vein of white crys­
talline fluorite is opened by a shaft close by the calcareous tufa and is
believed to have been formed by the same waters. Both tufa and vein
contain traces of gold and silver, and a few crystals of barite were observed
in the vein material. W. H. Emmons and#> E. S. Larsen6 have described
1Les eaux souterraines, 3, Paris, 1887, p. 31.
2 Economic value of hot springs and hot springs deposits, Bull. 260, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1904, pp. 298-604.
3 Mineral vein formation at Boulder Hot Springs, Montana, Twenty-first Ann.
Repl., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1899-1900, pp. 233-255.
4 D. F. Hewett, E. V. Shannon, and F. A. Gonyer, Zeolites from Ritter Hot
Springs, Grant County, Oregon, Proc., U. S. Nat. Mus., 73 (16), 1928, p. 18.
5 Econ Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 22-27.
6 Econ. Geol., 8, 1913, pp. 235-246.
 THE SPRING DEPOSITS AT THE SURFACE 71
a similar case from Wagon Wheel Gap, Colorado. The travertine con­
tains in per cent 0.22 F, 0.007 ZnO, and 0.045 BaO. Barite, fluorite,
pyrite, opal, and jaspery silica are deposited. Small amounts of gold
and silver are contained in the replaced rock close by.
Veins and replacements of fluorite in quartz porphyry and Cretaceous
sandstone near the sodium carbonate springs of Teplitz, Bohemia, have
been described by J. E. Hibsch1 and the evidence is convincing that
fluorite was deposited by these thermal waters.
Barite is deposited far more abundantly than fluorite. As shown
above, many carbonate and even sulphate waters contain a little barium.
It has been proved that alkaline bicarbonates with an excess of carbon
dioxide can hold barium in solution, notwithstanding the presence of
sulphates; sodium chloride and other salts also seem to retard the forma­
tion of barium sulphate. Haidinger observed that barite was deposited
by the hot waters at Carlsbad2, and Becke noted the same at Teplitz.3
At Idaho Springs, in Colorado, a hot sodium carbonate water issues from
granite rocks, and barite crystals are found in abundance in a cellular
and decomposed dike rock at the mouth of the spring. Spurr4 shows
that the barium is contained in this dike rock and believes that the barite
resulted from the reaction of the water on the rock.
Barium is, however, far more commonly contained in sodium chloride
waters, particularly in the brines of sedimentary strata. Many writers
record the deposition of barite from such waters, and it is probable that
wherever this mineral appears in large quantities in mineral deposits
waters of this type have been active.
An excellent example is reported from a mine near Clausthal, Ger­
many,5 where a spring of strong brine, which undoubtedly derived its
salts from sedimentary strata, was encountered at a depth of 1,200 feet;
this brine contained in grams per liter 67.555 sodium chloride, 10.509
calcium chloride, 4.360 magnesium chloride, 0.350 potassium chloride,
0.314 barium chloride, and 0.854 strontium chloride. Where it mingled
with the ordinary mine waters, which carried sulphates, abundant pre­
cipitation of barium and strontium sulphate took place in the pumps and
elsewhere, so that within a few years the capacity of the pipes became
much reduced by this deposit. This compact material contained 92.44
per cent barium sulphate and 4.32 per cent strontium sulphate. The
1 Tschermak’s min u. petr. Mitt., 25, 1906, pp. 482-488.
2Jahrb. K. k. Reichsanstalt, 5, 1854, p. 142.
See also R. Delkeskamp, Entstehung und Wegftihrung des Baryts, Notizblatt
d. Ver. f. Erdkunde (Darmstadt) (4), 21, 1900, pp. 55-83.
3 Tschermak’s min u. petr. Mitt., 5, 1883, p. 115.
4J. E. Spurr, Prof. Paper 63, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, p. 165.
5Lattermann, Die Lautenthaler Soolquelle und ihre Absatze. Jahrb. Preuss. geol.
Landesanstalt, 1888, pp. 259-283. Ref. in Stelzner and Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstatten,
II, 1905-1906, p. 1218.
72 MINERAL DEPOSITS
reaction is believed to be retarded by the presence of sodium and mag­
nesium chlorides.
According to P. Krusch,1 barite is precipitated in the pumps at some
Westphalian coal mines by a similar reaction between strong salt brine
from the Triassic sandstones and potable water with sulphates, each
ascending on separate faults and each deriving its contents of salts from
sedimentary strata. Veins of barite with small amounts of galena, pyrite,
etc., appear in the Carboniferous and in the Devonian. At a lower hori­
zon quartz veins contain galena and sphalerite, both kinds of deposits
having been made, according to Krusch, by these saline waters. Similar
deposits of barite in the pipes of the pumping apparatus have been
described from English coal mines.2
An account of Headden3 describes an interesting group of springs on
the North Fork of the Gunnison River, Delta County, Colorado. They
are cold, but contain free carbon dioxide and a little hydrogen sulphide
and are essentially sodium chloride waters. At least one spring contains
barium and all of them yield a little strontium. The Drinking Spring
has a total salinity of about 1,656 parts per million. Small quantities
of calcium, potassium, magnesium, barium (0.0132 gram per liter),
strontium (0.0066 gram per liter), lithium, manganese, ammonia, iron,
aluminum, also a trace of zinc, are present in the order stated; also sul­
phuric acid radical (0.6254 gram per liter), silica, boron, and bromine, the
latter three in very small amounts. The spring deposits a calcium car­
bonate sinter, which was found to contain 5.42 per cent barite, but no
gypsum or sulphur.
Ferrous carbonate, or siderite, is sometimes observed, as in the Carls­
bad “ Sprudelstein ” and in deposits of limonite formed in bogs and peat.
Deposits of magnesium minerals are rare. H. Leitmeier4 describes a
deposit of hydrous carbonate of magnesia from the springs of Lohitsch
in Styria; many springs, especially those whose waters have traversed
sedimentary beds, contain organic matter and are probably competent
to deposit hydrocarbons.
Siebenthal5 found that at the Sulphur Springs of Arkansas, a sodium
chloride water with some CO2 and H2S, deposited small quartz crystals,
calcareous concretions, and crystallized pyrite. The dried sediment
contained 0.4 per cent Zn with much less Pb and Ca; also 2 per cent Fe,
mostly as sulphide. He considers that the zinc-lead deposits of the region
were formed by such waters.
1 Monatsberichte Deutsch. geol. Gesell., 1904, p. 36; Ref. in Zeitschr. prakt. Geol.,
12, 1904, p. 252.
2 J. T. Dunn, Chem. News, 35, 1877, p. 140.
3 The Doughty Springs, etc., Proc., Colo. Sci. Soc., 8, 1905, pp. 1-30.
4 Zeitschr. Krystall. u. Min. 47, 1909, p. 104.
6 C. E. Siebenthal, Spring deposits at Sulphur Springs, Arkansas, Econ. Geol., 9,
1914, pp. 758-767.
 THE SPRING DEPOSITS AT THE SURFACE 73
The more common gangue minerals in certain classes of veins are
thus deposited by spring waters, particularly by the warm sodium chloride
and sodium carbonate springs. There are, of course, a great number of
gangue minerals like tourmaline, garnet, feldspars, and similar silicates
which cannot be expected to develop in water under the conditions of
temperature and pressure prevailing at the surface.
Summary.—The deposits of ascending springs of undoubted meteoric
origin contain opal, chalcedony, calcium carbonate, limonite, hydroxide
of manganese, barite, siderite, and pyrite. They often deposit sulphur
by the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide. The ochery deposits very fre­
quently yield small quantities of arsenic, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, and
cobalt.
The springs of the sodium carbonate and sodium chloride-silica type
in volcanic regions yield abundant deposits of opal, chalcedony, quartz,
calcium carbonate, limonite, barite, siderite, sometimes also pyrite. They
also deposit fluorite which is rarely if ever found in the sinters of meteoric
waters and yield smaller quantities of quicksilver, antimony, arsenic, lead,
copper, zinc, tin, silver, and gold. The rarer metals are thus more promi­
nent and the waters are particularly characterized by a relative abundance
of borates, arsenates, and fluorides.
The list of recognizable minerals deposited by springs at the surface
is as follows: Sulphur, quartz, opal, chalcedony, limonite, wad, psilo-
melane1calcite, aragonite, siderite, strontianite, barite,12gypsum, celestite,
fluorite, scorodite, pyrite, marcasite, realgar, orpiment, cinnabar, stibnite,
chabazite, apophyllite, and stilbite, probably also adularia.3
1Sometimes containing tungsten. See W. Lindgren, Econ. Geol., 17, 1922, pp.
201-206. In Cuba, Hewett found a hydrous calcium-manganese silicate called
orientite which he considers to have been deposited by hot springs. Am. Jour. Sci.,
5th ser., 1, 1921, p. 491.
2Plumbiferous barite (Hokutolite), an isomorphous mixture of barite and angle-
site, has been described as a deposit from hot springs in Japan by It. Ohashi, Mineralog.
Mag., 19, 1920, pp. 73-76. Also from hot springs, in Formosa, by I. Suganuma, Chem.
Soc. Japan, Bull. 3, 1928.
3 A. L. Day describes (Carnegie Inst. Wash. Yearbook, 28, 1929, pp. 76-79) a
400 feet deep drill hole near the Old Faithful Geyser basin in Yellowstone Park which
penetrated hot spring deposits and reached rhyolite and obsidian. The material
brought up contained secondary quartz and calcite, also some chlorite and specularite
as well as much (probably secondary) orthoclase (adularia). The temperature was
180° C., the hydrostatic head sufficing to hold down the steam pressure.
 CHAPTER VII
RELATIONS OF MINERAL DEPOSITS TO MINERAL SPRINGS
The deposition of many valuable minerals can be directly observed
in nature; limonite, for instance, from the evaporation of water containing
iron, or from precipitation in bogs and lakes; sulphur by the decomposi­
tion of hydrogen sulphide dissolved in water; residual deposits of limonite,
nickel silicates, and pyrolusite by the decomposition of rocks by meteoric
waters; common salt and borax by the evaporation of lake waters. A
large class of deposits, such as the deep-seated veins containing metals
and ores developing near intrusive contacts, we can never hope to observe
in nature in the process of formation.
Ascending mineral springs are not uncommon in mineral deposits,
particularly in those which follow fissures, but caution must be used in
attributing a genetic role to these waters. If we find such a spring in a
contact-metamorphic deposit or in a vein of deep-seated origin, as a
cassiterite vein, it would be unlikely indeed that this spring had anything
to do with the formation of the deposit, for it could scarcely be assumed
that the circulation of underground waters could be maintained in
the same path during the many vicissitudes of deep erosion, involving the
laying bare of rocks once many thousand feet below the surface. The
formation of ore deposits usually occupies comparatively short epochs,
and the agencies to which they owe their origin are evanescent phenomena.
In a rather large class of veins, however, of which we know that they
were formed near the surface and in recent geological times, we may look
with more confidence for a maintenance of the originating solutions, but
even here it is well to investigate carefully; the spring may simply be a
water of the upper circulation which selected the fissure as a convenient
path.
The case of Plombieres has already been mentioned (p. 70) and there
seems to be little reason to doubt that the quartz-fluorite veins at this
place have been deposited by the same hot waters which still issue from
the fissures. Daubrce1 cites the frequent occurrence, in the Triassic
beds of the Central Plateau and the Vosges, of veins and extensive silici-
fication similar to that at Plombieres. Barite, fluorite, and sometimes
galena accompany the quartz.
The sodium chloride springs of Bourbon-1’Archambault,2 in the same
region, issue from a fracture in Triassic strata, which contains quartz
1Les eaux souterraines aux epoques anciennes, Paris, 1887, p. 151.
2 Jacquot and Willm, Les eaux minerales de la France, Paris, 1894, p. 107.
74
 RELATIONS OF MINERAL DEPOSITS TO MINERAL SPRINGS 75
with galena, barite, and fluorite. The fissures follow dikes of micaceous
porphyry (minette?). The waters have a temperature of 53° C. and
the total solids aggregate 3,186 parts per million, of which 1,770 are
sodium chloride. Bromine, iodine, fluorine, arsenic, and copper are
present, and the saline constituents are attributed to the Triassic and
Permian strata. The spring deposits contain earthy carbonates and
0.07 per cent copper oxide.
The springs of Lamalou, near Montpelier, southern France, have a
temperature of 34° to 47° C. and 1,500 parts per million of total solids;
the alkaline carbonates prevail, but they also contain calcium and mag­
nesium carbonates, suggesting an admixture of meteoric waters. Traces
of barium, arsenic, copper, lead, nickel, and cobalt were determined.1
These springs are believed to be genetically connected with the eruption
of a neighboring basalt area and stand in close relationship to veins
containing pyrite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopyrite in a gangue of quartz
and barite. Barite is believed to be deposited by the present waters.
The sodium carbonate springs at Ems,2 according to Delkeskamp,
issue from a fissure which forms the extension of a quartz vein and con­
tains chalcopyrite. Basalt occurs in the same vicinity.
Sandberger and Delkeskamp state that the hot sodium chloride
springs of Wiesbaden are closely connected with a quartz vein containing
tetrahedrite; veins of barite and calcite are common, as are impregnations
of barite; the latter are attributed to earlier (Tertiary) spring waters.
Close connection with ore-bearing veins is also, according to Delkes­
kamp, indicated by the sodium chloride springs of Kreutznach, which
issue close to a number of veins containing calcite, barite, and fluorite
with ores of copper and quicksilver. Here, also, Tertiary strata higher
than the springs are impregnated with barite, suggesting a considerable
age and a formerly higher point of issue of the springs. The saline con­
stituents of the water are believed to be derived from sedimentary rocks.
The widespread occurrence of barite, in close association with strong
sodium chloride springs, is assuredly suggestive.
Mineral springs with a maximum temperature of 26° C. have been
opened at several places in the mines of Freiberg, Saxony, and are
described in some detail by Stelzner and Bergeat,3but there is little reason
to believe that they are genetically connected with the deposits. Warm
springs have been encountered in the mines of Cornwall; and one of
them in a tin vein near Redruth is said to have contained much lithium,
which is not surprising considering the general distribution of lithium­
bearing muscovite in that region. It seems difficult to believe that these
springs are the remains of the waters which deposited the veins, for the
1L. de Launay, Recherche, etc., des sources thermominerales, 1892.
2 Verhandl. Gesell. deutscher Nat. u. Aerzte, 2, pt. 1, 1903.
3Die Erzlagerstatten, 2, 1905-1906, p. 1227.
76 MINERAL DEPOSITS
veins were formed at a great depth and under high pressure and tem­
perature at a remote geological time.
In the Cordilleran region of the United States examples of mineral
springs in mineral veins are not so common as might be expected from the
coexistence of a late mineralization and present abundance of thermal
waters. One reason for this lack lies probably in the great physiographic
changes which in most parts of this region have taken place in relatively
late times and which would tend to lower or divert the discharges of the
springs. At Silver Cliff, S. F. Emmons1found issuing from the 2,000-foot
level of the Geyser mine a strong spring of sodium carbonate water
with free carbon dioxide, yielding small quantities of copper, lead, and
zinc; the temperature was 26.5° C. The shaft was sunk to a depth of
1,850 feet in rhyolite tuff; at this depth, at the contact between the tuff
and pre-Cambrian gneiss, a vein was found containing galena, sphalerite,
tetrahedrite, argentite, etc., in a gangue of calcite, barite, and quartz.
The water deposited a calcium carbonate sinter with traces of lead, zinc,
copper, nickel, and cobalt. In this instance it is possible that the ascend­
ing water may have had a genetic connection with the deposit.
At the Comstock Lode2 hot waters were encountered at an early date
and have made exploitation difficult. It can scarcely be doubted that
these waters stand in causal relation to the vein and Reid thinks that they
now dissolve and precipitate gold and silver, as well as pyrite. The heat
of the lode has been shown by Becker to be clearly due to the ascending
waters. Reid3 has examined the evaporated residue from water collected
on the 2,250-foot level of the C. and C. shaft. He found 2.92 milligrams
of silver and 0.298 milligram of gold per ton of solution. This water,
which has a temperature of 46° to 81° C., contains 965 parts per million
of solids, mostly sulphates of calcium and sodium but including 133 parts
of silica. This water is assuredly not one of the pure types of ascending
waters; its composition is in the main the same as that of the ordinary
mine waters and it may be a mixture of meteoric mine waters with a
very hot ascending water. Hot waters of a similar calcium sulphate
type with some silica and sodium carbonate have been analyzed from the
Tonopah, Nevada, mines, but they contain no sulphides and Bastin
holds the evidence is by no means conclusive that they have caused the
ore deposition. Particularly convincing of the competency of the ascend-
1 The mines of Custer County, Colorado, Seventeenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Sur­
rey, pt. 2, 1896, p. 461.
2 G. F. Becker, Geology of the Comstock lode, Mon. 3, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1882,
p. 230.
GJohn A. Reid, The structure and genesis of the Comstock lode, Bull. 4, California
Univ. Dept. Geology, 1905, pp. 177-191.
E. S. Bastin, Bonanza ores of the Comstock lode, Bull. 735, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1923, pp. 57-63; Genesis of the ores at Tonopah, Nev., Prof. Paper 104, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1918, pp. 26-30.
 RELATIONS OF MINERAL DEPOSITS TO MINERAL SPRINGS 77
ing “volcanic” springs to deposit gold and silver-bearing veins are the
data given on page 54 in relation to the Ojo Caliente springs of New
Mexico and those of Wagon Wheel Gap in Colorado. To this is added
the evidence of the gold and silver-bearing sinters of New Zealand (p. 68)
and Steamboat Springs, Nevada (p. 66).
The widely cited occurrence at Sulphur Bank, in Lake County, Cali­
fornia,1 is considered to furnish good proof of deposition of cinnabar by
hot sodium chloride waters, also heavily charged with boron (analysis
on page 54). The springs issue through Quaternary basalt in which
cinnabar was deposited with opal as crusts along crevices, sometimes as
delicate crystals loosely attached to the walls, or as impregnations of the
porous basalt; the pyrite or marcasite was mostly disseminated in the
rock, but occurred also as crusts alternating with cinnabar and opal.
At the surface no cinnabar was observed, but sulphur, derived from the
oxidation of H2S, was present. A few feet below the surface the cinnabar
appeared and continued down to about 300 feet, into the sandstones on
which the basalt rested. No quicksilver was found in the water, but no
one who has studied the occurrence has doubted that cinnabar, pyrite,
and opal have been precipitated from the water which still ascends in
these channels. The gases dissolved in the water consist mostly of car­
bon dioxide, with hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen, and some
ammonia. The evidence gains in importance when it is realized that the
mineral combination and general mode of occurrence cited are charac­
teristic of the quicksilver deposits of the Coast Ranges. A number of
other instances of deposition of cinnabar by ascending waters are given
in Chapter XXIV.
Summary.—There is then, convincing testimony that deposits of
quicksilver, antimony, arsenic, gold, and silver, may be formed close to
the surface by hot ascending waters of the kind related to volcanic phe­
nomena. It is probable, indeed, that the majority of fissure veins which
contain notable amounts of gold and silver together with sulphides of the
baser metals have been formed by these solutions. Of this, more con­
clusive evidence is yielded by the many veins which so frequently, like a
metallic aureole, surround areas of igneous intrusive rocks.
On the other hand it is certain that warm and even cold waters of the
meteoric circulation in non-volcanic regions are likewise competent to
form mineral deposits of the baser metals containing oxides and car­
bonates of iron and manganese, and sulphides of copper, lead, and zinc
1 G. F. Becker, Geology of the quicksilver deposits of the Pacific slope, Mon. 13,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1888, pp. 251-268.
Joseph Le Conte and W. B. Rising, The phenomena of metalliferous vein forma­
tion now in progress at Sulphur Bank, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 24, 1882, pp. 23-33.
F. Posepny, The genesis of ore deposits, 2d ed., pub. by the Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,
1902, pp. 32-36.
78 MINERAL DEPOSITS
with very small quantities of gold and silver. There is also evidence
that such waters may develop deposits of minerals of vanadium, and
uranium with radium (Chap. XXII, p. 409). The waters most competent
to perform this work appear to be the calcium carbonate solutions and
the chloride brines which at the same time contain carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide.1
1 C. E. Siebenthal, Zinc and lead deposits of the Joplin region, Bull. 606, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1915, p. 154.
 CHAPTER VIII
ORIGIN OF UNDERGROUND WATERS
THE UNDERGROUND FLUIDS OF METEORIC ORIGIN
A preliminary division of the underground fluids and solutions has
been given in Chapter III (p. 29). It is certain that the bulk of the
water in the rocks is of meteoric origin, i.e. that it consists of infiltrated
rain water or water from present rivers, lakes, and seas. The sediments
contain more or less of such water imprisoned for many eons, filling their
pores or contained as inclusions or in newly formed hydrous minerals.
The igneous rocks likewise contain such imprisoned water, usually in
small quantities. In regions of dynamic metamorphism much water
from one source or another is combined as hydrous silicates, particularly
in sericite or chlorite. In mineral deposits, such substances as mica and
chlorite hold much imprisoned water.
The ordinary waters in non-volcanic regions from the zone of circula­
tion or from the static zone range from weak to medium and strong solu­
tions of various salts dissolved from the rocks. The minerals of the rocks,
in part, are dissolved directly; in larger part, they are decomposed by the
waters, this decomposition often resulting in an insoluble residue and
various soluble salts.
There are many substances in meteoric waters which may again be
precipitated and form mineral deposits. Those in sea water and lakes
and rivers have found mention on pages 27 and 28. In the underground
waters such elements are iron, manganese, sulphur, copper, nickel, cobalt,
zinc, cadmium, lead, barium, strontium, arsenic, bromine, phosphorus,
boron, iodine, and fluorine are more rarely encountered and only in traces.
During the oxidation of ore deposits, many other rare substances may be
found in the surrounding ground waters. It is certain that deposits
may be formed from waters containing a very small quantity of metals.
For example, the Steamboat Springs in Nevada contain only 0.5 part
per million of Sb20 3, but antimony sulphide is deposited throughout the
sinter and in fairly considerable amounts below the surface.1 This is,
of course, another type of water, but the same reasoning holds. Many
undoubtedly meteoric deep waters of the Mississippi valley contain zinc
in about the same amount. Many springs depositing iron and manganese
hydroxide certainly contain only a very small amount of these metals,
1W. Lindgren, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng,, 36, 1906, pp. 27-36.
79
80 MINERAL DEPOSITS
say one or two parts per million. Therefore provided that the conditions
favor the deposition of an insoluble compound, even very small quantities
will suffice to produce a considerable deposit.
Meteoric waters often contain carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide,
also hydrocarbons. These can be easily accounted for, considering that
many sedimentary rocks contain pyrite, various forms of carbon and
organic matter, and that by several kinds of reactions these gases may
be set free.
Other underground fluids unrelated to volcanism are gases containing
nitrogen, oxygen, argon, helium, and hydrocarbons. The last are
important fuels. From such gases helium has been recovered in con­
siderable amounts for aerial navigation. In gases from Kansas and Texas
fields helium occurs up to 1.84 per cent, and 7 per cent is contained in a
gas well southwest of Pueblo, Colorado.1 Nitrogen may be derived from
air from which the oxygen may have been removed by chemical processes.
Helium may conceivably be derived from radioactive substances, such
as carnotite, which is known to be present in certain formations. The
hydrocarbons are distilled from organic material in the sediments.
Another possible source of carbon dioxide is the reaction of acid waters,
such as are found in many mines, with adjacent limestone. It is also
known that many granular rocks, like granite, contain minute inclusions
of carbon dioxide. Laspeyres has calculated that a cubic kilometer of
granite contains enough carbon dioxide to furnish the springs of Nauheim,
in Germany, with this gas for 273,000 years, but such computations carry
little conviction to those who realize the difficulty involved in the absorp­
tion of any but a minimal quantity of this gas from the quartz grains by
percolating waters.
Gases may also, perhaps, be derived from a slow distillation from rock
masses exposed to high temperatures in the lower part of the crust. This
assumes, of course, that openings are available for such escaping fluids
and this is, of course, more or less questionable. The interesting experi­
ments of A. Gautier and others on the gases included or occluded
(absorbed) in the minerals of a rock and set free on heating have been
summarized by several writers, including F. W. Clarke12 and F. L. Ran-
some.3 A great number of exact analyses of these gases were made by
1 G. S. Rogers, Helium-bearing natural gas, Prof. Paper 121, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1921, pp. 113.
P. Ruedemann and L. M. Oles, Helium—Its probable origin and concentration
in the Amarillo fold, Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., 13, 1929, pp. 799-810.
S. C. Lind, Origin of terrestrial helium, Proc., Nat. Acad. Sci., 11, 1925, pp. 772—
779.
R. B. Moore, Helium, a national asset, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 69,
1923, pp. 110-122.
2 Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp. 276-288.
3 Econ. Geol., 1, 1906, p. 688.
 ORIGIN OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 81
R. T. Chamberlin,1 who found in general that the various pulverized
rocks yielded a total amount of gases (at 0° C. and 760 millimeters pres­
sure) equal to from a fraction up to as much as thirty times the unit
volume of rock. The carbon dioxide is believed to be derived from the
decomposition of small quantities of secondary, carbonates, while in part
it may also be included or occluded. The hydrogen and the carbon
compounds are probably due to reactions of water vapor and carbon
dioxide with some of the substances contained in the rock, notably ferrous
compounds. There is indeed a possibility that some of the carbon dioxide
in deep waters may have been derived in this way. But it is, perhaps,
scarcely recognized that there is a great difference between heating a
small quantity of pulverized rock in the air and obtaining the same
amount of gases from a solid mass at great depth. It seems probable
that pressure would prevent the escape of these gases, and if the mass of
rock were heated to the melting-point it would undoubtedly acquire a
capacity for absorption of far greater amounts of gases than those expelled
by heating the powder to redness.
MAGMATIC OR JUVENILE WATERS
Volcanic phenomena are almost always accompanied by the emission
of large quantities of steam and other volatile substances, and geologists
generally have agreed that part of this water is a contribution to the
atmosphere and hydrosphere from the magmas.
Day and Shepherd2 subjected the gases of the Kilauea crater on the
island of Hawaii to a very careful study, and ascertained that when free
from contamination of air they consist of nitrogen, water gas, carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and hydrogen. They concluded that the water
released from the liquid lava as it reaches the surface is entitled to be
considered an original component of the lava with as much right as the
sulphur or the carbon. It follows logically that some of this water from
cooling lavas, with associated gases, must mingle with the waters of
meteoric origin.
Regarding plutonic rocks the direct evidence is lacking but indirect
testimony is supplied by the inclusions of aqueous solutions so commonly
found in granular rocks and by the presence of minerals like mica and
amphibole which contain the hydroxyl molecule.
The best general evidence of the existence of juvenile waters is fur­
nished, not by observation of the present springs, but by the study of
old intrusive regions. Here the granites merge into pegmatite dikes, the
latter change into pegmatite quartz, and this into veins carrying quartz
1R. T. Chamberlin, The gases in rocks, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 106,
1908, p. 80.
2 Arthur L. Day and E. S. Shepherd, Water and volcanic activity, Bull. Geol.
Soc. Am., 24, 1913, pp. 573-606.
82 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and metallic ores, such as cassiterite and wolframite. Here we have
evidence difficult to controvert that dikes consolidated from magmas
gradually turn into deposits the structure and minerals of which testify
to aqueous deposition; this admitted, it is difficult to see what would
prevent such waters frorp reaching the surface in the form of ascending
springs.
Elie de Beaumont1 was the first to give full expression to this view.
He believed that there were two classes of hot springs: The first (the
more common) is intimately related to volcanism and derives its waters
and dissolved solids from this source; the second, and more exceptional,
derives its water from simple infiltration. This view was accepted by
de Lapparent, but Daubree arrived at the contrary conclusion, that all
thermal springs result from the infiltration of water from the surface;
similar views were held by Fouqu6 and have been adopted by de Launay
who, however, admits the presence of magmatic exhalations in certain
ascending springs.12 The views of Daubree found general acceptance
in other countries; in the United States they were accepted by Le Conte,
Van Hise, and others. All waters appearing at the surface were con­
sidered of atmospheric origin and their salts were dissolved from the rocks
percolated. About the year 1900 the importance of magmatic exhala­
tions for the formation of mineral deposits began to be reasserted by
various mining geologists—among them Vogt in Norway, and Spurr,
Kemp, Weed, and Lindgren in the United States. In 1902 Suess,3 the
eminent Austrian geologist, announced his belief that many of the springs
in volcanic regions were of “juvenile” origin—that is, that they now reach
the surface for the first time and yield a permanent addition of water and
salts, carried up from magmas cooling at great depth. As an excellent
example of this the Carlsbad Springs were cited.
The question now arises whether it be possible to establish criteria
by which the magmatic waters may be distinguished from those of
meteoric origin. Delkeskamp in Germany has attempted the solution
of this problem in a series of suggestive papers.4 He rightly considers
temperature of little value as a criterion and points out that many springs
of meteoric origin are hot, while some, strongly suspected to be of juvenile
1 Bull. Soc. G6ol. de France, serie 2, 1847, tome 4, p. 1272.
2 L. de Launay, Recherche, captage et amenagement des sources thermominerales,
Paris, 1892.
3 Verhandl. Gesell. deutscher Nat. u. Aerzte, Karlsbad, 1902, pp. 133-150.
4 R. Delkeskamp, Juvenile und vadose Quellen, Balneolog. Zeitg., 16, No. 5, Feb. 20,
1905, p. 15.
R. Delkeskamp, Die Genesis der Thermalquellen von Ems, Wiesbaden, und
Kreutznach und deren Beziehungen zu den Erz und Mineralgangcn des Taunus und
der Pfalz. Verhandl. Gesell. deutscher Nat. u. Aerzte, 2, pt. 1, 1903.
A. Gautier, Compl. Rend., 150, 1910, p. 436.
See also reference in Econ. Geol., 1, 1906, pp. 602-612.
 ORIGIN OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 83
origin, are cold. The constant admixture with meteoric waters forms
another difficulty, but accounts well for the many derivatives of varying
characteristics which accompany every spring of deep-seated origin.
Seasonal variations of temperature, salinity, and quantity of water con­
stitute excellent proofs of superficial origin. A practical constancy of
salinity, temperature, and quantity is said to be the best proof of a juvenile
origin. Among the juvenile springs are those of Carlsbad in Bohemia,
Ems and Wiesbaden in Germany
These criteria are all doubtful. Much more work must be done before
we shall be able to establish the magmatic origin of any given spring.1
Examples of Springs in Volcanic Regions.—As pointed out on page 57
there are two types of ascending hot waters which may be of juvenile
origin. They are the sodium carbonate and the sodium chloride-silica
types, both common in regions of expiring volcanism. The former
appear, for instance, in central Germany, in central France, in California,
and at various places in our Western States. The latter characterize the
great geyser regions of Yellowstone Park, Iceland, and New Zealand.
The two classes break up through volcanic rocks and through the under­
lying plutonic rocks or crystalline schists. Whether these waters are
wholly or partly of magmatic origin is a doubtful question. Arnold
Hague,2 who spent many years in the study of the Yellowstone Park has
expressed the decided opinion that the present hot springs at this locality
are of meteoric origin and this opinion is apparently shared by members
of the Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory, who are now investigating this
area. Such an origin is probably more difficult to establish for the geyser
district of New Zealand. Almost all geologists are of the opinion that
some of the dissolved salts and gases at all of these places are of magmatic
or juvenile origin.
Salts of Volcanic Springs.—Some of the hot ascending springs in vol­
canic regions carry much sodium carbonate (Fig. 8). The long-continued
action of the hot water saturated with carbon dioxide on the feldspars of
the surrounding rock undoubtedly yields this salt in large quantities, and
the scarcity of calcium and magnesium carbonates is explained by their
precipitation with increasing percentage of alkaline carbonates.
Considerable quantities of sodium chloride are, however, always asso­
ciated with the sodium carbonate and sometimes indeed predominate;
to find an adequate explanation of this is more difficult. Igneous rocks
average, according to Clarke’s calculation, only 0.07 per cent of chlorine,
and while there are some exceptional rocks containing sodalite, the sodium
chloride waters are by no means particularly associated with this mineral.
Considering that the water could extract only a small part of this chlorine,
1Recently doubts have been expressed as to the magmatic origin of the water in
the Carlsbad Springs.
2Origin of the thermal waters in the Yellowstone National Park, Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., 22, 1911, pp. 101-122.
84 MINERAL DEPOSITS
it is not easy to estimate the amount of rock which must be percolated
to obtain a sustained flow of chloride waters of the concentration often
found in hot springs. It might be imagined that surface waters moving
downward could have become charged with sodium chloride while trav­
ersing saline sedimentary rocks, but such an explanation seems somewhat
forced in the case of springs which issue from granite in a region where no
such sedimentary beds are known to occur. Boron is a common con­
stituent of many of these springs, for instance, the Steamboat Springs.

F ig . 8.— Carbon dioxide and sodium carbonate springs of central France. Black dots are
springs. Shaded area shows extent of basaltic eruptions.
Nevada, and Ojo Caliente, New Mexico, both of which issue from granitic
rocks. It is still more difficult to find a reasonable explanation for the
presence of this substance on any hypothesis of leaching. Tourmaline
and datolite are of course present in some rocks, but the springs carrying
boron exhibit no marked relation to areas where such boron minerals
occur. It is true that boron occurs in saline sedimentary beds and that
traces of it are often found in waters traversing them, but the quantities
do not compare with those determined in many waters of volcanic asso­
ciations. Similar statements can be applied to fluorine.
The geyser springs of Iceland, the Yellowstone Park, and New Zealand
are rich in silica, and as most of them ascend through easily decomposed
rhyolitic rocks, that substance may well be derived from leaching of the
country rock. And yet when we note how veins rich in quartz are at
places closely connected with pegmatite dikes, and how strong the evi-
 ORIGIN OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 85
dence is against their deposition by leaching from surrounding rocks, we
may well wonder whether this silica in the thermal waters is necessarily
derived by solution of rock comparatively near the surface. And again,
when we observe that chlorides form part of magmas, as indicated by
the presence of sodalite and scapolite, and remember that sodium chloride
occurs as small crystals in the fluid inclusions of quartz phenocrysts, and
finally note the abundance of chlorides at volcanic eruptions, would it
not then be easier to account for this salt in the springs of volcanic regions
by an easily effected concentration of volatile substances while the magma
was still fluid, than by a laborious search for traces of chlorides in the
congealed igneous rocks?
The Gases in Volcanic Springs.—Many springs in volcanic regions
contain large amounts of carbon dioxide, often also hydrogen sulphide.
It is very difficult to account for these gases by assuming that they have
been derived from reactions with the uppermost part of the crust, espe­
cially when the springs ascend through granite or other crystalline rocks
below which sediments can hardly exist. The opinion of most geologists
is that they represent emanations from deeply buried magmas brought
to the surface by meteoric waters, or by magmatic waters or by a mixture
of both.
The hot springs of Arkansas are a peculiarly interesting case. Their
composition certainly indicates meteoric origin, but they have an
extremely high temperature and also contain boron (p. 43). It has been
suggested that in this case meteoric waters have descended to unusual
depths and that they have been heated by gaseous emanations from a
deeply buried magma.
The presence of liquid carbon dioxide in cavities in minerals of igneous
rocks is proof of its occurrence in the molten magma consolidated in
depth. Every eruption brings new evidence of exhalations from magmas
congealing near the surface; and almost every volcanic district of recently
closed igneous activity testifies to the persistence of this gas in escaping
from the cooling lavas below. The Cripple Creek district, where gold-
tellurium veins cut through the core of an old volcano, presents an
excellent illustration of this condition. Imperceptible at the surface,
exhalations of carbon dioxide become more marked in depth and their
temperature, higher than that of the surrounding rocks, indicates that
they came from below. In the extinct volcanoes of the Auvergne in
France and of the Eifel on the Rhine, waters highly charged with carbon
dioxide and exhalations of the same gas are extremely abundant. It
seems difficult to escape the conclusion that the enormous quantities
of this gas contained in the ascending waters of volcanic regions are of
igneous origin.
These considerations apply equally well to the hydrogen sulphide with
which some of these springs are so abundantly supplied. The decom­
86 MINERAL DEPOSITS
position of sulphates by organic matter or other reducing agents may be
appealed to in places; but in igneous rocks, like granite, it does not appear
to be quantitatively sufficient, and as we know that this gas plays a prom­
inent part in volcanic eruptions we may well feel justified in believing
that the waters ascending in regions of such eruptions may absorb this
gas or alkaline sulphides and carry them to the surface.
When intrusive magmas break through limestone or dolomite the
carbonates are often replaced by silicates and carbon dioxide is set free.
There is good reason to believe that this process is going on at present.
The quantity of carbon dioxide is large, and it is likely that many thermal
springs are fed from such sources, but this explanation does not suffice
for all cases.
Rarer Elements in Volcanic Springs.—In hot ascending sodium
chloride springs which issue in volcanic regions rarer elements have often
been determined; such waters are often rich in boron. Steamboat Springs,
Nevada, contain notable amounts of arsenic and antimony with traces of
quicksilver and many other metals. The springs of the Yellowstone
Park carry boron and arsenic, but are poor in other rarer constituents.
The ascending sodium carbonate springs in volcanic districts also
frequently contain boron and fluorine in notable amounts. Arsenic and
copper have been found in the spring of Ems, and the same metals with
lead also at Vichy. The Carlsbad Sprudel contains, according to Gotti, 1
traces of bromine, iodine, fluorine, selenium, phosphorus, boron, barium,
strontium, lithium, titanium, tin, arsenic, antimony, copper, chromium,
zinc, cobalt, nickel, and gold.
The presence of silver has apparently not been recorded, and that of
gold only from the Carlsbad Springs. Gold, however, is found in the
spring deposits at the surface, for instance in New Zealand and in the
Steamboat Springs of Nevada. Quicksilver and large quantities of
antimony seem to occur only in sodium chloride or sodium carbonate
waters of the volcanic type, of which also higher amounts of boron and
fluorine are characteristic. Arsenic is probably the most common of
the rarer metals and has been found in all kinds of water. Copper, zinc,
nickel, and cobalt are not uncommon, both in waters of sedimentary and
in those of igneous origin. Lead is of rare occurrence. Iron is present
in meteoric waters but occurs only in minute quantities in the hot springs.
Probably it has been precipitated at lower levels.
The Igneous Emanations.—At several places above, the igneous
emanations have been mentioned and the inference drawn that the
waters in the crust of whatever origin must in places have absorbed such
volatile substances. It may be well to describe briefly the character of
these emanations.
1 J. Roth, Allgemeine und chemische Geologie, Berlin, 1, 1879, p. 570.
 ORIGIN OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 87
The active volcanoes constantly emit volatile matter from lava flows,
craters, and fumaroles. Some of the less volatile materials crystallize
as sublimates near the gas vent; other parts escape into the atmosphere.
In conclusion, considering the great variety of volatile substances
given off as emanations from volcanoes (p. 1 1 2 ) and the many rare sub­
stances of similar kinds dissolved in the hot springs of volcanic affiliations,
it seems certain that such ascending springs must in many places carry
a considerable load of material emanating from the magmas.
Some hot springs which are found on the flanks of active or dying
volcanoes doubtless yield meteoric waters which have received their
heat and an admixture of fumarolic exhalations from masses of lavas,
comparatively near the surface. 1 Such springs carry little or no silica,
and make small deposits at the surface. The abundant sulphates are
considered to be derived from oxidation of H2S in the fumaroles.
There are, however, many springs in regions of extinct volcanism,
which are alkaline and carry much sodium carbonate, sodium chloride,
and silica, and which have been proved to deposit cinnabar, stibnite, and
realgar. They also are probably in most cases mixtures of meteoric
and magmatic waters though some are possibly wholly of magmatic
origin. Geophysicists have lately stated that the magmatic portion of
such springs must have been contributed as gaseous exhalations from
deep-seated magmas, and express the opinion that when the gases con­
dense after leaving the magma they have no ascending power and must
be carried up, if at all, by meteoric waters.
Geologists, on the other hand, believe that the magmatic liquids
have ascending power because (1 ) they are propelled upward by continu­
ous steam pressure from below; and (2 ) they carry large loads of non­
volatile material, principally silica, which is abundantly deposited all
the way up. Some of this silica is indeed carried to the surface.
Much work has lately been done on the volcanic gases, fumarolic
products, and on the gases retained by lavas and other igneous rocks. 12
The gases obtained directly from volcanic vents are essentially iden­
tical in their components with those extracted from consolidated fresh
lavas, though the ratios show wide variation. All agree in having water
as the main constituent, to the amount of 80 to 90 per cent of the total
gas content. The total amount of volatiles per gram, at 1200° C. and
1A. L. Day and E. T. Allen, The volcanic activity and hot springs of Lassen Peak,
Publ. 360, Carnegie Inst. Washington, 1925, 190 pp. See also symposium on hot
springs, etc., Jour. Geol., 32, 1924, Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6.
2 E. S. Shepherd, Jour. Geol., 33, 1925, pp. 289-370; Carnegie Inst. Washington,
Yearbook, 30, 1931, pp. 78-82.
E. S. Shepherd and H. E. Merwin, Jour. Geol., 35, 1927, pp. 97-116.
E. G. Zies, The fumarolic incrustations in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes,
Contrib. Papers, Nat. Geog. Soc., 1, No. 4, 1929, 79 pp.
88 MINERAL DEPOSITS
760 millimeters is about 5 to 10 cubic centimeters, corresponding in weight
percentage of rock to from 0.1 to 0.5. Fresh, coarsely crystalline
rocks free from decomposition products yield about 30 cubic centimeters.
If for any reason the volatiles were unable to escape during crystalliza­
tion, the amounts may be much higher. The minor constituents of the
gases are C02, CO, H2, N, S, Cl, and F. In volume percentage at
1200° they vary from less than 1 to 20. In volcanic vents S, Cl, and
F generally escape as hydrogen compounds. Certain elements usually
considered non-volatile, such as copper, zinc, molybdenum, and silica,
may also be carried along. The fumarolic deposits and gases may in fact
contain many other metals, as well as boron, selenium, and tellurium.
The emanations of gases and liquids in an igneous body do not cease
entirely even after the rock has congealed. Such changes shown, for
instance, by the replacement of the primary minerals by albite, microcline,
and magnetite have been designated by J. J. Sederholm as deuteric and
should not be confused with replacements caused by later solutions of
various kinds. 1
1 See Econ. Geol. 24, 1929, pp. 100, 335, 869.
 CHAPTER IX
METAMORPHIC ZONES AND MINERAL DEPOSITS
THE CHEMICAL WORK OF UNDERGROUND WATER
Stability of Minerals and Rocks.—The underground water plays a
very important part in the changes which take place in rocks; and the
majority of mineral deposits are formed by the aid of it. Near the sur­
face it may completely saturate the rocks or move in large volumes on
fractures. At greater depths where there is no active circulation it may
be sparingly present as rock moisture. The great mass of underground
water is of atmospheric origin but as all magmas contain water which is
given off upon solidification some waters in the rocks may be of magmatic
origin. Solution and precipitation go on continuously; one or the other
may predominate at any given place. The reactions which take place
in the underground solutions extend over a wide range as to temperature,
pressure, substances, concentration, and time; and they differ markedly
under the varying conditions. The study of these reactions was first
seriously undertaken by G. Bischof and Justus Roth 1 and these pioneers
have been followed by many eminent geologists who have devoted them­
selves to the study of chemical geology.
One of the most fruitful conceptions developed in recent years is that
of the limits of stability of minerals and rocks Conforming to increasing
heat and pressure, zones exist in the earth’s crust, gradually merging
into one another but each characterized by certain groups of minerals
that are stable only under the conditions prevailing in that particular
zone. No mineral is absolutely stable. If subjected to certain conditions
of temperature or in contact with certain solutions it will melt, decompose,
dissociate, or dissolve. At the surface under the influence of atmospheric
1 G. Bischof, Lehrbuch der chemischen und physikalischen Geologie, 1863-1866.
Justus Roth, Allgemeine und chemische Geologie, 1, Berlin, 1879.
C. R. Van Hise, A treatise on metamorphism, Mon. 47, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.
U. Grubenmann and P. Niggli, Die Gesteinsmetamorphose, Berlin, 1924.
F. Becke, Ueber Mineralbestand und Struktur der krystallinen Schiefer, Ninth
Session Internat. Geol. Congress, Vienna, 1903; also Silz.-ber., k. k. Akad., Vienna,
1903.
John Johnston and Paul Niggli, The general principles underlying metamorphic
processes, Jour. Geol., 21, 1913, pp. 481-516; 588-624.
C. K. Leith and W. J. Mead, Metamorphic Geology, New York, 1915.
E. B. Knopf, Retrogressive metamorphism, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 21, 1931,
pp. 1- 2 8 .
89
90 MINERAL DEPOSITS
waters with oxygen and carbon dioxide practically no minerals are stable
except a few oxides, hydroxides, and native elements.
In consequence of the reversible nature of chemical processes under
changing conditions each mineral has its stability field or “ critical
level” which it can not leave without undergoing decomposition. The
mineral aggregates, that is, the rocks, also follow this law and as the rock
minerals have usually been formed in closely analogous ways most of the
component minerals will become unstable more or less simultaneously.
Certain minerals, few in number, are less sensitive than others to
such changes and recur under the most different conditions. They are
designated “persistent minerals’’ and are in general of simple composition
and do not contain the hydroxyl molecule; among them are quartz, hema­
tite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, fluorite, calcite, and native gold. Orthoclase,
all plagioclases, biotite, augite, olivine, the spinels, cordierite, and garnets
develop and are fully stable only at high temperatures. Minerals rich
in water, like chlorite, serpentine, and talc, are characteristic of lower
temperatures. Other minerals, like muscovite, zoisite, epidote, horn­
blende, and albite, develop readily under strong pressure.
The varied composition of the crust, the unequal distribution of the
underground water, the changing pressure, and the great differences in
temperatures even at the same horizon make it difficult to establish strict
rules and well-defined zones. One merges into another. Besides,
stability is a relative term. Some rocks, like granite, are really stable
only shortly after their complete consolidation. Under the influence of
percolating deep waters the minerals of the granite are unstable, as they
are in the zone of weathering. But the changes take place so slowly
that at many places they can scarcely be perceived. Other rocks, like
calcareous shales, are stable at moderate depths, but easily subject to
recrystallization under pressure and rising temperature. The results of
the reactions differ widely according to the composition of the waters.
The minerals that develop in a rock charged with a slight amount of
moisture are not the same as those that appear when the rock is pene­
trated by rapidly moving solutions, charged with salts and gases of foreign
origin.
Metamorphism.1—The term metamorphism meaning strictly “a
change in form, ” was proposed by Lyell in 1833 to express the changes
of sedimentary beds to slates, quartzite, crystalline limestone, etc. Later
it was extended to the development of schists and slates from igneous
rocks by pressure and recrystallization. Still later, for instance, by
C. R. Van Hise it has been employed in a wide sense so as to cover any
change in the composition and structure of any rock, through whatever
agency and with or without gain or loss of substance. This would include
1 For a thorough discussion of the various uses of this term, see: R. A. Daly,
Metamorphism and its phases, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 28, 1917, pp. 375-418.
 MET AMORPHIC ZONES AND MINERAL DEPOSITS 91
weathering and the development of any kind of epigenetic deposit, such
as mineral veins, in a rock. Geologists have not generally accepted this
wide definition. Metamorphism is here reserved for the processes which
result in a partial or complete crystallization or recrystallization of solid
masses of rocks, as in gneiss from granite or mica schist from clay shale.
Though the mechanical effects of pressure may be conspicuous, metamor­
phism is always characterized by chemical changes in the component
minerals. 1 The composition of the rock as a whole, while remaining
fairly constant undoubtedly has a tendency to change.
For practical purposes we may distinguish between static, dynamic,
igneous, and hydrothermal metamorphism. Static metamorphism pro­
ceeds without stress, at slight depths and under influence of a slight
amount of water. At great depths and high temperatures a static recry­
stallization under great load may effect changes. 2 Dynamic metamor­
phism is effected under stress at higher or lower temperatures. These
two are regional and proceed without strongly marked changes in
composition.
Igneous metamorphism (pyrometamorphism) includes the effects of
magmas on adjacent rocks and is a high temperature process. It is about
equivalent to contact metamorphism but includes also the effect of
igneous injection and pegmatitization.
Hydrothermal metamorphism includes the changes effected in rocks
by hot ascending waters. Igneous metamorphism may be local or
regional and in part involves changes of composition. Hydrothermal
metamorphism is local and almost always involves changes of composition.
Metasomatism or Replacement.—The geological importance of
metasomatism or replacement has already been pointed out on page 23.
The word metasomatism, meaning a change of body, first used by C.
Naumann to designate some kinds of pseudomorphism, is now applied
to the process of practically simultaneous capillary solution and deposition
by which a new mineral of partly or wholly differing chemical composition
may grow in the body of an old mineral or mineral aggregate. The second­
ary minerals of any metamorphic rock result from metasomatic action.
Rocks are termed metasomatic if their composition has been materially
changed by replacement of the original minerals. Pseudomorphs and
petrifications often furnish direct and incontrovertible evidence of proc­
esses of replacement.
Metasomatism is met everywhere and at all depths in sedimentary
and igneous rocks and shows that the rock minerals have been subjected
to conditions under which they were unstable. The development of
1In mylonilizalion the rocks along faults and overthrusts are completely crushed
under conditions where it cannot lose coherence, but even in this case there will be a
variable amount of newly formed minerals.
2 R. A. Daly, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 28, 1917, p. 400.
92 MINERAL DEPOSITS
chlorite in augite, sericite or kaolin or calcite in feldspars, or galena in
limestone is due to metasomatism. The typical metasomatic processes,
traced with the highest magnifying power, show no space between the
parent mineral and the metasome, as the newly developed mineral may
be designated. The fibers and blades of sericite project into quartz
without the slightest break in the contact. Rhombohedrons of siderite
develop in quartzite, their crystal faces cutting across the grains without
any interstices. Perfect prisms of tourmaline develop in feldspar grains,
and sharp cubes of pyrite in primary feldspar or quartz.
Metasomatic rocks, that is rocks which have suffered a change in
composition, are very common in mineral deposits and are often produced
by strong and rapidly moving solutions (usually aqueous, sometimes
gaseous) which penetrate the material through fissures and pores. There
are many cases of complete or almost complete metasomatism, for instance
of limestone by sulphides and quartz in which the chemical composition
has been absolutely changed. In contrast to this the ordinary meta-
morphic processes in rocks are carried on by the scant rock moisture and
while there is metasomatism in detail, the composition as a whole is but
little changed. For description of metasomatic processes in ores and for
criteria of metasomatism see Chapter XIV.
Alteration and decomposition are synonymous with certain phases of
partial metasomatism of rocks.
Dissemination refers to grains or crystals distributed in a rock and is
without definite genetic significance.
Impregnation is a genetic term and means that the mineral introduced
is later than the rock; it may have developed by metasomatic processes
or by filling of pore spaces or other cavities.
Mineralization (mineralize: to impregnate or supply a rock with
minerals) is now mainly a mining term, conveying the meaning that a
rock contains an ore mineral or a mineral indicative of ores, e.g., pyrite
near a copper deposit.
Metallization is a recent term to designate the introduction of useful
metals in certain districts, e.g., the tin metallization of Cornwall.
Cementation is used to indicate the filling of interstices in porous or
shattered rocks.
The Law of Equal Volume.—It is necessary to distinguish between
(1 ) metasomatic changes proceeding in free crystals or grains, or in loose
or plastic aggregates under light load, where the force of crystallization
can easily overcome the restraining pressure; and (2 ) metasomatic changes
proceeding in rigid rocks where the new mineral is forced to make room
for itself by solution of the host mineral.
In the first case the volume changes proceed according to the chemical
formula. In the second case, the replacing mineral occupies exactly the
space formerly filled by the primary mineral; the force of crystallization is
 MET AMORPHIC ZONES AND MINERAL DEPOSITS 93
of little or no direct influence, but as the pressure differs in intensity
according to the crystallographic directions and as solution proceeds
most actively at points of greatest pressure the development of crystal
faces is thereby explained. 1
The chemical formulas by which some kinds of replacement are usually
expressed do not represent the actual change for these formulas are based
on equal weights and will indicate definite changes in volume. The
conversion of orthoclase to sericite is usually considered to take place
according to the following reaction, which involves a decrease in volume
3KAlSi 3 0 8 + H20 + C0 2 = KH 2 Al3 Si3 0 i 2 + K 2 C0 3 + 6Si0 2
Orthoclase Sericite
of 15.5 per cent even if the Si0 2 is assumed to have recrystallized as
quartz. If, however, one volume of orthoclase has been replaced by an
equal volume of sericite this equation is not correct, and by a calculation
of the quantities of silica, alumina, etc., contained in one cubic centimeter
of orthoclase and sericite, respectively, it will be found that a considerable
addition of alumina is necessary. The actual formula is probably very
complicated and could be established only if all the reactions taking
place in the solution during the conversion of one mineral to the other
were known. Many kinds of metasomatism, for instance, galena or
barite replacing calcite (Figs. 67 and 6 8 ) can not be expressed by chemical
formulas. One crystal, for instance, of pyrite may simultaneously
replace parts of adjacent grains of different minerals, or may replace an
aggregate of minerals in a fine grained rock. These well known facts
will at once show that replacement is not the expression of one definite
chemical reaction.
The law of equal volumes has been repeatedly verified by many
independent observers; and there is little doubt that it holds for most
metasomatic processes, on both a large and a small scale, both in general
metamorphism and in mineral deposits. The most fundamental changes
in rocks take place with practical constancy of volume. 2 A great deal
has been written on changes of volume and energy liberated or absorbed,
that is absolutely valueless as a measure of the processes that have been
going on in rocks. The time will soon come when these relations are
more clearly recognized.
General Definition of the Metamorphic Zones.—The conceptions of
Albert Heim developed by C. R. Van Hise led to a division of the litho-
1W. Lindgren, The nature of replacement, Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 521-535.
Volume changes in metamorphism, Jour. Geol., 26, 1918, pp. 542-555. Metasoma­
tism, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 36, 1925, pp. 247-262.
H. C. Boydell, Metasomatism and linear “force of growing crystals,” Econ.
Geol, 21, 1926, pp. 1-55.
2 When a rock is permeated by strong, rapidly moving liquids, solution may over­
take deposition and a drusy structure may result. But even in this case the bulk
volume is likely to remain about constant, except under very heavy pressure.
94 MINERAL DEPOSITS
sphere into an upper zone of fracture and a lower zone of rock flowage,
in which only sub-capillary openings exist and deformation is effected by
granulation and recrystallization. Between them intervenes a middle
zone of combined fracture and flowage. The limits of these zones are
very indefinite owing to the greatly differing plasticity of rocks, e.g., a
granite and a calcareous shale. The experimental proof given by F. D.
Adams1 that in supported rocks in depth openings in granite can persist
to depths of at least 11 miles, or about 58,000 feet, at a uniform pressure
of 70,000 pounds per square inch and at temperatures supposedly corre­
sponding, that is, 550° C. shows that the zones overlap widely and have
value only as relative conceptions.
Van Hise divided the zone of fracture into an upper zone of weathering
and a lower zone of cementation. The zone of flowage corresponds to
the deep metamorphic zones in which minerals form by replacement only
and in which the temperature is high and the pressure largely stress. 12
Later experiments by Bridgman3 indicate that stresses twenty times
greater than the crushing strength may be necessary to close cavities in
rocks by hydrostatic pressure.
Any rock may be deformed under stress. 4 The thrust required to
develop deformation in marble at a pressure corresponding to 4.2 miles
would be 66,400 pounds per square inch; in case of granite, 138,500
pounds per square inch. At greater depths the required stress increases
markedly. The pressure necessary for plastic deformation is very much
greater than the crushing strength of the rock at the surface.
Zone of Weathering.—The best defined zone is that of weathering,
the depth of which is determined by the level of the ground water, or by
the depth to which free oxygen can penetrate in large quantities. In the
zone of weathering the water percolates downward more freely than
in the underlying zone, there is a tendency to the destruction of the rocks
as units, and active transportation and concentration are characteristics.
Chemical work progresses by means of water solutions and gases, also
extensively through the medium of organic life; mechanical disintegration
is also important. The chemical reactions are oxidation, carbonatization,
desilication, and hydration, the two first named mainly through decompo­
1 F. D. Adams, Jour. Geol., 20, 1912, pp. 97-118.
2 Van Hise called the upper two zones the realm of katamorphism and the lower
that of anamorphism. In the zone of katamorphism (kata, down) complex silicates
break down and simpler, less dense minerals form. In the zone of anamorphism
(ana, up) silicates are supposed to be built up with forming of denser minerals and
compact texture. Since Leith and Mead have changed these conceptions (Meta­
morphic Geology, 1915) and now confine katamorphism to processes of weathering,
a confusion has been introduced that is best cured by the dropping of both terms.
3 P. W. Bridgman, The failure of cavities in crystals and rocks under pressure,
Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 45, 1918, pp. 243-268.
4 F. D. Adams and J. A. Bancroft, Jour. Geol., 25, 1917, pp. 597-637.
 MET AMORPHIC ZONES AND MINERAL DEPOSITS 95
sition of silicates by water containing carbon dioxide. As a consequence
of these reactions the volume should increase, but so much is carried
away by solution that a great reduction of volume ensues.
Disintegration works hand in hand with decomposition and in advance
of it; calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium are leached; the final
products are a small number of minerals, largely hydrated compounds
with low specific gravity and, for the most part, comparatively simple
molecules. Almost all rock-forming minerals are unstable, as are the
sulphides. These processes give rise to many mineral deposits of oxidized
ores, which will be described in a later chapter.
The great extent of weathering and the intensity of the changes are
especially emphasized in regions of soluble rocks like limestone.
Weathering is caused by long-continued action by extremely dilute solu­
tions. This is shown by the relative purity of the surface waters, which
contain calcium and magnesium carbonates with lesser amounts of
alkaline salts. The soluble products in part escape into the rivers
through the zone of discharge, which ordinarily lies below the zone of
weathering, and finally into the oceans. Colloid processes and products
are common features of weathering.
The Epi-metamorphic Zone.—The rocks immediately below the zone
of weathering are often saturated with water which diminishes in quantity
with increasing depth. The small pressure permits fracturing and brec-
ciation; and the openings created by these processes, as well as those
resulting from porosity, are filled with minerals deposited by circulating
solutions. To a small extent these minerals result from material
abstracted from the zone of weathering, but as that zone is shallow the
salts available from the weathering are, to a large extent, carried away
by the surface drainage. The larger part of the minerals deposited have
been derived from the rocks themselves; to a considerable extent they
may be derived from deep-seated sources, as, for instance, in the cementa­
tion by quartz veins and veinlets near igneous intrusions. Hydration
and carbonatization are the principal processes. Minerals like chlorite,
serpentine, talc, sericite, epidote, and calcite develop, largely by metaso-
matic processes. Replacement and filling work together.
Where stress is present it is mainly in one direction and shearing and
schistosity may develop; in metamorphic schists some of the minerals
formed are muscovite, chlorite, talc, hornblende, zoisite, epidote, and
albite; also quartz, pyrite, and calcite, probably magnetite and specula-
rite. The clay slates with muscovite and albite, the chloritic schists,
and the talc schists belong to this zone. The term “epi-metamorphic”
was introduced by Grubenmann.
The Meso-metamorphic and Deeper Zones.—In the deeper belts
(included by Van Hise under the name of the anamorphic zone) the pres­
sure and temperature are high; the latter in general above 200° C. Little
96 MINERAL DEPOSITS
water is present. Minerals are formed mainly by replacement. Tem­
perature and pressure work in the direction of diminished molecular
volume. The pressure is largely stress—that is, acting in one direction—
but hydrostatic pressure (transmitted in all directions) is becoming of
importance. The important reactions are dehydration, the development
of silicates, and deoxidation. Often there is a mixture of the epi-meta-
morphic and the hypo-metamorphic minerals. The minerals produced
are numerous, stable, heavy, and complex. The rocks formed are com­
pact and strong. However, the temperature is not sufficiently high to
break up the molecules in which hydroxyl is contained.
Among the minerals of this zone are muscovite, microcline, albite,
microperthite, oligoclase, biotite, zoisite, epidote, hornblende, staurolite,
garnet, cyanite, titanite, magnetite, and ilmenite. Most of the micaceous
and hornblendic gneisses containing garnet, staurolite, etc., belong to
this zone; also the mica schists, amphibolites, and glaucophane rocks.
Where there is no stress in this zone many igneous rocks, like granite,
basalt, and rhyolite, are stable.
Under the influence of stress in the metamorphic zones a parallel
separation takes place in rocks. This may be caused by shear, by plastic
deformation, or by new crystal growth, or by all of these combined.
When shearing planes are closely spaced, the name schistosity is used.
Recrystallization takes place according to the law of Riecke, solution
prevailing at places of maximum pressure and deposition at those of
minimum pressure. The crystallized products may assume lamellar
structure, extending perpendicularly to the pressure; this results in a
“ schistosity by crystallization.”
On the basis of Becker’s 1 fundamental work, Bruno Sander2 has
studied the textural fabric of stressed rocks, not only as to the form of the
minerals but also in regard to their optical orientation. Important
information is thus obtained of direction and character of the forces to
which the rock has been exposed. Practical applications result in the
case of structural materials, and a similar study of stressed mineral
deposits should produce valuable results.
The Hypo-metamorphic Zone.3—In the lowest zone, according to the
classification of Grubenmann, the temperature is high and the tendency
is toward an increase of volume. The hydrostatic pressure is enormous
and stress almost non-existent, but high temperature is the dominant
feature. There are no minerals containing the hydroxyl molecule except
biotite, and the characteristics are, therefore, the prevalence of anhydrous
minerals of small molecular volume. Characteristic minerals of this zone
1 G. F. Becker, Finite homogeneous strain flow and rupture of rocks, Bull. Geol.
Soc. Am., 4, 1893, pp. 13-90.
2 Bruno Sander, Gefiigekunde der Gesteine, Wien, 1930, 352 pp.
3 Grubenmann calls this the kata-metamorphic zone.
 METAMORPHIC ZONES AND MINERAL DEPOSITS 97
in the crystalline schists are orthoclase, all plagioclases, biotite, augite,
olivine, garnet, cordierite, sillimanite, spinel, magnetite, and ilmenite.
Many of the minerals of this zone also appear in the massive igneous rocks
and in the contact metamorphic rocks. The rocks are mostly gneisses,
gradually approaching granites; also granulites, eclogites, and augite
gneisses. Most of the igneous rocks are stable in this zone.
The orthoclase or microcline in the crystalline schists of the deepest
zone tends to microperthite in the middle depths and to sericite in the
upper zone. Plagioclases of the deep zone may be transformed into
albite and anorthite and finally to albite and zoisite or sericite. The
augites change to hornblende and finally to chlorite. Olivine of the
deep zone is transformed to hornblende or (with feldspar) to garnet and
becomes serpentine in the upper zone.
Carbon dioxide and water doubtless escape from the deep zones
upward wherever calcareous rocks containing free water or hydrated
compounds become submerged in it.
Exceptional supplies of heat contributed by igneous intrusions may
carry the reactions of the lower zones close to the surface.
Relation of Mineral Deposits to the Metamorphic Zones.—Though
certain kinds of mineral deposits have originated at the surface or in the
zone of weathering, the largest number have undoubtedly been formed in
the zone of fracture, where circulation of solutions is comparatively easy.
It is safe to assert that the great majority of ore deposits have been
formed within 15,000 feet of the surface.
Ore deposits do not, as a rule, form in the zone of flowage where the
passage of solutions is difficult. An exception to this is where hot emana­
tions from intrusive bodies penetrate and impregnate certain rocks like
limestone without the necessity of ducts and cavities.
Ore deposits may also form in the hottest zone where the solutions
consist of magmas in which the free rearrangement of molecules is
possible.
During the ordinary metamorphic processes under static or dynamic
conditions extensive changes in mineral composition and structure may
be effected with small changes in the chemical composition of the rocks,
so that it is possible to trace the origin of highly metamorphosed rocks
by the aid of analyses. Metamorphism can be, and usually is, effected
with the aid of minute quantities of rock moisture and during the process
there is little opportunity for extensive concentration of rarer constit­
uents. Mineral deposits due to simple hydration or chemical rearrange­
ment within the mass may result. Examples: soapstone by hydration of
magnesian minerals; magnesite from carbonatization of serpentine;
sulphur from reduction of gypsum by organic compounds; garnets
developed in crystalline schists; concentration of hematite from lean
primary ores; and many similar instances.
98 MINERAL DEPOSITS
A comparison of the mineral records of ore deposits, formed at various
levels in the earth’s crust, with the results obtained by a study of general
metamorphism soon brings out the fact that the same laws do not apply
to both cases, although there are points of similarity. Attention was
called to this important feature in a paper on the metasomatic processes
in fissure veins, and increasing knowledge emphasizes the distinction. 1
Neither the rules of Van Hise nor the three zones of Grubenmann will fit
closely the case of the ore deposits. The reason for this is not difficult to
find. In metamorphism one deals with small quantities of solutions, free
from large amounts of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. The
majority of ore deposits, on the other hand, were formed by large quanti­
ties of waters rich in these gases and heavily charged with alkaline salts.
A large number of silicates and other minerals, fairly stable under the
influence of ordinary deep ground water, are incapable of existence in
many vein-forming solutions. Biotite, amphibole, soda-lime feldspars,
often also chlorite, serpentine, and magnetite are included among these.
UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURES12
The increment in temperature in the upper part of the earth’s crust is
generally assumed to average 1 ° C. for 30 meters or nearly 1 0 0 feet.
Beginning with a surface temperature of 11° C. at a depth of 100 feet,
corresponding to the mean annual temperature of a place in the tem­
perate zone, we would have at a depth of 1,000 feet, 20° C.; at 9,000 feet,
1 0 0 ° C.; at 20,000 feet, 210° C.; and at 35,000 feet, 360° C., which is near
the critical temperature of water (374° C.). As a matter of fact but little
is known about the increment at great depths. Actual measurements
within the accessible zone or to depths of about 7,000 feet show con­
siderable divergences from the average figures given above.
The best summary of the results obtained in widely separated parts
of the world has been given by Koenigsberger, 3 who has also given impor­
tant data regarding the influences which increase or diminish the geother­
mal gradient.
1 W. Lindgren, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 1900, p. 601.
W. Lindgren, The relation of ore deposition to physical conditions, Econ. Geol.,
2, 1907, pp. 105-127. Also Compte Rendu de la X4rae session du Congres Geologique
International, Mexico, 2, 1906, pp. 701-724.
2 J. D. Everett, Evidence before the Royal Commission on coal supplies, London,
1904. Also in Reports of the British Association, 1882-1904. An increment of
1° C. in 100 feet equals 1° F. in 55 feet.
3 J. Koenigsberger and M. Miihlberg, Ueber Messungen der geothermischen
Tiefenstufe, Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 31, 1911, pp. 107-157. (Contains also list of
literature and technique of measuring temperatures.)
For a general treatment see C. E. Van Orstrand, On the nature of isogeothermal
surfaces, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 15, 1928, pp. 494-519.
 MET AMORPHIC ZONES AND MINERAL DEPOSITS 99
The following data are abstracted from the tables of Koenigsberger:
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENTS IN UNALTERED ROCKS (NOT RECENT ERUP-
TIVES) AND REGIONS OF FLAT RELIEF. BORE HOLES

Gradient Gradient
Locality in meters in feet inDepth Depth Author
per 1° C. per 1° C. meters in feet

Martincourt,1 France. . . . 31.0 101 1,200 3,937

Sperenberg, Berlin............ 32.5 107 1,268 4,160 Dunker.
Sennewitz, Halle............... 36.6 120 1,048 3,438
Schladcbach, Merseburg. 35.7 117 1,236 4,055 Dunker.
Czuchow,1 Silesia.............. 29.6 97 2,239 7,346 Michael and Quitzew.
Bay City, Michigan......... 36.8 121 1,050 3,445 Lane.
Marietta, West Virginia.. 37.9 124 1,360 4,462 Hallock.

1 At Martincourt and Czuchow some coal beds are present.

One of the deepest bore holes in the world is that of the Goff Farm
near Clarksburg, West Virginia. In 1918, this had reached 7,350 feet
and the temperature gradient was 1° F. in 92 feet. The boiling point of
water should be reached at about 1 0 , 0 0 0 feet. 1
Bore hole 96 Olinda, Fullerton field, California, has attained 8,046
feet at which depth a temperature of about 220° F. is reported. 12
In 1931, a well in the Tuxpam field, Vera Cruz, Mexico, reached a
depth of 10,585 feet. From 2,700 feet to the bottom it was in the Lower
Cretaceous limestone. 3
Underneath high ridges and mountains the increase is slow:
Gradient Gradient Depth
Locality in meters in feet inDepth Author
per 1° C. per 1° C. meters in feet

Mont Cenis (summit).... 50 164

44 144 Stapff.
43.5 143 Schardt.

In or near recent eruptive rocks the increase is often rapid. This

rapid increase is even noticeable in Tertiary eruptions. The following
data are from borings:
Gradient Gradient
Locality in meters in feet inDepth Depth Author
per 1° C. per 1° C. meters in feet

Sulz (Wurttemberg)......... 24.1 79 710 2,329 Braun and Waitz.

Macholles, France............. 14.2 46 1,005 3,329 Michel-L6vy.
Buda-Pest............................ 15.0 49 903 2,963 Szab6.

1Press Bull. 357, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1918.

2 Oil and Gas Jour., Sept. 30, 1926.
3Oil Weekly, Oct. 2, 1931.
100 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In the vicinity of hot waters, or where chemical processes of decom­
position are active, the increase is especially rapid.
Gradient Gradient Depth Depth
Locality in meters in feet Author
per 1° C. per 1° C. in meters in feet

Idria, Austria..................... 10 33 320 1,079 Schcinpflug and

Holler.
( 457 1,499 \ G. F. Becker.
Comstock, Nevada........... 17.1 50 1672 2,205 /

In coal mines and in borings in coal-bearing strata the increase is

more rapid than the normal, owing to the chemical processes in the coal
beds.
Gradient Gradient
Locality in meters in feet inDepth Depth Author
per 1° C. per 1° C. meters in feet

Charmoy, Creusot (bore 26 85 1,168 3,832 Michel-L6vy.

hole).
Paruschowitz, Silesia
(bore hole):
Above coal...................... 26 85 1,122 3,681 Hendrick.
Below coal...................... 35 115 1,959 6,427 Hendrick.
Gelsenkirchen, Germany. 23.5 77 705 2,313
Kosebridgc, England 29.5 97
(cooled by ventilation).

Similar relations appear to exist in regions producing petroleum.'

Gradient Gradient
Locality in meters in feet inDepth Depth Author
per 1° C. per 1° C. meters in feet

Santa Maria, California 23.0 76 1,097 3,599 Arnold and Anderson.

Berekei, Caucasus........ 23.0 76 1,000 3,281 Kelickij.
Apsheron, Russia.......... 28.4 93 300-700 984-2,297 Solubjatnikow.

The following table embodies some late measurements. It empha­

sizes the steep gradients in oil wells in sedimentary rocks. In some
metal mines like those of Freiberg (Saxony) and Cornwall, a similar steep
gradient seems to exist. In others, principally gold-quartz mines in
old and stable regions of considerable geological age, the gradients and the
1 For later information on this subject see H. Hoefer, Temperature in oil regions,
Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, 536-541 and E. L. De Golyer, The significance of certain Mexican
oil temperatures, Econ. Geol., 13, 1918, pp. 275-301. Also N. H. Darton, Geothermal
data of the United States, Bull. 701, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1920.
 MET AMORPHIC ZONES AND MINERAL DEPOSITS 101
increase of temperature are very gradual so that some of these mines can
be worked to depths of over 7,000 feet. Owing to differences in observa­
tions and calculations the figures in some cases vary considerably. In
many cases the depth-temperature curve is practically a straight line; but
more commonly there is a slight flattening so that the gradient becomes
somewhat smaller in depth; in other words, the increase in temperature
is somewhat slower as depth is attained.
T em perature
a t m axim um
G ra d ie n t G ra d ie n t G reatest G re a te st dep th
L ocality in m eters in feet d ep th in d e p th in A uth o r
per 1° C. p er 1 °C . m eters feet
°C . ° F.

N orth S tar M ine, C a lifo rn ia ... 104.1 3 4 1.7 1,128 3,700 2 2 .4 7 2 .3 W . D . Jo h n sto n , J r .1
M other Lode, A m ador C ounty,
C alifornia........................................ 8 2 .3 2 7 0.0 1,282 4,200 3 0 .0 8 6 .0 A. K n o p f.2
C alum et & H ecla, M ic h ig a n ... 6 0.7 194.4 1,731 5,679 3 5 .0 9 5 .0 Ingersoll. 3
St. John D el R ey M ine, B razil 6 8 .4 2 2 4.7 1,871 6,140 4 6 .5 115.7 V an O rstrand.
Bendigo, V icto ria............................. 4 2 .7 140.0 1,110 3,645 (4 4 .5 112.0)* Jenkins.
Johannesburg, S outh A fric a .. . . 110.9 3 6 3.9 2,143 7,032 3 6 .1 9 7 .0 M a rrio tt, T illard
an d R anson.
3 1 .0 102.0 457 1,500
3 3 .0 108.0 610 2,001
T hom as.
Longm ont, C olorado (o il)............ 2 2 .8 7 5 .0 1,981 6,500 99 .2 2 1 0.4 V an O rstran d.
Ligonia, P enn sy lv an ia (oil)------ 3 5 .0 115.0 2,077 6,815 6 8 .7 155.7 Van O rstran d.
F airm ont, W est V irginia ( o il).. 3 6 .0 118.4 2,286 7,500 7 0 .7 159.3 V an O rstrand.
Longbeach. C alifornia (o il)___ 2 8 .2 9 2 .5 1,067 3,500 5 8 .2 138.4 V an O rstran d.

* A t 4,600 feet.
1 Jo u r. W ashington A cad. Sci., 22, M ay, 1932, p p . 267-271.
2 P r o f. P a p e r 157, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1929; also Jo u r. W ashin gto n A cad. Sci., 22, A ugust, 1932, pp. 389-393.
3 T ech . P u b l. 481, A m . In st. M in. M et. Engs., 1932.

At Bendigo, 1 where gold-bearing quartz veins occur in Ordovician

sandstone, the rock temperature at the greatest depth attained,
4,600 feet, is 112° F. (44.5° C.). At this depth the water is salty and has
a temperature of 114° F. At St. John del Rey, 2 a gold mine in the schists
of southern Brazil, at 4,000 feet below the adit tunnel, the temperature
is 95° F., or 35° C. At a vertical depth of 6,500 feet the rock temperature
is 118° F. with an air temperature of 110° F. This is reduced to about
98° F. by a powerful system of fans and air cooling, made difficult by the
high percentage of moisture in the air. At 7,100 feet the rock tem­
perature is said to be 127° F. On the Witwatersrand, in the Transvaal, 3
a temperature of 65° F. prevails at 500 feet; the increase down to
1W. J. Rickard, Deep mining at Bendigo, Mining Mag., London, 1910, pp. 281-282.
2T. T. Read, Eng. and, Min. Jour.-Press, Oct. 10, 1925. See also Eng. and Min.
Jour., May 25, 1931, p. 447.
3 H. F. Marriott, An investigation of earth temperatures, etc., Trans., Inst.
Min. and Met., London, 15, 1906.
102 MINERAL DEPOSITS
3,900 feet is regular at the rate of 1° C. per 360 feet; at a vertical depth
of 4,500 feet the rock temperature in the City Deep Mine is 84° F.
According to Marriott the natural ventilation reduces the temperature
near the workings 5° to 6 ° C. The plotted curve is almost a straight line.
By extrapolation a temperature of 109.5° should be reached at 10,000 feet
based on plotting as a straight line.
At the Kirkland Lake mine, Ontario, a rock temperature of 69° F. is
reported at 4,300 feet of depth, making a gentle gradient of 150 feet. 1
1 Eng. and Min. Jour., May 25, 1931, p. 447.
 CHAPTER X
THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS
DEFINITION AND CONSTITUTION OF THE MAGMA
We know by experience that the lavas, that is, the effusive igneous
rocks, solidify from a hot, fluid silicate melt. By study and inference we
know also that all the rocks which, on the basis of certain characteristics,
we designate as igneous rocks have congealed from such melts. Rapid
cooling produces glasses or fine-grained rocks; slow cooling may produce
rocks with coarsely granular texture; igneous rocks which solidified at
great depth, beyond our observation, usually have such a granular tex­
ture. 1 Such silicate melts are called magmas and may be defined as
liquids of high temperature, which consist of a mutual solution of silicates
and silica with admixed oxides, and always contain a certain amount of
dissolved volatile substances. 12
The oxides present in igneous rocks are chiefly those of silicon and
iron; they separate out as quartz and magnetite. The small but impor­
tant quantity of volatile substances consists of predominating water with
some carbon dioxide, sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, etc., in all rarely exceed­
ing a few per cent. Observations on lavas plainly show their presence;
and we infer, from many lines of deduction, that they existed in the mag­
mas which solidified as intrusive rocks. Fenner3 .believes that under
intracrustal conditions these substances form homogeneous solutions
with those of less volatile matter and that they are in a state of molecular
dispersal. Critical temperatures are so modified that they have little
relation to those of the pure substances; gaseous properties are obscured
and all the substances should be regarded as parts of a mutual solution.
The crystalline compounds and the gases that escape later may be far
from representing the state of combination in the solution.
1 Most coarse-grained rocks like granites and diorites have undoubtedly congealed
from a hot fluid melt. Some petrologists hold that similar rocks may be produced
by a high-temperature replacement of quite different rocks, like quartzite, by the
action of emanations from contiguous magmas. In the nature of things such products
must be of subordinate importance. Again certain basic igneous rocks may have
formed indirectly from a melt by the crystallization and settling of heavy silicates
like olivine.
2 Magmas, rich in silica, may perhaps be considered as a solution of all other
constituents in silica.
3 C. N. Fenner, The Katmai magmatic province, Jour. Geol., 34, 1926, p. 697.
103
104 MINERAL DEPOSITS
That a magma is a solution is inferred from the lowering of the freez­
ing point as shown by the order of crystallization, and from the fact that
some of the last residues of crystallization approximate eutectic mixtures.
Dissociation takes place to some extent and the magmas are electrolytes.
Though some basic rocks can be reproduced by dry fusion, the pres­
ence of volatile substances appears to be necessary for the crystallization
of acidic rocks like granite and monzonite.
With lowering pressure and congealing of the non-volatile material
the volatile compounds tend to escape. In the magma their r61e is to
decrease viscosity and to lower the melting point. When magmas con­
solidate, these constituents are expelled except as they may enter the
composition of rock minerals or become imprisoned in them as gaseous
or liquid inclusions. When expelled, they (particularly the halogens)
carry with them many heavy metals like iron, copper, zinc, lead, or tin
because volatile compounds are formed, such as SiH4, SiF4, SiCl4, TiCl4,
AsC14, AICI3 WF6, BCI3, BF3, etc.
Barus obtained liquid solutions of various glasses with water at high
temperature and pressure, which congealed at comparatively low tem­
peratures as undercooled liquids or “rigid solutions.” Upon heating,
the water is expelled and a pumice-like, difficultly fusible mass remains.
Many pitch stones and obsidians which contain much water behave in
the same way when heated.
Similar experiments more closely paralleling the conditions of pegma­
tite magmas have recently been undertaken by Morey.
The average composition of igneous rocks is thus not exactly that of
the average magma for the volatile components in the latter are not
accounted for in the analyses; on the other hand the analyses include
some unavoidable products of later decomposition. There are many
kinds of magmas yielding rocks ranging from very acidic to very basic
composition, such as rhyolite, granite, andesite, granodiorite, monzonite,
diorite, basalt, diabase, gabbro, and peridotite. The common rock-
forming minerals are relatively few in number and include feldspars,
feldspathoids, pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivine, micas, quartz, iron ores,
and apatite. Various silicate molecules enter into the constitution of
the magma, and they are miscible in all proportions. According to J. W.
Greig, the oxides of Ca, Mg, and Fe show limited miscibility with silicates
but only at high temperature and acidity. Sulphides are miscible with
the silicates to only a limited extent, the amount increasing with tempera­
ture and basicity.
Crystallization of Magmas
As in an aqueous solution, the successive crystallization of given
minerals is dependent upon their solubility in the rest of the magma and
does not follow their temperature of fusion. When a salt dissolves in
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 105
water the temperature of solidification is changed. Water freezes at 0° C.,
but an addition of sodium chloride to it depresses its melting or solidify­
ing point many degrees. Alloys show the same behavior—for example,
those with extraordinary low temperature of fusion, sometimes below
100° C. In the same way an igneous rock may become fluid at a tem­
perature far below the average melting point of its constituent minerals,
or even lower than the lowest of these.
On the other hand, no mineral can separate if the temperature, for a
given pressure, is higher than the point of fusion of this mineral. Below
this point crystallization takes place whenever the point of saturation of
the solution for this mineral is exceeded. Some of the components of
the solution will form isomorphous mixtures, but a part of it may remain
in eutectic proportions.
According to the empirical rule of Rosenbusch the separation of
crystals in a silicate magma follows an order of decreasing basicity, so
that at every stage the residual magma is more acidic than the aggregate
of the crystals already separated out. This rule is subject to important
exceptions, especially in basic magmas, but in the granitic and dioritic
rocks the basic and difficultly fusible minerals, such as zircon, magnetite,
apatite, ilmenite, and rutile, crystallize first. Then follow biotite, horn­
blende, and augite, or in general the magnesium and iron silicates, then
the soda-lime feldspars, later orthoclase, and finally the residual quartz,
which probably separates at about 800° C. The “ mother liquor” of a
granite thus becomes successively richer in silica. The “mineralizers,”
or the volatile substances, like boron, fluorine, and tin, follow the acidic
rather than the basic constituents. The residual magma, in granitic
rocks, is a solution rich in alkalies and silica, probably with water, which
under certain circumstances may be eutectic and may be pressed out of the
partly consolidated magma, as from a sponge, and crystallize as pegma­
tite in fissures held open by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluids. The
eutectic is said by Vogt to have the composition of 73 per cent orthoclase
and 27 per cent quartz. Petrographers, however, are not unanimous in
regard to the existence of a true eutectic in rocks. 1 Another fact to be
considered is that the rest-magma is certainly not always highly acidic
but that in basic rocks it may retain much iron to a very late stage.
Newton and Teall12 say of certain basalts from Franz Josef Land that
progressive crystallization leads to the formation of a mother liquor, poor
in silica and rich in iron. This agrees with conclusions derived from the
study of some high-temperature magnetite deposits.
1 C. N. Fenner, op. tit., p. 750.
J. J. Sederholm, On synantetic minerals and related phenomena, Bull. 48,
Comm. geol. de Finlande, 1916.
E. S. Bastin, Origin of the pegmatites of Maine, Jour. Geol., 18, 1910, p. 312.
2 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 53, 1897, p. 477.
106 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Near the surface there often appear two generations of crystals
caused by interrupted crystallization, and sometimes an older generation,
of hornblende, for instance, may be resorbed and almost obliterated.
In rock-forming minerals the volume of the crystallized substances is
smaller than that of the corresponding fluid substance; their fusibility
and also their solubility diminish somewhat with increasing pressure.
A sudden release of pressure may then act as an increase of temperature
and newly formed crystals may be remelted.
The mode of crystallization in a binary magma is illustrated in Fig. 9.
presenting the most simple conditions. In this temperature-composition
diagram the saturation- or crystallization-curves are indicated; they show
that with decreasing temperature separation of one component takes
place until with a certain composition the whole remaining liquid will
crystallize as a eutectic. Above the curves the magma is fluid; at a cer­
tain point say with 1 0 per cent of the second substance the first substance
will begin to crystallize; this changes the composition of the magma and
as the temperature is still further lowered crystallization continues. At
E, the eutectic point, the remaining mixture of A and B solidifies as an
intimately intergrown or fine granular mass. 1 Between the curves and a
horizontal line through E the magma consists of fluid and crystals.
Below E there are crystals only. Similar diagrams have been constructed
for many substances. The crystallization of a three-component magma
can be represented by a more complicated triangular diagram . 12
It has been assumed that the constituents of a binary magma are of
unchanging composition. But many rock-forming minerals consist
of two or more components which are isomorphous and miscible in all
proportions, forming homogeneous crystals. The plagioclases, the
pyroxenes, and the olivines are examples of this. The process of crystal­
lization of such compounds may be represented by a temperature-compo­
sition diagram (Fig. 10).
In mix crystals, for instance, of albite and anorthite, there is only one
freezing-point curve, instead of two meeting at a eutectic point. As in
the case of non-mixing components it is called the liquidus (the upper
curve in the diagram). The melting-point curve, or solidus, does not
coincide with the freezing-point curve. A mix crystal does not melt at a
1 C. N. Fenner, The significance of the word “eutectic,” Jour. Geol. 38, 1930, pp.
159-165. “Eutectic” is applicable with strict propriety only to a point on the phase
diagram. The lines and surfaces related to the eutectic point are called “boundary
lines” and “boundary faces.” At this point the temperature is fixed until the crystal­
lization is complete and the total composition of the solid phases is exactly that of the
liquid from which they crystallize. The system is invariant. In a magma impreg­
nated with volatiles, the final crystals are deposited along a boundary curve of
decreasing temperature and varying composition until the last of the volatiles escape
or until a more or less dilute aqueous residue is attained.
2 G. W. Tyrrell, Principles of petrology, 1926, p. 67.
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 107
definite temperature, but melting is spread over an interval of which the
lower limit is fixed by the solidus, and the upper limit by the liquidus.
A mixture of composition Ab-iAn-i begins to crystallize at 1450°, the first

F ig. 9.—Equilibrium diagram of the system , anorthite-diopside. (After N . L. Bowen.)

crystals having the composition Ab\An 5 . With further cooling both
liquid and crystals change their composition. When the temperature
has fallen to 1285° the crystals have the composition AbiAni, and the

OAb ZOAb 40Ab 6QAb 80Ab tOOAb

F ig . 10.— Tem perature-com position diagram, illustrating crystallization of m ixtures of
albite and anorthite. Upper curve liquidus; lower curve solidus. Also showing slight
difference between the curves a t low pressure, T p , and a t high pressure, T p . (After
J. H. L. Vogt.) 1
liquid has just disappeared. There is no eutectic point. It is evident
that if cooling proceeds very slowly the crystals will gradually change
their composition. The complete readjustment of the composition of
108 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the crystals is only theoretically possible. Actually, zones are formed
around a kernel, each of the composition appropriate to the temperature
of formation and to the liquid with which it was in equilibrium. Thus
arises the well-known zonal structure of plagioclase crystals. 1 The
resultant product is made up of crystals whose average composition is
AbxAni, but whose inner cores are more calcic and whose outer rims
more sodic. The diagram also shows the relatively slight displacement
which is effected in these curves by a strong increase in pressure.
CAUSES OF VOLCANISM
It is not the purpose to discuss in detail the causes of volcanism, a
subject which as yet is in a highly speculative stage. It is generally
admitted that the sources of the magmas are very deep, perhaps from 2 0
to 60 miles and that by various causes, in various places, the rigid crust is
subject to melting and the development of local magma basins. Struc­
tural lines undoubtedly determine the position of these. The ultimate
forces which bring the magma up to the surface or within short distances
of it may be contraction with tangential pressure, folding, and thrust, or
may be isostatic adjustment. Here opinions differ widely. Among the
direct causes of volcanic action the following are mentioned by Daly:
minute deformations of the magma chamber; effervescence of lavas; assimi­
lation of rocks in depth resulting in increase of volume; increase in volume
through heating or by chemical processes. To this may be added the
possibility of explosion and eruption by surface waters or oceanic waters,
near the surface.
DIFFERENTIATION IN MAGMAS2
Differentiation, according to Iddings, means the separation of a homo­
geneous rock magma into chemically unlike portions. For each region,
in each separate “magma basin,” there is probably one essentially homo­
geneous magma from which by some process of differentiation the various
rock types have been derived. In general it is thought that the primary
magma was of intermediate or basic composition and has been separated
into basic and acidic forms, like basalts, latites, and rhyolites.
1 G. W. Tyrrell, op. cit., p. 66.
2 For fuller treatment see chapters on Magmas and Differentiation in: Natural
history of igneous rocks, by Alfred Harker, 1909; Igneous rocks, by J. P. Iddings,
1909; Igneous rocks and the depths of the earth, by R. A. Daly, 1933; Data of geo­
chemistry, by F. W. Clarke, 1924; The principles of petrology, by G. W. Tyrrell, 1926;
J. H. L. Vogt, The physical chemistry of the differentiation of igneous rocks, Jour. Geol,
29, Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 1921; N. L. Bowen, Later stages of the evolution of igneous rocks,
idem, 23, 1915, Supplement; Crystallization-differentiation in igneous magmas,
idem, 27, 1919, pp. 393-430; The reaction principle in petrogenesis, idem, 30, 1922, pp.
177-198; N. L. Bowen, The evolution of igneous rocks, Princeton, 1928, 338 pp.
Symposium on the physical chemistry of igneous rock formation. A general
discussion, Trans., Faraday Soc., 20, pt. 3, 1925, with many important papers.
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 109
That differentiation has actually occurred is proved by the consan­
guinity of different rocks in a given district; by successive effusion of
unlike lavas from the same vent; by the different products found in one
and the same intrusive body; and by the study of individual flows. The
explanation of these processes is not always satisfactory.
A magma may yield gases, or aqueous solutions rich in silica; it may
also yield melts of the oxides of iron, titanium, or chromium; or finally
it may yield sulphide melts or sulphide solutions. These separate parts
should not be termed magmas but magmatic products.1
The earlier attempts to account for differentiation may still prove
to be of some value. They include the application of “ Soret’s principle,”
which states that when two parts of a solution are at different tempera­
tures there is a tendency toward selective concentrations of certain
ingredients in the cooler portion. 12 G. F. Becker showed, however, that
molecular diffusion in a viscous magma would require almost unlimited
time and H. Backstrom pointed out that the action could not alter the
relative proportions among the dissolved substances.
“Gravitative adjustment” was thought by J. Morozewicz and R. A.
Daly to play a considerable part in differentiation. A mass of magma,
like a high column of a salt solution would separate into a denser sub­
stratum and a lighter upper part.
G. F. Becker first indicated the possible importance of fractional
crystallization, thus regarding differentiation as a consequence of the
general cooling process. This view has been very fully developed by
N. L. Bowen in a notable series of papers. Bowen’s theory of differentia­
tion by crystallization is now accepted by many petrographers (p. 1 1 0 ).
Liquid Immiscibility.—A separation may occur in the magma if
with lowering temperature certain elements are no longer fully miscible
with the silicate melt. It is conceivable that in such a way dissolved
sulphides may separate out in globules which would grow and eventually,
if the magma continues fluid, would settle to a molten sulphide layer.
This theory has much to commend it, and it is thought that some high-
temperature sulphide deposits may have been concentrated in such a
manner.
1Naturally, the question may arise where the line should be drawn, for many of
such oxide or sulphide melts contain admixed silicates and transitions exist. Many
geologists speak of quartz magmas or magnetite magmas or sulphide magmas. An
exact definition is perhaps of no great importance but it would be advisable to retain
the term “magma” for molts which contained any considerable amount of silicates,
say about 25 per cent. The use of “magma” or “ore magma” for the volatile com­
ponents and aqueous solutions does not appear justified. My attitude in relation to
the so-called “carbonate magmas” except as local products of assimilation, or as
products of carbonate replacement, is frankly one of doubt.
2A. E. Lagorio, Tschermak’s min. u. petr. Mitt., 8, 1887, pp. 421-529.
110 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Differentiation by Crystallization.—Bowen’s theory emphasizes the
fact that the early crystals are usually of heavy minerals like magnetite,
ilmenite, and olivine, and laboratory experiments have indeed shown that
olivine crystals actually sink in the melt. 1 It is easily seen that the
settling of these early crystals may lead to a concentration of iron ores
and, in general, to a differentiation of the magma. Many cases have been
investigated where, in flows and intrusives, such a settling of olivine
crystals has taken place.
The Reaction Series.—Tyrrell2 concisely explains Bowen’s reaction
series as follows:
Once produced, a m ineral formed as p a rt of a eutectic system in magmas is
no longer concerned in the equilibrium . Its composition can not be further
changed; it is m agm atically “ dead.” On the other hand, a m ineral of a mix-
crystal series is in continual reaction w ith the liq u id from which it has crystal­
lized, and its composition is continually being modified. The plagioclase series
forms an ideal m ix-crystal series. In th e ir magmatic relations, Bowen proposes
to call such series continuous reaction series.
Another typ e of reaction relation also occurs in magmas in which an early
crystallized m ineral reacts at a certain tem perature w ith the liq u id in such a way
as to form a m ineral of different composition. In the system MgO-SiCL, for
example, m ixtures of appropriate composition produce o livine as the earliest
m ineral, b ut w ith fallin g tem perature the o livine reacts w ith the liq u id to form a
pyroxene (clino-enstatite). The two m inerals thus related by reaction are
called a reaction pair. A reaction relation of the same character m ay exist
between three or more m inerals which, when arranged in the proper order of
succession, constitute a discontinuous reaction series. M inerals which are con­
nected by this relatio n often e xhib it incongruent melting, i.e., they have no
definite m elting point but on heating break up into some other m ineral plus liquid.

Both kinds of reaction series may co-exist in the same magma. A

common discontinuous reaction is: olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite,
muscovite, and quartz. A common continuous reaction series is exhibited
by the feldspars as follows: Calcic plagioclase, lime alkali plagioclase,
alkali plagioclase, potash feldspar, muscovite, and quartz. The two
branches converge and merge into a single discontinuous series of which
quartz is the final product.
Without doubt, crystallization, with removal of crystals as formed,
is capable of effecting large changes of composition in a magma. Gravity
is an ever-present force, tending to effect the required separation. In
this manner the splitting up of basaltic or intermediate magmas into
more acid and more basic portions can be well accounted for. Large
intrusive sheets like that of Sudbury, Ontario, are often gradually sepa­
rated into a lower norite and an upper quartzose rock. However, the
1Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 39, 1915, p. 175.
2The principles of petrology, London, 1926, pp. 76-77.
 th e m a g m a i n i t s r e l a t i o n to MINERAL DEPOSITS 111
recent controversy regarding the petrology of Sudbury has shown that
opinions about this supposed differentiation are far apart. Differentia­
tion by crystallization is surely highly important. But probably it is
not the whole story as has been recently emphasized by C. N. Fenner. 1
It has been pointed out above (p. 105) that in many cases, at least,
the residual magma is not rich in silica. Certainly more information is
required before a complete solution of the problems of differentiation can
be attained.
Another difficult question in regard to crystallization-differentiation
is the very apparent lack of differentiation in batholiths of monzonitic or
granodioritic type. Some of these are most remarkably uniform though
deep sections have been exposed by erosion. In many cases the only
evidence of differentiation consists in minor accumulations of more basic
rocks at their margins.
If the crystallization and settling take place in the magma chamber,
as indeed must be the case, the solids must be melted again in order to
ascend as separate irruptions say of iron ore or peridotites. This point
has been emphasized by Vogt. Late investigations12 seem to indicate
that most important changes of state may be produced in a system (in a
magma, for instance) by pressures of 5,000 to 10,000 atmospheres.
Differentiation by Gas Transfer.—The importance of the volatile
substances in effecting differentiation has been emphasized by several
authors3 and minimized by others. In a large magma basin no complete
equilibrium can exist; both pressure and temperature vary from place to
place. Probably there is a stream of gases through the magma reservoir,
some of it escaping upwards through volcanic conduits and some pene­
trating the rock walls.
In the ascent of a gas bubble reactions among its constituents w ill ensue and
reactions w ith the surrounding magma w ill likewise take place . . . . The
effectiveness of magmatic gases as agents of differentiation, therefore, lies both
in their a b ility to carry away m aterial when they escape and in th e ir a b ility to
make selective transfer of m aterial from lower to upper levels.4

It is also likely, as suggested by W. H. Goodchild, that the gas bubbles

will attach themselves to minute crystals and to droplets of sulphides
and may thus effectively serve as an agent of flotation.
1The Katmai magmatic province, Jour. Geol., 34, October, November, 1926.
2L. H. Adams, Yearbook, Carnegie Inst. Washington, 29, 1930, pp. 69-72.
3 C. H. Smyth, Jr., The chemical composition of the alkaline rocks, etc., Am. Jour.
Sci., 4th ser., 36, 1913, pp. 33-46; Proc., Am. Philos. Soc., 66, 1927, pp. 535-580.
A. C. Lane, Wet and dry differentiation of igneous rocks, Tufts College Studies
3, No. 1, 1910, pp. 39-53.
R. A. Daly, The genesis of alkaline rocks, Jour. Geol., 26, 1918, pp. 97-134,
4 C, N. Fenner, op. oil., p. 744,
112 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The alkaline rocks appear to be derived from the sub-alkaline clan by
differentiation; this is pretty clearly proved by their mode of appearance
in the San Francisco volcano, Arizona, 1 and in the Leadville-Boulder2 belt
of intrusives, to pick out two of many examples. It is well possible, as
suggested by Daly, that assimilation of limestone may locally produce
alkaline rocks.
Besides their richness in alkalies these rocks carry much titanium,
zirconium, chlorine, fluorine, phosphorus, barium, strontium, and other
unusual constituents. It is held that these alkaline rocks were probably
differentiated near the top of the magma chamber from the liquid magma,
largely by gaseous transfer.
RELATION OF VOLCANOES AND LAVA FLOWS TO MINERAL DEPOSITS
At volcanoes and in the lava flows we may study the relations of the
magma at close range. It seems clear that the magmas which are poured
out on the surface are derived from very considerable depths, from
magma basins perhaps 20 to 60 miles below the surface. The well-known
volcanic phenomena indicate violent explosions from the release of pres­
sure of the volatile components, probably also from the sudden expansion
of meteoric liquids reached and assimilated by the magmas near the
surface. At other places basic magmas much less rich in volatile matter
pour out quietly from fissure eruptions without much explosive activity.
That gases are present in the lavas is clearly shown by the vesicules so
common in flows and is plainly seen in the bubbles that rise from the
lavas at the surface. In more concentrated form the volatile substances
escape from the fumaroles or steam jets which are so common in active
volcanoes. Detailed observations have been made at the Italian vol­
canoes, at Santorini, in Iceland, in Hawaii, at the Katmai volcano in
Alaska, at Lassen Peak, California, and at many other places. 3
Bergeat4 lists the following elements and compounds occurring as
sublimates from Vulcano, in the Eolian Islands: Sulphur (seleniferous),
tellurium, realgar, boric acid, chlorides of sodium, ammonium, and iron,
glauberite (Na2 S0 4 .CaS0 4 ), glauber salt (Na2 SO4 .1 0 H 2 O), lithium sul­
phate, alum (with thallium, rubidium, and cesium), hieratite (potas­
sium silico-fluoride), cobalt, zinc, tin, bismuth, lead, copper, iodine,
phosphorus.
1 H. H. Robinson, The San Franciscan volcanic field, Arizona, Prof. Paper 76,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913.
2 S. H. Ball, Prof. Paper 63, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 67-70.
F. L. Ransome, Prof. Paper 75, idem, 1911, pp. 60-62.
3 For summary on this subject see F. C. Lincoln, Econ. Geol., 2, 1907, pp. 258-274.
4 A. Bergeat, Die Eolischen Inseln, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., 2 Cl., 20
Bd., 1 Abth., 1899, p. 193.
For data on Vesuvius see F. Zambonini, Mineralogia Vesuviana, Naples, 1910.
The results of Zambonini’s late work is abstracted in a paper by Albert Pelloux on
The minerals of Vesuvius, Am. Mineral., 12, 1927, pp. 14-21.
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 113
Among the fumarolic products of Vesuvius are present most of the
minerals just enumerated. Also selenium, magnetite, hematite, haus-
mannite, pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, covellite, millerite,
cuprite, tenorite, and an extensive list of chlorides (among them atacamite
and cotunnite) and sulphates.
Yellow incrustations of a vanadate of lead and copper were found
in the lava flow of 1631.
Various Ca-Mg-Fe silicates, with sulphides, magnetite, and hematite,
occur in ejected limestone blocks which form an exact equivalent to
the pyrometasomatic (contact-metamorphic) deposits.
At Katmai, in the fumaroles of the Valley of Ten Thousand
Smokes, crusts of specularite, magnetite, pyrite, galena, sphalerite,
and covellite in recognizable crystals were found and investigated by
E. G. Zies. 1 There are also small amounts of tin and molybdenum.
The highest temperature in any of the many fumaroles was about 650° C.
In the one depositing magnetite the gas temperature was 230° C. The
principal constituent of the fumaroles is usually superheated steam,
the heat being derived from the gases escaping from the crystallizing
magma comparatively near the surface; but except in the fumaroles,
which issue directly from the hot lava, there is likely to be more or less
water of meteoric origin mixed with the pure magmatic emanations.
Reaction with adjacent rocks or with organic matter underneath the
flows may contribute foreign material. The other constituents, which
usually make less than 1 per cent, are carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen
sulphide, also hydrocarbons and various acid molecules as HC1, HF, S02.
The gases are not in equilibrium; constant changes take place. Allen
concludes that the heat is not primarily caused, nor is any volcanic
activity initiated by the oxidation of the gases, though these chemical
reactions may contribute to keep up the temperature of the lavas near
the surface. 12
Very small quantities of Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd, and Mo were found in the
fresh pumice of the valley floor, and the question is discussed whether
or not the metals in the incrustations were derived from this source.
Probably this could not apply to the specularite, which is supposed to
form as follows: 2FeCl3 + 3H20 ^ 6HC1 + Fe2 0 3.
1The fumarolic incrustations in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Nat. Geog.
Soc., Contributed Tech. Papers, Katmai ser., 1, No. 3, 1924.
2 E. T. Allen, Chemical aspects of volcanism, Jour. Franklin Inst., 193, 1922, pp.
29-80.
For many analyses of volcanic gases see F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull.
770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp. 262-271. An interesting example of fumaroles are
the “soffioni” of Tuscany. From these vents steam of a temperature of 190° C. and
a pressure of 2 to 4 atmospheres is emitted. They contain much boric acid, doubtless
of magmatic origin.
114 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Exhalations of carbon dioxide and nitrogen are observed in many
mines located in volcanic districts, thus, for instance, at Cripple Creek,
Colorado; Creede, Colorado; Tonopah, Nevada; and the Thames district,
New Zealand.
In active volcanoes few mineral deposits are formed. This is probably
because the tumultuous eruptions offer less opportunity for a concentra­
tion of the metal-bearing emanations. They are present but have no
chance for gradual and persistent escape. On the other hand, in the
enormous flows of basic lavas which are poured out quietly in some
regions, the bulk of the emanations have already been separated during
differentiation in the magma chamber and there is little left but the
siderophile elements like Ni, Cr, Pt, and elements like copper, which
have entered into the composition of the silicates.
Where the meteoric water is abundant and the gas emanations
more feeble, hot ascending springs may develop, particularly in volcanoes
in process of extinction. Such springs, exemplified by those at Lassen
Peak, are usually neutral sulphate solutions, or they may carry acid
waters. They produce no important ore deposits.
The mineral deposits of the volcanoes and the lava flows originated
close to the surface or say within a few hundred feet of the surface.
They should be sharply distinguished from the ore deposits formed by
the alkaline hot springs which ascended from far deeper sources though
they may be found in the effusive rocks near the surface.
The “volcanic” deposits are few in number and of little economic
importance. They comprise native sulphur (with tellurium and sele­
nium) found in the craters of many volcanoes (p. 380); exhalations of
boron (sassolite and boric anhydride); local developments of alunite
(p. 341) produced by the action of sulphuric acid solutions on potassic
rocks; and little else. But in this class should perhaps also be included
certain exudation products which evidently originated from the flows
themselves, such as topaz and other minerals in rhyolite, and the peculiar
local high-temperature tin deposits found also in certain rhyolites of
Bolivia, Nevada, and New Mexico, which show the odd combination
of colloidal wood-tin, chalcedony, and specularite (p. 659). They have
not proved of economic importance.
THE RELATIONS OF INTRUSIVE MAGMAS TO MINERAL DEPOSITS1
A certain pressure, for instance a couple of hundred atmospheres,
corresponding to a depth of about 2 kilometers, suffices to force the
1 P. Niggli, Versuch einer natiirlichen Klassification, etc., Abhandl. prakt. Geol,
Bd. 1, 1925, Halle, pp. 1-69. Translated by H. C. Boydell under title of Ore deposits
of magmatic origin, London, 1929, 93 pp.
C. S. Ross, Physico-chemical factors controlling magmatic differentiation and
vein formation, Econ. Geol., 23, 1928, pp. 864-886. An excellent paper.
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 115
volatile constituents to form solutions with the other units of the magma.
The full sequence of events in the cooling of such a system can, therefore,
be developed only in intrusive bodies.
What happens is represented in the temperature-composition (left)
and temperature-pressure (right) diagram (Fig. 11). It shows in greatly
simplified form a binary system, A being the volatile; B the non-volatile
component. A may represent water; B a rock-forming silicate. All
complications such as isomorphic crystals or combinations between A
and B are left out of consideration; B always separates as the same
mineral. As a starting point assume the concentration x\ in which there
is very little of the volatile constituent. The left-hand curve represents
Xj r

F ig . 11.— Tem perature-com position diagram (left) and tem perature-pressure diagram
(right) for a system of volatile com ponent (A), e.g., w ater and non-volatile com ponent
(B), e.g., silicate. (After P. Niggli.)

the freezing points of any mixture of A and B. Owing to the presence

of A the freezing point of B is lowered to tx for the concentrationxi.
B crystallizes and the solution gradually changes its composition,
following the curve. At first but little of B separates out, but
a further lowering of T causes a large separation of B. This
represents the flat part of the curve in which the composition of the
rest-magma is greatly altered by a slight cooling. When almost all of
B has crystallized there remains a small amount of fluid in which A is
present in large excess. The vicinity of represents the close of the
magmatic period. The principal part of the melt is crystallized and
there remains a solution of very different character. The change is,
however, gradual and continuous. Here, near f2, begins the formation
of pegmatite solutions. We know that transitions exist from normal
igneous rocks to pegmatites, and thence to hydrothermal phenomena.
The pegmatites stand in closer relation, however, to the igneous
rocks than to the hydrothermal products like ore-bearing veins. The
116 MINERAL DEPOSITS
pegmatite stage or, as it may also be called, the stage of the salic extracts
(Si, Al), develops following the curve. The main part of silica and
alkali-aluminum silicate separates out rapidly as the temperature is
lowered slightly. When only small parts of more aqueous rest-magma
remain, the crystallization begins to follow the steep part of the curve,
that is, it develops slowly and the solubility changes but slightly with
sinking T. This corresponds to the later phase of pegmatites, often char­
acterized by a drusy development. Minerals like albite, tourmaline,
beryl, phosphates, cassiterite, and columbite, separate. The beginning of
the period of the pegmatite druses would correspond to the turn in the
curve between ti and t3. Still later follows the stage of the ore minerals,
zeolites, and carbonates; that is, the beginning of the hydrothermal
phase, with slow crystallization from a residue, now rich in the principal
volatile, i.e., water. These emanations are products of magmatic
differentiation, but they are not magmas.
It should be understood that while many new minerals are deposited
directly by the escaping magmatic products, a host of other minerals
are formed by reactions between these products and already deposited
minerals, or minerals contained in the surrounding rocks. Such replace­
ments, of infinite variety, may be observed in the igneous rocks them­
selves, in the pegmatites, and in all other mineral deposits of magmatic
affiliations.
No sudden separation of the gaseous phase will take place; in a
closed system, under heavy pressure this would not be expected; it
could occur only if the vapor tension of the solutions is greater than the
external pressure.
Now, let us turn to the right-hand side of Fig. 11 which represents
the vapor tensions belonging to a saturated solution at given tempera­
tures. During the beginning of the crystallization the vapor pressure
will be low; there are much liquid and little of the volatile constituents;
as the temperature falls much of the non-volatile matter is crystallized
and the water becomes concentrated in the residual liquid. But to
increase the water in the fused rest of the silicate means an enormous
increase in the pressure needed to hold the water in the liquid. In the
part of the curve indicated as the “ pneumatolytic ” stage the pressure
attains a maximum. The pressure does not increase indefinitely, for
the decrease in equilibrium temperature resulting from the increased
lowering of the freezing point tends to decrease the vapor pressure.
The maximum pressure, according to Niggli, indicates an interval
during which the residual solution is above its critical temperature;
this he calls the pneumatolytic stage.1 It immediately follows the
1 There exists a tendency to extend unduly the “pneumatolytic ” stage; that is, the
stage formed by gaseous fluids. For instance, many authors, without justification,
refer any deposit containing tourmaline and cassiterite to this group.
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 117
pegmatitic stage; during this period the solutions push outward from the
magma at all places where the pressure is reduced. The intrusive power
of the hydrothermal solutions is weaker; they will advance only along
fractures.
Morey looks at this question somewhat differently. According to
him:
The pegmatites correspond to the m axim um pressure or about 575° C. On
further cooling crystallizatio n w ill continue but is of a different type. The
earlier crystallizatio n is m ostly of silicate m inerals; follow ing this we get the
crystallization of the accessory components: tourm aline, topaz, fluorite, apatite,
cassiterite, and other high-tem perature vein m inerals. This range m ay lie
between 500° and 300° C. The liq u id now contains fa r more w ater than a t the
maximum pressure b ut the vapor pressure w ill be much reduced and at the critical
temperature of w ater w ill have a pressure much less than th a t of pure water.
(Critical point for H 20 : T 374°; P 218 at.)
The addition of any soluble substance w ill raise the c ritic al tem perature.
As the cooling magma elim inates one component after the other, the residual
magma w ill at a ll tim es contain enough m aterial of less vo latile character (borates,
phosphates, chlorides) to hold the compounds of greater v o la tility in solution.
The critical phenomena are never shown by the saturated solutions formed by the
cooling magma.1

Day and Allen,2 as well as Morey, say that any pressure which would
condense the steam would drive the water back into the magma. The
liquid solutions have no power to rise to the surface.
While all this may be true it seems, however, that the solutions
do rise to the surface and carry with them large amounts of silica and
other substances. The driving power would be furnished by the con­
tinuous escape of gases pushing the column of condensed solution ahead
of it.
The figures compiled by Vogt3 show that there are many substances—
SiH4, SiF4, SiCl4, SnCl4, S03, TiCl4, AsC13, A1C13—which have a critical
temperature approximately similar to that of water. Some five and six
valence chlorides and fluorides of W, Mo, U, Ni, Ta have extremely low
boiling points; WF6 boils at 19° C.
Many of the common soluble compounds, chlorides of the alkalies,
for instance, have, however, extremely high critical temperatures.
GENERAL REVIEW OF ORE DEPOSITS WITH MAGMATIC AFFILIATIONS
Before examining the probable nature of the fluids which form
ore deposits of the magmatic cortege, necessarily a more or less speculative
1G. W. Morey, Jour. Geol., 32, 1924, pp. 291-295.
2 Symposium on the temperatures of hot springs, etc., Jour. Geol., 32, 1924, Nos.
3, 4, 5, and 6.
3Econ. Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 207 et. seq.
118 MINERAL DEPOSITS
discussion, we may present, more in detail, some facts regarding the
various types.
The types of deposits are in brief: (1) liquid-magmatic, (2) pyro-
metasomatic, (3) pegmatitic, (4) hypothermal, (5) mesothermal, and (6)
epithermal.
The liquid-magmatic deposits contain few and simple minerals, mainly
oxides and sulphides of the siderophile elements: Fe, Ni, Cr, Ti, Pt, Cu;
among the “mineralizers” phosphorus is most prominent; there is little
quartz, but otherwise the gangue minerals are the common rock-forming
minerals. Naturally replacement is a subordinate process; the ores
crystallized from melts.
The pyrometasomatic deposits formed by direct action of magmatic
emanations (gaseous or liquid) on limestone contain, likewise, simple
minerals of the oxide and sulphide types; magnetite and specularite are
abundant but the simple sulphides, like pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite,
arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, and bornite, are also plentiful. Owing to their
occurrence in carbonate rocks and to additions of magmatic Fe and Si,
the gangue minerals are mainly silicates; quartz is subordinate. Replace­
ment is the chief process. Much material is carried away, as well as
added.
The pegmatites are regarded as intrusive residual magmas pressed out
from the almost congealed melt. They carry quartz, feldspars, micas,
and pyroxenes, and the quartz is followed by a characteristic association
of lithium, tin, tungsten, columbium, tantalum, cerium metals, thorium,
beryllium. Oxides and complex silicates, likewise phosphates and tan-
talates are present. There are a few sulphides and arsenides but rarely
pyrite. Large amounts of fluorine, boron, and sometimes chlorine enter
into the minerals. The pegmatites form dikes and there is some replace­
ment in the adjoining rock. In the pegmatites themselves there is a
succession of minerals of later introduction, such as albite, tourmaline,
etc. The pegmatites are a well-defined type but transitions to igneous
rocks and to veins are found.
In the hydrothermal deposits (4, 5 and 6) Cr, Ti, V, Zr, U, Ce, Ta,
and Pt are absent. There are some exceptions to this rule.
In the hypothermal deposits the metals are of the chalcophile group,
such as Fe, Sn, W, Au, Ag, Cu, Zn, Pb. Cerium minerals occur in some
rare types. The oxides are less prominent. There are more complex
minerals and more evidence of a series of deposition corresponding to
slowly decreasing temperature. Sulphur, arsenic, phosphorus, tellurium,
chlorine, and boron are present. If the deposit occupies cavities the
material is mainly quartz. The silica is not inclined to enter vigorously
in replacement. Replacement is, however, extremely important; the
rocks are penetrated by fluids which introduce large quantities of sub­
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 119
stance and which also extract large amounts. Gold and silver appear in
notable quantities.
In the mesothermal deposits the diversity becomes greater. The
metals are Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb, Au, Ag, Ni; Sn and W in places; the oxides are
subordinate. Arsenic, antimony, fluorine, sulphur, and tellurium are
present, much less commonly chlorine, boron, and phosphorus. Quartz
is the dominant gangue mineral and, as before, prefers the open spaces.
Replacement is very prominent and, as before, large quantities of material
are added and removed. Replacement processes go on both in rock and
in filling. The series of minerals is still further extended by complex
sulpharsenides and sulphantimonides, which usually appear toward the
close of the mineralization.
The epithermal deposits contain Au, Ag, Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Hg, rarely
Sn, W, and Ni. Sulphur, fluorine, antimony, arsenic, selenium, and
tellurium are present; chlorine, boron, and phosphorus usually absent.
Quartz is the prominent gangue mineral; as before, it favors the open
spaces. Filling is increasingly prominent but replacement is also impor­
tant. Large quantities of material are abstracted and introduced.
Replacement processes go on both in rock and in filling.
It is held that the hypothermal and the mesothermal deposits are
formed by emanations from intrusive rocks, generally batholiths. It is
also thought that the epithermal deposits are formed by emanations
from very deep magma chambers in which the differentiation of the
lavas is proceeding.
THE ZONAL THEORY
The zonal theory seeks to derive some laws from the arrangement
of metals in ore deposits with reference to the parent igneous body.
This may find expression in a lateral or vertical direction or both. Fore­
shadowed by old observations in the mining districts of Europe, it seems
to have been brought out independently by L. deLaunay,1 J. H. Col­
lins,12 George Waller,3 and J. E. Spurr.4 Of these men Spurr has dis­
cussed the subject most extensively. W. H. Emmons5 has also con­
1Les variations de filons mctalliferes en profondeur, Rev. gen. sci., 11, 1900, pp.
575-580.
2 Notes on the principal lead-bearing lodes of the West of England, Trans., Royal
Geol. Soc. Cornwall, XII, pt. 8, 1902, p. 713 (with map).
3 Report on the Zeehan silver-lead mining field, Bull. Tasmania Geol. Survey,
1904, p. 24.
4 The ore magmas, 2, 1923, p. 611. A theory of ore deposition. Econ. Geol., 2,
1907, pp. 781-785.
5 Primary downward changes in ore deposits, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng.,
70, 1924, pp. 964-992; Relations of metalliferous lode systems to igneous intrusions,
idem, 74, 1926, pp. 29-70. Contains a full account of mining districts in which a
zonal arrangement is shown.
120 MINERAL DEPOSITS
tributed much valuable material to this subject, and many other authors
have participated.
The following table copied from W. H. Emmons gives a schematic
expression to the zonal theory on the assumption (which is not proved)
that all veins originate from batholithic intrusions. It is understood the
whole succession would not be shown in any vein, though it is believed
that some vein systems may have a vertical range of 10,000 feet or more;
it is also understood that in some veins several of the zones may be
lacking.
A RECONSTRUCTED VEIN SYSTEM FROM SURFACE TO NEAR BATHOLITH*ROOF
{After W. H. Emmons)
Surface
Barren, 1.—Barren zone, chalcedony, quartz, barite, fluorite, etc. Some veirfs
carry a little mercury, antimony, or arsenic.
Mercury, 2.—Quicksilver veins, commonly with chalcedony, marcasite, etc.
Barite-fluorite veins.
Antimony, 3.—Antimony ores—stibnite often passing downward into lead, with
antimonides. Many carry gold.
Gold and Silver, 4.—Bonanza ores of precious metals. Argentite, antimony and
arsenic minerals common. Silver minerals, some copper, lead and zinc sulfides,
quartz, calcite, rhodochrosite, adularia, alunite, etc.
Barren, 5.—Most nearly consistent barren zone, represents the bottoms of many
Tertiary precious metals veins. Quartz, carbonates, etc. with pyrite and small
amounts of other sulfides.
Silver, 6.—Argentite veins, complex antimony silver sulfides, stibnite, etc.
Galena veins with silver. Commonly silver decreases with depth. Quartz gangue,
siderite common, often increasing with depth.
Lead, 7.—Galena veins, commonly with some silver. Sphalerite generally present,
increasing with depth. Chalcopyrite common. Gangue is quartz and often car­
bonates (Fe, Mn, Ca).
Zinc, 8.—Sphalerite veins with some lead and chalcopyrite, quartz gangue.
Copper, 9.—Tetrahedrite veins, commonly argentiferous, chalcopyrite present.
Some pass downward into chalcopyrite. Enargite veins generally with tetrahedrite
and tennantite.
Copper, 10.—Chalcopyrite veins, generally with pyrite, often with pyrrhotite.
The gangue is quartz and in some places carbonates. Some pass downward into
pyrite and pyrrhotite with a little chalcopyrite. Generally carry silver or gold.
Gold, 11.—Gold veins with quartz, pyrite, and commonly arsenopyrite and
chalcopyrite. At places zones 10 and 11 are reversed.
Bismuth, 12.—Bismuthinite and native bismuth with quartz and pyrite, etc.
Arsenic, 13.—Arsenopyrite with chalcopyrite and often tungsten ores.
Tungsten, 14.—Tungsten veins with quartz, pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, etc.
Arsenopyrite is commonly present.
Tin, 15.—Cassiterite veins with quartz, tourmaline, topaz, etc.
Barren, 16.—Quartz with small amounts of other minerals.
In many veins only one of the upper portions (2, 3, or 4) can be observed. Few
of these veins have been developed beyond the barren zone, 5. Nearly all of the
zones below 5 have been observed at many places grading one into another.1
1 W. H. Emmons, op. cit., 70, p. 983.
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 121
The precipitation of a given metal in a complex solution is a problem
dependent on no single factor. There are involved: Temperature,
pressure, solvent, concentration, relative abundance, reactions in the
solution as precipitation progresses, character of country rock, and
probably several other factors. High-temperature minerals like tour­
maline, topaz, magnetite, and cassiterite with some sulphides would
generally be deposited near the magma. Many examples substantiate
this. As the temperature drops or as the distance from the magma
increases, zinc, copper, gold, lead, and silver would be successively
deposited. The veins far away from the intrusion would be mainly
filled by barren gangue. The deposits close to the magma would be
called perimagmatic; those in the surrounding areas, apomagmatic;
and those far away from the intrusive centers, telemagmatic (Bergeat).
The deposits of Cornwall, England, furnish probably the best illustra­
tion of the zonal theory, with tin in depth, copper in the cooler slates,
and lead and zinc deposits still farther away. At Bingham, Utah,
the copper deposits center in or near the monzonitic intrusion while
lead deposits occur farther away. In the Leadville vein at Bingham
a low-temperature lead-zinc deposit changes at a depth of about
2,000 feet into tennantite and chalcopyrite ore. Many lead veins change
at slight depth into poor sphalerite-siderite-pyrite ores. In the epither­
mal veins, the base metals are quite subordinate and the gold and silver
seem to have been precipitated within a couple of thousand feet of the
surface. These are what J. E. Spurr1 calls “ telescoped” veins, which
are said to be produced by gradually increasing temperature and with
indefinite or superimposed succession of minerals.
Upon close examination many disconcerting facts appear, which
suggest that the zonal theory in its present form is a rather weak structure.
Tin is supposed to be confined to the high-temperature deposits, but in
places (Potosi and Chocaya, Bolivia) it appears far up in the mesothermal
and epithermal zones. Tungsten should act more or less like tin but this
metal also forms important deposits (Nederland, Colorado) in a zone
pretty close to the epithermal veins, and it reaches the surface in large
amounts in hot spring deposits (Uncia, Bolivia). Lead is said to be a
metal deposited at low temperatures but three of the largest lead depos­
its of the world are of the hypothermal class: Broken Hill, New South
Wales, Sullivan mine, British Columbia, and Alta mines Montana.
Some lead-bearing veins are impoverished at slight depth; others con­
tinue rich over a vertical interval of over 4,000 feet. If we assume,
with Spurr, that the Mississippi Valley deposits are of magmatic
affiliations, lead reaches the surface in abundance, thousands of feet
above the supposed magma basin and where, according to Spurr, we
should expect only “barren gangue.” A similar argument, on similar
1The ore magmas, 1, 1923, pp. 292-308.
122 MINERAL DEPOSITS
assumption, applies to zinc. The problem becomes still more com­
plicated when the influence of country rock is considered. The solutions
may deposit galena in limestone but at the same time entirely similar
solutions may form pyritic ores in rocks of different composition. Finally,
in the epithermal veins there is no zonal arrangement, except a common
impoverishment in depth; they are too far from their starting point.
They can be correlated with no exposed igneous parent masses.
SUCCESSION OF MINERALS IN ORES1
In any one ore the minerals have usually separated out in a certain
well-defined succession, the later minerals in part replacing the earlier.
As there are usually also overlapping and repetition the problem may be
studied best in ores which show both crustification and replacement.
There is reason to believe that in all ore deposits of magmatic affilia­
tions somewhat similar laws apply.
In magmatic and pyrometasomatic ores the succession is simple:
Gangue minerals are early; ore minerals are late. The succession will
be silicates, magnetite, specularite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, chal-
copyrite. Processes of “ unmixing” are common, finding expression in
inclusions of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite in sphalerite and of pent-
landite in pyrrhotite.
In hypothermal and mesothermal ores the succession is generally as
follows: Quartz (usually long continued and overlapping), pyrite, arseno-
pyrite, cobalt and nickel arsenides, cassiterite, wolframite, molybdenite,
bismuthinite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, enargite, tennantite, chalcopyrite
(overlapping), bornite, galena, chalcocite, argentite, silver sulpharsenides
and antimonides, lead sulphantimonides. Overlapping and repetition
may change the succession in places. Naturally all these minerals are
hardly ever present in one deposit. The later minerals may replace
any of the earlier minerals. Where gold appears it is usually one of the
latest minerals. “ Unmixing” is of considerable importance especially
in galena, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and stannite.
In epithermal veins the succession is usually quartz, pyrite, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, galena, tetrahedrite, finally argentite, gold, electrum, and
complex sulphantimonides and sulpharsenides of silver and lead.
Unmixing is of less importance; reversal of the order sphalerite-chalco-
pyrite is rather frequent;2 reversal of the order sphalerite-galena is rare.
Later generations of different gangue and ore minerals may appear.
Generally the order of deposition is: silicates, oxides, and sulphides,
the groups falling in the order of the decreasing electrode potentials of
the elements. In any group of oxides and sulphides the elements seem
■ W. Lindgren, Magmas, dikes, and veins, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Mot. Eng.,
74, 1926, p. 88.
2 Horatio Brown, The mineral zones of the White Cross district, etc. (San Juan),
Colorado School of Mines, Mag. 15, March, 1926.
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 123
to be deposited in the decreasing order of their potentials. This is
apparent from the table presented by Butler and Burbank.1 Elements
with electrode potentials above +1 occur only in oxygen combinations.
Elements with negative potentials (metallogenic elements) occur only
as sulphides or native metals. There is also an intermediate group.
Thus, molybdenum, zinc, and iron sulphides would form early; silver
and mercury late, and lead and copper between these extremes. It is
assumed that the deposition takes place during gradually decreasing
temperature.
Several other serial properties have been suggested, such as increasing
atomic weight, increase in metal content, decrease in sulphur, decrease
in hardness, and decrease in heat of formation.2
Newhouse3 points out that any sulphide being replaced by another
must of necessity be more soluble, or replacement would not take place.
Thus it would appear that solubility is the most important factor.
This was confirmed by Wells4in an important paper. It was shown that
the order of precipitation of sulphides was practically the same as deter­
mined in 1888 by E. Schiirmann and very similar to the solubility table
of Weigel for sulphides in water. The order ascertained is Hg, Ag, Cu,
Bi, Cd, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Fe (ferrous), and Mn. The solution of a salt
of any of these metals will be decomposed by the sulphide of any succeed­
ing metal, and the first metal precipitated as a sulphide. A mixture of
two metallic salts yields, by fractional precipitation, an initial precipitate
containing the sulphides of both metals; but, as a rule, if the mixture is
heated or allowed to stand, one sulphide largely or wholly dissolves.
Note analogy with replacement.
It seems, therefore, that solubility is the main factor in the succession
of sulphides in mineral deposits, although other factors may at times
interfere with this law. In complex sulphides the explanation is naturally
more difficult.
CHARACTER OF SOLUTIONS FORMING MINERAL DEPOSITS
The quicksilver and stibnite deposits are satisfactorily proved to
have been formed by ascending hot alkaline springs, as at Sulphur
1 B. S. Butler and W. S. Burbank, Relation of electrode potentials to formation
of hypogene mineral deposits, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., Yearbook, 1929, pp.
341-353.
21. de Magnee, Essai d’explication physicochimique du phenomene de la reparti­
tion zonaire des minerals d’origine magmatique, Ann. 55, Mem., Soc. geol. de Belgique,
1932, pp. M17-M35.
G. Gilbert, The relation of hardness to the sequence of ore minerals, Econ.
Geol., 19, 1924, pp. 668-673.
3 W. H. Newhouse, The time sequence of hypogene ore mineral deposition, Econ.
Geol., 23, 1928, pp. 647-659.
* R. C. Wells, Fractional precipitation of some ore-forming compounds at moderate
temperatures, Bull. 609, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915, 46 pp.
124 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Banks, California, and at Steamboat Springs, Nevada. The deposition
proceeds almost under our eyes; small amounts of gold, silver, copper,
lead, and zinc are also found in the sinter. Becker proved that the
mercury and the antimony were contained in the waters as double
alkaline sulphides; and he suggested that most of the other metals, perhaps
excepting silver, were in similar combination.
Regarding other deposits inference and speculation must be used.
The epithermal deposits are so closely connected with hot-spring action
and with deposition of colloidal silica that it is not possible to doubt that
they were formed by similar ascending springs.
For the more deep-seated deposits it is convenient to begin with those
of the liquid-magmatic class. They were probably formed by consolida­
tion from a hot melt, itself a product of magmatic differentiation; there
were other substances present, however, like phosphorus in apatite,
which must have materially reduced the melting point of the ores.
Regarding sulphide melts similar considerations apply. The presence
of certain mineralizers is indicated pretty clearly in the occasional
occurrence of minerals such as chlorite, epidote, and garnet foreign to the
normal succession of crystallization of igneous rocks.
The pegmatitic residual magmas probably contained a large amount
of water and many other mineralizers; they were evidently in
aqueo-igneous fusion, intermediate between a magma and an aqueous
solution.
The solutions from which the hydrothermal ore deposits were formed
are more nearly related to the pyrometasomatic extracts than to pegma­
tite magmas. Undoubtedly they were often quite concentrated. From
the fact that in most kinds of replacements large amounts of material,
such as difficultly volatile compounds of potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, and other substances were consistently carried away we
may conclude with confidence that the agents which effected this were
mainly liquids and not gases. This applies to the pyrometasomatic as
well as to the tin deposits and other hypothermal and following classes.
Gases could not effect this enormous transfer.
It is not believed, therefore, that “ pneumatolytic ” processes played
an important part in the formation of such deposits. From the work of
Day, Allen, Sheperd, and others, it would seem probable that many
of the volcanic gases are acid when given off, but are in unstable
equilibrium, and could not have preserved this acid character after
having been long in contact with the surrounding rocks. It is believed
that they were in small part oxidized to sulphates, for instance;1 but in
larger part they were composed of hydrogen sulphide, alkaline sulphides,
and various halogen compounds. Doubtless, however, free carbon
1 B. S. Butler, Some relations between oxygen minerals and sulphur minerals in
ore deposits, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 233-245.
 THE MAGMA IN ITS RELATION TO MINERAL DEPOSITS 125
dioxide was present Becker’s view of the double alkaline sulphides as
important constituents of the solutions probably holds good.
The metallic sulphides are very slightly soluble in water or aqueous
solutions, but some of them, particularly As, Sb, and Hg, can be dissolved
in alkaline fluids as shown by the experiments of Becker, Lenher, Ditte,
Grout, Ravicz, and Horatio Brown.
The sulphides have rather high melting points: ZnS 1650°, FeS 1174°,
PbS 1114°, Ag2S 837°, Cu2S 1130°, HgS 1450° (at 120 atmospheres),
Sb2S3 550°, As2S3 about 307°, Na2S 970° C.
A replacement ore (FeS2, PbS, ZnS) from the Sullivan Mine, British
Columbia, melted at 1380° and remained liquid to 1200° C.1
Fusing these sulphides with Na2S reduced the melting point to from
560° to 660° C. This held good for Pb, Zn, Fe, Ni, Co, Mn, Mo, As, Sb,
Ag, Au, and Cd.
Water breaks down the double sulphides and develops colloidal
sulphide solutions. Silica gel was formed on fusing quartz with Na2S
and dissolving in water. Gold nuggets were fused with Na2S; the melt
dissolved in water and colloidal gold was obtained. As is well known,
sulphides can be dispersed by the action of H2S and in many cases the
action is instantaneous and striking (chalcocite, arsenic sulphide).12
By hydrolysis of ferric chloride, iron can be easily carried as ferric
hydroxide sol in high concentrations.
All these experiments suggest strongly that the metals may have
been largely transported as colloidal solutions, or sols.3 Colloidal silica,
probably present, may have exerted a protective action in keeping the
metals in a dispersed state.
J. E. A. Kania4 conducted experiments using sodium sulphide and
various metallic sulphides at temperatures up to 90° C. On fragments
of limestone, pyrite, marcasite, and chalcopyrite were obtained in
crystallized form. It was shown that a mineral may be of colloidal origin
although it has no colloform structure.
It is probable, indeed, that the silica has been carried in colloidal solu­
tion, and has been precipitated as a gel which almost immediately would
crystallize to quartz. The well-known association of gold and quartz is
most easily explained by colloidal processes. Silicification is not the
most prominent metasomatic process and this is probably because the
1Horace Freeman, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, Dec. 19, 1925.
2 Tolman and Clark, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 559-592.
Clark and Menaul, idem, 11, 1916, pp. 37-41.
Young and Moore, idem, 11, 1916, pp. 349-365.
3 II. C. Boydell, The role of colloidal solutions, etc., Trans., Inst. Min. Met.,
London, 1924-1925, p. 184.
1Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 43, 1932, p. 187.
Doctor’s thesis, Massachusetts Inst. Tech., 1930.
126 MINERAL DEPOSITS
colloidal silica found difficulty in entering and replacing the country rock.
By an osmotic process the solutions separated into a colloidal and an
electrolytic part.
We often think of colloidal processes as confined to low temperatures
but probably our opinions in this matter should be revised. Epithermal
vein quartz often shows colloform deposition and recrystallization to
quartz; but some mesothermal deposits like those of Tintic show similar
phenomena. Takeo Kato (p. 658) describes colloform deposition of
quartz and cassiterite in a mesothermal or hypothermal copper-tin vein.
W. V. Smitheringale1 investigated a quartz vein in British Columbia
which carries magnetite, specularite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and other
sulphides. The quartz and the pyrite in this deposit of probable hypo-
thermal affiliation show unmistakable colloform characteristics. These
examples serve to illustrate the possible range of colloidal phenomena.
The vein-forming solutions were probably liquid from the start, and
often highly concentrated. They contained water as the principal con­
stituent and were at all times in a mobile non-viscous condition. In their
constitution colloidal dispersions entered prominently.
1 Mineral association at the George gold-copper mine, Stewart, B.C., Econ. Geol.
23, 1928, pp. 193-208.
 CHAPTER XI
FOLDING AND FAULTING1
FOLDS
Sedimentary beds and ore deposits contained in them are often bent,
corrugated, and folded in a more or less complex manner. Extensive
folding is usually effected by horizontal or “ tangential” thrust, but
minor bends and monoclines (Fig. 12) may originate by thrust in any

F ig . 12.— Monocline near Gallup, New Mexico. (After E. Howell.)

direction. In extreme cases any fold or bend may pass over into a break
or fault. In folding on a large scale it is necessary that the sedimentary
complex have beds of sufficient strength (competent beds) to transmit
the thrust and support the structures; if the complex is plastic it will be
deformed by flowage and no regular folds will result.

F ig . 13.— Open syncline showing carboniferous phosphate beds unconform ably covered by
Eocene beds. Beaver Creek, U tah. (A fter E. Blackwelder, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
Folds are synclinal (Figs. 13 and 14), trough-like; or anticlinal (Fig.
15), shaped like a saddle. A plane which bisects the average angle
between the limbs is called the axial plane of the fold. By complex
movements the axial plane may become a curved surface. If this
1E. de Margerie and A. Heim, Les dislocations de 1’dcorce terrestre, Zurich, 1888,
pp. 49-63.
Bailey Willis, The mechanics of Appalachian structure, Thirteenth Ann. Rept..
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1894, pp. 211-281.
C. R. Van Hise, Principles of North American pre-Cambrian geology, Sixteenth
Ann. Report, U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 1, 1896, pp. 589-633.
F. H. Lahee, Field geology, 3d ed., New York, 1931.
127
128 MINERAL DEPOSITS
axial plane is vertical the limbs dip at like angles; if the axial plane is
inclined the limbs have unequal dips and the fold is asymmetrical. In
close folding the limbs dip steeply (Fig. 16). When the axial plane of
folds inclines strongly in one direction we speak of overturned folds; and
these by further compression may easily pass over into overthrust faults

F ig . 14.— Eroded syncline, Georgetown Canyon, Idaho, showing phosphate bed. (After
H. S. Gale , U. S. Geol. Survey.)
(Figs. 16-17), causing a part of the folded series to slide over the other.
In flat overthrust faults the horizontal movement may amount to many
miles.
Synclines and anticlines extend naturally about perpendicularly
to the direction of compressive stress. Their direction is indicated by
a line passing through all the highest or lowest points of a given stratum.
FEET
A b o v e s e a le v e l

F ig . 15.— Eroded anticline, M ontpelier, Idaho, showing bending of copper-bearing beds

of Triassic age. (After H. S. Gale, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
These crest lines or trough lines have usually a distinct dip; the angle
of this line with the horizontal is called the -pitch of the fold. Minor
plications on the limbs often indicate the pitch of the fold. Thrusts
in two directions result in cross-folding with the development of bending
in forms known as canoes, domes, and basins.
When beds are lifted in dome shape so that they dip away from a
central point they form a quaquaversal.
 FOLDING AND FAULTING 129
In sharp folding of a sedimentary complex, the strata become thicker
by compression at the points of greatest bending (Fig. 18). The harder
strata of sandstone or limestone will yield to tension by breaking or
tearing; the softer, shaly strata do not break, but yield to deformation.

Upper diabase Lower diabase

F ig . 16.— Close folding w ith overthrusts and thickening of stra ta by duplication. (.After
M . Koch.)

Strata of differing hardness may slide over one another at such points;
and openings may be produced which, for instance, may later be filled
with quartz. In slates and crystalline schists which have been deformed
at great depths by flowage the harder or “ competent” layers, like quartz
130 MINERAL DEPOSITS

F ig . 17.— Diagram showing developm ent of an overthrust fault from a fold. (A fter C. R.
V an H ise , U. S . Geol. Survey.)

F ig . 18.— Overturned anticline of crystalline limestone, Lenox, M assachusetts, showing

thickening and breaking of strata at points of bending. (A fter T . N elson D ale, U. S . Geol.
Survey.)
 FOLDING AND FAULTING 131
veins, may be corrugated in an extraordinarily complicated manner.
Some quartz veins of Nova Scotia, called “ barrel quartz,” are believed
to owe their form to such conditions (Fig. 19).
Drag folds are minor corrugations in an incompetent bed between
two harder competent beds.

Fi 19.—'Gneiss with corrugated veinlets of quartz. (After C. R . Van Hise, U. S. Geol.

Survey.)
FAULTS1
Sedimentary beds and deposits, as well as deposits of later origin
which persistently follow a certain horizon in a sedimentary series, are
sometimes abruptly cut off by structural planes.
When such an occurrence is found it is safe to conclude that the inter­
ruption is due to a fault—that is, to a fracture along which movement has
taken place—and that the continuation of the deposit exists somewhere
beyond this break (Fig. 20).
In the case of epigenetic deposits not closely following the original
lines of structure in the rocks, such a conclusion is often, but not always
justified. The interruption of the ore-body may be due to an actual
post-mineral dislocation, or it may be caused by a cessation of mineraliza­
tion on account of structures existing before the mineralization began.
The replacement of limestone by galena or shale by pyrite (Fig. 21) may
stop suddenly at a clay-coated seam, which offered a barrier to the solu­
tions. A vein-filled fissure may terminate abruptly or split up within a
1J. E. Spun, Measurements of faults, Jo u r. Geol., 5, 1897, p. 723.
J. E. Spun, Geology applied to mining, New York, 2nd ed., 1926.
F. L. Ransome, The direction of movement and the nomenclature of faults, E con.
Geol., 1, 1906, p. 777.
C. F. Tolman, Jr., E con. Geol., 2, 1907, pp. 506-611.
C. F. Tolman, Jr., Graphic solution of fault problems, M in . and S ci. P ress, June
17, 1911, et seq. Reprinted, San Francisco and London, 1911.
H. F. Reid, Geometry of faults, B u ll. Geol. Soc. Am., 20, 1909, pp. 171-196.
H. F. Reid, W. M. Davis, A. C. Lawson, and F. L. Ransome, Report of the
committee on the nomenclature of faults, B u ll. Geol. Soc. Am., 24, 1913, pp. 163-186.
C. K. Leith, Structural geology, New York, 1923.
F. H. Lahee, Field geology, 3d ed., New York, 1931, Chaps. VII and VIII.
132 MINERAL DEPOSITS
few feet upon encountering softer and more plastic rocks, such as clay
shales, thick gouge seams, or soft tuffs. A vein traversing formations
of varying hardness often suffers abrupt deflection at rock contacts. It

F ig . 20.— Faulting of M endota vein, Silver Plume, Colorado, a, granite; b, quartz; c.

galena and sphalerite. (A fter J . E . S p u rr , U. S. Geol. Survey.)

F ig . 21.— Sketch showing replacem ent of shale by pyrite. N atural size. The small
fissures are older than th e pyrite and are crossed by its banded structures. (A fter F. L.
Ransom e , U. S. Geol. Survey.)

may also be deflected by encountering older dikes or fissures, either

barren or filled with vein material (Fig. 22).
The distinction between faults and deviations is most important.
The appearance of detached fragments of the ore—usually termed “ drag”
—on the faulting plane (Fig. 23), the direction of the striations, and the
interrelations of dip and strike of faulting, fissure, and ore-body are all
valuable data which must be interpreted in each case.
 FOLDING AND FAULTING 133
There are many geometrical rules for the finding of a faulted ore-body,
but they are of little value unless the character of the interruption is
known. Each case must be considered and judged by itself.
Too often faulting is considered in only two dimensions—that is, as
either normal or reverse movement in a vertical plane. The fact is that

F i g . 2 2 . —Plan
of a vein in the Homer Mine, Idaho Springs, Colorado, showing deflection
of the vein upon meeting a dike. (After J. E. Spurr, U. S. Geol. Survey.)

F ig . 23.— Sketch of faulted vein showing “ drag.”

most faulting movements have horizontal as well as vertical components;

every mining engineer knows the frequent occurrence of inclined or
horizontal striation on fault planes.
Several proposals have been made looking to a uniform nomenclature
of the various elements involved in faulting movements; the best of these
134 MINERAL DEPOSITS
are advocated by J. E. Spurr, C. F. Tolman, Jr., and H. F. Reid. A
committee of the Geological Society of America was instructed to examine
this question in more detail, and their conclusions, in large part based on
the work of Reid, will probably be adopted by American geologists. An
abstract of their report1 will be found in the following pages.
Measurements of fault movement are made in the fault plane itself,
in a plane normal to the trace of the faulted body on the fault plane, in
any normal plane, and in a horizontal plane.
General Terms
A fault is a fracture in the rock of the earth’s crust, accompanied by
a displacement of one side with respect to the other in a direction parallel
with the fracture.
As we pass from one part of a fault to another, we find that certain
characteristics vary. Definitions descriptive of characteristics must
therefore be considered as referring to the parts of the fault to which
they are applied and not necessarily to the fault as a whole.
A closed fault is one in which the two walls of a fault are in contact.
An open fault is one in which the two walls of a fault are separated.
The same fault may be closed in one part and open in another. The open
part is called the fault space.
A fault surface is the surface along which dislocation has taken place;
if without notable curvature it is called a fault plane.
A fault line is the intersection of a fault surface with the earth’s sur­
face or with any artificial surface of reference, such as a level of a mine.
When a fault is made up of a number of slips on closely spaced sur­
faces it is called a shear zone or a sheeted zone.
The fault breccia is the assembly of broken fragments which is fre­
quently found along faults.
Gouge is a clayey attrition product, usually a mixture of fine-grained
minerals, often occurring along the walls of a fault.
A horse is a mass of rock broken from one wall and caught between
the walls of the fault.
The fault strike is the direction of the intersection of the fault surface,
or the shear zone, with a horizontal plane. It is measured from the
astronomic or from the magnetic meridian.
The fault dip is the vertical inclination of the fault surface, or shear
zone, measured from a horizontal plane.
The hade is the inclination of the fault surface, or shear zone, measured
from the vertical; it is the complement of the dip.
The hanging wall is the upper wall of the fault.
The foot wall is the lower wall of the fault.
1 Reid, Davis, Lawson, and Ransome, op. cit.
 FOLDING AND FAULTING 135
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
Faults of parallel displacement are those in which all straight lines on
opposite sides of the fault and outside of the dislocated zone, which
were parallel before the displacement, are parallel afterward.
Rotatory faults are those in which some straight lines on opposite
sides of the fault and outside of the dislocated zone, parallel before the
displacements, are no longer parallel afterward—that is, where one side
has suffered a rotation relative to the other.
Determinations of throw are almost always relative, and hence we can
rarely tell which side of the fault has moved; therefore the terms
“upthrow” and “ downthrow” are objectionable. They are, however,
in general use and should be retained; but it should be definitely under­
stood that they refer merely to a relative displacement.
Faults of Parallel Displacement.—No faults of any magnitude consist
of simple parallel displacements over their whole length. Faults die
out at their limits, and the displacement is not uniform along their courses,
so that there is necessarily some slight rotation, varying in amount in
the different parts of the fault’s course. The variations in rotation and
displacement are permitted by slight plastic deformation. If, however,
we confine our attention to a small length of the fault, we may describe
the displacement there as if a parallel displacement had occurred.
The word “ displacement” should receive no technical meaning, but
is reserved for general use; it may be applied to a relative movement of
the two sides of the fault, measured in any direction, when that direction
is specified; for instance, the displacement of a stratum along a drift in a
mine would be the distance between the two sections of the stratum
measured along the drift. The word “ dislocation” will also be most
useful in a general sense.
There are two methods of defining the displacement due to a fault;
we may define the apparent relative displacement of a bed by naming the
distance between its two disrupted sections measured in any chosen
direction, such as the vertical distance between the sections, measured
in a shaft, or the perpendicular distance between the lines of intersection
of the two sections with the fault plane; or we may define the actual
relative displacement and its components in important directions. The
apparent displacements are those usually measured; the actual displace­
ment must be worked out for a complete understanding of the fault.
Only four important technical words are used to denote the various
displacements caused by faulting, qualifying words being added to indi­
cate the component of the displacement referred to. These words are:
Slip, which indicates the relative displacement of formerly adjacent
points on opposite sides of the fault, measured in the fault surface. The
qualifying words relate to the strike and dip of the fault surface.
136 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Shift, which indicates the relative displacement of regions on opposite
sides of the fault and outside of the dislocated zone. The qualifying
words relate to the strike and dip of the fault surface, except in the expres­
sion “vertical shift,” which is self-explanatory.
Throw, which indicates a displacement not related to the strike or
dip of the fault plane.
Offset, which indicates the shortest horizontal distance between the
outcrops of a dislocated bed.
By keeping in mind the general meaning of these four words, all
confusion in the uses of the proposed nomenclature can be avoided.
There is no generally accepted word in present use to denote the slip.
Willis and Tolman use “ displacement” ; Spurr uses “ throw.” We have
reserved “ displacement” for general use, and the word “ throw” is here
used in quite a different sense. The word “shift” also suggests the
meaning attached to it; there is no distinctive word now in use to describe
the shift.
In mines, where the fault surface itself is visible, the slip will generally
be determined; it is of paramount importance in mining. In field surveys,
where the fault is studied by the dislocation of the outcrop of strata, or
dikes, often at a considerable distance from the fault, the shift is deter­
mined. In the larger problems of geology the shift is of greater impor­
tance than the slip. The distinction, not heretofore recognized, between
the slip and the shift is important. The perpendicular throw is of the
greatest importance. It is frequently the only displacement determined,
and in strike faults all the displacements in a vertical plane at right angles
to the fault strike—that is, all the displacements which have heretofore
received the most attention—can be expressed in terms of perpendicular
throw. The offset is often the most important surface measurement
made.
Faults in Stratified Rocks.—Among stratified rocks the character
of the displacement of the strata due to a fault is so much influenced
by the relation of the strike of the fault to the strike of the strata that
subclasses are generally recognized.
A strike fault is one whose strike is parallel to the strike of the
strata.
A dip fault is one whose strike is approximately at right angles to the
strike of the strata.
An oblique fault is one whose strike is oblique to the strike of the strata.
These terms are, of course, not directly applicable in regions of
unstratified rocks; but they might be used in such regions with respect
to the strike of a system of parallel dikes or veins.
Similarly with regard to the general structure of the region:
A longitudinal fault is one whose strike is parallel with the general
structure.
 FOLDING AND FAULTING 137
A transverse fault is one whose strike is transverse to the general
structure.
Slip.—The word “slip,” as stated above, indicates the displacement
as measured on the fault surface.
The slip or net slip is the maximum relative displacement of the walls
of the fault, measured on the fault surface, along the line of the move­
ment; it is given by ab in Figs. 24 and 25.1
The strike-slip is the component of the slip parallel with the fault
strike or the projection of the net slip on a horizontal line in the fault
surface; ac in Figs. 24 and 25.12
The dip-slip is the component of the slip parallel with the fault dip,
or the projection of the slip on a line on the fault surface perpendicular
to the fault strike; be in Figs. 24 and 25.3

Shift.—It frequently happens that a fault has not a single surface

of shear, but consists of a series of small slips on closely spaced surfaces;
and in some faults the strata in the neighborhood of the fault surface
are bent, so that the relative displacements of the rock masses on opposite
sides of the fault may be quite different from the slip and not even parallel
with it. The word “shift” is used to denote the relative displacements of
the rock masses situated outside of the zone of dislocation; the qualifying
words relate to the strike and dip of the fault, with one exception, in
which the meaning is clear.
The shift, or net shift, is the maximum relative displacement of points
on opposite sides of the fault and far enough from it to be outside of the
dislocated zone; de in Figs. 25 and 26, where d is the position of a selected
point before and e after the faulting.
The strike-shift is the component of the shift parallel with the fault
strike; df in Figs. 25 and 26.
1Spurr and Tolman call this the “ total displacement.”
2 Tolman calls this the “horizontal displacement.”
3 Tolman calls it the “normal displacement.”
138 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The dip-shift is the component of the shift parallel with the fault dip;
e in Figs. 25 and 26. (The triangle def is parallel with the fault surface
in Fig. 25. *)
The bending of the strata near the fault may be so great that the
direction of the shift is no longer even nearly parallel with the fault
surface; it is better then to use the three following terms for the compo­
nents of the shift:
The strike-shift is the horizontal component of the shift parallel with
the fault strike, as already defined.
The normal shift is the horizontal component of the shift at right angles
to the fault strike. It equals the horizontal shortening or lengthening
of the earth’s surface at right angles to the fault strike, due to the fault.
The vertical shift is the vertical component of the shift. These terms
may evidently be used equally well when the shift is parallel with the
fault plane.

F ig . 26.— The shift. F ig . 27.— The throw.

Throw.—The word “ throw ” will apply to components of the displace­
ment having no immediate bearing on the strike or dip of the fault plane.
The slip throw is the vertical component of the slip; eg in Figs. 25
and 27, de in Figs. 28 and 29. The word throw is almost universally used
in this sense, but A. Geikie uses it to designate the vertical distance
between the two parts of a dislocated bed, projected if necessary—a
very different thing. Geikie’s “throw” would be represented by df
in Figs. 28 and 29. Spurr uses “throw ” to designate the distance between
the two parts of a dislocated bed measured on the fault plane.
The heave2 is the horizontal component of the slip, measured at right
angles to the strike of the fault; bg in Figs. 25 and 27, eg in Figs. 28 and 29.
The word “heave” has been used in many senses; J. Geikie, Willis, Scott,
and Fairchild use it as defined above; A. Geikie and Spurr use it to desig­
nate what we have called the “offset” of a bed;12Jukes-Brown apparently
1 The dip-shift and strike-shift are not accurately shown in Fig. 25, because the
net shift, de, is not parallel with the fault plane, and the lines de, df, and fe would not
lie in one plane. But the definitions are clear and the figure illustrates them fairly
well.
2 Sometimes called the “ horizontal throw ,”
 FOLDING AND FAULTING 139
used it for the strike-slip; so did Ransome; and Scott also uses it in this
sense when he refers to “ heave faults. ”
The separation of a bed, dike, vein, or of any recognizable surface,
is the distance between the two parts of the disrupted bed, etc., measured
perpendicularly to the bedding plane or to the plane of the surface in
question. It is measured, therefore, in a vertical plane at right angles
to the strike of the disrupted surface.1 The importance of the separation
of the strata is so great that it is convenient to have special terms for it;
these are given below.
The stratigraphic separation is the distance between the two parts
of a disrupted stratum measured at right angles to the plane of the stra­
tum; ah in Figs. 28 and 29. The stratigraphic separation is in general
the simplest throw to determine; it can be found from the distance between
the outcrops of the two parts of the same stratum, the dip of the stratum,
and the slope of the ground.

The dip throw is the component of the slip measured parallel with the
dip of the strata; cb in Figs. 28 and 29.
Offset.—The offset of a stratum is the distance between the two parts
of the disrupted stratum measured at right angles to the strike of the
stratum and in a horizontal plane.12
If Figs. 30 and 31 represent the ground plans of oblique faults on a
level surface, ab, and not ac, would be the offset of the stratum; ac would
be the horizontal displacement of the stratum parallel with the fault
strike.
Faults Classified According to the Direction of the Movement.—
Faults may be classified, according to the direction of the movement
on the fault plane, into three groups, as follows:
Dip-slip faults, where the net slip is practically in the line of the fault
dip.
1Spurr calls it the “perpendicular separation.” Tolman’s “perpendicular throw”
would under certain conditions correspond in meaning with our expression.
2A. Geikie and Spurr use the term “heave” for this offset.
140 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Strike-slip faults, where the net slip is practically in the direction of
the fault strike. A vertical fault is one with a dip of 90 degrees (see
below); and, by analogy, a horizontal fault should be one with a zero
dip and the term should not be applied to strike-slip faults.
Oblique-slip faults where the net slip lies between these directions.
For purposes of simplification, faults are often represented as dip-slip
faults and are then classified into:
Normal faults, where the hanging wall has been depressed relatively
to the footwall.
Reverse faults, where the hanging wall has been raised relatively to the
footwall.
Vertical faults, where the dip is 90 degrees.
The relative displacement has usually been determined by means of
a dislocated bed. Although exception may well be taken to these terms,
their retention is recommended, because they are in general use and are
well understood. The word “reverse” is preferable to “reversed.”

F igs . 30 and 31.— Plan of an oblique slip.

The horizontal distance between two points on opposite sides of a

fault, measured on a fine at right angles to the fault strike, is always
shortened by a reverse strike fault, lengthened by a normal strike fault,
and unchanged in length by a vertical fault.
The expressions “normal” and “reverse” may be used in connection
with oblique and dip faults, even when these are strike-slip or oblique-
slip faults, provided they are applied to designate the apparent relative
displacement of the two parts of a dislocated stratum, or other recognized
surface, in a vertical plane at right angles to the fault strike. It does
not follow, in the case of oblique-slip faults, that a horizontal line at right
angles to the fault strike would be lengthened by a normal or shortened
by a reverse fault. This has been pointed out by Ransome1 and can be
illustrated by Figs. 32 and 33. In Fig. 32 a reverse fault, as determined
by the displacement of the stratum or vein, has caused an extension at
right angles to the fault strike. It is evident that if the hanging wall had
1Econ. Geol., 1, 1906, pp. 783-787.
 FOLDING AND FAULTING 141
moved, as in Fig. 33, with the stratum or vein dipping as there repre­
sented, we should have had a normal fault and a contraction at right
angles to the fault strike. The relations of the two parts of the disrupted
stratum in Fig. 32 are exactly the same as if we had had a simple reverse
dip-slip fault, and in Fig. 33 as if we had had a simple normal dip-slip
fault; and if there are no disrupted dikes or other means of determining the
amount of the strike-slip, the movements described could not be dis­
tinguished from simple dip-slip faults. It very frequently happens that
nothing more than the apparent displacement of the strata can be deter­
mined, and the terms “ normal” and “ reverse” faults as defined should
be used purely for purposes of description and not for the purpose of
indicating extension or contraction, tension or compression, vertical or
horizontal forces.

F ig . 32.— A reverae fault due to an F ig . 33.— A norm al fault due to an

oblique slip. oblique slip.
Overthrusts.—These are reverse faults with low dip or large hade.
In some cases the dip-slip has been enormous, amounting to tens of kilo­
meters. The word “overthrust” has been generally used for this kind
of fault and is very descriptive.
Mineralization of Faults.—Any fault may become a fissure vein by
filling and replacement along its course. However, it is rather unusual
to find large structural faults, normal or overthrusts, which have been
extensively mineralized. Shear and sheeted zones often result in veins
or lodes.
Complexity of Faulting.—During mining operations excellent and
detailed instances of the complexity of faulting are often found. Normal
and reverse faults may occur in close proximity. A fault consists more
frequently of a series of closely spaced breaks than of a single fracture.
Displacement occurs usually along each of these breaks, the result being
a distortion or “shift” of the deposit within the faulted zone.
Figure 34 shows a case of complicated normal faulting from the Berlin
vein, Nevada.1 Besides the faults indicated there are a great number of
1Ellsworth Daggett, The extraordinary faulting at the Berlin mine, Eng. and
Min. Jour., Mar. 30, 1907.
142 MINERAL DEPOSITS
other dislocations with horizontal displacement. The deposit is a filled
quartz vein, 2 to 3 feet wide, carrying 2 per cent of sulphides with silver
and gold.

F ig . 34.— Vertical section of a faulted vein, Berlin mine, Nevada, showing also its probable
original position. (A fter Ellsworth Daggett.)

F ig . 35.— H orizontal plan showing faulted vein, Tonopah, N evada. Scale: 50 feet = 1
inch. (A fter J . E . S pu rr , U. S. Geol. Survey.)

The great complications ensuing where faulting takes place along

two intersecting fault systems have been described by Spurr1in his report
on the Tonopah district, Nevada. The result of such structures is likely
to be a zigzag distribution of the fragments of the faulted vein with an
1 Prof. Paper 42, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
 FOLDING AND FAULTING 143
average movement determined by the two components. Repeated small
dislocations practically result in a deflection of the vein (Fig. 35).
Overthrusts of great magnitude, such as are found in the Alps, may
have had most important results as to the continuation in depth of ore
deposits. As these dislocations may be measured in miles, it follows that
whole groups of deposits contained in the overthrust portion of the strata
may have been cut off entirely from their continuation in depth.1
Joints.—Rocks are commonly traversed by non-persistent fractures
along which no displacement or only an exceedingly small displacement
has taken place. These are called joints and are produced by various
stresses as explained in the following chapter. Frequently there are
two or more parallel sets of joints which thus tend to break the rocks into
more or less regular blocks. Joints near faults may be produced by the
same stresses which originated the faulted fractures and are followed by
the same mineralizing solutions which filled the fault fissures. Therefore,
the study of the joint systems is often of great importance in determin­
ing the structure and origin of the mineralization and may guide to the
discovery of new ore-bodies.
Closely spaced parallel joints may form transitions to shear zones or
sheeted zones and even to slaty cleavage.
1 B. Granigg, Ueber die Erzfuehrung der Ostalpen, Leoben, 1913.
 CHAPTER XII
OPENINGS IN ROCKS
Chemical processes and alteration in general may go on in a rock
without cavities other than pore space and capillary or sub-capillary
openings. Such processes are, however, metamorphic rather than meta-
somatic; they simply effect a mineralogical rearrangement without much
chemical change; the composition of the rock remains constant. The
formation of epigenetic mineral deposits usually implies a considerable
addition of foreign material by solutions and these solutions must be
guided to the place of deposition by open spaces, such as fissures, joints,
or cracks. As a matter of fact the great majority of mineral deposits
were formed where the path of the solution was prescribed by openings
in the rocks other than those of ordinary pore space. After the solutions
have gained access to the rock they may, of course, enter the pores and
capillary openings and effect metasomatic changes.
The discussion which follows relates mainly to openings of super­
capillary size. Such openings are chiefly found in the zone of fracture
(p. 94). Few of our mineral deposits have been formed at depths much
greater than 15,000 feet. Small openings may, however, exist in hard
rocks at a distance below the surface much greater than the figure just
indicated (p. 33). The possibility is, therefore, shown that solutions
from great depths may gain access to the upper zone of fracture.
ORIGIN OF OPENINGS
Rock cavities may originate in various ways:
1. By the Original Mode of Formation of the Rocks.—Many volcanic
flows contain abundant gas pores, or blow holes produced by the expan­
sive forces of gases escaping from the magma. Zeolites and calcite,
sometimes with native copper, often accumulate in these pores; and such
rocks are usually termed “ amygdaloids ” and the filled cavities “ amyg-
dules” (Fig. 36). Some sandstones and conglomerates contain much
pore space in which solutions may deposit ores or other substances.
2. By Solution.—Solution cavities are found mainly in easily soluble
rocks, such as limestone, dolomite, gypsum, and salt. Posepny justly
maintains that the solvent power of water suffices to produce long galleries
or passages in rock salt and mentions several examples.1 Joints in lime-
1 F. Posepny and Others, Genesis of ore deposits, 2d ed., 1902, p. 20. Publ. by Am,
Inst. Min. Eng., New York.
144
 OPENINGS IN ROCKS 145
stone are often irregularly enlarged by solution and when subsequently
filled with ores such cavities are known as gash veins or pipe veins. Caves
in limestone are likewise made by atmospheric water of the upper circula­
tion, containing dissolved carbon dioxide. Such caves are generally
formed above the ground-water level in the zone of oxidation, though
cases are known which suggest that the process can go on also below this
level. Caves occur in all limestone regions and are sometimes of enor­
mous extent; the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky has passages more than
40 miles in length and has been formed by the removal of millions of cubic
yards of rock. The extent of caves is generally determined by faults and

F ig . 36.— Photom icrograph of basalt showing blow hole filled with epidote, pum pellyite,
cal cite, and native copper (black), Lake Superior. Magnified 30 diam eters.
dislocations, and rock openings on a smaller scale are usually determined
by the prevailing joint systems. The breaking in of caves near the
surface produces the “ sink-holes” so characteristic of certain limestone
plateaus. Both caves and sink-holes have a certain importance in the
origin of the class of zinc-lead deposits common to many limestone areas,
and caves of dissolution in the oxidized part of ore deposits in limestone
are sometimes the receptacles for a great variety of secondary minerals.
The floors of caves are usually covered with red “ cave earth,” a residual
deposit of silica, kaolin, limonite, etc., derived from the less soluble con­
stituents of the limestone. Deposits of bat guano and nitrates are
sometimes found in caves. Small solution cavities are often found in
more resistant rocks that have been exposed to hot solutions of great
solvent power.
146 MINERAL DEPOSITS
3. By Fractures of Various Modes of Origin, (a) Contraction Joints
Produced by Tensile Stress in Igneous Rocks.—When magmas congeal to
igneous rocks tensile stresses which result in fissures and joints are devel­
oped. This is best exemplified in effusive rocks, which often show regular
columnar structure and which are always full of irregular joints and
cracks. No doubt these open spaces may guide metal-bearing solutions.
In the literature many authors attribute fissure veins in effusive rocks to
contraction, but usually without sufficient reason. The tensile stresses
cannot produce long fissures with regular strike and dip.
n
IU

F ig . 37.— Section of M orning Star dyke, Woods Point, Victoria, showing ladder veins.
(After 0. A. L. Whitelaw.)
According to the views of many geologists, smaller irregular veins
in dikes or other intrusive rock masses fill contraction fissures. This
explanation has been advanced for the horizontal tin-bearing joints in
the Zinnwald granite, Saxony, and for other similar “ stockwork ” ; also
for the so-called “ ladder veins,” which are short transverse fissures in
dikes, usually extending only from wall to wall. Well-known examples
of this kind in Telemarken, Norway,1 have been described by Vogt; in
Victoria, Australia,2 by Whitelaw; and at Beresowsk, in the Ural Moun­
tains,3 by Rose, Helmhacker, Karpinsky, Posepny, and Purington. In
1 Zur Klassification der Erzvorkommen, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1895, p. 149.
2 Mem,., Geol. Survey, Victoria, 3, 1905, p. 11.
3Guide, Seventh Int. Geol. Congress, 1897, p. 42.
F. Posepny, Archiv fur prakt. Geol., 2, 1895, p. 499.
C. W. Purington, Eng. and Min. Jour., 75, 1903, pp. 854-855, 893-894, 929-931.
 OPENINGS IN ROCKS 147
places, however, the transverse fissures may extend over the contact
into the wall rock or correspond to the general joint systems of the vicin­
ity, a fact which throws some doubt on the correctness of the explanation
given (Fig. 37).
(b) Contraction Joints by Shrinking of Limestone When Changed to
Dolomite.—Dolomite is not uncommonly formed near certain metal
deposits and it is possible that this process when carried on by rapidly
moving solutions and in comparatively free space may result in openings
suitable as receptacles for ore minerals.

F ig . 38.— Section through a saddle reef, Bendigo, Victoria. A , sandstone; B , shaly sand­
stone; C, gold-bearing quartz. (A fter T, A . Richard.)

(c) Expansion Jbints Produced by Increase of Rock Volume.—Peridotite

upon change to serpentine near the surface and near fissures is believed
to increase its volume greatly and such serpentine often breaks into
smooth fragments. Extreme irregularity is a characteristic of all expan­
sion joints and they are of little importance in ore deposition.
(d) Fissures Produced by Torsional Stress.—The celebrated experiment
by Daubree1 carried out by twisting a thick glass plate has shown that
torsional stress may result in several systems of long and radiating fissures.
1 Etudes synthetiques do geologic experimentale, Paris, 1879, p. 316.
148 MINERAL DEPOSITS
This experiment has frequently been cited by geologists to explain diver­
gent vein systems; but G. F. Becker1 has pointed out that such fissures
do not follow approximate planes, like fissure veins, but are decidedly
curved and warped. C. K. Leith and W. J. Mead have shown that the
torsion fissures do not extend through any considerable thickness of
material.
(e) Openings Produced by Folding of Sedimentary Rocks.—The bedding
planes of sediments are primary structures which often serve as ducts
for metal-bearing solutions. Better passageways for such solutions are
provided when a series of sediments of unequal resistance is folded. A
sandstone, for instance, will accommodate itself to bending with difficulty
and will easily break at anticlines or synclines, whereas softer shales will
bend without breaking; the same process may cause a slipping between
the various members. Such tensional stresses may then easily produce
open cavities. The quartz-filled “saddle reefs” of the gold mines
of Bendigo and other places in Victoria are believed to have been
formed in this manner by tensile stresses, but they are also accompanied
by irregular masses or “ makes” of quartz which fill spaces of discission
across the beds (Figs. 18 and 38), and which apparently can not be
accounted for by replacement.
(/) Openings Produced by Shearing Stress under the Influence of Gravity.
In many disturbed regions the rocks are broken by normal faults along
which the various blocks have settled down under the influence of
gravity. Such normal faulting is especially characteristic of regions
which do not bear evidence of strong compressive stress. Step-faulting
is common and friction breccias and crushed zones frequently follow the
faults; the open spaces, more or less continuous, offer good paths for
the circulation of water; the fault planes are often long and regular. But
in spite of all this, mineral deposits are not common along such faults.
At Clifton, Arizona, for instance, faults are abundant, but the copper
deposits do not ordinarily appear in them excepting in the one case of the
Coronado fault. At Creede, Colorado, and Mogollon, New Mexico,
the silver veins occupy important fault fissures, and similar cases are
known from the silver-lead veins of the Harz Mountains in Germany.
In volcanic regions, such as Silverton and Cripple Creek (Fig. 39),
in Colorado, systems of nearly vertical fissure veins contain rich deposits.
They have, obviously, little connection with the main structural features
of the country; the dislocations are usually small, and the veins were
formed shortly after the close of volcanic activity. F. L. Ransome2
believes that these fissure systems were generated by stresses resulting
from slight vertical movements, or settling, following an enormous transfer
of volcanic material from an intratelluric to a superficial position.
1 The torsional theory of joints, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 24, 1894, pp. 130-138.
2 F. L. Ransome, Bull. 182, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1901, p. 66.
 OPENINGS IN ROCKS 149
Vertical upthrusts of underlying magmas may have caused faulting
accompanying or following vein formation.1
Locke12 has called attention to the importance of brecciation due to
removal of support by the dissolving action of solutions during the early
stages of mineralization, followed by ore deposition in the brecciated
masses at a later stage. He believes that many so-called “ pipes”
have been formed in this manner and cites Pilares copper mine, Sonora,

F ig . 39.— Plan of the principal veins of the Cripple Creek district, Colorado, showing
a roughly radial distribution. G, granite and gneiss; V, T ertiary volcanic rocks. (After
Lindgren and Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)

as a good illustration (Fig. 40). In this case the collapse, “ crackling,”

and brecciation can be proved by a sagging andesite-latite contact in
the mine, but he does not appear to have proved that this collapse has
been produced by the dissolving action of the solutions; it may have been
of pre-mineral origin. This deposit has an oval horizontal section, 1,000
by 2,000 feet and has been developed to a depth of 1,800 feet. In a
1J. E. Spurr, Relation of ore deposition to faulting, Econ. Geol., 11, 1916, pp.
601-622.
2 A. Locke, The formation of certain ore-bodies by mineralization stoping, Econ.
Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 431-453.
150 MINERAL DEPOSITS
subsequent paper Wisser1 described the doming, cracking, and marginal
fissures produced by the oxidation and caving of an ore-body. Such
caving when extending to the surface may give valuable information
as to the location of ore-bodies.
(g) Openings Produced by Compressive Stress.—In contrast to recently
congealed lavas, the rocks which have formerly been far below the surface
of the earth but which have been exposed by erosion are usually traversed
by more or less regular joint systems, persistent over large areas. While

F ig . 40.— Plan and section of the Pilares pipe, Sonora, Mexico. 1, surface; 2, latite; 3,
andesite; 4, walls of pipe. (A fter A . Locke, adapted from Bjorge , “ Economic Geology.")

some of these joint systems may be caused by the inherent texture of

the rock, they are in most cases the effect of compressive stress. Closely
spaced joint systems form transitions into slaty cleavage, and recrystalliza­
tion of minerals takes place by preference along these planes. In
extreme cases fissility or cleavage in very thin laminae develops. Joints
and cleavage present narrow paths for mineralizing solutions and ore
deposits are often determined by their direction.
There are all stages of transition from joints to fissures along which
perceptible movement has occurred. In many districts the fissures which
have received the ores are identical in strike and dip with the joint systems
1Edward Wisser, Oxidation subsidence at Bisbee, Arizona, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927,
pp. 761-790.
 OPENINGS IN ROCKS 151
of the country rock. A common condition is that two sets of veins and
joints occur which have the same strike, but dip in opposite directions
(Fig. 41). Such vein systems are termed conjugated fractures. The
explanation of such joints, fissures, and occasionally accompanying
schistose structure is furnished by certain experiments by Daubree1
and by the mathematical deductions of G. F. Becker.12 These show that
compression may develop several systems of fractures, but that the two
principal systems lie along the planes of maximum shear; these shearing
planes are inclined to the direction of maximum stress. The accompany­
ing dislocations will largely be reverse faults in which the hanging wall has
relatively moved upward. In Daubr6e’s experiment on a mass of bees­
wax and resin two conjugated systems of joints and fissures were formed,
making an angle of 45 degrees with the line of pressure; similar results
have been obtained by testing cubes of building stones. If the stress is
not exerted horizontally the dip of the veins will be correspondingly
affected. At Grass Valley, California, and in many other districts there

F ig . 41.— Vertical section of a conjugated system of fractures.

are two such conjugated systems of fissures which have been filled with
ore. W. D. Johnston, Jr., and E. Cloos3believe the Grass Valley fissures
originated during an early phase of the consolidation of the rock by
stresses imposed by the intrusive itself.
Leith and Mead have shown that the three fault systems occupied
by the copper veins at Butte were caused by stresses applied successively
within one period of mineralization.
In the locality just mentioned the majority of the dislocations are
small, but tangential stresses sometimes produce great dislocations.
The Mother Lode of California, a vein system nearly 100 miles in length,
is believed to represent a reverse fault or system of faults with considera­
ble throw and dips to the east.
When rocks are recrystallized in the deeper zones of the earth’s
crust they may become so plastic that deformation by rupture cannot
1 Etudes synthctiques de g6ologie expcrimentale, Paris, 1879, p. 316.
2 Finite homogeneous strain, etc., Bull., Geol. Soc. Am., 4, 1893, p. 13.
C. K. Leith, Structural geology, New York, 1923, pp. 13-62.
W. J. Mead, Jour. Geol., 28, 1920, pp. 505-523.
3 Paper presented at Boston meeting of Geol. Soc. Am., 1932.
152 MINERAL DEPOSITS
take place. The growth of crystals then probably takes place pre­
dominantly in a plane perpendicular to the stress and a close schistose
structure like that in many gneisses may develop which offers scarcely
any interstitial space available for the circulation of solutions.
If the fissures were perfect planes it would be difficult to conceive
of open spaces along them except by tensional stresses pulling the walls
apart; but as they are not, movement along them tends to produce a
series of openings, alternating with numerous touching points. As a
matter of fact, the mode of mineral deposition shows that open spaces
existed and that they sometimes were large, in exceptional cases even 20
feet or more in width. In mine workings in hard rock old stopes fre­
quently remain open for an indefinite length of time, and it is probable
that such large open spaces may exist down to a depth of at least several

F ig . 42.— Joints varying from 6 inches to 2 feet apart. M ineralization spreading from
joints. This ground is “ blocky” where slips are in three planes. (A fter G. T. Harley.)
thousand feet. Moreover, it is to be remembered that at the time of
deposition the fissures were filled by water under a pressure at least equal
to that of the hydrostatic column. The depositing solutions emanating
from magmas under conditions of far stronger pressure may even have
made way for themselves in the manner of an igneous dike or pegmatite
vein, actually forcing the rocks apart. Some of the phenomena of
deep-seated veins are difficult to explain on any other assumption.
Gaping fissures are not, however, necessary for the circulation of
solutions. Water may ascend along a number of closely spaced fissures
—usually called a sheeted zone—in which very little open space exists.
But in this case mineral deposition is usually effected by replacement.
The solutions are forced into the adjoining rock and transform its minerals
into ore.
The stresses set up in a mass consisting of various rocks are extremely
complex and it may only be possible to ascertain the dominant mode of
fracturing. To differentiate strictly between joints and fissures produced
 OPENINGS IN ROCKS 153
by tension and those produced by rotational or nonrotational compres­
sion is very difficult. The common condition of fractured ground is
shown in Figs. 42 and 43.
Force of Crystallization.—Minerals crystallizing from solutions exert
a certain pressure on the walls which confine them.1 Many geologists
have held that this force is sufficient to enlarge cavities along fractures
and thus make room for mineral deposits. There is strong evidence
in the structure and texture of veins which is unfavorable to such a view,
except where conditions of light load prevail, as near the surface or near
open spaces. Boydell points out the limitations to the exertion of the

F ig . 43.— Thoroughly jointed and crushed ground illustrating condition in fissure veins.
M ineralization is spreading from fissures. (A fter G. T. Harley.)
force of crystallization imposed by the consideration of influence of
pressure on solubility and holds that this force is not an important factor
in vein formation. Some curious phenomena in regard to inclusions
of rocks in veins may find their explanation by the action of this force,
for in fissures filled with solutions a comparatively slight force might
suffice to detach fragments from the walls.
1G. F. Becker and A. L. Day, The linear force of growing crystals, Proc., Wash­
ington Acad. Sci., 7, 1905, pp. 282-288.
S. Taber, Pressure phenomena accompanying the growth of crystals, Proc., Nat.
Acad. Sci., 3, 1917, pp. 297-302. Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 41, 1916, p. 535. The
mechanics of vein formation, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 61, 1920, pp. 1-36.
The origin of veinlets in the Silurian and Devonian strata of Central New York,
Jour. Geol., 26, 1918, pp. 56-73.
H. C. Boydell, A discussion on metasomatism and the linear force of growing
crystals, Econ. Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 1-55. Discussion by S. Taber, idem, pp. 717-727.
 CHAPTER XIII
THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
The form of ore deposits is always important, for the mining methods
used for a body of irregular outline must, for instance, be very different
from those for a tabular vein. In the great majority of deposits the
form is rudely tabular, for they usually follow the planes of dislocations,
or tabular dikes, or the bedding of sedimentary rocks. The form is
particularly important in replacement deposits, and no effort should be
spared in ascertaining their internal structure and their relation to the
structure of the country rock, that is, to contacts, beds, folds, joints,
and fissures. Often this is even more important than the mineralogical
composition of the ore.
A convenient and fundamental, though not strictly genetic, classifica­
tion divides mineral deposits into syngenetic, or those formed by processes
similar to those which have formed the enclosing rock and in general
simultaneously with it; and epigenetic, or those introduced into a pre­
existing rock.
Syngenetic Deposits.—The syngenetic deposits include the magmatic
segregations or accumulations of useful minerals formed by processes
of differentiation in magmas, generally at a considerable depth below
the surface. Their form may be wholly irregular or roughly spherical,
but more often they are rudely tabular or lenticular, and they are usually
connected by transitions with the surrounding rocks. They are either
wholly enclosed in the igneous mass, or lie along its margins, or, in some
cases, form dikes or offshoots from a deep-seated reservoir. The last
class of ores may be called epigenetic with reference to the rocks incasing
the dikes. The width and thickness of these deposits may range from
a few inches to several hundred feet, and in rare cases, their length may
exceed one mile. Masses of chromite in peridotite or titanic iron ore in
anorthosite, furnish examples of this type.
The syngenetic deposits also include sedimentary beds; they have, as
a rule, a tabular, sheet-like, or flat lenticular form; they are horizontal
if not disturbed, but are frequently folded and faulted. Parallel to their
bedding their extent may be counted by miles, as in the case of the
Clinton hematite ores of the Appalachian region, or the Jurassic iron ores
of France; nevertheless, each bed usually thins out in wedge-shaped
form and may be replaced by others at a slightly different horizon. In
deposits of metallic ores the thickness is rarely more than 20 feet and this
may include intercalated beds of barren material. Coal beds, especially
154
 THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 155
those of lignite, or brown coal, may attain a thickness of 100 feet or
more. Beds of rock salt, anhydrite, and gypsum are in some cases
several hundred feet thick. In all sedimentary deposits displacements
and folding may locally produce an appearance of great thickness. In
plastic material like rock salt such deformation is especially effective.
Epigenetic Deposits.—The epigenetic deposits have various forms,
but among those which follow fissures, the so-called fissure veins, the
tabular or sheet-like form is most common. Deposits concentrated
in the zone of weathering are often extremely irregular and of limited
extent, and several of them are usually found in close proximity. Some
hematite ores, like those of the Mayari district in Cuba, which are devel­
oped by the weathering of serpentine, may form superficial sheets of
great extent.
Replacement deposits in limestone are extremely irregular, although
their form as a whole is often dependent upon the bedding, the Assuring,
or the contact with other rocks. They are seldom large, but in a few
cases, like the galena deposits in southeastern Missouri or the sphalerite
deposits in the Joplin region of the same state, they may be
followed at a general horizon for several miles.
The ore deposits in metamorphic rocks which have undergone strong
mechanical deformation and chemical changes usually assume lenticular
form, and the occurrence of successively overlapping lenses is particu­
larly characteristic. In these deposits a steep dip is a common feature,
but the main trend of the ore-body in the plane of its strike is usually not
in the direction of the dip.
Definitions.—The strike of a tabular or lenticular deposit is the direc­
tion of a horizontal line in the plane of the deposit, measured with
reference to a meridian.
The dip is measured by the vertical angle between a horizontal plane
and the plane of the deposit. Complementary to the dip is the hade or
underlie, which is measured by the angle between the vertical and the
plane of the deposit.
The plunge1 (Fig. 44) of an ore-body is the vertical angle between a
horizontal plane and the line of maximum elongation of the body. In
lenticular ore-bodies in metamorphic rocks which have undergone strong
mechanical deformation, the plunge is an important factor, and often it
is determined by the direction of the cleavage or schistosity. In fissure
veins the pitch of the ore-shoot is usually defined as the angle between its
axis and the strike of the vein, and it is measured on the plane of the vein2
(p. 192).
Spacial Relations of Veins.—Veins are tabular or sheet-like masses
of minerals occupying or following a fracture or a set of fractures in the
1Called “pitch” or “rake” by many authors.
2See discussion in Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 39, 1908, pp. 898-916.
156 MINERAL DEPOSITS
enclosing rock; they have been formed later than the country rock and
the fractures, either by filling of the open spaces or by partial or complete
replacement of the adjoining rock, or most commonly by both of these
processes combined.
Such alteration or replacement does not ordinarily extend far from
the fissure. In regions where the vein-forming solutions have acted
with unusual intensity a partial alteration may extend from the deposit
over considerable areas.
No sharp distinction can be drawn between the filled veins and replace­
ment veins. If open spaces are available the metalliferous solutions
which formed the veins in most cases found it easier to deposit their load
in these spaces than to replace the country rock. Quartz is more likely

F ig . 44.— Stereogram illustrating strike, dip, pitch, and plunge of an ore-body.

to be deposited in the open paths, and likewise most of the heavy metals,
unless the country rock is one particularly adapted for replacement,
such as limestone. Gases like carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide
penetrate the wall rocks with ease.
Many veins correspond closely to the old definition of a “ true fissure
vein,” in which the ore occupies the once open spaces along the fracture,
with some alteration spreading into the wall rocks. Of such character
are the majority of the gold-quartz veins of California and many other
occurrences. When the fissures are very small they are referred to as
veinlets or seams, and all transitions to a slight mineralization of joint
planes are found. The walls may be smooth and separated from the
vein material by a clay gouge or the filling may closely adhere to the
country rock. In the latter case the vein is said to be frozen to the walls.
Instead of a single break we may have a fracture consisting of a
number of approximately parallel fissures, irregularly connected and
 THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 157

F ig . 45.— Southern Republic vein 3 feet wide. Shows banding in the quartz vein and
included stringers of country rock (propylitic andesite). (A fter H ow land B ancroft, U . S.
Geol. Survey.)

F ig . 46.— Section of Silver Crown lode, Silverton, Colorado, showing lode structure-
a, andesite; b, quartz; c, andesite and quartz stringers; d, ore. (A fter F . L . R ansom e,
U. S. Geol. Survey.)
158 MINERAL DEPOSITS
spaced over a considerable width, which may attain 100 feet or even
several hundred feet. These large fracture zones, when filled with ore
and partially replaced country rock, are called composite veins or lodes
(Fig. 46). The Comstock lode in Nevada illustrates this occurrence; its
width in places amounts to several hundred feet.
Lodes often contain two systems of fractures, intersecting at an acute
angle, as shown roughly on Fig. 46. This is sometimes referred to as

Pyrltlc Ores — — Galena-Sphalerite Ores . ^ . — Composite Ores

Fio. 47.— M ap showing veins of C entral C ity, Colorado, and vicinity. (A fter E . S.
Basiin, U. *S. Geol. Survey.)
hammock structure. A number of adjacent parallel veins are called a vein
system. If connected by diagonal veins the term linked veins (Fig. 47)
is used.
When the fractures are closely spaced and parallel we speak of a
sheeted zone or a shear zone (Fig. 48). Many of the Cripple Creek veins
form good illustrations of this mode of occurrence. The width of a
sheeted and mineralized zone is rarely over 50 feet and ordinarily much
less.
 THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 159
A mass of rock irregularly fractured in various directions by short
fissures along which mineralization has spread is called a stockwork.
Gold-quartz deposits sometimes assume this form; each seam in the
several joint systems intersecting the rock may contain a thin but often
strongly auriferous sheet of quartz; the mass may be mined as a whole,
furnishing low-grade ore. In deeply weathered regions the upper parts
of such deposits may be sufficiently disintegrated to be washed by the
hydraulic method. In California such mines are called “ seam diggings.”
A shattered zone cemented by a network of small non-persistent veins
is called a stringer lead or stringer lode.
Sometimes ore deposits are wholly irregular brecciated masses, the
ores filling the interstices between the fragments. Again, the breccia

F ig . 48.— Section of the Howard vein, Cripple Creek, Colorado, showing a sheeted
zone. Ore follows the close sheeting in the center. Scale: 1 inch — 13 feet. (A fter
Lindgren and Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
may be localized at the intersection of two fractures and a pipe-like
deposit will be formed, the ore cementing the fragments. Or again, ore
deposition may have proceeded in a volcanic vent filled with fragments
of rocks due to explosive action. Of such character was the celebrated
Bassick deposit in Custer County, Colorado.
Brecciation, shattering, and mineralization often follow lines of weak­
ness along dikes; in such cases, illustrated by the Douglas Island mines
in southern Alaska, where a dike of diorite intrudes metamorphic clay
slates, the mineralized dike is often referred to as a lode.
Ladder veins are deposits filling short transverse fissures sometimes
occurring in dikes of intrusive rocks (see Fig. 37).
Lenticular veins (Fig. 49) are confined mainly to metamorphic schists
and their form is sometimes caused by deformation of an older deposit;
160 MINERAL DEPOSITS
or again the lenticular shape may be due to stresses causing bulging of
the schistose layers. It is common to find a number of short lenses of
gold-bearing quartz, for instance, scattered along a certain line or zone.
Their ends sometimes overlap.

F ig . 49.— Vertical section of Schlegelmilch quartz vein, South Carolina, showing lentic­
ular vein structure in schist w ith offsets along joint planes. (A fter L . C. Graton, U. S.
Geol. Survey.)

F ig . 50.— Vertical section of gash veins filled with galena (black), or w ith pyrite,
sphalerite, and galena in order of deposition. D rusy cavities in center. Lead mines of
Wisconsin. (A fter T. C. Chamberlin .)

Bed veins follow the bedding planes in sedimentary rocks.

Gash veins are deposits filling non-persistent openings that are of fair
width but soon cease when followed along strike or dip; they are particu­
larly characteristic of deposits of galena and sphalerite in limestone and
 THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 161
are believed to have been opened by tensional stress, often aided by
solution (Fig. 50).

Where soft sedimentary beds have been folded and crushed, irregular
open spaces are more likely to result than well-defined straight fissures.
162 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In such rocks ores may be found in the spaces opened along anticlines
and synclines or in irregular fractures breaking across such folds.
Veins and lodes rarely occur single but, on the contrary, have a tend­
ency to cluster in vein systems such as illustrated in Figs. 39, 47, and 51.
In some places may be found several intersecting vein systems of great
complexity and differing ages and mineralizations as, for instance,
in the case of the great copper district of Butte, Montana, illustrated in

F ig . 52.— N orth-south section across B utte district, showing structure and ore zones.
(After Reno Sales.)

plan and section in Figs. 51 and 52.1 The peculiar divergent fractures
at the Leonard mine form what is sometimes called a horsetail structure.
The veins at Butte are, moreover, in many places disrupted by later
faults.
Veins in Relation to the Country Rock.—Veins crossing the bedding
in stratified rocks are referred to as cross veins; those parallel to the
1Reno Sales, Ore deposits of Butte, Montana, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 46,
1913, pp. 1-109.
 THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 163
stratification or schistosity are often called bedded veins or bed veins.
Differences in the texture and hardness of the rocks traversed influence
the form of the vein markedly. In hard dikes crossed by the vein the
deposit often splits up into stringers, resuming its typical form beyond
this barrier. In fractures formed under light load near the surface there
is a great tendency to irregularity and brecciation, especially in the
hanging wall. Following G. F. Becker’s proposal such may be called
chambered veins. In a vein of strong dip there will also be a tendency for
the hanging wall to settle accompanied by the development of minor
vertical fissures. Such conditions were found, for instance, in the
Comstock lode, Nevada (Fig. 185) and in the El Oro mines of Mexico
(Fig. 179); at both places the vertical hanging wall veins were excep­
tionally rich, the richness being possibly caused by the impeded movement
of the depositing waters. Large masses of country rock included in
the vein material are called horses. Frequently the vein follows a fissure
along the walls of a dike; the lamprophyric dikes, which are the last
phases of batholithic intrusions, are especially favored places for ore
deposition.
Clayey and soft rocks are most resistant to the development of regular
fissures; a fracture in hard rock will suddenly die out when encountering
such material; many veins pinch immediately upon entering clay shales
or masses of clayey gouge. One of the best examples of this is furnished
by the veins of Rico, Colorado, which do not extend through the whole
sedimentary series in that district, but suddenly cease at a certain stratum
of yielding, plastic rocks, termed the blanket, under which almost all the
ore-bodies occur. A consequence of this peculiarity of Assuring is
that in some regions rich ores are often found just below certain horizons
of shale (Fig. 85). In southern New Mexico a persistent Devonian
shale plays this part of “ indicator.” The vein solutions were arrested
at this horizon and there deposited their load.
When a vein follows the contact between two formations, say between
granite and andesite, we speak of it as a contact vein. The contact is
usually caused by faulting movements in the plane of the fissure, and
such veins are in no wise different from ordinary fissure fillings. They
should not be confused with contact-metamorphic deposits, which belong
to a separate class.
Vein Walls.—In a simple filled fissure vein we have well-defined foot
and hanging walls, Fig. 45, which often are smooth surfaces and represent a
single fissure opened by a small or large movement along its slightly curved
plane. In a replacement vein the fissures are comparatively tight and
in most cases appear to have been formed under strong compressive
stress that reduced the open spaces to a minimum. The vein-forming
solutions were forced into the country rock, and the ores formed by
replacement gradually merge into unaltered rock. In such cases we may
164 MINERAL DEPOSITS
find a single fissure plane with ore on both sides and not limited by any
well-defined walls. The exact limits of commercial ore can be found
only by assay and are often spoken of as “ assay walls.”
In a composite vein or lode or in a sheeted zone there may be several
smooth walls and if no cross-cutting is undertaken there is danger that
parallel ore-bodies separated by sheets of country rock may be overlooked.
Outcrops.—The character of the outcrop of a vein, or in fact of any
deposit, is determined by the predominant minerals and by the prevailing
surface conditions. In regions of long-continued rock decomposition
and inactive erosion, as, for instance in some of the Southern Appalachian
States, even the most resistant outcrops may be reduced by weathering;
and nothing but fragments scattered over a wide area may be visible
at the surface.
Under conditions of fairly active erosion veins with predominant
quartz stand out prominently and can be easily traced.
On the other hand, veins with carbonate gangue are likely to weather
more rapidly than the surrounding rock; and the deposits may be indi­
cated by little depressions or by notches in the ridges. Where
sulphides are abundant, their oxidation is conspicuously reflected in
the outcrops. Deposits of mingled quartz and sulphides then form
prominent outcrops of limonite and residual quartz; this is the gossan
of the Cornish, the ironstone of the Australian, the eiserner Hut and the
chapeau defer of the German and French, and the colorados of the Spanish
terminology. (See Chapters XXI and XXXII.)
Length and Depth of Veins.—Where veins follow great dislocations
their length may be considerable. One of the more recent veins of
Freiberg, Saxony, called the Halsbriicker Spat, has been followed for
almost 5 miles. Some of the lead-bearing veins in the Harz Mountains,
Germany, are traceable for 12 miles. Exceptionally long single ore-
bearing fissures are found in the Silverton quadrangle, San Juan region,
Colorado; some of them are 5 miles long. Some of the Mother Lode veins
in California can be traced for many miles. The longest single quartz
vein known appears to be that known as the Pfal, in the Bavarian Forest,
which is said to be traceable in a straight line practically without inter­
ruption for 140 kilometers through the pre-Cambrian rocks.1 The quartz
is said to be barren of metals.
The great majority of single ore-bearing veins are short and their
outcrops can rarely be traced for more than one mile; they do not, as a
rule, occupy great dislocations, but rather subordinate fissures. The
great dislocations are formed during mountain building by tangential
stresses, whereas the ore-bearing veins are, as a rule, formed after epochs
of igneous activity. In the Coeur d’Alene district, Idaho, for instance,
1E. Sucss, Das Antlitz der Erde, Leipzig, 1883, 1, pp. 270-272.
W. von Giimbel, Geologie von Bayern, Cassel, 1894, 2, pp. 461-464.
 THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 165
the rich galena veins show little connection with the principal structural
faults of the region and were probably not formed at the same time.
Veins do not necessarily continue to great depths. There are all
kinds of fissures, some disappearing within a short distance below the
surface, others continuing down to the greatest depths attained, or about
7,000 feet (Morro Velho, Brazil). Deep tunnels have been run to inter­
sect veins of favorable appearance on the surface and have failed to dis­
close their continuation in depth. There is no definite relationship
between depth and length of a fissure, though it is true that fissures show­
ing strong movement and shattering are likely to continue to great depths.
Again the ore-body may be limited in depth, while the barren fissure
continues below it as strong as ever.
Bends and curves in strike and dip are common in veins, but as a
rule a vein retains its general angle of dip with remarkable persistence.
The dip may be at any angle, but veins dipping from 50° to 80° are most
common. The North Star vein at Grass Valley, California, is one of the
best instances of a low-dipping vein of great length; with a dip of
20 degrees it has been followed for 9,000 feet. Still flatter veins are called
blanket veins and are seldom very persistent or uniform.
 CHAPTER XIV
TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
FILLING AND REPLACEMENT
Introduction.—The ore minerals and gangue which make up an ore
deposit present various types of texture. The texture of an ore is depend­
ent upon many factors. Space available for deposition, concentration
and composition of the generating solutions, time, temperature, and
pressure—all are of importance in determining the primary texture.
Many changes take place in a deposit once formed; the secondary tex­
tures, so far as they are caused by solution and redeposition, are influenced
by the same factors, and, in addition, deformation by pressure plays an
important role.
Texture of Deposits of Igneous Origin.—The ores consolidated from
magmas have in general the texture of igneous holocrystalline rock. The
principal minerals comprise chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite,
chromite, and ilmenite. The texture is ordinarily coarse granular, hypid-
iomorphic; the chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite are rarely crystallized, but
may contain phenocrysts of pyrite and magnetite, both of which are
frequently developed with crystalline outlines. The ores may, of course,
contain phenocrysts and anhedrons of other rock-forming minerals,
particularly soda-lime feldspars, olivine, and pyroxene. Eutectic texture
results if the magma was a eutectic mixture from which two minerals
crystallized simultaneously after the manner of graphic granite. Approxi­
mation, at least, to such texture is shown by some intergrowths of
magnetite and apatite.
If the ores have been subjected to dynamic metamorphism, granula­
tion and metasomatic development of hornblende, garnet, biotite, sericite,
and epidote in coarse or fine aggregates follow, and the ore may acquire
schistose structure.
Texture of Pegmatite Dikes.—The pegmatite dikes are believed to
have been deposited by magmatic solutions of great fluidity and low
temperature (about 600° C.). In some cases the pegmatites form transi­
tions between igneous rocks and veins deposited by hot solutions. Their
texture is coarsely crystalline, often drusy, and the minerals have a strong
tendency to idiomorphic development. Large crystals are the rule, and
sometimes they attain enormous dimensions; crystals of spodumene at
the Etta mine, South Dakota, are 40 feet or more in length. Quartz
crystals several feet long have been observed in these deposits. A rough
166
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 167
tendency to crustification is often present, and the walls of the dikes are
then lined with crystals of feldspar or mica. In the druses are found the
minerals of later generations, like albite and tourmaline.
Texture of Sedimentary Deposits.—Ores and minerals of sedimentary
deposits are usually fine-grained, and in many cases have been
deposited as colloids in which subsequent fine-grained crystallization
has developed. Coarsely crystalline, allotriomorphic structure may
develop in deposits consisting of calcite, salt, or gypsum.
In many cases the structure is clastic with development of new-formed
minerals between the grains. Newly formed quartz, if present, nearly
always assumes a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline texture. Sub­
sequent metamorphism is likely to enlarge the crystalline grains and result
in coarser-grained ores.
Concretions.1—Concretions are rounded bodies of some mineral
aggregate which are often found in shale and sandstone. Calcite, silica,
siderite, pyrolusite, barite, pyrite, marcasite, and limonite are among the
minerals which most commonly form concretions. The structure is
often concentric or radial. In some cases the stratification planes pass
through the concretions, while in other cases they may bend around
them. These structures are of some economic importance as regards ores
of iron and manganese. They often have a center of a clastic grain or
a fragment of a fossil shell or leaf. Concretions generally result
from processes of solution and precipitation in soft or semi-con­
solidated sediments, less frequently in hardened rocks. The precipitates
are usually gels, which later become crystalline (metacolloids). As a
rule, removal by solution of the rock material {e.g., shale) is necessary
and its place is taken by the precipitated gel. Most concretions are
essentially gel replacements. For instance, precipitation of colloidal
iron sulphide may start around decomposing organic matter evolving
H2S and the process continues while iron solutions and hydrogen sulphide
are available. Concretions generally derive their substance from the
surrounding rock. They frequently show cracks and cavities caused by
contraction of the original gel material. When small, uniform and abun­
dant they are called oolites.2
1J. E. Todd, Concretions and their geological effect, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 14,
1903, pp. 353-368.
See also, W. A. Tarr, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 32, 1921, pp. 373-384, and W. A.
Richardson, Geol. Mag., 1921, pp. 114r-124.
W. Lindgren, Metasomatism, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 36, 1925, pp. 247-261.
W. H. Newhouse, Some forms of iron sulphide, etc., Jour. Geol., 35,1927, pp. 73-83.
W. H. Twenhofel, Treatise on sedimentation, 2d ed., Baltimore, 1932, pp.
696-716, 757-769.
2For literature regarding the origin of oolites see Forlschritte Mineral. Krist. Petr.,
Jena, 3, 1913, p. 43.
W. H. Twenhofel, op. cil.
W. H. Bucher, On oolites and spherulites, Jour. Geol., 26, 1918, pp. 593-609.
168 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The oolitic texture is characteristic of many deposits of calcite, siderite,
bauxite, calcium phosphate, barite,1 limonite, and psilomelane; pyrite or
marcasite rarely assumes this form. The oolites are often affected by
later alteration and recrystallization.
Texture of Residual and Oxidized Deposits.—In the residual deposits
of the zone of oxidation, the ore-bodies are usually very irregular in
structure and texture. In large part they were deposited as colloids,
which subsequently in part have developed fine-grained crystalline
texture.
Earthy, clayey concretionary, mammillary, stalactitic, or pisolitic
textures are common, the last being defined as a coarser development
of the oolitic form. Coarser crystalline form is assumed by some minerals
like calcite, barite, smithsonite, calamine, and cerussite. Crustification
or drusy structure is common in places. Quartz, where developed, is
usually fine-grained or cryptocrystalline.
THE TEXTURE OF EPIGENETIC DEPOSITS
Primary Texture of Filled Deposits.2—The epigenetic deposits are of
manifold form and origin, but the majority of them result from aqueous
solutions either by filling of open cavities or by replacement of surround­
ing rocks. Precipitation from complex solutions in open spaces takes
place in a certain orderly succession, and the deposits, therefore, readily
assume a banded texture; crystallization is facilitated by the open spaces,
but the older crystals interrupt the development of the products of later
crystallization. Hence a hypidiomorphic to panidiomorphic texture is
most common.
Banding by deposition is called crustification, a term introduced by
Posepny. In many classes of veins, whether banded or not, a drusy
texture is common.
In deep-seated veins formed at a temperature but slightly lower than
that of the pegmatites the texture is usually coarsely crystalline and
massive; sometimes even drusy cavities are lacking. Delicate and
repeated banding is absent, but a coarsely banded or comb structure
recalling that of the pegmatite veins is sometimes encountered. It is
usually expressed by quartz crystals developing from the sides or by
metallic minerals like wolframite or cassiterite attached to the walls of
the fissure.
In veins formed at intermediate temperatures a coarsely crystalline
massive texture is most common; combs and rough banding by deposition
are by no means unknown, especially where the deposit contains calcite
or barite. In quartz veins the filling appears to have taken place rapidly
1E. S. Moore, Oolitic and pisolitic barite, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 25, 1914, pp. 77-79.
2S. F. Adams, A microscopic study of vein quartz, Econ. Geol., 15, 1920, pp.
623-664.
 TEXTURE OF MIN ERAL DEPOSITS 169

F ig . 53.— 'T hin section showing norm al texture of quartz filling. Black, arsenopyrite;
remainder, hypidiom orphic quartz with fluid inclusions. Magnified 32 diam eters. Gold-
quartz vein, Grass Valley, California.

F ig . 54.— Cockade structure in Alacran vein, Mexico. T he country rock is a volcanic

tuff. (A fter J . E . Sp urr, “ E conom ic Geology.”)
170 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and completely, so that the resulting ore consists of an irregular massive
mixture of quartz and sulphides. That here too the deposition began
from the walls is indicated by some occurrences of partially filled veins
which form a loose aggregate of prisms to which small crystals of early
sulphides may be attached. Any thin section of such quartz will usually
show long crystals of earlier growth around which the later quartz has
been deposited in large individuals (Fig. 53). Lines of inclusions often
penetrate from one grain into another. These inclusions consist of
aqueous solutions, often with small cubes or grains of transparent salts
suspended in the liquid. Inclusions of carbon dioxide have been reported,
but are extremely scarce. The optical continuity of the crystals or
grains is often disturbed by a peculiar divergent “ flamboyant” structure
caused by slight differences in orientation, and not by internal strains.
Inclusions of country rock may be surrounded by concentric rings of
different sulphides, and a primary brecciated vein structure may result.1
The sulphides are coarsely crystalline and sometimes roughly banded,
parallel to the walls. Pyrite and arsenopyrite, both among the earliest
minerals, have a strong tendency to crystal development, while galena,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and tetrahedrite are much less commonly found
with crystal faces.
A banded structure sometimes results from the filling of several
closely spaced fissures. In quartz veins in fissile rocks a peculiar book
structure may result from numerous parallel sheets of slate, alternating
with quartz. It has been thought that this and other features difficult to
explain by the assumption of open cavities are due to the opening of
spaces by the force of crystallization. Such views have been expressed
by E. Suess, W. 0. Crosby, E. J. Dunn, S. Taber, and others. It is
improbable that crystallization could have opened the cavities. More
likely they were supported by the strong pressure of magmatic waters.
But within such spaces a slight force exerted by crystallization could
readily detach slices of shale from the walls.
Stalactites are unknown in deposits formed at high or intermediate
temperature.
In veins formed at lower temperatures and comparatively shallow depths
crustified and drusy forms and fine granular texture predominate. The
quartz filling is usually fine-grained, ranging to cryptocrystalline and
chalcedonic near the surface.
1Such structures are called “cockade ore” and fine instances are described in
the old literature from Freiberg and Clausthal. For other illustrations see PL VII
in W. Lindgren’s report on Grass Valley and Nevada City, Seventeenth Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1896, pt. II. Also paper by Spurr, Econ. Geol., 21, 1926, pp.
519-537. Cockade ore with repeated deposition of cassiterite and pyrite has been
described by M. J. Buerger and J. L. Maury, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 1-13. In
many cases such concentric deposits are metacolloids, as suggested by H. C. Boydell
and others.
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 171
T h e sulp hid es are fo un d in s m a ll c rys ta ls o r sm a ll anhed ro ns; la rg e
crystals of p y rite , so com m on elsew here, are ra re in these veins. O n th e
other hand, w here calcite, d o lo m itic carbonates, rh o d o c hro site , flu o rite ,
or b a rite are gangue m in e ra ls th e c rys ta ls m a y be m uch la rg e r th a n those
found in o th e r deposits. A n exam ple is fu rn is h e d b y th e m a g n ific e n t
crystals of c alcite a t Jo p lin , M is s o u ri, and here galena also appears in
un u su a lly larg e , w ell-developed in d iv id u a ls . S y m m e tric a l and d e lic ate
c ru stific atio n is o ften present (Figs. 180, 193, and 204). B rec ciate d
structu re of p rim a ry o rig in is com m on.
In c lusio n s of c o u n try ro c k are fo un d in ve in s of a ll kin d s. Som e­
tim es th e y fo rm a ru b b le , betw een w h ic h th e ores have been deposited.

Fui. 55.—Specimen of quartz from N evada City, California, showing ribbon structure by
sheeting. Tw o-thirds natural size.
In o ther cases th e y appear unsup p o rte d in th e v e in m a te ria l; g e n e ra lly,
they are m ore o r less a lte re d . Such inc lusio n s m a y have dropped fro m
the w alls w h ile th e v e in fillin g was p a rtly com pleted; o r m a y have been
detached fro m th e w a lls b y th e force of c ry s ta lliz a tio n of th e v e in m a tte r.
M ost fissures are p ro b a b ly o rig in a lly occupied b y c o m m inu te d ro c k
m ate rial and frag m en ts of a ll sizes. D u rin g m in e ra liz a tio n th e fin e ­
grained m a tte r is e a s ily rem o ved and replaced w h ile th e la rg e r fra g m e n ts
rem ain and are o n ly p a rtly re p lac ed .1 Some “ in c lu s io n s ” are s im p ly
rem nants w h ic h have escaped th e g eneral re p lac em e n t of th e ro c k .2
Secondary Textures and Structures of Filled Deposits. — C ru s h in g
and b rec ciatio n of th e e a rly m in e ra ls are e x tre m e ly com m on; indeed, few
1 J. C. Schagen v an Soelen, E n g . M in . J o u r. 122, 1926, pp. 777-778.
2 A. M . B atem an, E con . Geol., 19, 1924, pp. 504-520.
172 MINERAL DEPOSITS

F ig . 56.— Thin section of vein quartz from N evada C ity, California, showing crushing and
incipient ribbon structure. Magnified 12 diam eters. Crossed nicols.

F ig . 57.— Cross section of Japan vein, Silverton, Colorado, showing structure produced
by repeated opening of original fissure, a, country rock; b , quartz; c, ore. (A fter F. L.
R anso m e , U. S. Geol. Survey .)
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 173
veins are entirely free from it. Repeated opening of fissures (Fig. 57)
and the deposition of new generations of vein material often take place
and the cementing ore may be enriched at the expense of the older
generations.
A banded or sheeted structure often results from the development
of shear planes in the old filling; examples of this are seen in many gold-
quartz veins of California (Figs. 55 and 56). Along these shear planes
the quartz is deformed and granulated; and gold may be deposited along
them by processes which may be called secondary, though, as a rule,
they take place shortly after the vein formation. The shearing stress
exerted either before or after the filling may affect the walls of the vein
and render them close-jointed or even distinctly schistose.
In some deposits, especially those containing zeolites, calcite, or barite,
secondary replacement processes play an extensive part. A vein filled
by calcite may be replaced by quartz, which then plainly shows its second­
ary nature by its hackly or lamellar texture, casts of cleavage, pieces of
calcite, or imprints of cleavage lines. Such pseudomorphic textures are
sometimes accompanied by a marked enrichment of the metallic content
of the deposit.
Metasomatism in Mineral Deposits.—The nature of metasomatism
or replacement has already been described on pages 23 and 91. Many
deposits have been formed by solutions containing various salts and gases
and capable of attacking certain kinds of rocks. Guided by fissures or
other open ducts, the solutions deposit part of their load in the open
super-capillary spaces whenever supersaturation takes place; thus is
produced the filling of fissures. As almost all rocks are porous and as
the solutions are frequently under heavy pressure they will be forced into
the rocks and will produce chemical and mineralogical changes in them.
At the same time the porous rock acts undoubtedly as a semi-permeable
membrane through which various substances will diffuse at differing
rates—electrolytes and gases most easily, colloids and difficultly ionized
compounds very slowly. Thus any vein will usually be accompanied by
a strip of altered country rock in which the solutions have effected certain
metasomatic changes. The minerals in the open fissures will ordinarily
differ from those formed in the metasomatic zone. We may find, for
instance, a quartz filling with various sulphides and gold, while the min­
erals developed in the country rock consist of pyrite, sericite, and calcite
with little if any gold. In some cases no perceptible alteration may be
observed in the country rock. The only difference between a filled vein
accompanied by metasomatism and a so-called replacement deposit
is that in the latter the filling of the narrow open spaces is negligible and
the bulk of the ore has been formed by metasomatic processes.
Metasomatic Processes.—In a solid rock replacement may be caused
by many kinds of solutions the only requirements being that some or all
174 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of the rock minerals must be unstable in the penetrating fluids. The
usual substances, most active in aqueous solutions, are oxygen, carbon
dioxide, sulphuric acid, ferric sulphate, hydrogen sulphide, alkaline
sulphides, and alkaline carbonates. Replacement may occur at all
temperatures above the freezing point of the solution and below the
melting point of the rock; it is naturally most effective in hot solutions.
Replacement may proceed at any pressure. It may be effected by the
ordinary surface waters, by sea water, by hot ascending waters, and by
magmatic emanations whether gaseous, fluid, or above the critical tem­
perature. According to the most important products we speak of silici-
fication, carbonatization, chloritization, sericitization, tourmalinization,
pyritization, etc.
There is no rock that is proof against replacing natural solutions of
some kind. Limestone and dolomite are most easily replaced even at
ordinary temperatures, for instance, by iron carbonate (siderite) or by
zinc carbonate (smithsonite). Granite, diorite, and, in fact, all igneous
rocks are also subject to replacement. Even quartzite, slate, and alumi­
nous shale may be replaced by other minerals though they are more resist­
ant than others. Replacement by sulphides may to some extent take
place at ordinary temperatures (for instance chalcocite replacing pyrite)
but large deposits of sulphide ore are usually formed by hot solutions.
Mode of Replacement.—As pointed out in previous chapters replace­
ment is effected by concentrated solutions filling capillary openings of
extremely small size (sheet openings larger than 0.0001 mm., p. 33)
which are just above or below the limit of microscopic visibility. Cases
have been noted where replacement begins from a crack doubtless filled
with a film of solution and connecting a series of just visible fluid inclu­
sions. Solution and precipitation go on practically simultaneously
dependent upon the constantly changing equilibrium, the supply of
solvent and the facility of escape for the dissolved material. Two or
several minerals may be dissolved at the same time to make room for
the new as in the replacement of shale by a pyrite crystal. The volume
of the rock remains constant, held by pressure. The moment a place is
available some mineral will separate out from the concentrated solution.
This law fails to apply in free crystals or when rock pressure can be over­
come by the force of crystallization, or when a solid is replaced by a gel,
or when the solutions circulate so rapidly that there is a strong balance
in favor of solution. As crystal grains develop they will exert a different
amount of pressure in various directions thus facilitating solution in the
direction of greatest pressure. The development of crystals in the host
mineral is a result of this action.
The power of crystallization of the different minerals varies greatly,
for some are found only as anhedrons in metasomatic rocks, while others
always assume their crystal form. The following list gives the relative
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 175
power of c ry s ta lliz a tio n in so lid ro cks of some m in e ra ls, as b eg in n in g
w ith those of s tro n g ly em phasized in d iv id u a lity : R u tile , to u rm a lin e ,
sta u ro lite , a rs e n o p yrite , p y rite , m a g n e tite , b a rite , flu o rite , epidote,
pyroxene, am p hib o le, s id e rite , d o lo m ite , a lb ite , m ica, galena, s p h a le rite ,
calcite, q u a rtz , orthoclase.
W hen a c ry s ta l has ceased to g row s o lu tio n m a y s till c o n tin ue p a ra lle l
to its faces. A s no m ore m a te ria l fo r th e c ry s ta l is a t han d th e vo id s are
im m e d ia te ly fille d b y th e n e x t p re c ip ita te a v a ila b le . T h u s are e xp la in e d
the th in film s of q u a rtz o r c alcite w h ic h so fre q u e n tly su rro u n d m etasom a-
tic p y rite crystals.

F ig. 58.—Replacement veinlets of galena (white) in cryptocrystalline quartz (dark gray)

with vugs (black). Tintic, Utah. Magnified 11 diameters.
W hen ta k in g place u n d e r th e la w of c o n stan t vo lu m e rep lac em en t
cannot o rd in a rily be expressed b y th e sim p le chem ical fo rm u la s 1 u s u a lly
given. T h e re ac tio n s are lik e ly to be m ore co m p licate d .2
1W. Lindgren, Volume changes in metamorphism, Jour. Geol., 26, 1918, pp.
542-554.
2 Smithsonite often replaces calcite with preservation of structures indicating
constant volume. The reaction is supposed to follow the formula
CaCCh -p ZnSCh = CaSCh -p ZnCCb,
both ZnSCh and CaS04 being water soluble salts. One cubic centimeter of calcite
contains 1192 milligrams C02 and 1518 milligrams CaO, while one cubic centimeter
of the resulting smithsonite contains 1514 milligrams CO2 and 2787 milligrams ZnO.
It is clear then that the principle of equal volumes requires more CO2 than is available
in the calcite. If the process follows the formula, shrinkage of volume will necessarily
result.
176 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In m etaso m atic processes gangue m in e ra ls lik e se ric ite , calcite, siderite,
b a rite , and flu o rite replace a ll silic ate s. F e rro m ag n e sian silic a te s w ill
be a tta c ke d firs t, th e n th e soda-lim e feldsp ars, la s tly o rtho clase and albite.
T h e degree of a tta c k on q u a rtz depends p ro b a b ly on th e a m o u n t of alka­
lin e carbonates in th e s o lu tio n . A ll sulp hid es rep lace a ll silic a te s as well
as q u a rtz (F ig . 58). S ulp hid es and sulp h o salts re a d ily replace other
sulp hid es. A succession com m on in m a n y ores is (1) p y rite (oldest),
(2) s p h a le rite , (3) e n a rg ite , (4) b o rn ite , (5) c h a lc o p yrite , and (6) galena.
A n y of th e la te r m in e ra ls m a y replace a n y of th e e a rlie r p ro d ucts (Fig

F ig . 59.— Feathery lead sulphantim onide (white) replacing galena. T in tic, Utah. Magni-
fied 24 diam eters.

59). O u r kno w ledg e of these m a n ifo ld rep lacem ents has been g re a tly
increased th ro u g h th e s tu d y of polished sections in re flected lig h t.
G angue m in e ra ls lik e se ric ite , c h lo rite , calcite, q u a rtz , flu o rite , and b arite
v e ry ra re ly replace sulphides.
D iffu s io n .— B y d iffu sio n is m e a n t th e m o vem e n t of th e m olecules in
a s o lu tio n fro m a place of h ig h e r c o n c e n tra tio n to a place of lo w e r con­
c e n tra tio n . T h is process is m ost im p o rta n t fo r th e phenom ena of replace­
m e n t and ore d e p o sitio n in g eneral. T h e d iffu s io n po w er va rie s w ith the
c o n c e n tra tio n and d iffe rs m a rk e d ly fo r d iffe re n t substances. T h e general
fo rm u la fo r d iffu sio n w ith o u t chem ical re a c tio n is A = k\/z, in w hich A
is th e a m o u n t of substance d iffu sin g th ro u g h u n it area w ith in a given
tim e z, and k is a c o n stan t fo r each c o n c e n tra tio n a t a fixe d tem p erature.
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 177
The material has the tendency to distribute itself uniformly through the
available space. But the process, as will be seen from the formula, is
exceedingly slow, does not act over large distances and ceases after a
certain time. Diffusion is incompetent to originate mineral deposits; it
must be supplemented by the movement of the solution on fractures or
other open spaces. The great importance of diffusion is probably in the
mechanism of replacement. In the ultimate small spaces available for
metasomatism, there is constant change of concentration; and diffusion
attends to the moving up of the new molecules and the removal of the
by-products of replacement. Diffusion acts easily in a gel. Diffusing
substances may meet and produce uniform or rhythmical replacements.1
Diffusion also operates in other media such as in sand or other fine-grained
material, also in water. It may likewise operate in permeable rocks,
such as limestone2 or sandstone, and may there produce uniform replace­
ment or rhythmical banding, as, for example, in the Leadville limestone
where sphalerite and pyrite sometimes alternate or as in the banded
magnetite in iron ores from Sweden and from Cuba. Such banding is
coarse and lacks the colloform characteristics.
Texture of Metasomatic Rocks.—In metasomatism new minerals
develop at countless points in the old rock, some growing with crystal
form (metacrystic or crystalloblastic series, p. 174) while others grow
into irregular grains. Each new grain may be called a metasome, each
new crystal a metacryst (pseudophenocryst).3 The resulting textures
will be holocrystalline; the new minerals frequently contain inclusions
of the old (sieve texture); and if the replacement is incomplete, as often
is the case, enough of the old texture may be preserved to indicate the
original rock (relict texture). It is characteristic of some replacements
that even if the process has been carried to completion the original texture
maybe preserved, as in silicified oolitic limestone and in silicified dolomites
(Fig. 61). In many cases, however, the original texture is wholly
destroyed.
The structure of a rock may be faithfully preserved even when meta­
somatic action has destroyed its texture. Such preserved structures
are, for instance, stratification, joints, breccias, folds and vesicules in
lavas. Preservations of texture of limestones which have been completely
‘R. E. Liesegang, Geologische Diffusionen, 1913.
M. Watanabd, Some problems of diffusion in the special reference to the study
of ore deposits, Sci. Repis., Tohoku Imp. Univ., sec. Ill, vol. 2, Sendai, 1924. Both
of these publications are highly recommended.
2A. R. Whitman, Diffusion in ore genesis, Econ. Geol., 23, 1928, pp. 473-488.
3This term was first introduced by A. C. Lane, Bull., Geol. Soc. Am., 14, 1903,
p 369.
Grubenmann and Becke use the terms xenoblast and idioblast. N. Gruben-
mann, Die kristallinen Schiefer, Berlin, 1910, p. 91.
178 MINERAL DEPOSITS

F ig . 60.— Galena (light gray) replaced by tennantite and peareeitc (9Ag2S.AsoS3)*

Earlier barite plates are not replaced by galena b u t by later minerals. Tintic, Utah.
Magnified 690 diameters.

F ig . 61.— Thin section of dolomite com pletely silicified, b ut retaining texture and crystal
form. (A fter J . D . Irving, U. S . Geol. Survey.)
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 179

F ig . 62.— Incipient silicification of limestone. Aspen, Colorado. W hite areas represent

quartz crystals with small inclusions of limestone. Magnified 30 diam eters.

F ig . 63.— Silicified limestone (“ jasperoid”)- Aspen, Colorado. All quartz. Small

inclusions of calcite in some of the grains. Crossed nicols. Magnified 30 diam eters.
180 MINERAL DEPOSITS
replaced by sulphides are mentioned by S. F. Emmons1 and J. M.
Boutwell.2
In many replacements gangue minerals like quartz and barite may
crystallize first, while pyrite comes next and other sulphides later.
Irving3 has pointed out that in some cases replacement begins from a
great number of points in the rock where metasomes or metacrysts may
develop (Fig. 62) and by continuation of the same process (Fig. 63) the
remainder of the rock is finally replaced; the contact is then indefinite.
In other cases the complete change occurs rapidly, advancing like a wave
over the country rock; the contacts are then sharp and the process prob­
ably consisted in replacement of the original rock by colloidal silica. The

F ig . 64.— Replacem ent veinlet of tourm aline in fresh andesine grain. K eystone Mine,
M eadow Lake, N evada C ounty, California, t, tourm aline;/, andesine; e, epidote; s, sericite;
p , pyrite. Magnified 50 diam eters.

replaced rock is usually dense and compact; in places, however, drusy

cavities occur in it.
Under the influence of the same solution different results may be
produced in different rocks. Limestone may be silicified while diorite
may be transformed to sericite.
. Replacements at High Temperature.—Complete recrystallization,
development of silicate minerals with little or no water, and coarse texture
are typical of deposits formed by replacement at high temperatures,
probably above 400°. Mineralizers like fluorine, boron, or phosphorus are
frequently introduced.
The best examples of such textures are found in the replacement of
limestones in contact-metamorphic deposits (Figs. 289 and 290) resulting
in coarse aggregates of metacrysts of andradite garnet with metasomes
of quartz, calcite, epidote, and pyroxene. The limestone may be recrys-
1 S. F. E m m ons, T ra n s., Am. In st. M in. E ng., 23, 1893, p. 602.
2 J. M . Bout.well, P ro f. P a p er 38, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, p. 193.
3 J. D . Irving, J o u r . C an ad ian M in. In st., 14, 1911, pp. 395-471.
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 181

tallized in part to coarse calcite. Magnetite and sulphides develop in

large grains.
Adjoining tin-bearing veins the rocks are recrystallized to greisen,
consisting of coarse metasomes of muscovite, topaz, quartz, tourmaline,
fluorite, and cassiterite (Fig. 262). Calcareous rocks or greenstones
containing much lime are recrystallized to aggregates of axinite, actinolite,
garnet, etc.
Replacement by apatite (containingphosphorus), scapolite (containing
chlorine), and pyroxene occur adjoining certain high temperature veins.

F ig . 65.— Siderite with pyrite and galena, replacing quartzite. Helena and Frisco
Mine, Coeur d ’Alene, Idaho, q, quartz grains; s, sericite; si, siderite; black, galena and
pyrite. Magnified 100 diam eters.
Along some gold-quartz veins albite, biotite, and zoisite may develop in
the wall rock.
Replacements at Intermediate Temperature.—Replacements at more
moderate temperature are likely to result in textures of finer grain, and
hydrous silicates like chlorite and sericite are abundant (Fig. 66). There
are exceptions to this where barite or fluorite replaces limestone for both
of these minerals easily develop as perfect metacrysts (Figs. 67 and 69).
Silicification of limestone, argillaceous shale, and rhyolite is a very com­
mon process taking place frequently with preservation of texture.
The quartz will usually be fine-grained. Silicified limestones are called
jasperoids (Figs. 62 and 63).
Limestone may be replaced by massive sulphides (Fig. 68). Altera­
tion by hot waters of granular and porphyritic igneous rocks as well as of
schists of similar composition results in sericitization of the femic and
182 MINERAL DEPOSITS
salic minerals, sometimes also of the quartz, with development of fibrous
aggregates. Pyrite, secondary quartz, rutile, and albite are sometimes
found in these rocks. In some classes of such metasomatic rocks car­
bonates of calcium, magnesium, and iron also occur.
Serpentine is altered near some gold-quartz veins to coarse aggregates
of ankerite, quartz, and mariposite (chromiferous sericite).
Quartzite and quartzitic slates in some lead deposits may be extensively
replaced by siderite (Fig. 65).

F ig . 66.— Andcsine crystal in grano- F ig . 67.— B arite (B ), replacing gray,

diorite, replaced by sericite and calcite. fine-grained lim estone (L ), Ouray, Colorado.
Pinetree vein, Ophir, Placer County, (A fter J . D . Irv in g , U. S . Geol. Survey.)
California. q , quartz; m, m uscovite;
c, calcite; s, sericite. Magnified 80
diam eters.

Replacement at Low Temperature.—Under the influence of cooler

solutions the intensity of replacement is diminished. The minerals
formed are strongly hydrated, the texture fine-grained. In igneous rocks
chlorite, epidote, quartz, and calcite, in part also sericite, may form by
the action of cool weak solutions. Replacement by sulphides such as
pyrite, galena, and sphalerite may take place. Limestone may be silicified
to fine-grained jasperoids. To a limited extent sulphides may replace
other sulphides. Chalcocite, for instance, replaces pyrite, chalcopyrite,
and bornite. Replacement of effusive rocks by alunite, pyrite, and
kaolinite is characteristic of some deposits formed near the surface.
In acid waters, kaolinite replaces sericite and other silicates. A
certain pH concentration appears to be necessary for the formation of
kaolinite.
Heated alkaline waters are not believed to be capable of developing
kaolin minerals from the aluminum silicates of the rocks; alkaline silicates
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 183
like sericite will result. On the other hand the ordinary dilute ground
waters will develop kaolin minerals in the rocks.

F ig . 68.——'G alena, replacing crystalline dolomite. Elkhorn Mine, M ontana, g,

galena; p, pyrite; c, cal cite grains of lim estone; q , secondary quartz. Magnified 15
diameters.

F ig . 69.— A , Fluorite replacing limestone. Florence M ine, Jud ith M ountains, Mon­
tana. /, fluorite; l, lim estone; q , secondary quartz. Magnified 7 diam eters. B . Illinois
fluorite veins. Fluorite, dark, replacing calcite. Crossed nicols. (B, after L . W . Currier.)
In other words, the kaolin minerals are confined to the uppermost
metamorphic zone and rarely venture far below the zone of weathering.1
1W. Lindgren, The origin of kaolin, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 89-93.
H. C. Boydell, Operative causes in ore deposition, Trans., Inst, Min. and Met.,
London, 37,1928, pp. 50-177 (with discussion).
184 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Criteria of Replacement.—F. Posepny first established replacement as
a mode of origin of mineral deposits. Shortly afterward, S. F. Emmons1
demonstrated it to be a common mode of origin and illustrated it by the
description of many ore-bodies in Colorado and elsewhere. About 1900,
W. Lindgren described the principal modes of metasomatism.12 In 1911,
J. D. Irving3 published a paper of great value in which the criteria of
replacement ore-bodies were summarized.
Some of these criteria in favor of replacement have already been
mentioned but they may be briefly recalled here:
1. Form of ore-body, more or less irregular. Gradually fading limits. Not
always conclusive.
2. Presence of unsupported residual rock masses. Sometimes the orientation of
bedding may be proved parallel with the surrounding rocks.
3. Absence of crustification. A banding may be observed in places due to pres­
ervation of bedding or shearing planes.
4. Absence of concave contacts; in limestone, for instance, solution of cavities tends
to produce flat concave depressions; a filled cave would show this whereas replace­
ment proceeds with convex outlines toward the unaltered rock.
5. Preservation of textures and structures of original rock. The last-named
criterion is the most conclusive.
The criteria for the determination of replacement are sometimes
difficult to establish; many mistakes have been made along this line.4
Replacement veinlets crossing the older minerals and dependence of the
replacing mineral on minute fissures and cracks constitute good evidence.
The projecting of crystals of one mineral into another is not always a safe
proof of replacement. The apparent host may possibly be a later mineral
molded about the crystals. In many cases adjoining minerals may have
developed practically simultaneously. A peculiar type of replacement
results in pseudo-eutectic texture simulating an intergrowth (Fig. 60).
Replacement may attack a mineral grain from fractures throughout
its mass. When it begins along the periphery and works inward (Fig. 70)
it may be called “ centripetal.” Such replacements are common in
supergene enrichments. A less common form of replacement begins in
the central part of the host mineral and works outward, leaving only a
1 S. F. Emmons, The genesis of certain ore deposits, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,
15, 1887, pp. 125-147.
S. F. Emmons, Structural relations of ore deposits, idem, 16, 1888, pp. 804^839.
S. F. Emmons, On the origin of fissure veins, Proc., Colorado Sci. Soc., 2, 1888,
pp. 189-208.
2 W. Lindgren, Metasomatic processes in fissure veins, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,
30, 1901, p p. 578-692.
3 J. D. Irving, Some features of replacement ore-bodies and the criteria by means
of which they may be recognized, Jour. Canadian Min. Inst., 14, 1911, pp. 395-471;
Econ. Geol., 6, 1911, pp. 527-561.
4 E. S. Bastin et al., Criteria of age relations of minerals with especial reference to
polished sections, Econ. Geol., 26, 1931, pp. 561-610.
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 185
shell of the original substance; this may be called “ centrifugal” replace­
ment (Figs. 71, 72). In other cases replacement begins from cracks and
cleavage planes all through a grain.
Repeated Replacements.—As later minerals, as a rule, may replace
any of the earlier minerals, it is not always a safe conclusion that the
guest has directly replaced the host, for there may have been intermediate
stages. Thus if a veinlet of chalcocite intersects and replaces pyrite,
there exists a possibility that the chalcocite may actually have replaced,
not pyrite, but an intermediate mineral like bornite. A rock may be
partially replaced by some carbonate, ankerite, for instance, and the

F ig . 70.— Polished section showing rim s of argentite replacing sphalerite from the periph­
ery. Crown King, Arizona. Magnified 90 diam eters.
latter may have been replaced by quartz.1 Such intermediate replace­
ments are very rarely complete; care must be exercised not to exaggerate
their importance.
The Reaction Series in Hydrothermal Replacements.—Butler2 has
extended Bowen’s reaction series (p. 110) by suggesting that by the
action of magmatic extracts the mineralization may continue from pyro-
magmatic to deuteric and to hydrothermal minerals. Crystallization in
a closed system will always move in a certain, normal direction; but as
ore deposits, contrary to conditions in a magmatic melt, are not developed
in a closed system, many difficulties are met in the interpretation of
mineral succession. Lowering temperature conditions will produce
minerals low in the magmatic series, but never those high in the series;
1 See L. C. Graton and H. E. McKinstry, Outstanding features of Hollinger
geology, Econ. Geol., 28, 1933, in press.
2 B. S. Butler, Influence of the replaced rock on replacement minerals associated
with ore deposits, Econ. Geol., 27, 1932, pp. 1-24.
186 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the latter have a more restricted range of temperature and are likely to
be more diagnostic of thermal conditions. Butler applies this to the
nickel deposits of Sudbury, and to the copper deposits of Engels and
Bingham. At the latter place, the augite of the monzonite changes by
deuteric processes to biotite and the ground mass becomes an aggregate
of quartz and orthoclase; further hydrothermal alteration develops
sericite and disseminated grains of pyrite and chalcopyrite.

F ig. 71.— Polished section showing sphalerite rim replaced internally by galena and
protecting galena from replacem ent by pyrargyrite. Prem ier Mine, B ritish Columbia.
Magnified 60 diam eters. (A fter W . D. B u rto n , “ E conom ic Geology.")
Unmixing.1—If a mineral has separated out at a high temperature it
often contains, in solid solution, various other constituents; upon slow
cooling these may suddenly crystallize at a given temperature so that the
original mineral may contain small inclusions of the ejected substance.
There are many examples of this in metallic alloys and the process is
1 A. E. Nissen and S. L. Hoyt, On the occurrence of silver in argentiferous galena
ores, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 172-179.
H. Schneiderhohn, Entmischungserscheinungen, etc., Melall und Erz., 19, 1922,
pp. 501-526.
L. P. Teas, The relation of sphalerite to other sulphides in ores, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., 59, 1918, pp. 68-97.
G. M. Schwartz, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 44—61 (cubanite); idem, 23, 1928, pp.
381-397 (bornite); idem, 26, 1931, pp. 739-763.
A. Wandke, Econ. Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 166-171 (chalcocite).
W. H. Newhouse, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 289-299 (pentlandite).
S. F. Emmons, J. D. Irving, and G. F. Loughlin, Prof. Paper 148, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1927 (lillianite).
P. Ramdohr, Beobachtungen an Magnetit, Ilmenit, etc., Neues Jahrb., Beil.
Bd. 54, 1926, pp. 320-379.
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 187
undoubtedly also of considerable importance in mineral deposits. Thus
sphalerite contains iron and copper in
solid solution which may separate out
in dots and gashes of chalcopyrite and
pyrrhotite (Fig. 73). Again bornite
may contain dots and gashes of
chalcocite (Fig. 74), or of chalcopyrite.
Many investigators believe that these
two are evidence of this process which
is called unmixing. Sometimes these
new products separate out along cleav­
age faces (Fig. 75). It is fair to add
that no complete unanimity reigns in
regard to the interpretation of many
of these phenomena. Other examples
are chalcopyrite in stannite,
i*
argentite
i t
Fig- 7 2 — Drawing from polished
section showing centripetal replacem ent
grams 111 galena, gashes of pentlandite Of tetrahedrite by polybasite and centrif-
in pyrrhotite,
... '
intergrowths
;
of bis- pyrargyrite,
ugal replacemleaving
ent of sam e m ineral by
shell of tetrahedrite.
muthinite and. argentite, finally, laths S m u g g l e r - U n i o n M i n e , Colorado.
of cubanite in pyrrhotite and chal- B' Hurst' “ Economic
copyrite. If the unmixed material is
heated and suddenly quenched it would be expected that they would

F ig . 73.— Polished section showing dots and rods of chalcopyrite in sphalerite. Black,
siderite. Siegen district, Germ any. Magnified 340 diam eters. (A fter H . Schneiderhohn.)
again form a homogeneous solid solution and this appears to have been
proved in the case of galena, cubanite, and pentlandite. Quite naturally
188 MINERAL DEPOSITS

F ig . 74.— Polished section showing gashes of chalcocite in bornite, Bristol, Connecticut.

Magnified 480 diam eters. (A fter W . L . W hitehead.)

F ig . 75.—Lines of chalcopyrite following cleavage planes in bornite. R eplacem ent or

unmixing, Engels Mine, California. Magnified 246 diam eters. (A fter W . L . W hitehead .)
 TEXTURE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 189
these products of unmixing are more common in high temperature
deposits.
Role of Colloids in Filling and Replacement.1—It is well known that
colloidal deposits, for instance, of silica, iron hydroxide, and aluminum
hydroxide play an important part in mineral deposits formed at or near
the surface (Fig. 76).
Colloidal silica or silica gel is also of considerable importance in the
origin of deposits formed relatively near the surface by ascending waters.
Some of the quartz filling in such veins is extremely fine-grained and

F ig . 76.— Psilomelane with colloform texture on quartzite, Virginia. Three-fourths of

natural size. (Specim en fro m F. L . H ess.)

bears evidence of having been deposited as a stiff jelly which soon after­
ward was crystallized in chalcedonic or cryptocrystalline form.2 Clear
evidence of this is seen in some filled veins from the Tintic district, Utah,3
where the original delicate banding by deposition is still seen though the
substance is now microcrystalline quartz.
In some deposits formed at moderate temperatures, limestone and
dolomite may be replaced by silica gel which afterward crystallized to
chalcedony. This type of replacement is characterized by sharp contacts
with the unaltered rock; it does not proceed from crystal nuclei of quartz
1A. Scott, Fovrth Rept. on colloid chemistry, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., London, 1922.
W. Lindgren, The colloidal chemistry of minerals and ore deposits. In Theory
and application of colloidal behavior, R. H. Bogue, 1924.
H. C. Boydell, The role of colloidal solutions in the formation of mineral deposits,
Trans., Inst. Min. and Met. (London), 34th session, 1924, pp. 145-337, including
discussion.
W. Lindgren, Metasomatism, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 36, 1925, pp. 247-262.
2 W. Lindgren, Geology and mineral deposits of the National District, Nevada,
Bull. 601, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915. Similar evidence is found in the quartz veins of
Wailii, New Zealand, and in some tin veins of Bolivia.
3 W. Lindgren, Processes of mineralization and enrichment in the Tintic mining
district, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 225-240.
190 MINERAL DEPOSITS
starting at numerous points but advances like a wave and stops with sharp
contacts (see p. 178). Later metalliferous solutions penetrated this gel
and deposited sulphides in it. Sometimes a banding has been produced
which strongly recalls the so-called Liesegang rings1 in artificial gels and
indicates a rhythmical precipitation of sulphides (Fig. 77).

F ig . 77.— Iron sulphide (white) and sphalerite (gray in various shades) with colloform
texture. Polish Silesia. Magnified 25 diameters.
Many ore minerals were originally deposited as colloidal precipitates
and have later acquired crystallinity. Cassiterite, pyrite, marcasite,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, and others sometimes show
this, particularly in deposits originating at moderate or intermediate
temperatures.
1 R. E. Liesegang, Geologische Diffusionen, 1913, p. 180. Reviewed by A. Knopf
in Econ. Geol., 8, 1913, p. 803.
S. G. Lasky, Colloidal origin of some of the Kennecott ore minerals, Econ. Geol.,
25, 1930, pp. 737-757.
See also footnotes on p. 189.
 CHAPTER XV
ORE-SHOOTS1
Form of Primary Ore-shoots.—Commercial ore or mineral does not
ordinarily occupy the whole volume of a deposit. The ore is in most
cases surrounded by material of poorer grades, sometimes fading into the
country rock, or again sharply separated from it. In replacement
deposits the disseminated grains of galena, for instance, or sphalerite,
may gradually become so few that the mass can no longer be treated with
profit. In veins, only certain parts of the sheet-like body can be extracted,
while the remainder of the vein material may consist of gangue minerals
only, or of clayey attrition masses or breccias.
Those parts of a deposit in which the valuable minerals are so con­
centrated that their utilization becomes possible are called ore-shoots.
Their occurrence and form are exceedingly variable, and it is often most
difficult to ascertain the causes which have guided their development.
In deposits of sedimentary origin the ore-shoots have, of course, the
general tabular form; but admixture with gangue materials or valueless
matter may so dilute the ore that only certain parts of the body can be
extracted. Various assortments of detritus and complex conditions of
precipitation from waters of seas, lakes, and rivers have influenced the
concentration of the richer ore masses. In addition, alterations by
meteoric waters are common; in the case of phosphate deposits and beds
of siderite they have resulted in enrichment.
In deposits of igneous origin the general form of the deposit is also
that of the ore-shoots. In some deposits, such as the magnetite deposits
1T. A. Rickard, The formation of bonanzas in gold veins, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 31, 1902, pp. 198-220.
The localization of values in ore-bodies, etc. Discussion by J. D. Irving, F. C.
Smith, Reno Sales, F. L. Ransome, H. V. Winchell, H. Sjogren, and W. Lindgren,
Econ. Geol, 3, 1908 pp. 143-154; 224-229; 326-330; 331-336; 425-427; 637-642.
Idem, 4, 1909, pp. 56-61.
C. W. Purington, Ore horizons in the San Juan Mountains, Econ. Geol., 1, 1905,
pp. 129-133.
II. C. Hoover, The valuation of gold mines, Eng. and Min. Jour., May 19, 1904.
R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., Some causes of ore-shoots, Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 97-133.
C. D. Hulin, Structural control of ore deposition, Econ. Geol., 24, 1929, pp. 15-49.
Adolph Knopf, The Mother Lode system of California, Prof. Paper 157, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1929.
W. II. Newhouse, Some relations of ore deposits to folded rocks, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Met. Eng., General Volume, 1931, pp. 224-246.
191
192 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of northern Sweden and the dike-like deposits of ilmenite at Iron Moun­
tain, Wyoming, there is practically no waste material and the whole
igneous body constitutes ore. The tabular form of certain chromite
deposits is remarkable.

F ig . 78.— Diagram illustrating the term s used to describe the dimensions of ore-shoots.
(After W. Lindgren and F . L. Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
More commonly the irregularly lenticular or tabular masses of igneous
rocks in which ore minerals have developed by magmatic segregation

(for instance, gabbro containing chalcopyrite) have nuclei of richer

material gradually fading into more normal rock.
In the epigenetic deposits the outlines of the ore-shoots are exceedingly
variable. In those deposits which are formed by replacement this is
 ORE-SHOOTS 193
particularly true, and few rules can be laid down for their occurrence.
The form is determined by the fissures giving access to the solutions, by
the presence of impermeable rocks, and by the varying susceptibility to
replacement of the original rocks.
Most attention has been given to the shoots in fissure veins. Although
the ore in the main follows the fissure and therefore has a tabular or sheet­
like form, it rarely occupies the whole space along this fissure, but is
concentrated in bodies of varying size, shape, and continuity. Smaller

F ig . 80.—Longitudinal stope section, Teck-Hughes Mine. (From D. L . H . Forbes.)

bodies are known as bunches, pockets, or kidneys; in gold-quartz veins
these may be exceedingly rich. Narrow ore-shoots, greatly elongated in
the vertical direction, whether occurring in fissure veins or independently
of them (for instance, in volcanic necks), are called chimneys, pipes, or
necks (Fig. 82).
Ore-shoots may be entirely irregular, but commonly have a more or
less well-defined columnar, steeply pitching shape, best shown in projec­
tion upon the plane of the vein. Figure 78 shows the terminology pro­
posed1for various dimensions of an ore-shoot in a vein. The pitch length,
or axial length, is the distance between the two extreme ends of the shoot.
1W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, Prof. Pa-per 54, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906, p. 206.
194 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The pitch is the angle which the pitch length makes with the strike of the
vein, and is measured on the plane of the vein. The stope length is the
horizontal length of the ore-shoot on any particular level. The thick­
ness or width is measured perpendicularly to the plane of the vein.
The breadth of the ore-shoot is the stope length, multiplied by the sine
of the pitch.
Figure 80 shows the ore-shoots of a gold-quartz vein at Kirkland
Lake, Ontario. Flat-dipping shoots are not so common. Figure 81
shows an excellent example of a flat shoot in the Eureka-Idaho vein at
Grass Valley, California. Figures 196 and 201 show the tendency of
many shoots to cease in depth.

F ig . 81.— Approxim ate outline of the E ureka-Idaho ore-shoot, Grass Valley, California,
in projection on the plane of the vein.

In parallel veins the shoots are often, roughly speaking, coextensive.

Sometimes the shoots in a series of parallel veins persistently recur where
the veins cross a certain stratum or dike, as, for instance, where the
gold-quartz veins of Gympie, Queensland, intersect certain carbonaceous
strata, or as at Thames, New Zealand, where the veins intersect certain
softened and altered andesites. Many shoots follow intersections of
veins or of veins with fissures.
Shoots, however large, do not continue indefinitely, but end in depth,
usually with gradual deterioration. Small masses or kidneys are likely
to be found below the termination of a large ore-shoot. Exploration may
find another shoot below the first, either on the same fissure or imbricating
on a parallel vein. When great depth is attained the grade of the ore
usually decreases in the deeper levels, but this rule is not without excep­
tions. Many shoots are lenticular, that is, they contain a rich nucleus,
outward from which the ore gradually decreases in tenor. H. C. Hoover,
from an examination of 70 mines, concluded that ore-shoots are generally
lenticular and that the probable minimum extension of an ore-shoot
 ORE-SHOOTS 195
below any given level would be a factor of not less than a radius of one-
half of its breadth.
At Cripple Creek, Lindgren and Ransome found that the shoots which
begin distinctly below the surface have a marked elongated form, the ratio
between pitch length and breadth varying from 1^:1 to 5:1.
Primary ore-shoots rarely continue for more than 2,000 feet along
the strike, or for more than 2,000 feet
along the pitch length. There are excep­
tions, such as the Morro Velho shoot
(Brazil), which has a pitch length of
10,000 feet.
In a given district the pitch of the ore-
shoot is often predominantly in one direc­
tion; thus at Nevada City and Grass
Valley the shoots pitch to the right of an
observer who looks down the dip of the
vein. In another district the opposite
may be true. In some places the tenor
varies directly, in others, inversely with
the swelling of the vein. According
to a rule often quoted, the shoots
follow the directions of the striations
on the vein walls; but this rule is not
infallible.
Shoots of Successive Mineralizations.
While in some veins the whole width con­
sists of uniform ore, it is exceedingly com­
mon, especially in thick veins, to find that
there are certain streaks which are far
richer than the rest. They may follow
footwall or hanging wall, or the center of
the vein, or may switch from one side to Lee ore chimney, Cripple Creek,
Colorado. Shoot probably deter­
another. Such phenomena indicate re­ mined by intersection of the basic
opening of the vein or brecciation with dike Hills.)
with a fissure. (A fter V. G.
later enrichment.
Superficial or Secondary Shoots.—Descending surface waters decom­
pose and often enrich the upper part of veins or other deposits. Such
enriched superficial portions of an ore deposit are dependent upon the
ground-water level and, when projected upon the plane of the vein,
follow the surface of the ground and terminate below along an irregular
and jagged line. Oxidized ores, as well as sulphides due to enrichment,
are found in them, usually at different levels. The surface shoots are,
in fact, characterized by horizontal extension, in contradistinction to the
predominance of the vertical direction in the primary shoots. The
196 MINERAL DEPOSITS
mineralogical characteristics of superficial shoots will be discussed in
detail in a later chapter. Their tendency is to spread along the strike
of the vein, often also out into the wall rock. Thus pay ore may be found
for a long distance along the trend of the vein and its appearance will be
that of the oxidized outcrops of a long primary shoot, when in fact
deeper explorations may prove the existence of only a few narrow primary
ore-bodies underneath the continuous surface ore. Frequently, oxidized
silver ores will be found in croppings along a vein which are simply
concentrations of a primary vein filling that contains no workable shoots.
To this class belong also the horizontal or flat shoots of secondary copper
sulphides (chalcocite and covellite) formed by descending solutions in
copper deposits at or near the water level. The primary material may
or may not constitute commercial ore. If spread over wide mineralized
areas such shoots are often called chalcocite blankets.
Descending metal solutions may wander out in the country rock and
here form new lateral bodies of oxidized ore.
Causes of Primary Ore-shoots.—Ore-shoots are due to the abundant
precipitation of valuable minerals from their solutions. The causes are
in part physicochemical and in part mechanical:
1. Decrease of pressure and temperature.
2. Chemical character of wall rock.
3. Mingling of solutions.
4. Physical character of wall rocks.
5. Structural conditions.
Decrease of Pressure and Temperature.—The fundamental reason
for the deposition of ores in veins and allied epigenetic deposits in the
upper crust is probably that the metals were in solution in hot waters
which during their ascent gradually encountered conditions favorable
for precipitation. First among these conditions is decreasing tempera­
ture. If this is true the deposits should gradually become poorer or
barren in depth.1 In a general way this is doubtless true, but for many
substances the vertical space through which deposition can take place is
very large. We know that gold-bearing quartz was deposited in Cali­
fornia over a vertical distance of 5,000 feet, and in Alaska and at Bendigo,
Australia, the interval is about the same. This deposition took place at
considerable depth below the surface, probably several thousand feet
1 T. A. Rickard, Persistence of ore in depth, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met., London,
24, 1915, pp. 3-46, with discussion.
W. Lindgren, Ore deposition and deep mining, Econ. Geol., 1, 1905, pp. 34-46.
F. L. Garrison, Decrease of value in ore-shoots with depth, Trans., Canadian
Min. Inst., 15, 1912, pp. 192-209.
J. F. Kemp, The influence of depth on the character of metalliferous deposits,
Compte Rendu, XIIeml! session, Congres geologiquc internat., Canada, 1914, pp.
253-260.
Malcolm Maclaren, idem, pp. 295-304.
 ORE-SHOOTS 197
below it; and as it is known that gold-bearing quartz may also be deposited
within the upper zone, we have thus a total vertical range of at least
9,000 feet. In the lowest levels at the places mentioned the ore is of
low grade, but in Alaska at least there is a large quantity available.
The richest ore was doubtless deposited close to the surface, where we
find the bonanzas of the Tertiary gold and silver veins. The most
persistent gold-bearing ore-shoots known are those in veins formed at
intermediate or high temperatures. Such are, for instance, the North

F ig . 83.—Longitudinal section and vertical section of Cham pion Reef Mine, Mysore,
India. (A fter H. M . While, ‘‘ M ining M agazine ” (London).)

Star vein at Grass Valley, California, which with very slight impoverish­
ment has been followed for 9,000 feet on a dip of 20° (p. 548). The
Kolar veins in India have been mined to a vertical depth of 7,000 feet in
shoots of considerable regularity (Fig. 83), with little change in tenor
of ore. The most persistent ore-body known is that of Morro Velho
mine in Brazil, where a pitching ore-shoot has been worked to a vertical
depth of 7,000 feet and a pitch length of 10,000 feet (Fig. 277). For
copper ores the vertical range of deposition is likewise great, though
unlike gold and silver they seem to be deposited in greatest quantity at
lower levels and high temperatures. Lead, on the other hand, appears
198 MINERAL DEPOSITS
to be precipitated nearer the surface and at lower temperatures; while
zinc in this respect stands between copper and lead.
The relations set forth explain why so little decisive evidence of
vertical succession in deposition is available from observations at any
one mine.
In the Cornwall veins tin and tungsten prevail in the lower levels in
granitic country rock, while copper was deposited in the cooler region of
the slates covering the granite batholiths; the lead ores are found some
distance away from the intrusive granite. In many lead mines it has been
noted that within a distance of 700 to 3,000 feet from the surface the
lead minerals give way to pyrite and sphalerite. In quicksilver mines
the ore often becomes impoverished within 1,000 feet below the surface.
The dependence of the deposition of various metals upon temperature
and therefore also upon the vertical and horizontal distance from the
place of origin of the mineralizing solutions has been emphasized by
several investigators.1
Character of Wall Rock.—The character of the wall rock has some­
times a decided influence on the ore-shoots, particularly in replacement
deposits, where large masses of limestone, dolomite, lime-shale, and other
rocks have been replaced by ore. At Freiberg, Saxony, the gray gneiss
is the favorable rock, while the veins split or become unproductive in the
red gneiss or in the mica schists.
Carbonaceous rocks are believed to influence deposition favorably by
their reducing action; the gold-quartz shoots of Gympie, Queensland, are
often quoted, as well as the supposedly carbonaceous “indicator” at
Ballarat, Victoria. The well-known replacement of fossil wood by
chalcocite in a certain class of copper deposits may be added to these
examples, as well as the supposed influence of certain oil shales on the
deposition of lead ores in Wisconsin. The importance of precipitation by
carbonaceous material has been overestimated, but in many cases the
hydrocarbons have certainly favorably influenced the deposition of ores.2
Rocks containing pyrite or other sulphides often enrich traversing
veins. Examples of this are known from Kongsberg, Norway, where the
silver veins are productive when crossing certain schists with disseminated
sulphides. At Ophir, California, gold-quartz veins are enriched when
crossing “ iron belts” of pyritic amphibolites.
Where a vein cuts through a thick series of sedimentary rocks it often
widens and contains rich ore in the limestones, while poor or barren in
1 J. E. Spurr, A theory of ore deposition, Econ. Geol., 2, 1907, p. 790.
L. de Launay, La metallogenie de l’ltalie, Congres geologique internat., Mexique,
1, 1906, p. 571. Also in Gites Mineraux, 1, Paris, 1913.
W. Lindgren, Processes of mineralization and enrichment in the Tintic mining
district, Econ. Geol. 10, 1915, p. 228.
2 W. P. Jenney, The chemistry of ore deposition, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 33,
1903, pp. 445-498.
 ORE-SHOOTS 199
shale or sandstone. Similarly, where a thick series of igneous rocks, as in
the San Juan region, Colorado, is intersected by veins ore horizons will
develop in rocks which by their physical and chemical character are most
favorable to continuous fissures or to replacement (Figs. 196 and 201).
Rhyolites are unfavorable because fissures tend to split in such rocks;
tuffs likewise, because the solutions tend to disperse through great masses
of rock. Local brecciation may create favorable loci.
On the other hand, rocks like andesites and latites are usually favor­
able. Purington1 has shown that in the San Juan Mountains the

F ig . 84.— Cross section of the American N ettie Mine showing shoots of ore (black) under­
neath im pervious barrier of shale. {After J , D. Irving.)

andesitic breccias which contain abundant ferromagnesian silicates are

most favorable to ore deposition.
General Structural Conditions.—For the development of an ore-shoot
the solutions must gain access to the locus of deposition by means of
fissures. Newhouse has shown that in folded rocks the anticlines are
favorable places because more fractured and permeable.
Open spaces available for ore are created along fissures by change of
strike and dip and by junctions and intersections. Shoots may be
suddenly cut off by gouges on pre-mineral or inter-mineral fractures.
In many fissures the open spaces are sealed by an early deposition of
barren quartz gangue. Sulphide minerals and gangue are deposited
1C. W. Purington, Ore horizons in the San Juan Mountains, Econ. Geol., 1, 1905,
pp. 129-133.
200 MINERAL DEPOSITS
later, so that in order to obtain space inter-mineral fractures must be
opened in the barren material. Hulin has emphasized the fact that a
productive vein is usually the result of a long-continued deposition of
gangue with many inter-mineral fractures and brecciations in which the
ore minerals are successively formed.
Impermeable Barriers.—More or less horizontal ore-bodies are often
encountered where impervious rocks interpose barriers to the solutions.
Sandstone
Sandy shate
Sandstone
Black shate
Blanket
Blanket limestone
Black shale
Sandstone
Sandy shale

Sandstone

Sandy shale
Sandstone
Sandy shale
Sandstone
Sandy shale
Sandstone
Sandy shate
Lode
o s to feet

F ig . 85.— D iagram m atic section across a lode, and ore-body formed beneath an impervious
stratum (blanket) of black shale, Rico, Colorado. {After F. L . Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
The occurrence of ore in horizontal extension below such barriers is, in
fact, one of the best indications that the solutions have been ascending.
The blanket veins of Rico, Colorado (Fig. 85), present another good
illustration of this principle, as do also the ores of the American Nettie
mine near Ouray, Colorado (Fig. 84), and the siliceous gold ores replacing
dolomite in the Black Hills, South Dakota (Fig. 228). The impermeable
stratum is not necessarily shale; it may be a fault gouge, which is imper­
vious to solutions, or a sheet of volcanic rock which, for some reason, the
fissures failed to penetrate. The same principle of impermeable barriers
serves to explain why the vein material is often confined between the clay
seams of hanging and footwall without entering the adjacent country
rock by replacement.
 ORE-SHOOTS 201
Where one fissure is faulted by another, deposition may occur because
the circulation becomes impeded at the fault and partial stagnation
follows, producing more complete precipitation.
Where the solutions have moved downward, as in the concentration
of hematite ore from poorer “iron formations,” it is often observed that
ores occur on impervious basements and in troughs caused by shales,
clayey fissures, or dikes.
Intersections.—Enrichment and ore-shoots along intersections of
two veins or of a vein and a fissure are very common phenomena, well

F i g . 8G.—Longitudinalsection along the Neu Hoffnung vein, Freiberg, Germ any, showing
ore-shoots along intersection with several other veins. (After R. Beck.)

exemplified at Freiberg, Saxony (Fig. 86), and at Cripple Creek, Colorado.

Van Hise attributes the shoots at such intersections to the mingling of
two solutions and consequent precipitation of some constituents. In
part they may be due to the shattering of the rocks at the intersection;
and Penrose notes that shoots are more likely to occur where the inter­
section takes place at acute angles, forming wedge-shaped blocks that
are easily broken along their edges.
Though enrichment at intersections is common it is by no means a
universal rule, and indeed sometimes a vein is impoverished at the inter­
202 MINERAL DEPOSITS
section with a barren fissure. The influence of intersections is often
attributed to the mingling of solutions of different types, producing
precipitation of some constituent.
The occurrence of many large shoots such as those in the gold-quartz
veins of California and Ontario, at Cripple Creek, Colorado, and in the
Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, lead mines cannot be fully explained by inter­
sections or by the influence of the wall rock.
Such shoots are generally considered as the result of decrease in
temperature of ascending solutions in channels of circulation.
The importance of structure for the localization of ore shoots cannot
be too strongly emphasized. The general geology, the mode of deforma­
tion, differences in chemical character, hardness or permeability of the
rocks, depth of ore formation, all are most important factors which must
be carefully studied to allow conclusions as to the tracing or discovery of
ore shoots, a task which will confront all those engaged in the study of
mineral deposits. The many and complex features are well exemplified
in the ore shoots of the Mother Lode of California.
 CHAPTER XVI
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
Classification by Form and Substance.—A genetic classification of
deposits of useful minerals is really equivalent to the classification of
“geological bodies” as defined in Chapter I; and is, therefore, naturally
beset with all the difficulties connected with an imperfect knowledge of
geological processes. The early attempts in the way of systematic
treatment, however, avoided this troublesome path by the simple expedi­
ent of classifying by substance or uses, or by form. These schemes are
followed in many textbooks, even among those of recent date; undoubt­
edly they have some advantages, especially for the miner, the industrial
chemist, and the metallurgist, who are principally interested in the form
of the deposit or in the study of ores of certain metals.
By substance and uses mineral deposits may be classified as follows:
1. Structural materials................. Stone, glass sand, cement rock, clay,
asphaltum.
2. Fuels........................................... Coal, petroleum, natural gas, peat.
3. Abrasives................................... Corundum, garnet.
4. Fertilizers................................... Potash salts, phosphates, green-sands.
5. Precious stones......................... Diamond, opal, tourmaline.
6. Various industrial uses............ Graphite, barite, borax, asbestos, sul­
phur.
7. Metallic ores.............................. Iron ores, copper ores, gold and silver
ores, tin ores, aluminum ores, etc.
However convenient, it is evident that this classification cannot lead
to a thorough appreciation of the manifold processes by which mineral
deposits are formed in nature.
The early and not yet entirely abandoned schemes refer to the form
of the geological bodies. But form is closely connected with genesis
and even in one of the earliest classifications on this basis, that of Bern-
hard von Cotta,1 the difficulty of avoiding genetic conceptions is felt in
his definition of a vein as a “filled fissure.” He divided ore deposits
as follows:
I. Regular deposits.
A. Beds.
B. Veins.
a. Ordinary fissure veins (true fissure veins).
b. Bedded veins.
1Die Lehre von den Lagerstatten, Freiberg, 1859.
203
204 MINERAL DEPOSITS
c. Contact veins.
d. Lenticular veins.
II. Irregular deposits.
C. Stocks (irregular masses with distinct limits).
a. Recumbent.
b. Vertical.
D. Impregnations (irregular masses, fading into country rock).
With variations this plan of classification is followed in many of the
older textbooks. Not unlike it is a classification by J. A. Phillips in his
treatise on ore deposits, revised in 1896 by H. Louis.
L. de Launay1 arranges the deposits according to the principal ele­
ments contained. This logical, though not genetic, plan presents diffi­
culties, and it seemed wise to avoid it.
Form and structure, though highly important, are largely accidental
and offer no safe basis for a scientific classification.
Genetic Classifications.—A genetic classification is the most desirable
both theoretically and practically. In exploring and exploiting ore
deposits, the miner is almost forced to form an idea of its origin in order
to follow up the ore-bodies to best advantage. Von Groddeck and
Stelzner were really the first mining geologists who appreciated and
applied the genetic principle in classification. Of course, the time was
hardly ripe for its introduction until the conceptions of genesis had
crystallized into fairly definite form. Stelzner remarks, with good reason,
that it is only by standing upon the ground of a genetic theory that the
miner finds courage to sink deep shafts or drive long tunnels.
We are still in doubt as to the true mode of origin for many deposits.
But, as von Groddeck and Stelzner have pointed out, this applies to
any classification; and this very uncertainty is a stimulus to further
investigations.
The different classifications proposed will not be given here in detail.
An excellent account is found in Kemp’s “ Ore Deposits of the United
States and Canada,” Appendix I. Von Groddeck, Stelzner, Posepny,
Wadsworth, Monroe, Kemp, Crosby, Hoefer, Spurr, Van Hise, Weed,
and several others have more or less successfully attacked the problem
of a consistent genetic classification.
Von Groddeck, followed by Stelzner and Beck, makes the primary
distinction, whether the useful minerals were originally formed in or
with the rock in which they now occur or whether they were introduced
into pre-existing rocks. Stelzner called the former syngenetic, the latter
epigenetic.
J. F. Kemp divides the deposits into (I) those of igneous origin, (II)
those precipitated from solutions, and (III) those deposited from suspen­
1L. de Launay, Gites Mineraux et Metalliferes, 3 vols., Paris, 1913.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 205
sion, or residues after the decomposition of rocks. Difficulties appear
here too, for what are igneous magmas but solutions?
Beck’s classification is in part based on that of Stelzner. In the first
edition of his handbook, “ Die Lehre von den Erzlagerstatten,” the syn-
genetic or epigenetic origin was made the principal basis of classification.
In the edition of 1909 this is changed and the deposits are classified as
follows, on the basis of the various phases of their genetic history:
1. Magmatic segregations.
2. Contact-metamorphic ore deposits.
3. Fissure veins. 1
4. Bedded deposits. >Morphologic facies of a single genetic group.
5. Stocks. )
6. Secondary alterations.
7. Sedimentary ore deposits.
8. Detrital deposits.
While this is a decided improvement upon the first classification
adopted by Beck, the description of the various deposits shows that
many genetically different types are forced into one and the same
subdivision.
Weed1 goes further and states the origin of the ore-forming solutions.
His first class includes igneous deposits, segregated in a magma; his
second, igneous emanations, including contact deposits, and tin veins;
his third, gas-aqueous or pneumato-hydato-genetic deposits formed by
magmatic waters mingled with ground waters. His fourth and smallest
division includes those mineral masses formed by surface waters.
Beyschlag, Krusch, and Vogt (1914) follow a scheme in which there
is little of a truly genetic classification. They divide deposits into (1)
magmatic; (2) contact (contact-metamorphic); (3) veins, cavity fillings
and metasomatic deposits; and (4) ore beds (mostly sedimentary).
Under each heading are numerous “ groups,” not necessarily related.
The classification of Beck and Berg (1922) does not seem to differ very
much from the previous classification and still groups many incongruous
items under one heading, for instance under ore-“ stocks” and ore “ beds.”
P. Niggli (1925) and Schneiderhohn (1925) divide the deposits of
magmatic affiliations as follows: (1) liquid magmatic; (2) plutonic,
pegmatitic to pneumatolytic to pyrometasomatic; (3) plutonic, hydro-
thermal, (4) volcanic (extrusive) deposits. This attempt to separate
the “ plutonic” from the “extrusive” deposits will hardly stand, but the
plan is an improvement on the classifications just mentioned. Schneider­
hohn adds under (4) the new type of the submarine exhalation deposits
containing magnetite, pyrite, and siderite. He also extends his classifi­
cation to include the deposits of sedimentary and metamorphic derivation.
1W. H. Weed in “Ore deposits,” a discussion republished from the Eng. and Min.
Jour., New York, 1903, pp. 20-23.
206 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Mineral deposits must have been formed by geological processes.
Recognizing this, Van Hise1 classifies ores as follows: Those produced
(1) by processes of sedimentation; (2) by igneous processes; (3) by
metamorphic processes. But he includes under this heading practically
all veins and allied geological bodies, conceiving them to be deposited
by the circulating ground water.
It is probably impossible to produce a classification which will win
the approval of all. In the ultimate analysis by far the larger number
of mineral deposits have been formed by physicochemical reactions
in solutions, whether these were aqueous, igneous, or gaseous. According
to this view the only consistent division that can be made is that between
deposits formed by mechanical concentration of pre-existing minerals
and those formed by reactions in solutions.
A genetic classification should not be confined to a general indication
of the relative time of ore deposition—whether at the same time or
later than the country rock. Nor should it confine itself to a statement
of the agents of ore deposition—whether aqueous, igneous, or gaseous
solutions, or whether sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic processes.
The statement of the place of ore deposition—at the surface or below
it; in shallow waters or in deep seas—is important but not sufficient.
Some authors have attempted a classification by mode of deposition—
whether by replacement or by filling of open cavities—but all such
attempts have been failures, for the two processes are so closely asso­
ciated that separation is impossible.
The genetic classification should ultimately determine the limits of
ore deposition in each class by temperature and pressure. Each deposit
should be considered as a problem in physical chemistry; and the solution
of this problem, with the necessary geological data, will suffice to fix
the mode of formation of the deposit.
We are far from having the complete material for such a classifica­
tion, but we have at least a few starting points. It is necessary to
determine, by experiment or by observation in nature, the limits of
existence of each mineral species. Some will be found to be “ persistent”
under widely differing conditions of temperature and pressure—like
fluorite, quartz, or gold. For others a far more limited range will be
established. By collecting the data of mineral association, sequence
of deposition, and stability range of the component parts of the
deposit, it will be possible to ascertain the conditions prevailing at
the time of ore deposition.12
1 C. R. Van Hise, A treatise on metamorphism, Mon. 47, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.
2 T. Crook, The genetic classification of rocks and ore deposits, Mineralog. Mag.,
London, 17, 1914, pp. 55-85.
G. F. Loughlin and C. H. Behre, Jr., Classification of ore deposits, Lindgren
Volume, Chap. 4, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1933, in press.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 207
Perhaps it is well not to expect too much from physical chemistry,
magnificent as its services have been. The complications, even in simple
systems, become great when, besides temperature and pressure, con­
centration, mass action, and time must be considered. In multicom­
ponent systems the difficulty increases enormously. At the same time
it is believed that the direction indicated is the only safe one to take in
classifying the complex phenomena of ore deposition.
Geological Thermometry.1—In the classification here proposed the
temperature of origin of a deposit is thus a most important item. Some
minerals develop over a very wide range of temperature, but there are
others which are much more limited or which undergo identifiable changes
at certain temperatures. By such means the temperature of origin can
sometimes be determined, at least within given limits. Among such data
are the melting points which, however, only indicate maxima. A crystal
of bismuth must, for instance, have been formed below 271°C. (the
melting point of the metal). More useful are the inversion points. Below
575°C., for instance, quartz changes to a form with a recognizably
different symmetry. Another inversion point is that between ortho­
rhombic and isometric chalcocite at 91°C. Conclusions as to temperature
may also be drawn from the change of color of minerals at certain tem­
peratures, or from the concentration of liquid inclusions determined from
relations of fluid and separated crystals, or from the disappearance of
“unmixed” material in certain minerals. Ramdohr gives a list of 49
minerals which offer significant temperature data.
OUTLINE OF PROPOSED CLASSIFICATION
Detrital and Sedimentary Deposits.—In the scheme followed in this
book there are two major divisions. The first includes deposits formed
by mechanical processes of concentration. This includes the detrital
deposits such as placers and quartz sand formed at moderate temperature
and pressure.
The second division contains the great majority of mineral deposits
which have been produced by chemical processes of concentration.
Many important processes, such as those productive of iron ores and
phosphates, for instance, take place by interactions of solutions in bodies
of surface waters. These processes may be of inorganic origin or they
may take place through the medium of living bodies, almost always at
moderate temperatures. The products are usually mingled with detrital
1N. L. Bowen, Geologic thermometry, in E. E. Fairbanks’s “The Laboratory
investigation of ores,” New York, 1928, pp. 172-199.
H. Seifert, Geologische Thermometer, FoTtschritte d. Min. Krist. u. Petrog., 14,
1929, pp. 167-291. (Bibliography.)
P. Ramdohr, Neue Beobachtungen ueber die Verwendbarkeit opaker Erze als
“Geologische Thermometer,” Zeitschr. prakl. Geol., 39, 1931, pp. 66-73; 89-91.
(Bibliography.)
208 MINERAL DEPOSITS
matter. They may be enriched by secondary processes in the unconsoli­
dated strata or by processes of weathering after their exposure to air.
Another class of deposits is formed in bodies of surface waters by
their evaporation and consequent precipitation of the salts dissolved in
them; these are frequently termed the “ saline residues.” Common salt,
gypsum, and borates are among the substances found in these deposits.
Concentration of Substances Contained in the Rocks.—Instead
of at the surface or in bodies of surface waters, the processes of concentra­
tion of useful substances may go on in the rocks themselves. We may
distinguish two cases: the substances were originally contained in the
same geological body in which the deposit is found, or they have been
introduced from the outside.
The apparent objection to this basis of subdivision, namely, the diffi­
culty of deciding the source of the mineral or metal, is met in many cases
by the knowledge acquired during late years. There may be deposits
for which the question cannot be decided, but I believe that in the near
future we shall in most cases have sufficiently good evidence. No
one seriously maintains that the gold in the quartz veins of California,
for instance, has been leached from the surrounding country rock; and
surely no one denies that the oxidized nickel silicate ores of certain perido-
tites were originally contained in minute distribution in these rocks.
In the case of substances contained in the geological body itself,
the concentration may be effected by (1) rock decay and residual weather­
ing—that is, by oxygenated surface waters; (2) by the ground water
of the deeper circulation; and (3) by processes of dynamic and regional
metamorphism.
Residual Weathering.—Rock decay tends to destroy the rocks as
units; to break them down, mechanically and chemically, and to re-assort
their constituents in new combinations. In the decaying mass certain
constituents are concentrated or precipitated; its detritus is swept away
and deposited in rivers, lakes, and oceans; its soluble constituents are
carried into the larger reservoirs and there perhaps precipitated in various
forms.
It is true that not quite all the sedimentary deposits are derived from
the decaying rocks; the fossil coals are indirectly made from the carbon
of the atmosphere; volcanic ashes contribute a share to the sediments;
the exhalations of eruptive magmas, as well as ascending waters, con­
tribute some dissolved matter from the lower part of the earth’s crust.
Processes of sedimentation and rock decay take place at moderate
temperatures and pressures and the new minerals formed are, as a rule,
characterized by high hydration. Below 0° C. mineral deposits do not
form, except in so far as freezing of water is retarded by rapid motion
or dissolved salts. Few of the deposits have been formed at tempera­
tures above 50°, and this only exceptionally during eruption, evaporation
 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 209
in shallow desert lakes, or oxidation of pyritic rocks. The pressure is in
general little different from that of the normal atmosphere, but in deposits
in deep seas or lakes considerably higher pressures prevailed. This
increased pressure, at low temperature, appears to have had little influence
on the mineral associations formed.
Deep Circulating Waters.—Under the influence of the ground water
of the deeper circulation many ore deposits are formed, concerning some
of which there may be room for differing opinions. Copper may be
leached from greenstones and the ores of the metal may be deposited in
veins in the same rock. Hematite, like that of the Lake Superior region,
may be concentrated from the surrounding low-grade “iron formation.”
Barite, magnesite, and sulphur are other instances.
Regional Metamorphism.—Again, the agency may be metamorphism
under stress or regional metamorphism; in such cases the change takes
place with very little water and it is not considered probable that a great
concentration of the metals contained can be effected. Other materials
may form, such as slate from shales, or useful minerals like garnets,
cyanite, or graphite may develop in the rock. During static metamor­
phism, temperature and pressure are likely to be somewhat higher than
at the surface. Regional metamorphism takes place under heavy pres­
sure and at fairly high temperatures at great depth. It may merge
into igneous metamorphism.
Introduced Ores not Connected with Igneous Rocks.—Much more
common is the case where the valuable minerals have been introduced
into the rock from without, and to this class belong the majority of the
metal deposits. Deposits of this kind occur along fissures, or form replace­
ments along fissures, or are found in general where opportunity is offered
for vigorous circulation of the depositing waters. For a long time it was
held by many that the metallic contents of fissure veins were derived from
the surrounding rock, but it is now generally admitted that such a view
in most cases is erroneous.
Certain metallic ores occur apparently independent of igneous rocks;
the mineral associations in these indicate a deposition at moderate pres­
sure and temperature, the latter probably rarely reaching 100° C. Of
this kind are certain lead-zinc deposits in limestone or the copper deposits
in sandstone which are so common in various parts of the world. Most
geologists agree that such deposits have been formed by surface waters, at
moderate depths; and that the metals have been leached from neighboring
strata and, after a comparatively short wandering, deposited in fractured
rocks in their present resting places. These deposits are generally poor
in gold and silver.
Deposits Genetically Connected with Igneous Rocks.—There is also
another and larger class which appears only in or near igneous rocks and
whose epoch of formation usually can be shown to have followed closely
210 MINERAL DEPOSITS
after the eruption. This class has been clearly recognized by almost all
geologists. There is also general agreement that these deposits have
been laid down by heated, ascending waters, although there is no una­
nimity as to the source of the water or the source of the metal. To some,
the water and the dissolved metals are simply igneous emanations from
a cooling magma; to others, the waters are of atmospheric origin and,
heated by their passage through still warm igneous rocks, have dissolved
the metals contained in them. The majority hold to an igneous origin
with gradually increasing admixture of meteoric water and substances
dissolved on the upward path.
Nearly all metal deposits of the American Cordilleran region belong
to this division. It is subdivided into several groups, according to the
evidence of mineral association and geological relations. The first group
includes ores deposited at slight depth below the surface; the temperature
is here relatively low, perhaps from 50° to 200° C., and the pressure will
scarcely exceed 100 atmospheres. Examples of this group are found in
the gold and silver veins of Tonopah, Nevada, the Cripple Creek,
Colorado, gold telluride veins, and the California quicksilver veins.
These are the epithermal deposits. They arc never found at great depths.
A second group comprises the deposits formed by hot ascending
solutions at moderate depths, say from 5,000 feet to 10,000 feet below the
surface, at temperatures of perhaps from 200° to 300° C. and correspond­
ingly increased pressure. The present outcrops are exposed by deep
erosion and they almost always appear in or close to intrusive bodies.
The gold-quartz veins of California and the metasomatic pyritic deposits
of Leadville, Colorado, may serve as examples. These are the meso-
thermal deposits.
A third, deep-seated group includes veins and replacement deposits.
During the genesis of these the temperature was high, but in most cases
below 575° C., the crystallographic inversion point for quartz. The
pressure was probably very high. The cassiterite veins, some gold-quartz
veins of the Appalachian type, and the tourmaline-copper veins belong
to this group, which with great confidence may be ascribed to emanations
from magmas. When occurring in limestone they carry lime-iron sili­
cates. These are the hypothermal deposits.1
The deposits unquestionably formed by direct igneous emanations
are the contact-metamorphic ores appearing in carbonate rocks along
igneous contacts. They contain oxide ores, such as magnetite and specu-
1L. C. Graton in a paper presented at the Tulsa meeting of the Geological Society
of America, 1931 (in press) emphasizes the great depth of the mesothermal and
hypothermal zone. He also proposes to introduce a new term, “the leptothermal
zone,” to cover deposits intermediate between the mesothermal and the epithermal.
For the deposits formed very near the surface, above the epithermal ores, he proposes
the name of “telethermal.”
 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 211
larite, together with sulphides of copper, zinc, and iron, and present an
association of other minerals characteristic of pyrometasomatism.
The emanations from effusive bodies are deposited as sublimates of
little economic importance.
It must be remembered that these classes are connected by transitions;
also that high temperature is not always proportional to depth for by
igneous action the isothermal lines may be carried high up towards the
earth’s surface.
Products of Magmatic Differentiation.—The last class is that of the
deposits formed by concentration in igneous magmas; of all types these
have formed at the highest temperature and pressure. They include
oxides or sulphides segregated in the magmas, like the iron ores of Kiruna
in northern Sweden, the titanic iron ores of the Adirondacks, or the
copper-nickel ores of Sudbury, Ontario. They also include the pegmatite
dikes, which contain many gems and rare metals and which are regarded
as segregations from cooling granitic magmas. The pegmatites were
formed at comparatively low temperatures—probably from 500° to
800° C.—but during the differentiation of the other deposits mentioned
considerably higher temperatures probably prevailed. The pressure
must, of course, have been very high.
Metamorphism and Surface Enrichment of Deposits.—In the pro­
posed classification the mineral deposits are supposed to have suffered no
change from their original condition. This is, of course, rarely strictly
true, for chemical changes as a rule begin soon after the cessation of the
agency which caused the deposition. In sedimentary beds this is particu­
larly the case, for cementation and hardening and various chemical
reactions begin almost from the time of deposition. It is, however, not
the custom to refer to these changes as metamorphism.
Many mineral deposits have undergone great changes from their
original conditions. They may have been reached by igneous metamor­
phism ; and, thus, a coal bed transformed into anthracite or a bed of limo-
nite into magnetite. Or they may have been sheared or crushed during
regional metamorphism. Or, most common of all cases, they may have
been altered by surface waters. Such oxidizing surface waters, as well
as similar waters at somewhat greater depth, when they have parted
with their free oxygen, produce peculiar modifications and often most
important enrichments.
A CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS1
I. Deposits produced by mechanical processes of concentration. (Temperature and
pressure moderate.)
II. Deposits produced by chemical processes of concentration. (Temperature and
pressure vary between wide limits.)
1 Presented before the Geological Society of Washington, May 10, 1911.
212 MINERAL DEPOSITS
A CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS.—{Continued)
A. In bodies of surface waters.
1. By interaction of solutions.

{
a. Inorganic reactions. Temperature, 0° to 70° C. +
b. Organic reactions. Pressure, moderate to strong.
2. By evaporation of solvents.
B. In bodies of rocks.
1. By concentration of substances contained in the geologic body itself.
a. Concentration by rock decay and residual (Temperature, 0°-100° C. ±
weathering near surface. (Pressure, moderate.
6. Concentration by ground water of deeper (Temperature, 0°-100° C. +
circulation. \ Pressure, moderate.
c. Concentration by dynamic and regional (Temperature up to 400° C. ±
metamorphism. } Pressure, high.
2. Concentration effected by introduction of substances foreign to the rock.
a. Origin independent of igneous activity.
By circulating atmospheric waters at (Temperature, to 100° C. +
moderate or slight depth. (Pressure, moderate.
b. Origin dependent upon the eruption of igneous rocks.
a. By hot ascending waters of uncertain origin, but charged with igneous
emanations.
1. Deposition and concentration at (Temperature, 50°-200° C. +
slight depth. Epithermal deposits. ( Pressure, moderate.
2. Deposition and concentration
, a t(_ , 200 -300 ’ C. ±
i n t e r me d i a t e depths. Mcso-K1JTemperature,
Meso- ,
tPressure, .high.
..
thermal deposits. (
3. Deposition and concentration at /
great depth or at high tempera-) Temperature, 300°-500°’ C. +
ture and pressure. Hypothermal JPressure, very high,
deposits. V
b. By direct igneous emanations.
1. From intrusive bodies. Contact (Temperature, probably 500°-
metamorphic or pyrometasomatic < 800° C. +
deposits. (Pressure, very high.
2. From effusive bodies. Sublimates, (Temperature, 100°-600° C.
fumaroles. <Pressure, atmospheric to
( moderate.
C. In magmas, by processes of differentiation.
Magmatic deposits proper. (Temperature, 700°-1500° C. +
(Pressure, very high.
6. Pegmatites. {Temperature, about 575° C. +. Pressure, very high.
 CHAPTER XVII
DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES OF
TRANSPORTATION AND CONCENTRATION; DETRITAL
DEPOSITS
INTRODUCTION
Weathering tends to destroy rocks and mineral deposits by disinte­
gration and chemical decomposition. In part, new minerals, like kaolin
and limonite, form; in part, the more resistant minerals, like quartz, gold,
platinum, magnetite, cassiterite, and garnet, are set free in individual
grains. Erosion now steps in and the detritus is swept down the slopes
and into the water channels. Mechanical separation in running water
or along sea or lake beaches sorts the detritus according to specific gravity
and size of grains. The heaviest particles, as those of gold, magnetite,
and garnet, tend to collect in the lower part of the assorted detritus; the
quartz grains are carried farther; the minute and easily moved scales of
clayey substance are ultimately deposited as sedimentary beds; the
colloids are coagulated by the electrolytes in the sea water.
DETRITAL QUARTZ DEPOSITS
The quartz grains are often accumulated as beds of almost pure quartz
sands. These are used extensively as ingredients in pottery and glass1
also for abrasive purposes in sawing soft rocks, such as marble. Such
sands should contain 99 per cent silica. At Ottawa, Illinois, for instance,
such high-grade silica sand is mined by the hydraulic method and classi­
fied before using. It occurs in the St. Peter sandstone (Ordovician) and
is of the well-rounded wind-blown dune type (Fig. 87). Somewhat
argillaceous quartz sands without carbonates and carrying 80 to 90 per
cent silica are used as molding sands and are mined on a large scale,
though occurring in thin beds.2 When compacted by pressure and by
cementation the quartz sands are transformed into siliceous sandstones
and quartzites which are used for millstones, whetstones, and grind­
stones.3 Comparatively few localities furnish good material. With
1 E. F. Burchard, Requirements of sand and limestone for glass-making, Bull.
285, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906, pp. 473-475.
R. M. Weigel, Technology and uses of silica and sand, Bull. 266, U. S. Bur. Mines,
1927.
2L. Heber Cole, The occurrence and testing of foundry molding sands, Trans.,
Canadian Min. Inst., 20, 1917, pp. 265-291.
3 R. B. Ladoo, The non-metallic minerals, New York, 1925, pp. 3-13.
213
214 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the development of modern methods of grinding the importance of mill­
stones has greatly decreased. Technical and statistical information on
these subjects is contained in Mineral Resources of the United States,
part 2, published annually by the U. S. Bureau of Mines, under “ Abrasive
Materials” and “ Sand and Gravel.”
In the case of very fine-grained whetstones a doubt may exist whether
the material is of detrital origin or formed by chemical agencies. The

F ig . 87.— Quartz sand, St. Peter sandstone, O ttaw a, Illinois, after screening. Magnified 5
diameters.

so-called novaculite of Arkansas, the best whetstone known, is a good

example of this. It occurs in the Devonian beds of Garland and Saline
counties in that State, and is classified according to color and quality as
Washita and Arkansas stones. The latter are snow-white and are the
harder. The rock is much jointed and only small pieces are obtainable.
Branner considers this material a metamorphosed chert, while Griswold1
believes it to be a fine-grained sediment.
1 L. S. Griswold, Whetstones and the novaculites of Arkansas, Ann. Rept. Arkansas
Geol. Survey, 3, 1890. It. D. Miser and A. H. Purdue, Bull. 808, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1929.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 215
Quartz sand and pure quartzite (ganister) are used extensively in the
manufacture of refractories.1 Such material should contain 97 per cent
silica and not over 0.40 per cent alkalies.
DETRITAL CLAY DEPOSITS2
The fine material resulting from the decay of rocks is carried away,
suspended in water, and deposited in river beds, lakes, and seas as sedi­
mentary clay. The nature of clays is a much discussed subject. Perhaps
the best definition is given by G. P. Merrill, who says3 that the clays are
widely diverse in origin and in mineral and chemical composition, but
have the common property of plasticity when wet and that of induration
when dried. Clays are finely comminuted aggregates of hydrous alumi­
nous silicates, detrital quartz and other mineral fragments, often also,
iron hydroxide and calcic and magnesic carbonates. The sedimentary
clay is therefore to be regarded rather as a rock than as a mineral. Its
principal use is for structural purposes. The detailed description of these
deposits, therefore, does not fall within the scope of this book. The
material is largely used for bricks, refractories, and other ceramic products.
The larger part of the clays is derived from decomposition and
hydration of feldspathic minerals; other silicates, however, contribute
their share. The mineral kaolinite (H4Al2Si20<)) is one of the principal
constituents of clay.4 The formation of kaolinite from feldspars can
easily be traced in decomposing rocks at the surface, but in the clays
the mineral is so comminuted that it cannot always be readily identified.
It is known that colloidal hydrous silicates of aluminum exist, such as
halloysite and allophane. The sedimentary clays rarely approach kaolin­
ite in composition. Kaolinite should contain 46.5 per cent Si02, 39.5 per
cent A120 3, and 14 per cent H20; but by reason of admixture of quartz
and undecomposed silicates, the sedimentary clays usually contain much
more silica than the amount indicated.
Clays without carbonates generally contain more magnesium than cal­
cium, and potassium exceeds sodium. Titanium often exceeds 1 per cent.
Much of the titanium and potassium is probably present in colloidal state.
Traces of copper, nickel, lead, zinc, and vanadium are sometimes found.
Regarding residual clays derived from the decomposition of rocks in
place see page 351. The clays formed by the action of sulphuric acid on
silicates in the oxidized part of ore deposits are described on page 457.
1J. S. McDowell, A study of the silica refractories, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met.
Eng., 57, 1918, pp. 3-61.
D. W. Ross, Silica refractories, Tech. Paper 116, U. S. Bur. Standards, 1919.
2 For more details in regard to the important clay industry the reader is referred
to H. Ries, Clays, New York, 1927. Also Building stones and clay products, New
York, 1912. P. M. Tyler, Clays, Information Circ. 6155, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1929, 63 pp.
3G. P. Merrill, Rocks, rock-weathering, and soils, New York, 1897, p. 135.
4 C. S. Ross and P. F. Kerr, The kaolin minerals, Prof. Paper 165, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1931, pp. 151-180.
216 MINERAL DEPOSITS
FULLER’S EARTH1
Fuller’s earth is the name given to certain sediments of clay-like
material, originally used in England by fullers for cleansing cloth of
grease. At present this substance is extensively used for deodorizing,
decolorizing, and clarifying fats and oils; much of it is employed in the
refining of petroleum. Its value thus depends upon its absorbent
qualities.
The material occurs in sedimentary beds of Mesozoic, Cenozoic, and
Quaternary age, but a similar material is also derived from the weather­
ing of basic igneous rocks. Microscopic examination gives little evidence
of its origin; in color it ranges from gray to dark green; it possesses little
or no plasticity. The chemical analysis also has little value in deter­
mining its quality. J T. Porter believes, and probably justly, that the
material owes its quality to the adsorbent power of colloid hydrous alumi­
num silicates.
The analyses show that the silica varies between 47 and 75 per cent,
alumina from 10 to 19 per cent, lime from 1 to 4 per cent, magnesia from
2 to 4 per cent, ferric oxide from 2 to 10 per cent, and combined water
from 5 to 21 per cent.
In Gadsden County, Florida, and Decatur County, Georgia, it occurs
in Tertiary strata and is mined in open pits; in Arkansas it is obtained
from weathered basic dikes. The further preparation includes drying,
grinding and bolting to sizes from 30 to 100 mesh per inch. Very fine
material clogs the filter presses. The rapidly rising domestic production
amounted to 336,000 short tons in 1930. About 7,000 tons are imported.
Georgia and Florida yield most of the total domestic production. The
price of the Florida material is about $13 per ton. Texas, Illinois, and
Massachusetts also contribute to the production.
Bentonite2 is another highly absorbent variety of clay containing
about 60 per cent Si02, 23 per cent A120 3, 10 per cent H20, and several
per cent of alkalies. It occurs in Cretaceous and Tertiary beds in the Cor-
1 T. W. Vaughan, Fuller’s earth of Florida and Georgia, Bull. 213, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1903, pp. 392-399.
J. T. Porter, Properties and tests of fuller’s earth, Bull. 315, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1907, pp. 268-290.
E. H. Sellards and H. Gunter, Second Ann. Rept., Florida Geol. Survey, 1908-
1909, pp. 255-290.
Charles L. Parsons, Fuller’s earth, Bull. 71, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1913.
T. P. Maynard and L. C. Mallory, Commercial preparation and use of fuller’s
earth, Chem. and Met. Eng., 26, June 7, 1922.
2 H. S. Spence, Bentonite, Rept. 626, Canada Dept. Mines, Mines Branch, 1924.
C. S. Ross and E. V. Shannon, The minerals of bentonite and related clays and
their physical properties, Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc., 9, 1926, pp. 79-95.
C. W. Davis and H. C. Vacher, Bentonite, Tech. Paper 438, U. S. Bur. Mines,
1928, 51 pp.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 217

dilleran region and is believed to be a decomposed volcanic ash. It is used

for the bleaching of oils, as a filler in various processes, for the purification
of water (on the principle of permutite), and other purposes. Ross and
Shannon state that it is mainly composed of a crystalline clay mineral of
micaceous habit probably montmorillonite (MgCa)0.Al20 35Si02.xH20,
or in part beidellite, Al20 3.3Si02.xH20. These minerals belong to the
same class as leverrierite and halloysite. The water is high, ranging up
to 24 per cent.
PLACER DEPOSITS
Origin and Distribution.—The heavier and less abundant minerals
in the rocks are the most resistant to decomposition, and when the weath­
ered rock is eroded and sorted by water they usually become concentrated
in the lower parts of the sand and gravel beds. The gold-bearing gravels,
which form an important source of supply of this metal, were called
placers1 by the early Spanish miners of this continent, and this name is
probably the best that can be adopted for deposits of this class. Instead
of gold the valuable mineral may be cassiterite, magnetite, monazite,
diamonds, or other precious stones. Other terms have been employed,
as “gravel deposits” or “gold-bearing gravels,” or “ alluvial deposits”—
all equally objectionable, for the material may be sand instead of gravel,
and it may be deposited along the ocean beach instead of in watercourses.
The processes of erosion and concentration have been active since
earliest geologic time, hence we may have detrital deposits or placers
of differing ages. Land deposits are, however, usually thin and easily
removed; thus placers of pre-Tertiary age are comparatively rare.
In the formation of placers nature simply employs in her own leisurely
way the processes of crushing and concentration which we use in ore
dressing. The rocks are broken and comminuted by the expansion due
to alternating heat and cold; by the growth of plants; or by the impact of
sliding and water-carried rocks; or by the grinding action of ice; or finally
by chemical decomposition and hydration. The products are concen­
trated in water courses by running water or along shores by ocean currents
by motion similar to that on tables and jigs. Spherical particles of
different substances fall in water at a rate proportional to their weight
divided by the resistance. As the resistance is proportional to the area
exposed, a fragment of quartz the size of a pea will fall much more slowly
than a piece of gold of the same size. It will in fact be carried along
easily in a current of water in which a piece of gold of the same size will
sink instantly. Thus the specific gravities of the valuable minerals play
1 Derivation uncertain: Placer, pleasure; Plaza, place. Stelzner (Die Erzlager-
stiitten, p. 1261) says placer is a local Spanish term for sand bank. The Germans use
“Seife,” meaning washings. In French the word '‘alluvions” is often used.
218 MINERAL DEPOSITS
a prominent part in the formation of placers. The specific gravity of the
more important substances is as follows: Quartz, 2.65; feldspar, 2.55 to
2.75; ferromagnesian silicates, 2.9 to 3.4; garnet, 3.14 to 4.13; diamond,
3.52; corundum, 4.0; monazite, 5.0; magnetite, 5.1; cassiterite, 6.4 to 7.1;
gold, 15.6 to 19.33; platinum, 14.0 to 19.0 (21 to 22 when chemically
pure).
The shape of the particles is also of importance. Flaky minerals,
like molybdenite, scaly gold, or specularite, are difficult to concentrate in
spite of their high specific gravity.
GOLD PLACERS
Introduction.—Gold is the most important placer mineral. Roughly
speaking, about $25,000,000 out of a world’s production of about $400,-
000,000 are derived from Tertiary or Quaternary placer deposits. Gold
placers as a rule are easily discovered and worked; the supplies of old
and long-settled countries were generally long ago exhausted. Bohemia,
Italy, Spain, and Hungary, now almost barren of placers, once furnished
their share. New deposits are usually discovered on the outskirts of
civilization, as in Brazil in the eighteenth century, in Australia and Cali­
fornia during the middle of the last century, and in Alaska and Siberia
to-day. The production of placer gold in the United States, including
Alaska, in 1897 was $7,800,000; in 1916 it was $22,882,000, the increase
being due to the discovery of placers in Alaska and to the development of
the dredging fields in California; in 1930 it was $8,400,000 or 20 per cent
of the gold production. Eighty-five per cent of this gold was recovered by
dredging. Practically all this gold comes from Quaternary and Tertiary
placers, some dating back as far as the Eocene. A small quantity is
obtained from Cretaceous conglomerates in Oregon and northern Cali­
fornia. Permian gold-bearing conglomerates occur in Bohemia, accord­
ing to Posepny.1 Permo-Carboniferous conglomerates containing detrital
gold have been described by Wilkinson from New South Wales.12 In
most cases the gold content of these older conglomerates is small and they
can rarely be profitably worked. An example of ancient placers is fur­
nished by the Cambrian basal conglomerate of the Black Hills, South
Dakota, which unconformably covers the pre-Cambrian schists and gold-
bearing quartz veins. It was first described by W. B. Devereux3 and
later by J. D. Irving.4 This conglomerate, which is from 2 to 30 feet
1Genesis of ore deposits, 1902, p. 163.
2 Idem, p. 162.
3 W. B. Devereux, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 10, 1882, pp. 465-475.
4 J. D. Irving, Economic resources of the northern Black Hills, Prof. Paper 26,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 98-111.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 219
thick and is overlain by quartzite, carries in places gold of unquestionably
detrital origin, as indicated by the rounded grains, and has been profitably
worked in several mines. While there may have been some later mineral­
ization the facts seem satisfactorily established. If the ancient gold-
bearing conglomerates of the Transvaal are classed as placer, then over
one-half of the world’s production would be derived from detrital deposits.
Origin of Placer Gold.—In primary deposits gold is mainly contained
in veins, lodes, or shear zones; and these appear in rocks of many different
kinds. It is often stated that gold is distributed as fine particles in
schists and massive rocks and that placer gold in certain districts is
derived from this source. Most of these statements are not supported
by evidence, though it is not denied that gold may in rare instances be
distributed in this manner. Even in the Yukon region, concerning which
such statements have often been made, the origin of the gold from veins,
lodes, and shear zones is now recognized.1
The great majority of gold placers have been derived from the weather­
ing and disintegration of auriferous veins, lodes, shear zones, or more
irregular replacement deposits. These primary deposits were not neces­
sarily rich and may not be profitable to work. In many regions the rocks
contain abundant joints, seams, or small veins in which the gold has been
deposited with quartz.
Eluvial Deposits.—Gold placers may be formed by rapid erosion of
hard rocks, but such placers are not often rich and highly concentrated.
In the great placer regions the concentration has generally been preceded
by an epoch of deep secular decay of the surface. It has been supposed by
many that this deep rock decay is peculiar to the tropics, but this is not
correct. The process has been active in the southern Appalachian States,
in California, and even in Alaska, as well as in countries like the Guianas
and Madagascar. When the outcrops of gold-bearing veins are decom­
posed a gradual concentration of the gold follows, either directly over
the primary deposits or on the gentle slopes immediately below. The
vein when located on a hillside bends over (Fig. 88) and disintegration
breaks up the rocks and quartz, the latter as a rule yielding much
more slowly than the rocks; the less resistant minerals weather into
limonite, kaolin, and soluble salts. The volume is greatly reduced, with
accompanying gold concentration. The auriferous sulphides yield native
gold, hydroxide of iron, and soluble salts. Some solution and redeposi­
tion of gold doubtless take place whenever the solutions contain free
chlorine. The final result is a loose, ferruginous detritus easily washed
and containing easily recovered gold. This gold consists of grains of
rough and irregular form and has a fineness but slightly greater than that
1A. H. Brooks, The gold placers of parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, Bull. 328,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 110-135.
220 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of the gold in the primary vein. Stelzner has applied to such residual
concentrations, which may be worked like ordinary placers, the term
eluvial gold deposits.
In the gold region of the southern Appalachian States the decom­
position of the country rock, which generally is a schist, may reach a
depth of 100 feet or more.1 The decomposed material of the auriferous
veins slides downhill, mixing with the weathered rock; and during this
process the gold in part sinks deeper into the detritus. This has given
rise to a peculiar system of mining by which the whole mass is washed by
the hydraulic method and the more resistant quartz boulders crushed
in a stamp mill with coarse screen. This has been practiced at Dahlonega,

F ig . 88.— Diagram showing developm ent of eluvial and stream placers.

Georgia, and is often called the Dahlonega system. Similar deposits were
worked in California, particularly in Eldorado county, and are here called
“ seam diggings” from the fact that the gold occurs disseminated in
quartz seams traversing a certain belt of schists. Such deposits fre­
quently occasion legal contests owing to the uncertainty whether they
should be considered as placers or as mineral-bearing veins.
In certain regions of Brazil12 the schists and gneisses are covered by
auriferous detritus accumulated in place. Another example is the
“ Tapanhoancanga” of the same country. This is a bed of residual, or
lateritic, iron ore up to 10 feet thick covering the underlying hematite
schist and containing gold throughout. The gold probably occurred in
veinlets in the schists and the gold-bearing detrital material was concen­
trated from a considerable thickness of schist weathering in place.
1 G. F. Becker, Reconnaissance of the gold fields of the southern Appalachians,
Twenty-sixth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1895.
2 O. A. Derby, Peculiar modes of occurrence of gold in Brazil, Am.. Jour. Sci., 3d
ser., 28, 1884, p. 440.
O. Derby, Notes on Brazilian gold ores, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 33, 1892,
pp. 282-283.
A. J. Bensusan, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met., London, 1929, pp. 450-483.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 221
Excellent examples of eluvial deposits are reported from Dutch,
British, and French Guiana,1 though ordinary stream placers are the
most common deposits in these countries. Over a great part of this
gold-bearing territory secular decay of crystalline rocks has resulted
in a deep mantle of ferruginous clayey earth—laterite—and in places
the gold has been concentrated in this material below outcrops of gold-
bearing veins. Many of the stream beds are also worked for placer
gold, the detritus usually resting on the clayey surface of the compact
laterite.
It is stated that many rocks in the Guianas contain gold and that
the placer gold is derived from such material; particularly are the basic
rocks, diabases and amphibolites, said to be auriferous. This conclusion
should probably be accepted with reservations. It seems more probable
that the gold contained in the greenstones is of secondary origin and
that here, as elsewhere, granitic intrusions have caused the formation
of a series of gold-bearing veins in the surrounding rocks.
Processes of Concentration.—In most cases the cycle has been carried
further and the material is not only decomposed, but eroded, transported,
and redeposited. This can be effected by wind, by streams, or by the
surf of the sea.
Eolian Deposits.—Deposits concentrated by eolian agencies can,
of course, be formed only in dry countries where long subaerial decay
has paved the way for the work of the dust storms; from the decomposed
and crumbled outcrops of the lodes the winds blow away the lighter
sands, leaving a mass of coarser detritus which contains the gold. Such
wind-born placers have been noted by H. C. Hoover2 and T. A. Rickard3
near the outcrops of the Western Australian gold veins. No examples
of this kind are known from the Cordilleran States of America.
Stream Deposits.—Running water is by far the most important
agency in the formation of gold placers. The high specific gravity of
gold explains many of the puzzling features of the placers. Placer gold
is six or seven times as heavy as the most common accompanying minerals
—feldspar and quartz—and settles to the bottom in flowing water
1 C. G. Dubois, Beitrag zur Kenntniss der surinamischen Laterit, etc., Tschermak’s
min. u. petr. Mitt., 22, 1903, pp. 1-61.
E. D. de Levat, Guide pratique, etc. de l’or en Guvane frangaise, Paris, 1898.
See also Mineral Industry, 7, 1899.
A. Bordeaux, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 41, 1910, pp. 567-593. See also
Mines, Carrieres, February, 1930, pp. 17-27.
J. B. Harrison, The geology of the gold fields of British Guiana, London, 1908.
J. B. Harrison, in the Reports of the Institute of Mines, British Guiana.
E. E. Lungwitz, Die Goldseifen von British Guiana, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1900,
pp. 203-218.
2 H. C. Hoover, The superficial alteration of Western Australian ore deposits,
Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 28, 1898, pp. 762-763.
3 T. A. Rickard, The alluvial deposits of Western Australia, idem, pp. 480-537.
222 MINERAL DEPOSITS
with surprising rapidity. It is almost impossible to lose a particle of
gold, of the value of one cent, in a miner’s pan; it sinks immediately
to the bottom of the gravel and sand after one or two preliminary shakes
in water. Once lodged at the bottom it stays there, in spite of shaking
and rotating. This illustrates the fundamental fact that the gold is
mainly on the bed-rock. The rapid settling of the gold accounts for
the partial failure of some devices for placer mining, particularly the clam­
shell and the suction dredges.
The ease with which such concentration, according to the specific
gravity, is effected is shown by the well-known fact that in powdered sam-

F ig . 89.— Plan of quartz vein and placers below it, illustrating the developm ent of pay
streaks.

pies of ore, as well as in dumps at the mine, a settling of the heavier ore
particles toward the bottom can often be observed.
Suppose we have a gold-bearing quartz vein deeply altered by rock
decay; now let the region be raised, say 500 feet, by one of these slow
oscillations which so commonly affect the crust. A river has excavated
a valley to the corresponding depth in this elevated plateau, and this
valley—under the influence of a pause in the elevating movement—
becomes filled with gravels to a depth of about 100 feet. Let a tributary
gulch with steep grade be cut back into the plateau to the gold deposit
(Fig. 89); when the gulch reaches it the eluvial deposit will be carried
down by sliding and washing; the clay and limonite are rapidly removed
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 223
in suspension; the angular gravel of quartz and rock, grinding the frag­
ments of gold between them and on the bed-rock, will be moved down­
ward, the fine grains in suspension, the coarser ones dragging and rolling
on the bottom. There is little deposition; the transporting power is
great and in flood time the whole gravel mass, of no great depth, will
probably be in motion. Heavy gold nuggets may lodge in the lee of little
ridges. The gold settles rapidly; most of it, continually hammered and
slowly shaping itself in flat, smooth grains, will be dragged down stream
and finally reach the edge of the flood-plain in the river. At this place
the larger part of the gold stops. It is not washed out with the sand
and gravel but stays on the bed-rock near the margin. The finer particles
will, of course, be carried out a little distance, but they soon sink into
the water-filled gravel after the manner of grains of heavy ores in con­
centrating jigs. Just as in the gulch the whole mass of detritus is
transported, so it is thought that in larger streams the body of water-
soaked gravel and sand works downstream very slowly. During this
process the lighter gold contained in the detrital material also works
forward and downward, gradually accumulating with the nuggets or
coarser pieces, which have already reached their final resting ground.
This mode of operation contains the key to the genesis of the placers.
It is not to be expected that the coarse and ordinary fine gold will be
carried out into the middle of wide flood-plains. As the flood-plain
widens it will cover the accessions of gold along its margin, and the final
result will be a streak of rich gold-bearing gravel, resting on the bed­
rock and extending downstream deep underneath the surface. When
this is traced upstream the primary deposit, the vein, will be found. The
actual occurrences of course show infinite variation. Let us assume that,
as happens in the Creswick district in Victoria, Australia, a broad stream
with moderate grade crosses a deeply decomposed belt of soft slate
containing an abundance of small veins or stringers of quartz with native
gold, and that, in addition, a fair balance between transportation and
deposition persists for a long time. The result will be a gravel deposit,
only a few feet deep, but with an abundance of gold concentrated on the
bed-rock over the whole width of the stream. Each freshet is sufficient
to churn up and move forward the whole mass of gravel, continually
adding to the concentrated gold on the clayey bed-rock.
Again, we may assume extremely active erosion, as is the case in
the Sierra Nevada of California. Canyons several thousand feet in
depth have been cut in an uplifted plateau, veritable trenches or sluice
boxes, the grade of which is from 60 to 150 feet per mile. Stretches of
wild gorges with polished bottoms alternate with stretches of less grade
where shallow gravel accumulates. These canyons receive for long
distances an abundant supply of gold, of all sizes, from older hill gravels
or from decaying quartz veins. The result will be that but little gold
224 MINERAL DEPOSITS
will lodge in the gorges, while extremely rich shallow gravel bars will
accumulate in the convex stream curves (Fig. 90). Gradient, volume,
and load usually vary in the same stream so that deposition may be
going on in one part of its valley and erosion in another. Continued
corrasion of the stream-bed results in deepening the canyon and leaving
the bars as elevated benches. The miners of 1849 first found these bars
and worked them. In searching for the source of the gold they soon
found a trail of metal leading up the gulches to great masses of older
gravels on the hills, 2,000 to 3,000 feet above. These gravels were
washed by the hydraulic method; and immense masses of tailings with a

F ig . 90.—Low gravel bars, American River, California, showing placer deposits on inner
side of bends. (A fter R. L. D unn.)

little gold were carried down to the rivers, totally overloading them.
After the prohibition of hydraulic mining the streams gradually resumed
active transportation. The whole gravel mass moved slowly downstream
and a gradual reconcentration on the bed-rock took place. The tailings
deposited became enriched and will ultimately be reworked.1
The torrential floods of the canyons scarcely permitted the lodgment
of fine gold. This was swept out through the narrow portals into the
Sacramento Valley, where the grade of the streams suddenly diminishes.
The most minute particles may have been carried as far as San Francisco
Bay, but the bulk of the fine gold lodged in the flood-plains within a few
miles of the mouth of the canyons. Easily caught upon the clayey
“false bed-rock" of volcanic tuff, this gold, the average particles of
1 G. K. Gilbert, Hydraulic-mining debris in the Sierra Nevada, Prof. Paper 105,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917. Report to the legislature of the hydraulic mining com­
mission on the resumption of hydraulic mining in California, Sacramento, 1927, 85 pp.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 225
which are about 0.3 millimeter in diameter, formed meandering pay
streaks at the base of a sandy gravel bed from 10 to 60 feet in depth.
Such deposits have been worked at Oroville, Butte County, California,
by dredging.
By an odd paradox, gold is at the same time the easiest and the most
difficult mineral to recover. It is divisible to a high degree and owing
to its insolubility the finest particles are preserved. A piece of gold
worth one cent is without trouble divisible into 2,000 parts, and one of
these minute particles can readily be recognized in a pan. In extreme
subdivision the gold acquires a scaly, flat form, being known as flour
gold or flake gold, is carried away very readily by water, and does not
sink easily in sand or gravel. In part the flour gold is suspended by air
films, and can be carried away in rivers of moderate grade for hundreds
of miles. The gold occurring in the sand bars of Snake River, Idaho,
is a good example of this.1 It will settle in thin pay streaks at bars and
other favorable places, but the next freshet will probably destroy the
sand bars and sweep the gold away. This accounts also for the distribu­
tion of fine gold in great masses of gravel beds—for example, in the wash
600 feet thick deposited by glacial streams at Tacoma and other places
on Puget Sound. Almost every pan of this gravel will show a “ color,”
but the material contains only a fraction of a cent per cubic yard. The
fine colors along the Columbia River in northeastern Washington range
in value from less than 0.0005 to 0.02 cent, the average being about
0.002 cent.12
The much-discussed concentration of gold on the bed-rock seems,
then, to be due partly to the natural jig-like movement in moderately
deep gravels,3 during long-continued conditions of fair balance between
loading and erosive power; partly to slow forward and downward motion
of heavier gravel masses,4 of which exact measurement as yet is lacking;
and last and largely, to the fact that heavier gold will not be carried out
into the gravel flats of rivers of gentle grade—the only ones that have
extensive flood-plains—but is immediately deposited on the marginal
bed-rock of the gradually deepening and widening gravel plains.
The best conditions for the concentration of gold are found in moder­
ately hilly countries where deep secular decay of rocks has been followed
by slight uplifts. Subsequent slight elevations would easily produce
re-sorting and enrichment of the gravels. In regions of gold placers the
richest material is usually produced by repeated reworking of gold-bearing
gravels by nature. Each reworking increases the richness of the gravels,
1J. M. Hill, Gold of the Snake River, Bull. 620, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1916, pp.
271-294.
2A. J. Collier, Bull. 315, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, p. 61.
3 F. Posepny, Genesis of ore deposits, New York, 1902, p. 154.
4T. A. Rickard, Mm. and Sd. Press, Aug. 15, 1908.
226 MINERAL DEPOSITS
eliminates easily decomposed pebbles, and finally results in a gravel of
the hardest, most resistant rock—quartzite or quartz. Quartz is the
common gangue mineral in gold regions; hence the prevalence of “ white
gravels” or “ white channels,” almost exclusively composed of white
quartz pebbles.
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUVIATILE AND MARINE PLACERS
According to their occurrence the placers may be conveniently divided
as follows:1
PLACERS CLASSIFIED
Present topographic Past cycles, elevated Past cycles, depressed
cycle

1. G ulch and creek 1. Idigh creek gravels. 1. Deep creek gravels.

gravels.

!
2. River and b a r Bench gravels. 2. Deep ri ver gravels.
gravels. Hill gravels or high
river gravels.
3. Gravel plains. 3. E le v a te d gra v el 3. Depressed g r a v e l
plains. plains.
4. Beaches. 4. Elevated beaches. 4. Depressed beaches.

Examples of present gulch, creek, and river gravels are not difficult
to find; they occur in all gold-bearing regions where erosion is active
and where precipitation is abundant enough to cause the sorting and
carrying forward of the gravels in the stream beds. In the upper parts
of the stream courses the gravel will be coarse and semiangular; in the
lower parts the sands increase and the pebbles are smoother. Where
the rivers emerge from their narrow valleys and spread with gentle grade
over flood-plains, more extensive sand and gravel beds will accumulate,
generally, however, with less gold than in the more confined part of the
course. Some of the fine gold may reach the sea and be concentrated
by the surf and the oblique shore currents into thin pay streaks on the
sandy beach.
Marine Placers.—Beach placers occur along many shores and are
often produced by concentration from a sea bluff or elevated gravel
plain. The beach at Nome, Alaska (Fig. 91), is a narrow strip about
200 feet wide, from which over $2,000,000 in fine gold has been washed;
the flaky gold averaged 70 or 80 colors to the cent.2 Two older elevated
beach lines are found farther inland. The beach gold of the Oregon and
1 See also A. H. Brooks, The gold placers of parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska,
Bull. 328, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, p. 115.
2 A. J. Collier and I1'. L. Hess, Bull. 328, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp, 140-228.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 227
California coasts is much finer, the colors ranging from 100 to 600 to the
cent.
Buried Placers.—Subsidence or overloading may cause the placers
to be deeply covered by barren detritus. Many of the streams of
Alaska, particularly in their lower reaches, are thus covered; the process

F ig . 91.— D iagram m atic section illustrating developm ent of beach placer. ( A fte r A . J .
Collier and F. L . H ess, U. S . Geol. Survey.)

of concentration is stopped, the present watercourses having insufficient

grade to effect the transportation of detritus. Figure 92 shows the
dredging operations on the Solomon River, Alaska. The depth of the
gravel in the river bottom is about 20 feet. Figure 93 shows a diagram­
matic section of the Oroville dredging ground, Butte County, California.

F ig . 92.— Gold dredging on the Solomon River, Alaska. {A fter P . S . S m ith , U. S . Geol.
Survey.)
The depth of the gravel is about 30 feet. At Fairbanks, Alaska, accord­
ing to Prindle,1the placers occur in tributaries of moderate length, which
flow in open valleys; some of the deposits are as much as 300 feet deep.
The pay gravels, in part subangular, lie on the bed-rock and are from a
1L. M. Prindle, The Fairbanks and Rampart quadrangles, Bull. 337, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1908.
228 MINERAL DEPOSITS
few inches to 12 feet in thickness; these are covered by 10 to 60 feet of
angular wash, evidently accumulated rapidly without opportunity for
concentration, and above this rests a thick deposit of muck over which
the sluggish streams pursue their way. The richest gravel worked in
1905, containing from $5 to $10 per cubic yard, occupied pay streaks
on the bed-rock 150 to 200 feet wide, considerably less than the average
FEATHER RIVER
Upper
Torrace Gravels Lower DREDGING GROUND
Basalt Elevation 400feet Terrace Gravels Flood Plain
Elevation 160 feet Elevation 110 feet

F ig . 93.— D iagram m atic section across Feather R iver below Oroville, California, a,
Bed-rock; b , lone form ation; c, tuffs of Oroville.

width of the valley bottom. All the gravel on the bed-rock is, however,
more or less auriferous. The gold is moderately coarse. Near the head
of the stream deposition closely follows cutting and there the deeply
buried, more or less permanently frozen pay streaks of the lower valleys
merge into the deposits of the present stream activity.
On a large scale similar conditions prevailed in Victoria, Australia.1
Here there existed in Pliocene time an extensive river system with

F ig . 94.— Diagram illustrating buried gravel channels (deep leads) of Victoria, Australia,
and m ethod of mining these deposits.

shallow, well washed, and locally extremely rich gravels which were
formed during a prolonged time of nice balance between erosion and
deposition. The region was then depressed and covered by thick
beds of sand and clay. Above this were poured out basalt flows, in
places several hundred feet thick (Figs. 94 and 95). The broad valleys
remain on the whole as before, but the present streams are weak and have
1 W. Lindgren, Min. Mag., 2, 1905, p. 33.
W. Lindgren, Eng. and Min. Jour., Vol. 79, Feb. 16, 1905, pp. 314-316.
H. L. Wilkinson, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met., London, 1907, p. 9.
Stanley Hunter, Mem. 7, Geol. Survey Victoria, 1909.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 229
little power of transportation and concentration. The discoveries of
gold were made near the sources of the old rivers, where their gravels
are near the surface; they were followed upward into the gullies of the
slate hills, and downward below the level of the basalt flows. Such were
the conditions, for instance, at Ballarat. South of Ballarat certain of
the Pliocene stream gravels merge into coastal gravel plains, soon becom­
ing marine in character. Such coastal gravel beds are opened in the

F ig . 9 5 . —Longitudinalsection of Chiltern Valley and R utherglen deep leads, Victoria,

Australia, showing steeper grade of T ertiary river beds.
Pitsfield mines, where the pay streaks of fine gold, resting on an almost
level bed-rock, are worked beneath several hundred feet of sands and
gravels.
The Sierra Nevada of California,1on the other hand, offers an excellent
instance of the result of elevation on gravel deposits. In the early
Tertiary the surface slope of this range was comparatively gentle, and
during long periods of rock decay and well-balanced conditions gold from
the quartz veins became strongly concentrated on the bed-rock of the
streams. The deeper gravels were then covered by a considerable
thickness of more rapidly accumulated and poorer, but well-washed

F ig . 96.—Schem atic representation of the four principal epochs of T ertiary gravels

in the Sierra Nevada, a, deep gravels (Eocene); b, bench gravels (M iocene); c, rhyolitic
tuffs and interrhyolitic channel; d, andesitic tuffs and intervolcanic channel.
material, and this in turn by heavy masses of rhyolitic tuffs and andesite
breccias so that the old channels were sealed in places by as much as 1,500
feet of superincumbent barren material. The range was elevated by
mountain-building disturbances; new rivers were laid out and rapidly
eroded canons to a depth of 2,000 or 3,000 feet. Eventually the old
gravels were exposed and now rest as more or less connected remnants
on the summits of the ridges between the modern canons. The heavy
gravel masses are worked by the hydraulic method, or the pay streak
1 W. Lindgren, The Tertiary gravels of the Sierra Nevada, Prof. Paper 73, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1911.
230 MINERAL DEPOSITS
-rock is extracted by tunneling operations in the “ drift mines”
(Figs. 96, 97, 98).
The gold from the destroyed portions of the old chan­
nels, together with more set free from the quartz veins
during the erosion, accumulated in the modern canons.
Along their slopes benches remain in places, indicating
transient accumulations of gravel during the process of
canon cutting.
Somewhat similar conditions exist in some parts of
Alaska. Near Nome on the ridges surrounding Anvil
Creek are “high gravels” 600 to 700 feet above the
present rivers. These gravels, some of which are rich, are
o the remnants of an old, now almost wholly eroded system
of drainage.
In the Klondike, also, high gravels occur a few
hundred feet above the present creeks, the most con­
spicuous instance being the “ White channel,” described
by McConnell1 (Fig. 99).
Elevated beaches have been mined, for instance, at
Nome, where there are two old beach lines 37 and 70 feet
above the present level of the ocean. In Santa Cruz
County, California, a similar elevated beach was mined
for some time. Gold-bearing beach sand occurs all along
the Pacific coast from San Diego to Alaska, and in many
other parts of the world.
Size and Mineral Association of Placer Gold.—In
1 placers gold occurs in all sizes, from masses weighing 200
pounds to the most minute flakes. Large nuggets are
recorded from California; still larger specimens, weighing
as much as 2,280 ounces, were obtained in Victoria,
Australia. It is often stated that heavier masses occur
in placers than in quartz veins. This is decidedly
erroneous. A mass of native gold found in the Monu­
mental mine of Sierra County, California, weighed 1,146
troy ounces, and a quartz vein at Hill End, New South
7 I Wales, yielded a specimen which contained about 3,000
ounces. Any one who has had much experience in gold
mining has noted the occurrence of thick sheets and
masses of gold in deposits of certain kinds—for instance,
in the pockety quartz veins of Alleghany, California.
1 R. G. McConnell, Klondike gold fields, Ann. Rept., Canada,
Geol. Survey 14, 1905, 71 pp.
R. G. McConnell, Report on gold values in the Klondike high-
nS 8n| 8 level gravels, Canada, Geol. Survey, 1907, 34 pp.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 231
Almost all the so-called placer nuggets of unusual size have been obtained
from superficial deposits at or just below the outcrops of rich veins. This
applies to the Ballarat nuggets, weighing from 80 to 160 pounds, which
occurred in small, steep gulches underneath the basalt flows, but
immediately below the extremely rich outcrops of the quartz veins. It
also applies to the nuggets of Carson Hill, California, the Poseidon nugget
of Victoria (found in 1906 and weighing 953 troy ounces), and other
occurrences. Some very rich placer deposits—for instance, those of the
Klondike, Yukon Territory, and the Berry mines in Victoria, Australia—
contain no specially large pieces of gold. The heaviest nugget found in
the Klondike is said to have weighed 85 ounces.
The angularity of the gold is inversely proportional to the distance
traveled; the final product is usually a flat, rounded grain from a fraction
PARAfjjon T bre TCE & WHE* LERl
3500
Volcanic Capping
5 1
1§
v is > U p p e r L e sd 3000
rravei'-i^^dti t ^ I ljd r e u h P il
m

F ig . 98.—Longitudinal section of “ Blue gravel channel,” at Breece and W heeler Mine,

Forest Hill divide, Placer County, California. (After R . E . Browne.)
up to 1 millimeter in diameter. Occasionally crystallized gold is found
in placers, but this is unusual and indicates close proximity of the primary
deposit.
There is probably no authenticated case of crystallized gold occurring
in the gravels of larger water courses where there has been long trans­
portation, and this is assuredly a strong argument against the assumption
that such crystals are formed by secondary processes in the gravels.
Fragments of quartz often adhere to the gold or form part of the
rounded nugget. While the quartz pebbles so abundantly found in
gold-bearing gravels do not ordinarily contain visible gold, there are
many instances of such occurrences—for example, at Elk City and Idaho
City, Idaho, and at Dutch Flat and Nevada City, California. Some
placer gold, more frequently the scaly variety, is covered by a thin film
of silica, manganese dioxide, or limonite, and does not amalgamate easily.
The most abundant minerals associated with the gold in placers are
magnetite and ilmenite (“ black sand”), garnet, zircon (“ white sand”),
and monazite (“ yellow sand”), as well as many others of the heavy
minerals occurring in the rocks which contain the primary gold deposits.
Cassiterite is common in placers, and some deep gold placers in Victoria
232 MINERAL DEPOSITS
contain enough to make it a valuable by-product. Gray platinum and
silvery foils of iridosmine are present in small quantities in many Cali­
fornia placers adjacent to areas of serpentine. None of the minerals
mentioned are ordinarily derived from the gold-bearing veins, but from
the surrounding rocks.
Pyrite or marcasite may form in the gravels; sometimes this pyrite
contains a little gold, but contamination of the assay samples by the
a Muck
bStream gravels
Terrace gravels
d
c
White gravels ) _ . , ,
e Yellow gravels, Vj White Channel gravels
f High level River gravels

F ig . 99. — Sections across Bonanza Valley, Y ukon Territory, showing several types of
gravel deposits. (After R. G. McConnell, Canada Geol. Survey.)
placer gold itself is always a possibility. Again the pyrite may be
clastic and derived from the surrounding rocks, for pyrite does not seem
to oxidize readily in running water; or, as near Nevada City, California,
in the Harmony channel, the gravel may contain undecomposed pyrite,
rich in gold, and derived directly from the primary veins over which
the water course flowed.
Other occasional associates of gold, probably derived from its primary
deposits, are silver in nuggets (Alaska), native bismuth (Queensland,
Bolivia,1 and Alaska), native amalgam, palladium-gold, native copper,
and cinnabar. The presence of native lead has usually been explained
by accidental admixture of hunter’s shot, but J. Park2 asserts that there
1 Perfect round smooth nuggets of bismuth are plentiful in some placers near
Cherolque, Bolivia. Some of them are 1 inch in diameter.
2 J. Park, Mining geology, London, 1907, p. 18.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 233
is an instance of its undoubted presence in gravel, the lead containing a
skeleton of native gold.
Fineness and Relation to Vein Gold.—The fineness of placer gold
(or parts of gold per thousand) varies from about 500 to 999. Silver
is always alloyed with the gold, but other metals are rarely prominent;
copper is occasionally present. While vein gold may have a fineness of
997 to 999, this is exceptional; far more commonly its fineness ranges
from 500, which corresponds to electrum, to about 800 or 850. The
placer gold in any district will usually be of higher grade than the vein
gold, and its fineness increases with the distance transported and with the
decreasing size of the grains. Thus, while in California the vein gold
averages 850 fine, the transported placer gold in the Tertiary channels
averages 930 to 950. It has been shown that this increase in fineness is
due to the solution of the silver in the alloy in the outer layer of the
grains by the action of surface waters. McConnell has proved that in
the nuggets from the Klondike the outside actually has a greater fineness
than the inside. The loss of silver in the outer part was from 5 to 7 per
cent. This interesting result well illustrates the relative insolubility of
gold.1
Gold in Relation to Bed-rock.—While the bulk of the gold usually
rests on the bed-rock or within a foot or two of it, this is not an invariable
rule. In some gravels the coarser gold is occasionally scattered through
the lower 4 to 20 feet. But it is never, except in minute quantities,
distributed equally through a great thickness of gravels. An excellent
instance is McConnell’s section of the “White channel” deposit in the
Klondike. (See Fig. 99.) The washed gravel is here 150 feet thick.
The gold content of the gravel is as follows:
0- 6 feet above bed-rock, $4.13 per cubic yard.
6-12 feet above bed-rock, $0.18 per cubic yard.
12-18 feet above bed-rock, $0,047 per cubic yard.
18-24 feet above bed-rock, $0.04 per cubic yard.
24-30 feet above bed-rock, $0.034 per cubic yard.
30-36 feet above bed-rock, $0.032 per cubic yard.
36-42 feet above bed-rock, $0.032 per cubic yard.
42-48 feet above bed-rock, $0.045 per cubic yard.
48-54 feet above bed-rock, $0,025 per cubic yard.
1 W. B. Devereux, The occurrence of gold in the Potsdam formation, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 1882, pp. 465-475.
Ross E. Browne, Colorado placer gold, Eng. and Min. Jour., 59, 1895, pp. 101-
102.
W. Lindgren, The gold belt of the Blue Mountains of Oregon, Twenty-second
Ann. Repl., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901, p. 637. See also Prof. Paper 73, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1911.
R. G. McConnell, Report on gold values in the Klondike high-level gravels,
Canada Geol. Survey, 1907, 34 pp.
234 MINERAL DEPOSITS
From 54 feet above bed-rock the quantity of gold contained per cubic
yard gradually and steadily diminished to $0,006 at the top. There is
only fine gold in the upper gravels. A local enrichment has taken place
on false bed-rock, a clayey stratum 42 feet above the real bed-rock; here
the gold is much coarser than directly above or below, but finer than on
the bed-rock. Occasionally rich gravel may be found a few feet above
bed-rock while it is less rich immediately on it.
Coarse and moderately coarse gold moves very slowly. McConnell
found, for instance, that the “White channel,” where intersected and
eroded by gulches, has left almost the whole amount of its gold in these
gulches immediately below the place where the trenching has occurred.
In some cases the horizontal movement scarcely equaled the vertical.
Smooth, hard bed-rock is poorly adapted to retain the gold; when it is
somewhat clayey and decomposed much better results are obtained.
Schists and slates make good bed-rock when decomposed, especially
when they strike parallel to the channel. Serpentine forms a smooth and
unsatisfactory bed-rock.
Gold works down into bed-rock in a most surprising way. In hard
rock it settles into the most minute crevices. In soft rock it burrows to a
depth of 1 to 5 feet, so that it is always necessary to mine this amount of
the bed-rock. In limestone, irregular solution cavities may contain the
detrital gold, and these sometimes descend to a depth of 50 feet or more.
Compact clay is good bed-rock, also clayey sandstone and clayey volcanic
tuffs, the occurrence of the latter being exemplified in the Oroville dredg­
ing grounds, in California.
In glacial till and moraines there has been little opportunity for
concentration, and unless the primary vein deposits were unusually rich,
these gravels are of little value; the gold contained in them may, of
course, be concentrated by glacial streams working over the morainal
detritus.
Grade of Auriferous Watercourses.—All degrees of slope occur in
watercourses containing gold-bearing gravels. In steep creeks the grade
may be many hundred feet per mile, but the placers in these are usually
poor. California rivers, in the Sierra Nevada, have grades of 50 +o 100
feet or more per mile. Many of these have been extremely rich where
gravel bars have had an opportunity to accumulate. The “White
channel,” in the Klondike, has a grade of about 30 feet per mile. Many
of the present Alaskan streams have grades of 100 to 150 feet per mile.
In the principal Tertiary channels of Victoria, Australia, low grades down
to 20 feet prevailed.
In depressed or elevated channels of past epochs, as in California,
Victoria, and the Klondike, changes of original grade must be considered.
This is best established in the California channels, which now have
grades of 100 to 150 feet, whereas the original streams had much less,
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 235
the increase being due to the westward tilting of the Sierra Nevada.
The best results of gold concentration are probably obtained in rivers of
moderate grades, perhaps 30 feet per mile, under nicely balanced condi­
tions of corrasion and deposition. Whenever overloading and active
deposition take place concentration of coarse gold ceases. On the other
hand, where erosion is rapid conditions for rich placers are less favorable,

1]
Silurian Stale
mM
Alluvium
S3 C
S D
Goldbearing Gravels
Quartz
^nd Sandatp/io covered by 20*50 ll. Veins
ol Alluvium
__________ SCALE____________
0 yz 1 MILE

F ig . 100.— M ap showing position of pay streak in alluvial gravels of M aryboro, Victoria.

{After S. B. Hunter.)
unless, as in the present streams of the Sierra Nevada, the gold supply is
unusually abundant.
The Pay Streak or “Run of Gold.”1—Except in smaller creeks the
distribution of the gold in a gravel bed is far from regular. There is
usually gold on the bed-rock over the whole area of the stream bed; but
the richer part makes a narrower streak which follows a devious course,
distinctly affected by the character of the bed-rock, sometimes splitting
and re-forming, following first one side, then crossing diagonally to the
other side. It is not necessarily in the deepest depression or gutter.
Figure 100 shows this devious course of the pay streak in comparatively
1J. B. Tyrrell, The law of the pay streak in placer deposits, Trans., Inst. Mir.,
and Met., London, May 16, 1912; Min. and Sci. Press, June 1, 1912.
236 MINERAL DEPOSITS
shallow gravels at Maryboro, Victoria. It is clearly independent of the
course of the present small stream. In broader gravel plains, of which
the Homebush and Pitsfield Tertiary placers of Victoria are examples,
the “ run of gold” follows a distinct and well-defined course on an almost
level country rock. All this shows clearly enough the impossibility of
the view that the gold was first uniformly distributed through the gravels
and then gradually settled to the bottom under the influence of gravity.
These pay streaks assuredly indicate epochs of well-balanced and long-
maintained conditions during which the gravels could accumulate to
only moderate depths and were at all times water-soaked and in a condi­
tion of slow movement. With more abundant loading of detrital material
the gold-transporting power of the stream diminishes at a very rapid rate.
Solution and Precipitation of Gold.—Many of the earlier observers,
such as Genth, Lieber, Selwyn, Laur, Egleston, C. Newbery, and Dain-
tree, concluded from observations in various parts of the world that placer
gold, particularly the large nuggets, has been deposited by circulating
solutions. At present the mechanical derivation of the gold seems
established beyond all doubt, although under exceptional circumstances
some solution and redeposition may have taken place.1 Even now, how­
ever, some writers, like J. M. Maclaren12 and H. C. Boydell,3 are inclined
to place emphasis on this secondary and probably colloidal deposition.
It is probable, nevertheless, that this process is absolutely insignificant
from an economic point of view. Nuggets, when cut and polished,
almost always show a granular structure perfectly in accordance with
vein gold. Liversidge, in a long series of experiments, found only two
specimens (both from New Guinea) which showed a concentric structure
indicative of concretionary deposition. Very rare instances are quoted
of quartz pebbles with dendritic films of gold4 or of nuggets with minute
gold crystals on their surface.5 The collection of J. Edman, of San
Francisco, contained a small crystal of magnetite coated with a thin
film of gold. This came from the Tertiary deposits at Providence
Hill, Plumas County, California; and Mr. Edman stated that he had
never seen similar occurrences in the modern gravels. It seems to be well
established that pyrite reduced by organic material in the gravels may
contain some gold and also that the metal is occasionally found at the
roots of trees or in the grass roots.
1 Regarding the older literature, see the text-books of Stelzner, Bergeat, and Beck.
In more detail, see Liversidge, Jour. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, 27, 1893, p. 343; 31,
1897, p. 79; 40, 1906, p. 161.
2 J. M. Maclaren, Gold, London, 1908, pp. 80-86.
3 The role of colloidal solutions in the formation of mineral deposits, Trans., Inst.
Min. and Met., London, 1924, p. 205.
4 R. G. McConnell, Ann. Rept., Canada Geol. Survey, 14, 1905, B, 71 pp.
6 H. A. Gordon, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 25, 1895, p. 294.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 237
The gold crystallized in minute octahedrons in the clay of Kanowna,
Western Australia, is, as Maitland1 pointed out, immediately above or
adjacent to the decomposed outcrops of the veins; and the occurrence
can scarcely be called a placer. The gold which works down into the
soft bed-rock of the placers is in all cases, where observed, of clearly
detrital origin.
It is stated that the ashes of trees in the gold-bearing region of the
Guianas contain an appreciable quantity of gold. Originally asserted
by Lungwitz, this has been denied by Dubois and Kollbeck and then
reasserted by Harrison on the basis of careful investigations.2 From
widely separate parts of the world gold has been reported in the ash of
coal, but in this case it may be detrital and contained in admixed sand and
clay.
Gold is easily brought into the colloidal state and as such it may be
transported in solutions of colloidal silica. It is very readily precipitated
by electrolytes and this mode of solution may account for some cases of
secondary gold in placers. According to Emmons’ investigations,3gold is
soluble in superficial waters only when free chlorine becomes liberated
by the interaction of sulphuric acid, sodium chloride, and manganese
dioxide, a combination that must sometimes occur in ore deposits subject
to oxidation; in the presence of oxidizing pyrite some gold may therefore
be taken into solution, as chloride; but it would probably not remain
long before encountering reducing substances. While gold is slightly
soluble in sodium carbonate, sodium sulphide, and other similar com­
pounds, these would not ordinarily be encountered in the waters of the
zone of oxidation.
Relation to Primary Deposits.—That placer gold is directly derived
by mechanical processes from vein deposits or analogous occurrences is
absolutely certain, and examples of convincing character are present
everywhere. This does not imply that the primary deposit can be
worked at a profit. In most cases the placer gold is traceable up to the
deposit. On this principle the pocket hunter proceeds, panning the
detritus on the slopes and working up hill until the source of the scattered
gold has been found. The area in which the detritus occurs has the shape
of a triangle, the apex of which is the pocket.
It is a common experience that rivers or creeks crossing a vein or a
mineral belt are enriched immediately below it, the coarseness of the
gold increasing upstream to the place where the outcrops are crossed.
As examples may serve the great- accumulations of placer gold in the
Neocene gravels of Eldorado County, California, where the Mother Lode
1J. M. Maclaren, op. cit., p. 83.
2J. B. Harrison, Geology of the gold fields of British Guiana, London, 1908, p. 209.
3 W. H. Emmons, Enrichment of ore deposits, Bull. 625, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917,
p. 305.
238 MINERAL DEPOSITS
crosses them, and the rich channels in upper Nevada County, just below
the belt of quartz veins at Washington and Graniteville. There are fine
examples in Victoria, where the gravels are rich only where they cross or
follow systems of veins or “reef lines.” The White channel of the Forest
Hill divide, California, follows a belt of quartz stringers in clay slate.
The Idaho Basin,1 Idaho, presents an excellent instance of large gravel
bodies the gold content of which is traceable up to certain auriferous vein
systems.
Economic Notes.—The world’s annual production of placer gold was
about $25,000,000 in 1930. To this the Alaska and Yukon districts
contributed $4,000,000, California $4,000,000, Victoria $500,000, New
Guinea $800,000, and Siberia $13,000,000 (?).2 While placers are found
in almost all gold- and silver-producing regions, Brazil, the Ural Moun­
tains, Siberia, California, Alaska, and Victoria have had by far the great­
est total production.
Gold-bearing gravel is often measured by the ton, but more commonly
by the cubic yard. Still another measure is by surface area, sometimes
by the square foot, in Australia commonly by the square fathom; this
is especially applicable to deep mining when only the richest bottom layer
is mined; at least 2 feet of gravel and 1 foot of soft bed-rock are extracted,
making one square fathom equivalent to a minimum of 4 cubic yards.
In river bars gravels are worked by wing dams and pits kept dry by
simple pumping devices. On a large scale they may be ground-sluiced
or washed by the hydraulic method, with the aid of elevators when the
natural fall is insufficient.
The elevated gravels of earlier periods are worked in California by
tunnels and drifting operations on the bed-rock. The minimum cost of
working under the most favorable conditions is 50 cents per cubic yard,
but is commonly $1 to $2 per cubic yard; most of the gravels actually
worked contain at least $1.50, and often much more. The whole gravel
body may be washed by the hydraulic method, when the expense may be
reduced to 2 to 5 cents per cubic yard; of course, the cost of preliminary
work like ditches, etc., is often great. Some creek gravels in the Seward
Peninsula, Alaska, contain from $2 to $6 per cubic yard; the width of the
deposit may be about 50 feet, the depth 3 to 6 feet.
The depressed gravels of earlier jftriods are worked by drifting from
shafts, as in Victoria, where, however, the preliminary pumping, to
permit access, is an extremely heavy expense, often indeed prohibitory.
Some of these Australian channels have been extremely rich, the workable
portions ranging from $2 to $15 per cubic yard. Some of the channels
1 W. Lindgren, The mining districts of Idaho Basin and the Boise Ridge, Eighteenth
Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1898, pp. 617-744.
2 The decline is marked since 1910, when Alaska and the Yukon produced $20,000,-
000, California $9,000,000, Victoria $2,000,000.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 239
are in places several hundred feet in width. In later years production
has declined steadily.
Of late, gravels have been extensively worked in California, Alaska,
the Klondike, and elsewhere by the dredging process. In California,
where this method has reached its highest development, $7,769,000 was
obtained from 58 dredges in 1916 from the flood-plains of the rivers at
the foot of the Sierra Nevada; and the cost has been reduced from about
10 cents to 3 or 4 cents per cubic yard handled. In 1930 this amount
had been reduced to about $3,600,000. In Alaska the cost is, of course,
much higher; but gravels containing 17 cents per cubic yard are workable
under favorable conditions. The dredge will probably prove to be the
most efficient placer-mining machine of the future, replacing the hydraulic
method which offers difficulties in the disposition of the tailings. In
1917 Alaska yielded $2,500,000 from dredging; in 1931 more than $3,000,-
000, or about 80 per cent of total placer products.
The largest dredging operations at present are conducted by the
Fairbanks Exploration Company, at Fairbanks, Alaska, where five
dredges, with 10-cubic foot buckets, are working gravels 50 to 80 feet
thick. It is necessary to thaw the frozen ground in advance by circula­
tion of cold water.
Certain gravels in the dry regions of Arizona and northern Mexico are
treated by pneumatic concentration in so-called dry washers, but the
output of these placers is insignificant.1
Yields of placer deposits are often calculated in dollars per lineal foot
of channel. Good channels for drifting may produce from $70 to $500
per foot. The richest drift mine worked was probably “ Madame Berry”
in Victoria, with average width of 450 feet, yielding $1,293 per foot along
channel. The two claims below this produced, respectively, $843 and
$443 per foot, the last-named channel being mined 1,000 feet wide. The
“White channel” in the Klondike gave $380 per foot; the Red Point
channel in Placer County, California, $72, the width being 120 feet; the
American Hill hydraulic mine, Nevada County, 1,000 feet wide, $414; th’e
Nome creeks, Alaska, 50 feet wide, about $100. By drifting operations
alone, only a part of the gold will be extracted, say one-fifth to one-half,
dependent upon the thickness of overlying gravels.
At present, Siberia appears to contain the largest reserves of placer
ground, divided between the Urals and western Siberia and eastern Siberia,
including the Amur and the Lena drainage basins. Before the World
War these areas, particularly the last named, yielded large productions,
the total for 1913 being about $40,000,000, of which $34,500,000 came
from placers. After the Russian Revolution the output again gradually in­
creased, until in 1930 it was estimated at $19,000,000, of which $13,000,000
1F, J. H. Merrill, Min. and Set. Press, July 13, 1912.
240 MINERAL DEPOSITS
came from placers.1 The larger part of this came from the Lena drainage.
The deposits at Bodaibo had a high production. Other placers
are found on the Aldan, Kolar, Vitim, and Kolim rivers in the same region.
According to Obrutchev2 it is a glaciated mountain region, with summits
rising 2,500 feet above the valleys. The rocks are pre-Cambrian lime­
stone and crystalline schists, with large areas of intrusive granite. Quartz
veins are abundant but do not appear to contain gold. The deposit
consists of pre-glacial, eluvial-alluvial gold placers and heavy interglacial,
partly auriferous sands and gravels. The workings are now in upstream
terrace gravels and also in recent alluvium and low terraces.
THE GOLD-BEARING CONGLOMERATES OF SOUTH AFRICA
Of the extensive literature the following principal papers are quoted:
G. F. Becker, The Witwatersrand banket, etc., Eighteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Gcol.
Survey, pt. 5, 1896.
F. H. Hatch and G. S. Corstorphine, The Geology of South Africa, London, 1905.
J. W. Gregory, The origin of the gold in the Rand banket, Trans., Inst. Min. and
Met., London, 17, October, 1907. Also Econ. Geol., 4, 1909, pp. 118-129. Dis­
cussion, idem, by G. F. Becker and G. A. Denny.
R. B. Young, The Rand banket, London, 1917, 125 pp. Best description.
C. B. Horwood, The Rand banket, Min. and Sci. Press, October to December,
1913. Also, Gold deposits of the Rand, 1917.
E. T. Mellor, The upper Witwatersrand System; the East Rand, Trans., Geol.
Soc. South Africa, 18, 1915, pp. 11-71.
E. T. Mellor, The conglomerates of the Witwatersrand with discussion, Trans.,
Inst. Min. and Met.., London, 25, 1916, pp. 226-348.
Hugh F. Marriott, Mining on the Rand, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met., London, 27,
1918; Min. and Sci. Press, July 20, 1918.
A. L. Du Toit, The geology of South Africa, London, 1926.
L. Reinecke, The location of payable ore-bodies in the gold-bearing reefs of Wit­
watersrand, Trans., Geol. Soc. South Africa, 30, 1928, pp. 89-119.
L. C. Graton, Hydrothermal origin of the Rand gold deposits, Pt. 1, Econ. Geol,
25, 1930; Supplement to No. 3, pp. 1-185.
This paper constitutes the most complete presentation of facts in favor of the
hydrothermal origin. It was followed by papers by Reinecke, Rogers, Keep, Gregory,
Homersham, Young, Mellor, Macadam, Cowles, and Cameron, all of whom vigor­
ously deny the hydrothermal introduction of the gold. See Trans., Geol. Soc. South
Africa, 33 and 34, 1930 and 1931. Abstracts in Annotated Bibliography of Economic
Geology, 3 (2), 4 (1), and 4 (2).
The development of the gold-bearing conglomerates of the Wit­
watersrand district, in the Transvaal, is one of the most wonderful
chapters in the history of mining. From an inconspicuous beginning in
1887, the production of these unique deposits has steadily increased. The
1V. M. Karmashov, The gold mining industry in the Soviet Republic, Eng. and
Min. Jour., Aug. 10, 1931, p. 113.
2V. A. Obrutchev and A. P. Gerasimov, Geologic map of the Lena gold region,
Sheets VIi and VI2 Com. geol., Leningrad, 1929; abstract, Geol. Zentralbl., 43 (6),
1931, p. 379.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 241
increase in production continued to 1916; after a slight decline the output
of gold is again increasing. In 1931 the ore production amounted to
about 32,000,000 tons, with a record yield of $225,000,000 which
is over one-half of the total production of the world for that year.
The total production to the end of 1930 exceeded $4,500,000,000,
which is more than the total gold production of California, Colorado, and
Alaska. The average content of the ore has decreased, probably mostly
on account of reduction in mining and metallurgical costs, from $12 to
$6 or $7 per ton. It is possible that in the future ore of $5 per ton will be
utilized. It is thought that a slow decline in the production will soon
begin. A depth of 8,000 feet has now been reached in the Village Deep
Mine, and, owing to a favorable geothermic gradient (p. 101), it will be
possible to go considerably deeper. Many of the mines exceed 5,000
feet in depth. The ore is first crushed in stamp mills, then ground in
tube mills and the pulp concentrated on corduroy blanket tables; the
concentrate is amalgamated and the tailings treated by the cyanide
process.
S r< • UPPERft.......... . . w . .......... ............................. LO W ER ............ -> N
<KmMeyFlsburySeries^-feries' ^PJ^ibW^GwimmentReefSeries- A

16 & 14-1312 II !0 8 9 .8 6 7 S S 4 J ? !
0
■---1--- 1__i
S00 1000 1500 F e d

F ig. 101.— Section of the W itw atersrand system on the central R and. 1, G ranite; 11,
Main Reef; 12, Bird Reef; 14, K im berley R eef; 16, A m ygdaloid. ( A f t e r E . T . M e l l o r . )
South Africa is in the main a plateau of sedimentary beds resting on a
basement of granite and crystalline schists.
The oldest rocks known are the Swaziland crystalline schists and the
granites intruded in them. On their eroded surface rest the upper and
lower Witwatersrand system of slates, quartzites, and conglomerates
(Fig. 101), attaining a maximum of 25,000 feet in thickness; and on top
of these in turn a thick series of volcanic flows, called the Ventersdorp
system.
The age of the Witwatersrand system is not definitely known; it is
probably Cambrian or pre-Cambrian. Next higher in the succession of
rocks is the Transvaal system, including the Black Reef (oldest), Dolo­
mite, and Pretoria series. This is covered by the Waterberg system and
this again by the definitely Devonian Cape system (Table Mountain
sandstone of the Cape) and the most recent Karroo system, which is coal­
bearing and considered to be of Permo-Carboniferous age. Each system
is separated by an unconformity from the next.
The Witwatersrand system is folded in a syncline extending about 120
miles east to west and 45 miles north to south. At Johannesburg, on the
242 MINERAL DEPOSITS
north side of the syncline, the dip is to the south, steep near the surface,
but flattening in depth to about 30°. Faulting is common and there are
a number of intrusive diabase dikes, thought to belong to the overlying
Ventersdorp volcanic system.
Auriferous conglomerates occur at several horizons in the Witwaters-
rand system and also in the Black Reef series. The productive beds are,
however, in the upper part of the Witwatersrand, including a thickness of
about 7,000 feet of quartzites and conglomerates, among which the follow­
ing are distinguished, beginning from the top: Kimberley group, Bird
Reef group, Livingstone Reef group, and Main Reef group. The first
two are each about 500 feet thick but the conglomerates contained are
of low grade, rarely exceeding S3 per ton in gold. The Main Reef group,
about 90 feet thick, includes several conglomerate beds more or less
persistent. The position of the Main Reef group with reference to over-
lying beds is seen in Fig. 101.
The usual subdivision of the Main Reef group includes from top to
bottom:
South Reef (3 feet).
Quartzite (20 to 80 feet).
Main Reef Leader (2 to 6 feet).
Quartzite (2 to 20 feet), including in places the “ Bastard Reef”
(scattered pebbles).
Main Reef (4 to 8 feet).
Of these the Main Reef Leader is the most productive and persistent
member. The pebbles in the conglomerate are small, averaging 2 inches
in diameter, and consist of well-rolled fragments of glassy quartz with
a few pebbles of more angular quartzite, banded chert, and slate. The
pebbles lie in a matrix of sandy material, which has become hardened by
infiltration of silica. Other detrital minerals are iridosmine, zircon, and
chromite. There is no magnetite. Pyrite occurs in abundance in the
cement, averaging about 3 per cent of the rock. It is present both in
crystalline form and as rounded colloform replacements after quartz
probably representing two generations, both subsequent to the sedimenta­
tion. The latter may be marcasite. Chloritoid,1 chlorite, sericite,
calcite (scarce), rutile, tourmaline (scarce), and carbon (in grains and
veinlets) are other authigenetic minerals. The gold is not contained in
the pebbles, but only in the cement, and forms minute angular crystalline
aggregates, apparently never rounded particles. It is usually closely
connected with pyrite, either enclosed by it or covering the surface of
pyrite aggregates. As a rule it is not visible to the naked eye.
1 A prismatic colorless mineral usually described as chloritoid is common (Fig. 102),
but its identification appears questionable.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 243
In spite of a long-continued discussion there is no unanimity among
geologists as to the genesis of these remarkable deposits.
The first suggestion that the conglomerate may be simply an alluvial
or littoral placer is refuted by the character of the gold and its close

F ig . 102.— A , section of W itw atersrand banket. Four-fifths of natural size. B,

pyrite replacing quartz and molded on chloritoid. Magnified 56 diam eters. C, m atrix
of banket showing crystals of pyrite, replacing quartz grains. Magnified 12 diam eters.
(A, B, and C after R . B . Young.)
association with the pyrite and the absence of magnetite and ilmenite.
It is clear that if this is a placer deposit there have been extensive recrys­
tallization and some migration.
244 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The advocates of the placer theory, among whom are G. F. Becker,
J. W. Gregory, G. A. Denny, R. B. Young, E. T. Mellor, and many others,
are compelled to admit a recrystallization of the gold and a transformation
of magnetite and ilmenite into pyrite.
Many geologists and engineers, impressed with the difficulties con­
fronting the placer theory, hold that the deposits are epigenetic—that
the gold and pyrite have been introduced by a post-sedimentary infiltra­
tion, perhaps after the intrusion of the diabase dikes. This hydrothermal
theory is held by H. Louis, J. H. Hammond, R. Beck, F. H. Hatch, G. S.
Corstorphine, C. B. Horwood, and L. C. Graton.

F ig . 103.— Section through V illage D eep N o. 3 shaft. (A fte r H . F . M a rrio tt.)

Small and irregular quartz veins which in some places contain a little
gold and sulphides intersect the Witwatersrand series. Whether there
is any enrichment along the few diabase dikes is a disputed question. No
doubt these quartz veins are related to the dikes.
E. T. Mellor has approached the subject from the wider geological
viewpoint and his papers contain very strong arguments in favor of the
original deposition of the gold in alluvial gravels. He considers the
quartzite and conglomerate series as large delta deposits rather than
shore gravels and shows the existence of many horizons of gold-bearing
conglomerates.
Against the hydrothermal theory stands a long array of strong argu­
ments: (1) The absence of channels followed by the solutions; (2) the
regular distribution of the gold in the conglomerate; often it is concen­
trated in its lower layers; (3) the practical confinement of the gold to the
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 245
conglomerates, though the quartzites are equally permeable; (4) the
conglomerates were deposited in an alluvial plain skirting the deeply
eroded Swaziland schists with their lenticular gold-quartz veins and
would thus certainly contain some gold.
There are many strong arguments supporting the placer theory. The
conglomerates were deposited in a plain, skirting the deeply eroded
Swaziland schists and granites, with their abundant gold-quartz veins.
The deposits may be alluvial, deltaic, littoral, or even (possibly) sub­
marine, but they must have contained detrital gold and black sand, and
the gold must have been in minute particles. The presence of water-
worn particles of iridosmine is demonstrated by Young.1 If the placers
contained water-worn iridosmine they must have contained a great deal
more detrital gold, whatever their present condition may be.
Practically only the conglomerates are now gold-bearing, though the
sands were also permeable. There are in the Witwatersrand series
and in the overlying Transvaal system a great many auriferous conglom­
erates, generally of low grade. The ore-shoots are large, irregular, and
patchy, very rarely presenting any similarity to the well-known forms
shown in veins.
If the gold were of hydrothermal origin it would seem that it must have
been deposited in other structural planes as well as in the pebble beds;
and this has been found only in small quartz veins near the banket and
near diabase dikes. The uniform testimony seems to be that such veins
are of low grade.
On the other hand, evidence for hydrothermal action is also strong.
The conglomerates have been deeply buried with attendant, rather high
temperature. Pyrite, sericite, chlorite, rutile, chloritoid (?), and, in
places, tourmaline have been introduced. There is much secondary
quartz in veinlets in and near the ore. A great deal of sulphur has been
introduced; the gold now shows no trace of detrital rounding but has
evidently been recrystallized. We must admit that black sand was once
present in the deposits and 2 to 3 per cent does not seem unreasonable.
Volcanic activity during and since Witwatersrand time has been intense
and gold-bearing veins of the hydrothermal type occur at Pilgrims Rest
and other places in the Transvaal. It seems probable that much water,
partly or wholly of magmatic origin, certainly containing hydrogen
sulphide and alkaline sulphide and possibly gold and other metals, must
have accompanied these igneous outbursts. These waters found their
way into the auriferous conglomerates and there transformed the iron
oxides to sulphide and added some gold to that of detrital origin, but they
were never rich enough to transform the quartzites into ore. The very
fine detrital gold may have been dissolved by the sodium sulphide
1 In 1930 several thousand ounces of iridosmine were saved at the mills.
246 MINERAL DEPOSITS
undoubtedly present in the thermal waters and rapidly re-precipitiitcd
by the pyrite.
The conclusion might, therefore, be justified that the Rand banket is
a detrital gold deposit slightly enriched by hydrothermal processes.1
The difficulty, not yet fully explained, lies in the abnormal richness and
extent of the conglomerates. It is pointed out, however, that large areas
of the conglomerate are practically barren. The rich beach sands of
Nome, Alaska, have been cited as an analogous case but the analogy is
by no means perfect.
Similar conglomerates of considerable geological antiquity are found
in West Africa at Tarkwa and Abosso2 and these have been worked on a
fairly large scale. Instead of pyrite these contain hematite, and ilmenite
with chloritoid or ottrelite.
PLATINUM PLACERS3
It is known that platinum occurs as a primary constituent of peri-
dotites (p. 778), and specimens showing its intergrowth with olivine and
chromite have been described. Almost the entire world’s production is
obtained from placers and 95 per cent of it was formerly extracted from
the placers on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains, where detrital
platinum occurs in the gravels of the stream courses, which head in cer­
tain Paleozoic intrusions of peridotite and pyroxenite, in part altered to
serpentine. It is associated with iridosmine, iridium, chromite, and often
also with gold. The crude platinum forms small rounded grains, very
rarely nuggets up to 20 pounds in weight; and its fineness (per thousand)
ranges from 750 to 850, the remainder being iron, copper, and various
metals of the platinum group, particularly iridium. In part the placers
are worked by dredging.
Platinum-bearing gravels occur also in the Choco district Colombia,4
South America, in river beds and Tertiary conglomerates, but the pro-
1 It seems to be incumbent on the advocates of the placer theory to find some
conglomerates which contain no pyrite but which do contain detrital gold. The size
of the iridosmine grains range up to 1 millimeter, and therefore the detrital gold where
preserved should be rather easily distinguished. In other words, it was fine but not so
fine as to be classed as flour gold.
2 O. A. L. Whitelaw, The Tarkwa-Abosso goldfield, Mem. 1, Gold Coast Geol.
Survey, 1929. Gold in the banket is considered detrital.
A. Bray, Notes on the banket reefs of the Gold Coast Colony, Trans., Inst. Min.
and Met., London, 38, 1929, pp. 21-69. Bray suggests a hydrothermal origin.
During discussion of the paper many dissented from this view.
3 J. F. Kemp, Geological relations and distribution of platinum and associated
metals, Bull. 193, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1902.'
Louis Duparc, Le platine et les gites platiniferes de l’Oural, Geneve, 1920.
C. W. Purington, The platinum deposits of the Tura River System, Ural Moun­
tains, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 29, 1899, pp. 3-16.
4 Mining Mag., London, 33, 1925, p. 135.
J. G. Kellner, Die Platinlagerstattcn Kolumbiens, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 36, 1928,
pp. 1-7.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 247
duction from them is stationary. The deposits are worked by dredges.1
A considerable production is reported from Ethiopia. In the United
States the metal occurs in small quantities together with gold in almost
all the gold-bearing districts in northern and central California and in
southwestern Oregon, where serpentine or peridotite is found. In 1931,
446 ounces of crude platinum were reported from the United States and
Alaska, chiefly from the black sands of the dredges. Platinum also
occurs in the beach sands of southern Oregon, together with more or less
gold; a small quantity of this is recovered. The Tulameen district, British
Columbia, formerly yielded some production. The normal world’s pro­
duction of crude platinum before the World War was about 300,000 troy
ounces, but it is now much less—about 150,000 troy ounces in 1930. At
least 100,000 ounces came from Russia and 42,382 ounces from Colombia.
For a long time the price of platinum was less than that of gold; a gradual
rise increased the value to $20 per ounce, and in 1911 it reached $45.
Increasing scarcity forced the price up to $120 in 1925, only to drop again
to $60 in 1927 and to $24 in 1931, but recovered before the end of the
year to $40. Crude platinum with 70 to 85 per cent Pt is sold from
$30 to $40 per ounce.
Placers yielding osmiridium at the rate of up to several thousand
ounces per annum have been worked in Tasmania since 1914.2 They
occur in peridotite and serpentine, which also contain osmiridium and
a little gold.
CASSITERITE PLACERS3
The original home of cassiterite (S11 O2 ) is either in the granites, in
pegmatite dikes, or in quartz veins. From any of these sources it may be
set free by weathering and disintegration, and, on account of its high
specific gravity, it easily becomes concentrated in gravel deposits of
different types. Among the accompanying minerals, tourmaline, topaz,
and wolframite are the most common. Grains of metallic tin are
reported to occur with cassiterite in Nigeria and Australia. Eluvial
deposits immediately below the outcrops are numerous and are worked
1James W. Neil, Recovery of platinum in gold dredging, Min. and Sd. Press,
Dec. 8, 1917.
2A. McIntosh Reid, Osmiridium in Tasmania, Bull. 32, Geol. Survey Tasmania,
1921.
3 H. W. Kayser and R. Provis, The Mt. Bischoff tin mine, Proc., Inst. Civil Eng.
(London), 123, 1896, pp. 377-387.
0. H. Van der Wyck, The occurrence of tin ore in the islands of Banca and
Billiton, Seventeenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1896, pt. 3, pp. 227-242.
F. D. Adams, Tin Mining in Malaya, Trans., Canadian Inst. Min. and Met., 31,
1929, pp. 115-146.
L. C. Graton, Reconnaissance of some gold and tin deposits of the southern
Appalachians, Bull. 293, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
W. R. Jones, Tinfields of the world, London, 1925,
248 MINERAL DEPOSITS
on a large scale at Mount Bischoff, in Tasmania. A small deposit of this
kind resting in a shallow gully immediately below a pegmatite dike was
mined near Gaffney, South Carolina, in 1905. The earliest production
of stream tin came from gravels below the tin-bearing lodes of the Erzge­
birge, Saxony, and of Cornwall, both sources now practically exhausted.
About 70 per cent of the world’s production of about 174,000 (1930) short
tons of tin is still obtained from alluvial placers, mainly in the Malay
Peninsula (see p. 644) and the islands of Banka and Billiton, near
Sumatra, and in Nigeria and China. The Malay peninsula furnished
60 per cent of the world’s production from gravels averaging 0.5 pound of
cassiterite to the cubic yard. New South Wales and Victoria furnish
minor amounts. In the latter state some cassiterite is saved in working
Pliocene auriferous stream channels. In this case the tin ore appears to
be sparsely disseminated in granite and is liberated after its disintegration.
At the Briseis mine, in Tasmania (now closed), the deposit worked con­
sisted of 14 to 45 feet of river gravel, covered by 20 to 40 feet of decom­
posed basalt and containing from 2 to 4 pounds of cassiterite per cubic
yard.
In the United States small amounts of stream tin are recovered in
Alaska near the extreme western point of the American continent, in the
Black Hills of South Dakota, and in North and South Carolina.
As tin is worth from 25 to 90 cents per pound and the easily reduced
cassiterite contains 78.6 per cent of the metal, it is clear that a small
quantity, say 0.5 pound per cubic yard of gravel, might suffice for profit­
able working. The placers in the Malay states are worked by sluicing,
by dredges, and by gravel pumps.
MONAZITE PLACERS1
Monazite, an anhydrous phosphate of cerium, lanthanum, and other
cerium metals, usually contains also from 3 to 8 per cent of thoria, making
it valuable for the production of nitrate of thorium, which is utilized in
the manufacture of incandescent gas mantles.
The mineral has a specific gravity of 5.203, a resinous luster, and a
yellow to brown color; when occurring in placers it is found together with
gold, zircon, magnetite, ilmenite, garnet, etc., after concentration in
sluices. From its associated minerals it is cleaned in electromagnetic
separators, the final product being about 90 per cent pure. The source of
the monazite is in the granites, gneisses, and pegmatites, where it occurs
as a primary mineral. As its value (changing with the percentage of
thoria) is about 8 cents per pound, monazite gravels may in places form
workable deposits, especially where, as often happens, gold is present.
1 J. H. Pratt and D. B. Sterrett, Monazite and monazite mining in the Carolinas,
Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 40, 1909, pp. 488-511.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 249
Monazite is now obtained from marine and fluviatile placers in Brazil and
India, but it also occurs in similar deposits in North and South Carolina.
It occurs in Idaho, where a large intrusive batholith of granite or quartz
monzonite evidently carries the mineral sparsely distributed throughout.
The principal occurrence in Idaho is at the old placer district of the
Idaho Basin. In 1910 about 100,000 pounds of monazite were mined in
the United States, chiefly from placer deposits in the Carolinas. Since
1910 there has been no production in the United States, the supply
(600 tons in 1929) being obtained from the beach deposits in Brazil, India,
and Ceylon. At Travancore, India, much ilmenite is also recovered.
OTHER PLACERS
Magnetite, or “ black sand,” has been frequently mentioned above as
a product of concentration in gravels and sands and is usually derived
from the disintegration of igneous rocks. Along the beaches and the
bars of some rivers it may accumulate in considerable masses—for
instance, on the lower St. Lawrence River, Canada, and along the Colum­
bia River, Oregon—but it is exceptional that such deposits have been
utilized.1 More or less ilmenite is usually mixed with the magnetite.
There are several examples of eluvial deposits of iron ore (magnetite,
hematite, or limonite), formed below outcrops of iron deposits, and also

F ig . 104.— Section of Iron M ountain, Missouri, showing mining of detrital ore under­
neath Paleozoic lim estone and sandstone, and of hem atite ore in the porphyry. (A fter
G. W. Crane.)

of such detrital masses in the debris slopes of older formations. At Iron

Mountain, Missouri,2 Paleozoic rocks rest upon a deposit of boulders of
iron ore and porphyry, which in turn lie upon pre-Cambrian porphyry.
The porphyry itself also contains deposits of hematite (Fig. 104).
Similar eluvial masses of copper and lead ores are found in places.
We may recall the great debris mass of chalcocite below the outcrops of
1 The magnetite sands of Japan appear to have been rather extensively utilized;
also those occurring along the coast of New Zealand.
2 G. W. Crane, The iron ores of Missouri, Geol. Survey Missouri, 2d ser., 10, 1912,
pp. 107-145.
250 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the Bonanza mine1in the Copper River region, Alaska, and galena beds
on the slopes below the Elkhorn mine, Wood River, Idaho.2
PRECIOUS STONES
Diamond placers are of considerable importance, and until 1871
the whole world production came from such sources in India and South
America. The parent source is probably always a basic igneous rock
(p. 774). In small amounts diamonds are widely distributed. In the
gold belt of California many small diamonds have been found in the gold-
bearing gravels. Scattered diamonds have been found in the glacial
drift areas in Indiana and Ohio. In India they occur in the gravels
of the Deccan mines, now practically unproductive. In British Guiana
they are mined from the gravels of the Mazaruni River, original source
unknown. In Brazil, State of Minas Geraes, they occur in sands or
gravels derived from conglomerates; here also the original source is not
determined. The black carbonado has a granular texture, without visible
cleavage, and is used for diamond drilling. It is mined from river gravels
in the State of Bahia, Brazil, and has considerable economic importance.
Most of the diamond placers are in South Africa, and the yield is large
and valuable.3 For many years diamond washings have been operated
on the Vaal River and along the west coast at Liideritz Bay and other
places. In 1926 a great rush took place to the Lichtenburg placers in
western Transvaal, and in 1927 a similar excitement carried thousands
of people to other placers near the mouth of the Orange River, on the west
coast, where the diamonds occurred in rich shore terraces, in several
horizons identified by certain shells. The diamond-bearing ground
probably extends for 200 miles south of that river along the sea shore.
The original source is surely in peridotite-pipes of the interior similar
to those of Kimberley (p. 775). In 1929, the production of this district
was 900,000 carats; 1,000,000 carats came from the Lichtenburg placers.
The Belgian Congo yielded 1,000,000 carats, and Angola 200,000.
Since 1930 the output has dropped.
Some placers yield precious stones; most of the rubies, sapphires,
zircons, spinels, aquamarines, chrysoberyls, etc., are washed from gravels
and occur in regions of highly metamorphosed rocks intruded by granite
and pegmatite. The island of Ceylon4 is rich in such deposits and has
1 F. H. Moffit and S. R. Capps, Bull. 448, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911, p. 89.
2 W. Lindgren, Twentieth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1900, p. 210.
3 A. F. Williams, Diamond-bearing alluvial gravels of the Union of South Africa,
Third Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress, South Africa, 1930.
P. A. Wagner and H. Merensky, The diamond deposits on the coast of Nama-
qualand, Trans., Geol. Soc. South Africa, 31, 1928, pp. 1-41.
E. Kaiser, Die Diamantenwiiste S. W. Africa, Berlin, 1926, 2 vols.
E. Reuning, Der Ursprung der Kiistendiamanten, Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 64,
1931, pp. 775-828.
4 Frank D. Adams, A visit to the gem districts of Ceylon and Burma, Bull. CanIn­
dian Inst. Min. and Met.. February. 1926.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES 251
been renowned for these occurrences since ancient times. Their original
source has not always been determined, but they probably came from
pegmatites. A zircon, which is colorless, but turns blue upon heat­
ing, occurs in granite and gneiss near the south point of the island.
The blue sapphires occur in several districts between Kandy and the
south shore. They occur in gravel lying at the base of alluvial accumula­
tions. The deposits are worked on a small scale and gems to the value
of a few hundred thousand dollars are extracted annually.
The ruby mines of Mogok, Burma,1 are likewise of ancient renown.
The gems occur in gravel on a tributary of the Irawaddy River, and their
source is a crystalline limestone intruded by granite and alkaline rocks.
Sapphires of pale blue or yellow color occur in the gravel bars of the
Missouri River,2 near Helena, Montana. This deposit was worked for
several years. According to G. F. Kunz, the gems are derived from dikes
of a mica-augite andesite, but the primary deposits are not worked
(p. 797).
1 Frank D. Adams, idem.
2 D. B. Sterrett, Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1910, p. 877.
 CHAPTER XVIII
DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF
CONCENTRATION IN BODIES OF SURFACE WATER
BY REACTIONS BETWEEN SOLUTIONS
CHANGES DURING SEDIMENTATION
For tracing the chemical changes which take place during the trans­
formation of igneous rocks to sediments the fine silts and muds deposited
near the shore are particularly interesting, for they form about 95 per
cent of the sediment veneer of the crust.
Below is arranged side by side the average percentage composition
of all igneous rocks, of the silts of the Mississippi delta, and of the
blue and green “ terrigenous” marine muds.
The analyses given below carry considerable weight, for each column
is a composite of a large number of samples. It may be of interest to
compare them in detail. After the cooling of the igneous rocks come
decomposition, weathering, erosion, and sedimentation, all processes
involving a great amount of solution and mechanical transportation.
Of the original rock the larger part remains in analyses 2 and 3. All
of the original constituents have, of course, been more or less leached and
removed.
The most striking gain in comparing 1 and 2 is in silica and represents
mainly mechanical concentration of quartz. Quite decided are the gains
in chlorine, fluorine, and sulphur, suggesting that if by some chance
such sediments were assimilated by magmas they would not be lacking
in mineralizers.
Among the losses all the common rock-forming bases are conspicuous,
particularly alumina. There is a relative loss of magnesia and lime both
to the extent of 57 per cent of the amounts in the original rock. Soda
loses 61 per cent, or more than any other of these constituents; potash
shows a loss of only 27 per cent. Losses prevail among most of the rarer
metals; but, of course, their expression in percentages would not mean
much.
The comparison between 1 and 3 brings out the gain in alumina and
water, which, of course, was to be expected; but there is, also, a very
decided gain in iron oxides, and in sulphur (fluorine and chlorine not deter­
mined). Chromium is almost constant; quite certainly there is an
apparent increase in vanadium, nickel, barium, strontium, copper, and
zinc, while lead diminishes. These facts are of considerable interest in
252
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 253
connection with the biologic processes referred to later. Magnesia, lime,
and alkalies show losses similar to those in the silts, less potash being lost
than soda.
COMPARATIVE RESULTS OF SEDIM ENTATION
1 2 3
Si02................................................. 59.12 69.96 57.05
A120 3............................................... 15.34 10.52 17.22
3.08 j 3.47 5.07
FeO................................................. 3.80 2.30
MgO................................................ 3.49 1.41 2.17
CaO................................................. 5.08 2.17 2.04
Na20 ........................................... 3.84 1.51 1.05
k 2o ........................................... 3.13 2.30 2.25
H20 ........................................... 1.15 \ 3 .7 8 - | 7.17
} 1.96 +
C02 .............................................. 0.102 1.40
Ti02 ....................................... 1.050 0.59 1.27
0.039 0.05
P2Oe ........................................... 0.299 0.18 0.21
Cl ................................... 0.048 0.30
F ....................................... 0.030 0.07
s ................................... 0.052 0.07 0.13
S03 ............................. 0.03
(Ce Y)2Oi ........................... 0.020
0.055 0.01 0.05
V-03 ......................................... 0.026 0.02 0.03
MnO ................................... 0.124 0.06 0.12
NiO ......................................... 0.025 0.017 0.063
0.055 0.08 0.06
SrO ................................... 0.022 tr 0.03
0.007
Cu ......................................... 0.010 0.0043 0.0120
Zn.................................................... 0.004 0.0010 0.0053
Pb ........................................... 0.002 0.0002 0.0004
0.0004 trace
0.66
1.69
100.000 100.6229 99.9907
1. Average composition of igneous rocks. Clarke and Washington, Prof.
Paper 127, U. S. Gcol. Survey, 1924.
2. Mississippi delta silts, 235 samples. Geo. Steiger, Analyst. Clarke,
Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 509.
3. Marine terrigenous clays, 52 samples. Geo. Steiger, Analyst.
Clarke, idem., p. 508.
It may be argued that these analyses do not represent the direct
change from igneous rocks to silt and clay for the material represented in
254 MINERAL DEPOSITS
columns 2 and 3 is undoubtedly largely derived from sedimentary
rocks. This does not lessen their value for comparison; it simply
emphasizes more the changes by successive sedimentary cycles. That
these comparisons in many instances are not far from indicating the
actual gains and losses would appear from the calculations made by Leith
and Mead.1 These investigators point out quite correctly that during
sedimentation considerable gains are made of water, carbon dioxide, oxy­
gen, and other constituents derived from the atmosphere and the hydro­
sphere. Their main result is that 100 grams of igneous rock yield 114 grams
of end products consisting approximately of 87.8 grams of shale, 12.9
grams of sandstone, 6.7 grams of limestone, and 6.6 grams of ocean salts.
Total weight of sediments derived from 100 grams of igneous rock is
therefore 107.4 grams.
Expressing it in another way, 100 grams of igneous rocks contribute
approximately 97 grams to the sediments, the remaining 3 grams going to
the salts of the sea.
Biochemical Processes.—Plants and animals play an intense and
dramatic part in the concentration of certain elements. Biochemical
processes involve the concentration of certain elements. They, also,
involve a certain amount of dissipation during life. After the death of the
being, dissipation is the rule unless counteracted by certain other proc­
esses. The living matter collects eleriients, which it needs; after death
it gives them up to the media in which it lived.
Often we observe consecutive stages in concentration. In the sea
water the blue-green algae concentrate phosphorus, certain mollusks, or
crustaceans feed on the algae, and other meat-eating mollusks devour the
vegetarians. Small fishes eat the mollusks, large fishes eat the small,
finally seals and birds swallow the fishes, and so in about six transforma­
tions the phosphorus originally contained in the sea water may come to
rest in deposits of guano on desert islands or in accumulations of bones of
vertebrate denizens of the sea.
Plants are continually accumulating carbon from the atmosphere.
The carbon is returned by decay, or under protective cover is indefinitely
preserved until the coal seams, exposed to the air, slowly oxidize or struck
by lightning burn to red bands along the hillside, or again man steps in
and by combustion returns vast amounts to the atmosphere. Plants also
accumulate potash, phosphorus, nitrogen, silica, and calcium carbonates;
their chlorophyll demands iron and magnesium. The calcium carbonate
of algae, the silica of diatoms may accumulate to important deposits.
The ashes of plants give us a clue to many of these complex processes.
Take sea-weed, for instance; in its ashes have been found potassium,
iodine, nickel, cobalt, barium, and strontium, and even copper, zinc, and
1 C. K. Leith and W. J. Mead, Metamorphic geology, New York, 1915, pp. 64 and
69.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 255
boron; in this case the concentration of iodine has had a certain economic
importance. Whence came the iodine, whence the boron? Undoubt­
edly set free by gas-fluxing operations in magmas, thence discharged into
the sea.
Molybdenum as well as chromium and selenium doubtless play some
role in the organic cycle, and such a part is certainly also played by
vanadium and uranium; this will be referred to farther on.
Even the lowest forms of vegetable life are of importance for the
concentration of some deposits. Think of the iron and manganese
bacteria which no doubt are essential for the formation of certain bog-ore
deposits; consider the sulphur bacteria that may have contributed to
some sulphur deposits.
No less important is the part played by animals, particularly those of
the sea. For the animals that roam over the earth are likely to return
their bodies to the air and the soil, while in the sea the more or less con­
tinuous sedimentation may cover and preserve their remains. Take the
case of barium and strontium, originally contained in igneous rocks—
quite abundantly in some alkaline varieties—and undoubtedly also
given off by igneous emanations. The solutions from the land carry a
continuous stream of these elements into the sea. Their presence in the
sea water is well established. It has been shown above that barium and
strontium are actually present in silts and muds in larger amounts than
in igneous rocks. In agreement with this, most of our deposits of sul­
phates and carbonates of these metals are found in sedimentary rocks;
such circumstances indicating concentration by later searching meteoric
waters. Are there any organic agencies which may effect a slight con­
centration in the sediments of the barium found in the sea? The biolo­
gists answer this by telling us that certain protozoans segregate barium
sulphate in minute crystals in their tissues and that certain radiolaria, like
Acantharia, form their skeletons, in part, of strontium sulphate. Is
there not a source here for meteoric waters to work upon when millions
of their bodies were covered by rapid sedimentation?
The substances which are concentrated by the inhabitants of the sea
include silica, sulphur, and potassium, the carbonates of calcium and
magnesium, and the carbono-phosphates of calcium. These produce
directly or indirectly such deposits as phosphate beds, glauconite sands, and
limestones. We observe also the accumulation of heavy metals, such as
copper, lead, zinc, and vanadium, and apparently also chromium, cobalt,
nickel, and manganese. The three last-named metals have been deter­
mined in analysis of globigerina ooze, and are probably of organic origin.
Nickel and cobalt are present in all arable soils and are also found
in small though essential quantities in the pancreas of animals.1
1G. Bertrand, The importance of minute chemical constituents of biological
products, Science, Dec. 24, 1926.
256 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In the blood of molluscs1copper appears as an important constituent,
also zinc, and probably lead. Zinc, copper, nickel, and cobalt certainly
occur in sea water, and their biochemical concentration becomes one
of the important marine processes.
Crustaceans are rich in zinc. Lead is more doubtful but in some
form or other this element is probably contained in the molluscs. Vana­
dium takes the place of copper in the blood of ascidians and holothurians;1
to what extent by other animals is, as yet, not ascertained. Anyway,
vanadium must be an important constituent of sea water, though no
analysis thus far confirms this.
Collectively these concentrations of heavy metals in sea animals are
enormous. Naturally much of the metal is returned to the sea when
the animal dies; but if for some reason or other the death rate is high,
and the remains are buried in sediments, much of the metals must be
retained in the mud; most probably in the state of sulphides. Minute
particles of sulphides, mostly sphalerite or galena, are often found in
fossilized molluscs.
SEDIMENTARY MINERAL DEPOSITS
The sedimentary mineral deposits originating by the sorting of detritus
have been described in Chap. XVII, and the salt deposits resulting from
the evaporation of the solvent are treated in Chap. XX.
In the present chapter will be described a number of deposits formed
by chemical reactions in the sea water resulting in limestone, dolomite,
chert, iron ore, manganese ore, and phosphates. Purely sedimentary
deposits of sulphides and barite are rare. Iron, manganese, calcium,
magnesium, silica, and phosphorus are the principal elements concen­
trated on a large scale. They are usually the products of reactions
between sea water and fluviatile water near the shore.
LIMESTONE
Definition and Origin.—The limestones are sedimentary rocks,
predominantly composed of carbonate of calcium (CaO, 56 per cent;
1 Molluscs, crustaceans, many insects {e.g., Blaila orienlalis), and fishes contain
copper to the amount of from 1 to 14 milligrams per 100 grams of living animal.
Zinc, a characteristic constituent of the human liver, is present in gasteropods; often
there is more zinc than copper. The ashes of some gasteropods contain about 12
per cent ZnO and 7.8 per cent CuO. A. P. Matthews, Physiological chemistry, 3d ed.,
New York, 1920. R. H. A. Plimmer, Practical organic and biologic chemistry,
London, 1926.
2 A. H. Phillips found 0.123 per cent of the weight of the entire animal dried at
110°, Am. Jour. Sd., 4th ser. 46, 1918, p. 473. M. Henze found 18.5 per cent Vs0s
in the chromogen in the blood of ascidians. Some species of these animals do not
appear to carry vanadium. Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chemie, 72, 1911, pp. 494-501.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 257
C02, 44 per cent), usually calcite, but in recent deposits also aragonite.1
They contain minor amounts of magnesium and iron, also varying amounts
of alumina and silica; and by the increase of these constituents transitions
to shale or sandstone result. Phosphate of calcium and organic matter
also enter into the composition of most limestones. The rocks contain
the crystalline carbonate of calcium for the amorphous form only occurs
as a transition phase; the grain varies between the widest limits.
When water containing bicarbonate of calcium is discharged into
the ocean or bodies of fresh water the calcium carbonate is often precipi­
tated because of changing equilibrium in the solutions.2 This is exem­
plified by deposits along the shore of the Great Salt Lake in Utah.
Such limestones often form “oolitic” beds of small, rounded concretions.
Generally, organic life plays a most important part in the deposition
of calcite either indirectly by precipitation by ammonium carbonate
generated by decaying organisms, or directly by life processes. Bacteria3
may be the agents, very often also algae,4 the latter both in the sea and
in fresh-water deposits. Molluscs, corals, Crustacea, and echinoderms
segregate calcite and aragonite5 in their shells which accumulate on the
bottom at moderate depths.
Many organisms, such as sponges, secrete silica from the sea water
and thus cherty deposits may be admixed with the limestones. Many
limestones are almost wholly made up of shell remains, but in others no
trace of organic structure may be visible. Metamorphism tends to
increase the grain and destroy the fossils. Evaporation of ordinary
surface waters in dry climates may produce thick beds of porous lime­
stone. This is known in Mexico as “ caliche.”
Calcite and aragonite are often deposited in large masses by hot
springs containing bicarbonate of calcium, and such deposits may closely
simulate limestones. Certain beautiful banded and translucent spring
deposits are called onyx and are used for ornamental stones.
Among the many varieties of limestone the following may be mentioned:
Chalk.—This is a white, fine-grained, loosely coherent pure limestone
of comminuted shells of molluscs and also of foraminifera. Its occur­
rence in the Cretaceous along the English coast is well known. Exten-
1J. Johnston, E. M. Merwin, and E. D. Williamson, The several forms of calcium
carbonate, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 41, 1916, pp. 473-512.
2 J. Johnston and E. D. Williamson, The role of inorganic agencies in the deposition
of calcium carbonate, Jour. Geol., 24, 1916, pp. 729-750.
3 T. W. Vaughn, Chemical and organic deposits of the sea, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.,
28, 1917, pp. 933-944.
For a modern review of the origin of limestone see W. H. Twenhofel, Treatise
on sedimentation, 2d ed., Baltimore, 1932, pp. 289-329.
4 W. H. Bradley, Algae reefs and oolites of the Green River formation, Prof.
Paper 154-G, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1929, pp. 203-223.
5 Aragonite is the unstable form of calcium carbonate and always tends to change
to calcite. It is most common in recent or Tertiary deposits.
258 MINERAL DEPOSITS
sive beds are reported from Texas, New Mexico, Arkansas, and Kansas
but are rarely of satisfactory grade. Chalk is used as fertilizer, for
whiting, for marking, for polishing powder, and for many other purposes.
“ Paris white” is a pigment made by grinding “ cliffstone,” a hard variety
of chalk. Much of this is imported.
“ Whiting” substitutes are manufactured from limestone in many
parts of the United States. Such material should contain 95 per cent
or more CaC03 and be ground to 200-mesh size. It should contain less
than 0.3 per cent Fe20 3 and less than 4 per cent SiCL.1
Lithographic Stone.—The variety of limestone used for engraving
and the reproduction of colored plates is a fine-grained rock with imper­
fect conchoidal fracture, gray or yellowish in color, and uniform in
texture. It must be porous, to absorb the grease in the printer’s ink,
and soft enough to work readily under the engraver’s tool. Litho­
graphic stone of good quality is difficult to find. The product from the
Solenhofen quarries in Bavaria is a Jurassic limestone of unusual excel­
lence. The material is variable in composition and its value is ascer­
tained only by trial.2 The price ranges up to 20 cents per pound.
Lithographic stone is reported to occur in several states of the Union,
but none of it appears to be as good as Solenhofen rock. The plates
used are 22 or 28 by 40 inches, and 3 inches thick. The better grades
are expensive, selling at about 22 cents per pound. The best grade
quarried in the United States comes from Brandenburg, Kentucky.
Little lithographic stone is now used.
Hydraulic Limestone.—Certain argillaceous limestones or dolomitic
limestones are used for the manufacture of natural cement. Such rock,
crushed and burned, hardens or “ sets” when mixed with water, owing
to hydration and crystallization of the silicate and aluminate of calcium
formed during the burning. “ Portland” cements are mixtures of lime­
stone and argillaceous rocks, subjected to a similar process of grinding
and burning.
Lime.—Pure limestones are changed by burning and consequent
decarbonation at 898° C. to quicklime which is usually shipped as
“lumplime” ; this “slakes” to a calcium hydroxide when mixed with water
and is used, with the addition of sand, as mortar in brick constructions.
The “ slaking” is retarded by the presence of magnesia and argillaceous
impurities.3 Slaked lime, finely powdered is a product used extensively
for waterproofing concrete.
1 R. B. Ladoo, Non-metallic minerals, New York, 1925, pp. 123-130.
2 S. J. Kiibel, Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, pp. 869-873.
G. P. Merrill, The non-metallic minerals, New York, 1910, pp. 147-152.
3 E. F. Burchard and W. E. Emley, The source, manufacture and use of lime,
Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1913, pp. 1509-1593.
E. C. Eckel, Cement, limes and plasters, New York, 1922.
W. E. Emley, Manufacture of lime, Tech. Paper 16, U. S. Bur. Standards, 1913.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 259
Uses.—While limestone is mainly a structural material it is also used
as a flux in smelting operations. The pure varieties are most acceptable,
though magnesian limestones are also used in iron furnaces. Burnt
lime generally contains from 90 to 95 per cent CaO, but magnesium limes
with 30 per cent or over of MgO are also used, though less well liked.
Burnt lime is probably employed for more purposes than any other
natural product. It is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder,
ammonia, calcium carbide, fertilizers, wood alcohol, soap, glycerine,
glue, glass, pottery, paints, paper, and sugar. Also for tanneries and
as insecticide and fungicide. An amount of 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 tons
is produced annually in the United States.
DOLOMITE1
Pure dolomite contains 54.35 per cent CaC03 and 45.65 per cent
MgC03. Beds of dolomite and dolomitic limestone are common in
sedimentary deposits. They may often be distinguished by a fine­
grained sugary texture, due to a development of uniform rhombohedral
crystals. Dolomite is somewhat harder than limestone and is insoluble
in dilute hydrochloric acid. Magnesium carbonate is much more
soluble in water than calcium carbonate. Some travertines from
mineral springs are rich in MgC03 and may contain up to 29 per cent of
this compound. Dolomite is doubtless deposited by direct precipitation
in sea water, but most of it has been formed by alteration of the limestone
by sea water, or by subsequent dolomitization by cold or hot waters.
Deep borings in coral reefs have shown that the limestone, somewhat
magnesian at the surface, passes into dolomite in depth. Certain algae
deposit much MgC03 with CaC03; some shells also contain magnesium
carbonate but seldom more than 7 per cent. In warm waters the per­
centage of MgC03 in shells tends to increase.
Dolomite may be used for lime burning, and it is said that it can be
used as a substitute for magnesite in the manufacture of refractory bricks.
Instances are known of the deposition of thin beds of pure magnesite
in bodies of water, but larger masses of magnesite are usually formed
from limestone by metasomatic processes (p. 388).
IMPORTANCE OF CARBONATE ROCKS AS RELATED TO ORE DEPOSITS
Within the zone of oxidation the carbonate rocks are often dissolved,
residual clays being then developed. Accessory constituents such as
1F. M. Van Tuyl, The origin of dolomite, Ann. Rept., Iowa Geol. Survey, 25,
1914, pp. 251-422; Am. Jour. Sri.., 4th ser., 42, 1926, pp. 249-260.
For an extended discussion of dolomite see F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry,
Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp. 565-580.
E. Steidtmann, Origin of dolomite, etc., Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 28, 1917, pp. 431-
450 .
260 MINERAL DEPOSITS
zinc and lead in the form of sulphides, or admixed phosphates may then
become concentrated and acquire economic importance.
Limestone is easily silicified by waters containing silica; the silica
usually appears as irregular masses of fine-grained quartz or chert. It
is quite as easily dolomitized by dilute waters containing some magnesia,
and this is often observed near ore deposits formed at slight or moderate
depth. Limestone and dolomite, under the influence of heated waters,
are subject to replacement by quartz, dolomite, barite, and fluorite or by
metallic ores such as pyrite, sphalerite, and galena. At high temperature
and pressure pure limestones recrystallize to marble. Silicates, such as
garnet, diopside, or wollastonite, form in argillaceous or siliceous lime­
stone from the impurities contained or from the introduction of solutions
rich in silica and iron. Lastly, the limestones are easily soluble and caves
develop along fractures, forming receptacles for the deposition of ores.
CHERTS AND DIATOMACEOUS EARTH
The silica accumulated by detrital processes as sandstone and quartzite
has already been mentioned. Silica may, however, also be extracted
from water and deposited as a sediment by means of organisms, such as
radiolarians, diatoms, and sponges. In part this silica forms cherty
masses included in limestone; in part it is deposited as distinct beds.
Diatomaceous earth1is a deposit formed in lakes and swamps, as well as in
the sea; and, when pure, consists of the delicate tests of diatoms, a class
of algae. Such deposits accumulate abundantly where siliceous volcanic
tuffs were deposited in lakes, as occurred at many places in the Cordilleran
region during the Tertiary period. Thick beds are found in the Miocene
of Santa Barbara County, California.2 The diatomaceous earth is
frequently more or less admixed with rhyolitic glass and other detritus;
the tests consist of hydrated opaline silica. The earth forms light-
colored beds of extremely fine texture. It finds extensive use for
polishing powder, steam-pipe packing and insulation, absorbent and
filtering medium for various liquids, and for mixing with cements. The
price is about $20 per ton for material crushed to 200-mesh size. It
contains up to 87 per cent Si02 and 5 to 9 per cent H20.
SEDIMENTARY SULPHIDE DEPOSITS
As the sedimentary rocks largely consist of the detritus of the con­
tinents, it is self-evident that they may contain the metals of the rocks
and ore deposits of the land areas. Iron is, of course, abundant, also in a
1 W. C. Phalen, and F. J. Katz, Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908-1925,
under heading Abrasives.
For the preparation and uses, see W. M. Weigel, Technology and uses of silica
and sand, Bull. 266, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1927.
V. L. Eardley-Wilmot, Diatomite, Publ. 723, Canada Dept. Mines, 1930.
2 R. Arnold and P. Anderson, Bull. 315, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906, pp. 438-447.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 261
lesser degree manganese; concretions of hydrous oxides of manganese are
found in the deep-sea deposits and analysis shows that these contain
notable amounts of nickel, cobalt, copper, zinc, lead, and molybdenum.
Many limestones have been shown to contain minute amounts of zinc,
lead, and copper. It is extremely unlikely that a sufficient quantity of
pyrite and other sulphides would escape oxidation to form important
detrital deposits.
The deep-sea deposits accumulate so slowly that they are of little
importance in this discussion. The sediments nearer to the shores con­
tain much more terrigenous material and are, therefore, of special interest.
Pyrite, and infrequently other sulphides, may be precipitated by
chemical reactions in sediments. Beds of oolitic pyrite are known
(p. 269); iron disulphide is formed, in places, in bogs and streams or in
oceanic sediments where hydrogen sulphide developed by decaying
organic matter reacts on the sulphates of iron. If these sediments are
brought to the surface by orogenic movements and slightly metamor­
phosed, the sulphide, originally in fine dissemination, may recrystallize
in more prominent form. As a matter of fact, the deep-sea muds thus
far analyzed contain little or no pyrite. In the special case of the Black
Sea, often quoted of late from N. Androussof’s description,1micro-organ­
isms assist in liberating hydrogen sulphide, part of which, by reaction
with iron from the sediments, develops colloidal ferrous sulphide. Such
colloids may crystallize as disulphide to pyrite or marcasite. Regarding
melnikowite, supposedly a black disulphide forming in sediments, see
the literature.12
Although pyritic clays are abundant in the unmetamorphosed sedi­
mentary formations, there is little evidence of extensive sedimentary
beds of pyrite.
Barite when appearing in sandstone is probably deposited by hot
springs. For barite and manganese carbonates as marine shore deposits
see page 281.
Evidence is scant as to the sedimentary deposition on a large scale of
sulphides other than pyrite or marcasite. “The Kupferschiefer” of
Mansfeld, in which the sulphides may be of syngenetic origin, will be
described elsewhere (p. 415).
SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES
It is conceded that iron ores, such as magnetite, can be deposited by
mechanical concentration as placers along rivers or the seashore (p. 249),
1 N. Androussof, Guide des excursions du VIIeme Congres geologique internat., 29,
1907, p. 6 .
2 B. Doss, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 20, 1912, p. 460.
E. C. Harder, Iron-depositing bacteria and their geologic relations, Prof. Paper
113, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1919, p. 61.
262 MINERAL DEPOSITS
or again we may easily conceive hematite or limonite derived from deep
decay of rocks along the littoral, or from the oxidation of pyrite deposits,
as at Rio Tinto, Spain, swept out into the sea and deposited close to the
shore. Iron ores are also formed by chemical reactions in bodies of
water, and these yield a notable proportion of the iron production of the
world. In the latter cases the iron has been supplied from the land areas
in form of solutions. In many instances both dissolved iron salts and
detrital minerals of iron contribute to the genesis of the deposits.
The surface waters extract iron from ferromagnesian silicates as well
as from oxides or other minerals; this extraction proceeds most ener­
getically in regions covered by a deep mantle of decayed rock. Both
iron and manganese are contained in springs and streams. An example
of such spring water, rising underneath a deposit of bog iron ore in Hol­
land, is quoted by Clarke:
ANALYSIS OF SPRING WATER AT EDERVEEN, NETHERLANDS1
(Analyst, G. Moll van Charantc)
(Parts per million)
Ca.............. ........ 107.6 A120 3....................... 3.3
Mg....................... 5.6 Cl............................. 15.2
Fe........................ 19.6 h 3p o , ........... ........ 10.9
Mn...................... 11.4 S O ,............... ........ 0.9
K .............. .......... 0.9 c o 3.......................... 207.6
Na....................... 10.0 Si02......................... 18.0
Organic......... ........ 56.0
4 6 7 .0
Tropical rivers often carry several per cent of Fe203 in the dissolved
salts, the maximum being about 9 per cent in some Guiana (South
America) streams.
A larger part of the iron dissolved by the surface water is precipitated
after a short journey,2 but some of it is carried down by the streams to
lakes and seas, in which it then may be deposited on an extensive scale.
The sea water contains about 0.6 milligram per liter of iron and probably
more at some places near the shore.
LIMONITES IN SWAMPS AND LAKES (BOG IRON ORES)
Occurrence.—The bog iron ores are found in swamps, lakes, or even
sluggish water courses, and are especially abundant in the recently
glaciated regions of northern Europe, Asia, and North America. They
consist of dark-brown, rough and cellular masses or loose particles, some­
times oolitic in texture and then designated as “shot ore,” and form a
1 Cited by F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924,
p. 536.
2 The clogging of water-supply pipes by hydroxides of manganese and iron is a
common occurrence.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 263
layer of varying thickness at the bottom of the swamp or lake. Plants
and roots may be replaced by limonite. Such ores are usually mined by
means of primitive dredges or scoops.
The ore occurs mainly in shallow waters along the shore, to a depth
of about 12 feet. After removal a new layer is formed within a few years;
according to A. Geikie1 several inches of limonite accumulated in 26
years in a Swedish deposit. The rate would naturally be subject to great
variations according to local conditions.
The bog iron ores are now of slight importance to the mining industry,
but the easily traceable processes of their formation give us a most wel­
come key to the origin of other and more obscure deposits.
Composition.—These ores are always mixed with sand and clay and
rarely contain as much as 50 per cent of iron. The principal mineral
contained is limonite, but carbonate of iron is commonly present, also phos­
phate of iron as vivianite; soluble silica is sometimes recorded. In some
low-grade ores from the Netherlands, the analyses of which are quoted by
Clarke,12 there is much more ferrous carbonate than limonite. Varying
quantities of manganese are present in ores from Sweden, Finland, and
Holland. The Swedish ore contains traces of vanadium, molybdenum,
copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, nickel, and cobalt. All bog iron ores contain
phosphorus, but there is rarely much sulphur.
According to Svanberg, cited by Zirkel,3 the average of 30 analyses
of Swedish bog iron ores gave:
FeaOa............. .......... 62.57 MgO............... 0.19
Mn20 3 ........... .......... 5.58 P 2Os................ 0.48
Si0 2............... .......... 12.64 S0 3 .................. 0.07
AI2O3 ............. .......... 3.58 Ignition.......... . . . . 13.53
CaO............... .......... 1.37
Total................... 100.01
Origin.4—The agents by which iron is carried into solution are (1)
carbon dioxide from the air and decomposing organisms; (2) sulphuric
acid from the weathering of pyrite; and (3) organic acids derived from
decomposing vegetable matter. In the absence of air ferric oxide is
reduced to the ferrous state and forms soluble double salts with ammonia
1 A. Geikie, Textbook of geology, 4th ed., 1903, p. 187.
2 F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 538.
3 F. Zirkel, Lehrbuch der Petrographic, 3, 1894, p. 574.
4 F. M. Stapff, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., 18, 1866, p. 86 .
J. II. L. Vogt, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 2, 1894, p. 30; and 3, 1895, p. 38.
J. M. van Bemmelen, Zeitschr. anorg. Chemie, 22, 1906, p. 313.
Ossian Aschan, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 15, 1907, pp. 56-62.
E. S. Moore, Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 528-537.
N. J. Harrar, Solvent effects of certain organic acids upon oxides of iron, Econ.
Geol., 24, 1929, pp. 50-61.
264 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and humic acid. The importance of organic acids was emphasized long
ago by A. A. Julien and by Sterry Hunt.
Precipitation is effected in bicarbonate solutions by the escape of
carbon dioxide in the air or through its absorption by plant cells. The
ferrous carbonate is easily oxidized to ferric hydroxides. In the presence
of much organic matter ferrous carbonate remains in the precipitate.
From ferrous sulphate solution iron is precipitated as limonite by
oxidation and hydrolysis, or by reaction with calcium carbonate solution,
in which case siderite and gypsum will result, the former oxidizing to
limonite, or the iron may be precipitated by ammonium humate, always
present in swamp waters, or finally by soluble calcium phosphate, in
which case vivianite or other iron phosphates result. Less commonly
the iron is precipitated as pyrite by alkaline sulphides or hydrogen
sulphide.
From soluble humates iron is also precipitated by organisms, called
iron bacteria,1which take up these humates, as well as ferrous carbonate,
and coat their cell walls with the segregated limonite; but regarding the
real importance of this process we have few data.
In these, as in so many other surface reactions, the ferric hydroxides
are probably precipitated as colloidal complexes of indefinite composition,
or “ gels,” which in time tend to change to crystalline bodies. Much
of the ferric hydroxide is doubtless transported for considerable distance
in colloid form. Five “ species” of ferric hydroxide have been recognized.
Arranged by increasing water they are:
Turgite................................. 2Fe20 3.H30 94.6 per cent Fe20 3
Gothite................................. 2Fe20 3.2H20 89.9 per cent Fe20 3
Limonite............................... 2Fe20 3.3H20 85.5 per cent Fe20 3
Xanthosiderite.................... 2Fe20 3.4H20 81.6 per cent Fe20 3
Limnite................................. 2Fe20 3.6H20 74.7 per cent Fe20 3
Turgite is red and may be mistaken for hematite. Several complex
ferric silicates and sulphates look somewhat like limonite. Posnjak
and Merwin2admit only one crystalline form—a monohydrate, crystalliz­
ing as gothite or lepidocrocite. They define limonite as a colloidal,
amorphous ferric oxide monohydrate with variable adsorbed and capillary
water.
Examples.—At Radnor and Drummondville, Three Rivers district,
Quebec, the occurrences of bog iron are extensive. This iron ore was
utilized until 1911, being dug in the swamps or dredged in the lakes; in
1 E. C. Harder, Iron-depositing bacteria and their geologic relations, Prof. Paper
113, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1919.
2 E. Posnjak and H. E. Merwin, The hydrated ferric oxides, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th
ser., 4, 1919, pp. 311-348; The system Fe20 3 — S03 — H20, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.,
44, pt. 2, 1922, pp. 1965-1994.
H. B. Weiser, The hydrous oxides, New York, 1926, 482 pp.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 265
1911 the operations ceased. The production in this district began in
1733.
One of the most famous deposits formerly mined is at Katahdin,
Maine. Small deposits are found at very many places in New England
and have been worked on a small scale.
THE SIDERITES OF MARINE AND BRACKISH-WATER STRATA
Occurrence.—Siderite (FeC03) is an iron ore of some importance,
in both epigenetic and syngenetic deposits. It occurs in fissure veins and
as a replacement of limestone, but is also found in the sedimentary rocks
as a product of the sedimentary processes. The sedimentary siderite
ores are called clay ironstone, spherosiderite, or black band. A dense or
fine-grained concretionary or spherulitic structure is characteristic of the
“clay ironstone” occurring in clays or shales; and these concretions, more
or less admixed with clay and sand and often inclosing vegetable remains,
are found abundantly at certain horizons. The variety called “ black
band” forms continuous beds of dark-colored, compact appearance in
the shales of the coal measures, often directly underneath or above the
coal beds.
These ores contain less than 48 per cent of iron and must be calcined
before smelting. Both sulphur and phosphorus are present, sometimes
in considerable quantities.
Marcasite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, millerite, galena, sphalerite, and chal-
copyrite are sometimes found along cracks in the concretions of siderite,
indicating that the iron solutions carried small amounts of the less com­
mon metals, probably as sulphates. An analysis of siderite ore from
Maryland1showed in percentage 36.05 Fe, 13.53 Si02,6.47 A120 3, 0.94 Mn,
0.08 P, and 0.42 S.
The economic importance of these ores, formerly great, is now small.
Near the surface they are sometimes changed to limonite.
The origin of sedimentary siderites is explained along the same lines
as that of the bog-iron ores. Solutions of ferrous bicarbonate or sulphate
were supplied to the marshes along the sea coast or to the shallow sea
where organic matter was abundant. Precipitation of the normal
insoluble carbonate took place through absorption of the solvent C02 by
vegetation. Free oxygen was absent, for otherwise the carbonate would
have been transformed into limonite. But even if the iron had originally
been deposited as limonite, a reduction and carbonation to siderite may
have been effected by the limonitic precipitate being covered by mud
containing organic matter.
1J. T. Singewald, Jr., Econ. Geol., 4, 1909, pp. 530-543.
J. T. Singewald, Jr., Report on the iron ores of Maryland, Maryland Geol. and
Econ. Survey, 9, pt. 3, 1911.
266 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The concretionary masses are not the products of primary precipita­
tion, but are, probably in all cases, segregated into nodular form by the
action of percolating solutions around a suitable nucleus while the
sediments were still soft.
Examples.—In the United States sedimentary siderites are known in
Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, and Kentucky. Their
present industrial importance is slight, but they were formerly mined on
a more extensive scale. The production in 1930 was only 1,000 long tons
from Pennsylvania, and this was used for the manufacture of red paint.
In Pennsylvania and adjacent States the upper barren Coal Measures
contain abundant nodules of siderite in the shales and sandstones, but no
valuable deposits. In the upper productive Coal Measures, or Mononga-
hela River series, black band ore occurs, for instance, just below or above
the Pittsburgh coal bed. In the lower Coal Measures the siderites are
especially abundant; in Ohio 12 horizons of black bands and concretionary
ores are distinguished by Orton.1
Siderite ores also occur in the Tertiary Claiborne formation of
Mississippi.
The black bands are common in Germany. They were formerly
actively worked in Westphalia and near Saarbriicken, where the ore
formed flat lenticular masses as much as \ A/i meters thick and sometimes
several hundred meters in extent.
In England the black bands were formerly of the highest importance
and 50 years ago furnished four-fifths of the total iron output. They
are now mined only in North Staffordshire and in Scotland. In Wales
the black bands occur in the lower Coal Measures. Kendall2enumerates
75 horizons of siderite ore.
In Scotland (Ayrshire) the black bands occur both in Coal Measures
and in Carboniferous limestone. The ores contain 25 to 40 per cent
Fe, and occur as thin strata, \ A/i feet or less thick; several of them are
usually close together.
THE OOLITIC MARINE IRON ORES
Oolites3 (named from semblance to fish roe) are rounded, concre­
tionary grains, commonly showing concentric deposition bands and
radial fibrous crystal structure. Their size varies up to a diameter of
2 millimeters; a kernel of a sand grain or fossil fragment is often present.
1 Ohio Geol. Survej^, 5, 1884, p. 378.
2 J. D. Kendall, The iron ores of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1893, pp.
145-199.
3 For best review and literature see W. H. Twenhofel, Treatise on sedimentation,
Baltimore, 2d ed., 1932, pp. 430-460; 757-769.
W. H. Bucher, On oolites and spherulites, Jour. Geol., 26, 1918, pp. 593-621.
G. Linck, Die Bildung der Oolite und Rogensteine, Neues Jahrbuch., Beil. Bd.
16, 1903, p. 495.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 267
Rocks with abundant oolites are said to have an oolitic texture. Oolitic
limestones (Fig. 105) occur in many sedimentary series, and are some­
times silicified. The oolites of the iron ores consist of hematite, siderite,
iron-rich chlorite, or more rarely of limonite. Frequently all of these
occur together. The matrix consists of calcite, siderite, or argillaceous
substance. Oolites of hematite, siderite, or iron silicate usually contain

F ig . 105.— Thin section of calcite oolite with calcite cem ent, Short Creek oolite, Missouri.
(After P. W. George.)
some colloidal silica which is left as a skeleton when the concretions
are dissolved in acid.
Undoubtedly the oolites are formed by colloidal processes; this is
almost self-evident and has been proved by the investigations of Schade,
quoted by Bucher and others.
The iron oolites are shallow water products and their development
is dependent upon a nearby source of iron from decomposing rocks,
upon wave action and currents, and upon rapidly succeeding fluctuations
of level. Their marine origin is abundantly proved.
In the past the view has often been expressed that the oolitic iron
ores have developed from oolitic limestone by the later introductions
of iron. Few hold to this opinion at the present time; the iron was
supplied when the oolites were formed. Many complex changes took
place, however, during deposition. Conditions were alternatingly
oxidizing and reducing, resulting in hematite, or ferrous silicate, or
ferrous carbonate.
268 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In later ages, when exposed to weathering the ferrous minerals
may change to limonite, or calcite may be dissolved, causing enrichment
of the ore.
The Hydrous Iron Silicates of Sedimentary Origin.—The minerals
to be considered are glauconite, chamosite, thuringite (daphnite), and
greenalite. Their approximate composition is shown in the following
table. The composition is not constant and the formulas are more or
less uncertain, as is natural because all are probably of colloidal origin:
APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SEDIM ENTARY IRON SILICATES
Glauconite Chamosite Thuringite | Greenalite
SiOs........................................ 48 25 23 30
A1203 ...................................... 7 17 17
Fe20 3..................................... 24 6 15 35
FeO........................................ 2 39 33 26
CaO........................................ 1
MgO...................................... 3 3
ICO........................................ 7
11A)........................................ 8 10 11 9

Glauconite (KFeSi20 6.H20) occupies a separate place on account

of its constant tenor of potassium, which, it seems, is higher in the older
than in the modern varieties. It does not occur in the oolitic ores, but
is, in part, concretionary; it forms dark-green granules often crystalline
and often deposited in the interior of shells. Glauconite, according
to Caspari, Hummel, and others,1 is colloidal while others point out that
it has a definite crystalline structure and occasionally forms single
crystals. The extensive literature on the subject is quoted in the
publications referred to below. The mineral is scattered in marine
sands of all ages; some contain so much that they are referred to as
“ greensands,” e.g., in the Cretaceous beds of New Jersey. These rocks
contain much phosphorus besides potassium and are sometimes used
as fertilizers, but never as iron ores because there is always too much
quartz present. By weathering they may be enriched to limonitic ores.
According to Murray and Renard, glauconite is formed just beyond
the limits of wave and current action, where the muddy deposits begin.
It is not a littoral deposit. The colloidal silica and clay in the mud
1 Besides the general literature quoted above see: W. A. Caspari, Contrib. chem­
istry marine glauconite, Proc., Edinburgh Royal Soc., 30, 1909, p. 364.
K. Hummel, Die Entstehung eisenreicher Gesteine durch Halmyrolyse, Geob-
gische Rundschau, 13, 1922, pp. 40-136.
L. Cayeux, Contrib. etude microgr. des terres sed., Lille, 1897.
A. Lacroix, Mincralogie de la France, 1, 1893-1895, pp. 406-408.
C. S. Ross, The optical properties and chemical composition of glauconite,
Proc., U. S. Nat. Mus., 69, 1926, pp. 1-15.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 269
react with ferric iron set free by oxidation on the sea bottom, and the
precipitated gel of iron silicate absorbs potassium from the sea water.
Caspari claims to have made glauconite by synthesis. Glauconite is
probably a metacolloid.
Hummel points out that the glauconite is the product of cool waters
or where cool and warm currents meet.
Chamosite, thuringite, and greenalite are iron-rich chlorites.
Greenalite, which evidently is related to thuringite, occurs abundantly,
according to Leith,1 in the Huronian sideritic cherts of the Mesabi and
other iron districts in the Lake Superior region. The greenalite in part
yielded the material from which the hematites were derived.
Chamosite (Al2 O3 .3 FeO.2 SiO2 .xH2 O (Hallimond)) and thuringite2
are dark green, chloritic minerals, which when occurring in the sedimen­
tary iron ores nearly always show an oolitic development.
The beds first described occur in Thuringia (Germany) and in Bohe­
mia. They were formerly mined extensively and are still exploited
in the latter region. In Bohemia the Silurian series comprises shale,
graywacke, and diabase tuffs, and contains beds of oolitic iron ore, one
bed being 16 feet thick, while other beds, also thick, consist mainly of
oolitic chamosite. The latter show a matrix of siderite or chamosite
in which are embedded oolites of chamosite. The ores are rich in phos­
phorus and carry a little magnetite.
The Oolitic Limonite Ores.—Primary marine limonite with oolitic
texture is apparently rare, probably on account of the dehydrating effect
of sea water. Hallimond describes oolitic limonite in sandstone and
clay from the Frodingham district, England; it is, however, of no great
importance. Possibly the deposits can be accounted for by an unusual
supply of ferric hydrate from the adjoining shores.
The Oolitic Pyritic Ores.—While pyrite and marcasite are common
in many sedimentary beds, an oolitic development is rare. The deposits
at Meggen, Germany,3 have been worked for pyrite on a fairly extensive
scale, the bed being from 12 to 20 feet thick and enclosed within a thin lime­
stone bed in folded Devonian slates (Fig. 106). Barite and sphalerite also
occur here. Bergeat holds to the sedimentary origin of the oolitic pyrite
but this opinion is not shared by Krusch who regards the deposit as a
replacement of limestone. The mine produces 330,000 metric tons of
pyrite and 170,000 tons of barite annually.
However this may be, it is certain that true oolitic beds of pyrite (or
marcasite) are found at various places (Wabana, Newfoundland, Cleve­
land Hills, England), though they are small and have no economic value.
1 C. K. Leith, Mon. 43, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1903, pp. 237-279.
2 E. R. Zalinsky, Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 19, 1904, pp. 40-84.
3 A. Bergeat, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 22, 1914, pp. 237-249.
Bevschlag, Krusch, and Vogt, Die Lagerstatten, 2, 1913, p. 414.
270 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Distribution.—Hummel discusses the peculiar distribution of the
oolitic, marine iron ores and points out that they are apparently not
being deposited at the present time, in contrast to the glauconite beds
which are being formed in the open sea at many places. He suggests that
they require warm waters in sheltered seas free from cold currents. The
oolitic hematites are found in many formations from pre-Cambrian
to Paleozoic, inclusive. The oolitic siderite-chamosite ores are
abundant in the Jurassic, e.g., in England and France, though they are
also known in older formations. In many deposits, particularly of
Paleozoic age, the three minerals occur together. The Cretaceous while
rich in glauconite beds contains no oolitic iron ores. The opinion is
gaining ground that siderite is not generally deposited in oolitic form but

F ig . 106.— Vertical section through the pyritic deposit at Meggen, G erm any. P, pyrite; B,
barite; k, limestone; ba, cs, Is, Devonian slates. (After Strauss.)
develops by replacement of chamosite very soon after the oolites are
formed.
Hallimond thought that the pyrite might replace chamosite, but
this appears doubtful. At least, the Wabana, Newfoundland, oolites
show every indication of a primary deposit naturally formed under
reducing conditions.
That either siderite or pyrite can be deposited in large bodies in the
open sea must be considered very unlikely.
Part Played by Organisms.—The part played by micro-organisms
is, as yet, difficult to evaluate. The scattered literature and much
original work are found in a publication by E. C. Harder.1 Bacteria,
particularly the “thread bacteria,” but also protozoa, algse, and fungi
are concerned in the precipitation of ferric hydroxide. Bacteria are
most important. In the presence of soluble iron salts, bacteria of the
Crenothrix type segregate iron hydroxide by oxidation of FeC03; and
it seems that this process can go on also in brackish and salt waters.
Prof. Paper 113, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1919.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 271
Thus far this process seems most important for the bog-iron ores. Certain
other bacteria seem to promote the formation of calcareous oolites in
the sea. The blue-green algae develop oxygen in their life process and
this would, of course, promote oxidation, say of siderite to hematite.
This may be of some importance in the formation of oolitic ores.
THE OOLITIC HEMATITE ORES
The Clinton Ores.1— The most important oolitic ores in the United
States are those of the Clinton formation in the Appalachian States.
They persist with remarkable regularity wherever this formation appears.
The Clinton (Silurian) lies between the Trenton limestone and the
Devonian shale, and invariably contains one or several beds of hematite
ore alternating with limestone and shale. The succession of sedimentary
rocks in the Birmingham district is as follows. In a general way the
section applies to the entire southern Appalachian region.
Carboniferous: Feet
Pennsylvanian: Pottsvilleformation (“ Coal Measures”) 2,600 to 7,000
Unconformity.
Mississippian:
Parkwood formation..................................................... 0 to 2,000
Pennington shale (30-300 feet) | „ , , . ,
Bangor limestone (670 feet) [ F1°yd shale........... 1'000 ±
Fort Payne chert............................................................ 200 to 250
Unconformity.
Devonian:
Chattanooga shale )
Frog Mountain sandstone ( ................................................. 1 to 25
Unconformity.
Silurian: Clinton (Rockwood) formation.................................. 250 to 500
Unconformity.
Ordovician: Chickamauga (Pelham) limestone........................ 200 to 1,000
Unconformity.
Cambro-Ordovician: Knox dolomite.......................................... 3,300
Cambrian:
Conasauga (Coosa) limestone.............................................. 1,000 +
Rome (Montevallo) shale (great thickness).
1 C. H. Smyth, Jr., On the Clinton iron ore, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d se^, 43, 1892, p. 487.
E. F. Burchard, The Clinton iron ore deposits of Alabama, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., 39, 1908, pp. 997-1055.
D. H. Newland and C. A. Hartnagel, Iron ores of the Clinton formation, Bull. 123,
New York State Mus., 1908.
Burchard, Butts, and Eckel, The Birmingham district, Alabama, Bull. 400,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910.
E. F. Burchard, The red iron ores of East Tennessee, Bull. 16, Geol. Survey
Tennessee, 1913.
W. R. Crane, Red ore mining methods in the Birmingham district, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 72, 1925, pp. 157-186; also pp. 187-225.
Iron ore mining practice in the Birmingham district, Bull. 239, U. S. Bur. Mines,
1926.
272 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The Clinton ores extend from western New York, through Pennsyl­
vania, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and northwestern
Georgia into Alabama, where, near Birmingham, they attain their
greatest development. The ores constitute beds or lenses at various
horizons in the Clinton formation, which forms a striking unit of red
shallow water deposits underlain and covered disconformably by great
thicknesses of limestones of the Cambrian and Mississippian ages, respec­
tively (Fig. 107). Thin beds of ferruginous sandstone, shale, and oolitic
hematite make up the formation, with frequent cross bedding and some
conglomerates. The ores contain calcite and in some places show gradual
transition to limestones.
The average thickness of the ore beds is only two or three feet, but in
Alabama they reach 20 feet of merchantable ore with occasional thin
shale or sandstone partings. Single ore beds may extend for many miles.
In the Birmingham district the Clinton beds outcrop on the east flank of

F ig . 107. — Section showing Clinton iron ores, Birmingham , Alabam a; Sc, Clinton
(Rockwood) form ation, Silurian; Oc, Chickam auga (Pelham) limestone, Ordovician; Cfp,
F ort Payne chert, Mississippian. (After E. F. Burchard.)
an anticline and can be traced continuously northward into Tennes­
see, but the actively working mines extend only for 15 miles along the
outcrop. Good ore beds have been found by drilling for several miles
eastward but toward the west the formation becomes more calcareous.
Four beds are known within 80 feet in the upper part of the formation,
two of which are worked, with a thickness of from 9 to 20 feet. The
iron ores are generally sharply bounded by shale or sandstone; in places
they form transitions into ferruginous sandstone.
An important iron industry is based upon the deposits in Alabama
and the annual production of ore has now attained about 6,500,000
tons, or about 11 per cent of the total output of iron ore in the United
States. Mining has been carried 4,000 feet on the dip in some of the
properties; and entirely similar ore has been shown to exist by borings
at a vertical depth of 2,000 feet, 2 miles eastward from the outcrop.
Large reserves of ore are available in this district.
Clinton ores are also mined north of Alabama in Tennessee though
the operations are generally confined to the enriched surface ore. North
of Tennessee the mining is profitable in few places.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 273
There are several types of Clinton ores; most of them are fairly rich
in calcium carbonate.
One common type is a fine-grained pebbly conglomerate or sandstone,
each pebble or grain coated with hematite and the rock cemented with
that mineral and with calcite. Another type consists largely of frag­
ments of bryozoa, shells, trilobites, etc., partly coated or replaced by
ferric oxide, besides an abundance of oolitic grains, usually with a grain
of sand as the center (Fig. 108). Still another type consists entirely of

F ig . 108.— Clinton ore, W olcott, W ayne County, New York. Magnified 20 diam eters.
Ore essentially formed of remains of bryozoans and crinoids. a, fragm ents of bryozoans,
ferric oxide; b, fragm ent of bryozoan encrusted with ferric oxide; c, bryozoan structure
almost obliterated by ferric oxide; d, crinoid stalk replaced by ferric oxide, cells filled with
calcite of uniform optical orientation; e, same, alm ost entirely replaced; J , calcite cement.
{After L, Cayeux.)

oolites of hematite in calcite matrix, averaging 1 or 2 millimeters in

diameter. A fourth type shows small flattened hematite concretions
with fragments of fossils changed to hematite; this is the “ flax seed ore”
which is very common at Birmingham. There is very little siderite or
chlorite. Fragments of quartz and other minerals are common. The
beds vary along the strike in their calcareous or siliceous admixtures.
Phosphorus is present in considerable amounts.
At the surface and down to a depth of about 200 feet the calcium
carbonate is in part dissolved and the ore correspondingly enriched.
Such ore is called “soft,” in contrast to the unaltered or “hard” variety.
The poorest ores used carry 25 to 30 per cent iron.
274 MINERAL DEPOSITS
ANALYSES OF CLINTON ORES
(E. C. Harder, M ineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908)
Hard ore Soft ore
Fe........................................... 37.00 50.44
SiOs............................................. 7.14 12.10
A120 3........................................... 3.81 6.06
CaO....................................... 19.20 4.65
Mn.............................................. 0.23 0.21
S.................................................. 0.08 0.07
P ................................................. 0.30 0.46
That the hematite was formed by direct sedimentation is held by
C. H. Smyth; similar views are advocated by Newlands, Eckel, and
Burchard. Smyth believes that the iron was carried out into shallow
marine basins and there slowly oxidized and precipitated mechani­
cally around the shells or replaced them. There is little iron silicate.
According to G. W. Stose, siderite occurs in some of the Virginia ores.
TH E JU R A S S IC IR O N ORES OF EN GLAND 1
The English iron industry is now largely dependent upon the sedi­
mentary ores occurring in the Jurassic. These ores now furnish the
larger part of an annual production of 15,000,000 tons. The greatest
yield comes from the Cleveland Hills in the Yorkshire district. While
the ores are of low grade, they are cheaply mined, largely in open cuts.
The recent memoirs of the Geological Survey have furnished long
awaited information. The ores occur in the Middle Lias and a section
would be about as follows; the figures being in feet:
Upper Lias............................................ Shale

!
Shale 0-6
Main ore seam 0-11

Shale 2§—5
Pec ten seams lj—16
Shale 3-6
Two-foot ore seam 1
Shale 20-30
Avicula seam 0-3
Sandy sediments 70-90
Lower Lias............................................. Shale, etc.
The main seam is divided in several sections, separated by partings.
Accessory constituents are pyrite, barite, sphalerite, and galena, the
last often formed in shells. Sphalerite is often seen. There is also,
1 Special reports on the mineral resources of Great Britain, Mem,., Geol. Survey,
8-13, 1919-1920.
Also A. F. Hallimond, Bedded iron ores of England and Wales, idem, 29, 1925,
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 275
in the upper part a thin bed of oolitic pyrite, containing 0.11 per cent
Ni and Co, 0.015 per cent CuO and 0.15 per cent PbO.
The common types of ore are designated as “ chamositic mudstone”
and “chamositic, siderite mudstone:” a marine deposit composed of a
matrix of fine-grained chamosite with oolites of the same mineral and
rhombs and grains of siderite. The minerals are substantially in the
condition in which they were deposited. Chamosite is probably the
earliest mineral; siderite followed and is rarely oolitic. There is no
hematite or original limonite. Hallimond pictures the development of
chamosite as follows: Along a muddy, shallow shore the waters were charged
with colloidal clay material; as the ferrous iron increases by detritus or
organic action, the solubility product of chamosite will be reached and
chamosite precipitated. There will take place a progressive transforma­
tion of clay to chamosite.
Hallimond gives an interesting analysis of the average composition of
the ore.
ANALYSIS OF CLEVELAND HILLS IRON ORE
Si02......................... .............. 8.51
S................................... ............ 0.05
A120 3....................... .............. 6.12
P20 6.............................. ............ 1.30
Fe20 3...................... .............. 1.77
Ti02.............................. ............ 0.36
FeO......................... .............. 36.91
Cr20 3......................................... 0.03
CaO......................... .............. 5.54
V20 , .......................................... 0.08
MgO........................ ..............As.................................. ............ 0.02
3.75
C02......................... .............. 20.70
K»0............................. ............ 0.03
H20 combination.. .............. 4.05
Na20 ........................... ............ 0.05
H20 moisture........ .............. 10.00
C.................................. ............ 0.27
MnO............................ ............ 0.42
The metallic iron is said to vary between 29 and 30 per cent. A few grains
of magnetite are found in the ore.
CALCULATED COMPOSITION
CaSO,.................................................................... 2.83
CaC03.................................................................... 7.13
MgCOs................................................................... 7.88
MnCOj................................................................... 0.68
FeCO,..................................................................... 34.70
Chamosite..................................................... .. 34.24
TH E O O L IT IC IR O N ORES OF L O R R A IN E

The so-called “ minettes,”1 or oolitic “limonites” of Lorraine and

of Luxembourg, are of the highest importance as present and future
‘L. van Werveke, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1895, p. 497; 1901, pp. 396-403.
F. Vilain, Ann. Mines, Mem. 1, 1902, pp. 113-290.
P. M. Nicou, in “Iron ore resources of the world,” Int. Geol. Congress, Stock­
holm, 1910.
G. Berg, Struktur und Entstehung der lothringischen Minette Erze, Zeitschr.
dcutsch. geol. Gesell., Monatsber., 1920, p. 77.
L. Cayeux, Les minerais de fer oolitiques de France, 2, Paris, 1922.
276 MINERAL DEPOSITS
resources of European iron. Before the World War there were in France
at least 50 mines with an annual ore production of nearly 20,000,000
metric tons (1913). The proved reserves are estimated at 3,000,000,000
tons. In German Lorraine, now ceded to France, the production
attained similar figures and the estimated reserves are over 2,000,000,000
tons. The total production in France attained 48,820,528 metric tons
in 1930, nearly all of which was derived from these ores. Dipping gently
westward the strata attain a depth of 3,000 feet or more, though farther
west the iron ore tends to thin out. The area covered is about 113,000
hectares. The principal area consists of the Longwy-Briey basin. The
present mining is done at a depth of 800 feet or less, and in part by tunnel­
ing or open cuts.
The water to be pumped is heavy, in places reaching 10 cubic meters
per minute. The ores lie in the Middle (Dogger) part of the Jurassic

F ig . 109.— Section through the m inette measures a t Esch; 8, calcareous layer

with Harpoceras humphriesianum; 7, calcareous layer with Harpoceras sowerbyi; , marl with
6

Harpoceras murchisonae; 5, the m inette m easure group (see legend); 4, sandstone with
Trigonia navis; 3 and 2, upper and lower clays with Harpoceras siriaiulum; 1, Lias (micaceous
m arl). (After W. Branco.)
system and occur with shales, sandstones, and marls as distinct beds
within a vertical distance of 75 to 150 feet (Fig. 109). The strata are not
absolutely persistent at the same level, but are local accumulations,
thinning out in lenticular manner. The several beds known as the red,
gray, and black beds are of different thickness, the maximum being
15 feet. The minimum exploitable limit is 3 feet. A low percentage of
iron, varying from 31 to 40, is characteristic, likewise a high percentage
of phosphorus, varying from 1.6 to 1.8, the latter making the ores
available for the basic process. From 5 to 12 per cent CaO and from 7
to 20 per cent SiCL are present. As the iron decreases calcium increases.
The ores are earthy and soft and are of brown, gray, or yellow tints.
The detailed and beautifully illustrated monograph of Cayeux is the
latest contribution to the study of the Lorraine oolites. The author
states that limonite is the most abundant, but probably latest mineral.
The other minerals also very important are siderite, chlorite, and hematite.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 277
Oolites of magnetite are known in the Longwy-Briey basin and are
probably caused by a slight metamorphism; pyrite is rarely present.
The oolites often show fracturing and redeposition; concentric deposition
in narrow bands is common; some consist entirely of hematite or limonite.
As to the origin Cayeux still holds to the view expressed in 1909 that
the iron oolites replace calcite oolites. The order of minerals is siderite

F ig . 110.—-Ore from Silurian beds a t La Ferriere-aux-Etangs, France. Magnified 22

diameters. The oolites are chlorite with a kernel of siderite; the fine-grained cem ent is
chlorite and siderite. a, oolite of chlorite, in center of lighter color; partly converted
into hem atite on the outside; b, nucleus of corroded pure siderite; c, sam e of yellow, altered
siderite; d, grains of siderite in the cem ent; e, chloritic oolite, partly crushed and invaded
by cement; /, blackish cem ent of chlorite and siderite. (A fter L . Cayeux.)
(oldest); chlorite; hematite and limonite; but hematite oolites may also
be directly derived from siderite (Fig. 110). The iron is derived from the
adjacent land areas. No detailed examination of the chlorite is given,
nor any chemical aspect of the process. The results of Cayeux seem
to be in conflict with those of Hallimond on the British iron ores.
Less important oolites occur in other parts of the Jurassic system in
Europe.
THE OOLITIC HEMATITE-CHAMOSITE-SIDERITE ORES OF
NEWFOUNDLAND
While ores of this type have been described from many places, the
monograph by A. 0. Hayes on the Wabana ores in Newfoundland is of
particular interest. 1 The ores occur in the upper 1,000 feet of flat-dipping
1A. 0. Hayes, The Wabana iron ore of Newfoundland, Mem. 78, Geol. Survey
Canada, 1915; Econ. Geol., 26, 1931, pp. 44-64.
J. B. Gilliott, Folding and faulting of the Wabana ore deposits, Trans., Can. Inst.
Min. Met., 27, 1925, pp. 616-634.
278 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Ordovician sandstone and shale and contain several workable beds from
10 to 30 feet in thickness, one of which has been mined for a distance of
iy -2 miles under the sea. Very large ore reserves are indicated. The
ores are fine-grained brown or green oolites and contain some fragments
of marine shells, but there is little calcite and no limestone. They average
in per cent, 50-70 hematite, 15-25 chamosite, 0-50 siderite, 0-1 calcite,
and 1-10 quartz. The oolites consist often of concentric shells of hematite
and chamosite such as shown in Fig. Ill, and are frequently embedded

F ig . 111.— Oolitic cham osite-hem atite ore of W abana with siderite. o, spherule of
hem atite and chamosite in concentric layers; b, outer border of siderite, replacing spherule;
c, spherule of hem atite-cham osite partially replaced by siderite; d, siderite replacing
spherule and m atrix. Magnified 110 diam eters. (A fter A . 0 . H ayes.)
in a matrix of siderite. The hematite concretions, upon treatment with
HC1, yield a residual skeleton of silica.
It is shown that borings of algse penetrate both oolites and matrix
and that thus the ore was practically in its present condition when covered
by later sediments. Oxygen given off by these algae may have caused
oxidation of chamosite to hematite. Direct precipitation of all three
iron minerals is, therefore, advocated, though siderite is believed to be
the latest and may replace chamosite.
Of exceptional interest are thin beds of pyritic oolite above the
“ Dominion” bed. They contain graptolites, and the small pyrite
concretions lie in an argillaceous matrix with some crystalline quartz.
Similar chamosite-hematite ores have been described from many places. 1
1L. Cayeux, Les minerais de fer oolitiques de France, 1, Paris, 1909.
W. T. Dorpinghaus, Eisenerzlagerstatten vom Chamosittvpus (Spain), Archiv
fur Lagerstatten Forschung, Heft 16, Berlin, 1914, pp. 53-87.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 279
REVIEW OF THE SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES
The descriptions given above show that in marshes, lakes, and rivers
the hydroxides of iron, mainly limonite, are deposited and that smaller
quantities of siderite, iron sulphide, and iron phosphates may be pre­
cipitated. Siderite is also deposited in brackish water or under littoral
conditions where there is much organic matter present.
Regarding the marine ores, it is certain that glauconite and allied
iron silicates are deposited in the sea and that under special reducing
conditions siderite and iron disulphide may also form. The probability
is also very strong that hematite is developed, in part from oxidation of
siderite and glauconite, in part by detrital processes. Whether limonite
is ever formed in sea water is more doubtful for the salt solutions have a
strong dehydrating effect. Many of the “marine” limonites are products
of oxidation of siderite and iron silicates.
The marine iron ores are all shallow water deposits and the frequent
oolitic structure is in part at least due to accompanying action of waves
and currents. Many of the replacements observed have certainly
occurred immediately after deposition. Some geologists, like Cayeux,
hold that the ore was a limestone of organic origin which has been later
transformed into hematite and siderite by successive replacements, but
there seems to be little to support this view.
Wherever iron disulphide is formed reducing conditions prevailed;
and the sulphide was precipitated as a colloid.
Any of these oolitic deposits may, of course, have been enriched,
after uplift and erosion, by solution of calcite but the iron was certainly
not introduced by atmospheric waters.
So we arrive at the conception of shallow bays in which coral reefs
flourished or the detritus of older fossiliferous limestone was spread.
Into these bays were swept, at intervals, masses of finely divided detritus
from the deep mantle of decayed rock of adjacent tropical land areas,
undoubtedly rich in hematite as such products always are. The water
discharged from the land certainly contained ferrous bicarbonate. In
this mud agitated by the waves progressed numerous and complicated
reactions. Colloidal iron silicates were formed which quickly oxidized to
hematite or were replaced by siderite. Oolites and shells of calcite were re­
placed by hematite or by siderite but all these complex processes proceeded
almost simultaneously. Somewhat similar conditions are found to-day, for
instance, on the south side of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, where such
hematite mud is spread out over a large area of shallow coral reef.
Naturally there are extensive sedimentary beds which contain iron
but not in sufficient amount to be called iron ores. Among these are,
for instance, the glauconitic beds of many formations and the “iron
formations” of the Lake Superior region.
280 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In the origin of oolites, colloidal precipitates play an important part.
The calcite oolites are believed to have been formed by successive layers
of calcium carbonate gel which almost instantly was converted into
fibrous calcite. Likewise the concentric structures of siderite and
chamosite passed through a gel stage accompanied by adsorption of
phosphorus.
SEDIMENTARY MANGANESE ORES1
There is much less manganese than iron in the earth’s crust, the
average analyses of igneous rock calculated by Clarke showing but 0.078
per cent of manganese. Deposits of manganese ore are also much less
common than those of iron ore. Nevertheless, many spring waters carry
manganese and a minute amount of it is contained in sea water. Sedi­
mentary deposits of manganese are known, marine and lacustrine as well
as fluviatile.
According to experiments by E. C. Sullivan12 the manganese in rocks
is taken into solution more easily than iron, both by carbonated water
and by dilute sulphuric acid. He also finds that from mixed ferrous
and manganese sulphates almost all of the iron is precipitated by
carbonate of calcium before any manganese is thrown down. Fresenius,
many years ago, also found that from spring water iron is precipitated
first as limonite, while the manganese remains in solution much longer.
This accounts for the very general separation of the two metals in the
oxidized zone.
Manganese is dissolved mainly as bicarbonate, more rarely as sulphate
(p. 363), possibly also as phosphate. It is easily precipitated by oxida­
tion, generally as Mn0 2 in the form of pyrolusite (63.2 per cent Mn), or
as slightly hydrous psilomelane or wad (an impure mixture of manganese
oxides), or more rarely as manganite (Mn2 0 3 .H 2 0). The precipitate is
generally a “ gel,” which crystallizes in time, but which has a tendency
to adsorb certain oxides, especially those of barium and potassium.
Manganese dioxide is, like limonite, precipitated by bacterial action. 3
Bog Manganese Ore.—It has been stated above that many bog iron
ores contain manganese; pure bog manganese ores are also known, though
the deposits are not abundant. The material is generally earthy and soft,
approaching wad in composition. In part the bog manganese consists
of a skeleton of hard and glossy black ore containing cavities filled with a
black powder. The deposits are rarely more than a few feet in thickness;
1 For excellent review see D. F. Hewett in Twenhofel, Treatise on sedimentation,
2d ed., Baltimore, 1932, pp. 565-581.
2 E. C. Sullivan, quoted by W. H. Emmons in Bull. 46, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1910,
p. 803.
3 G. A. Thiel, Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 301-310.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 281
a small occurrence near Wickes, Montana, described by Harder, 1 lies in
the flat bottom of a gulch covered by soil and underlain by ochery bog
limonite.
A much larger and thicker deposit occurs at Hillsborough, New
Brunswick; it is said to extend over 17 acres with a thickness of 6 ^ 2 feet.
An analysis shows Mn, 45.81; Fe, 9.95; S, 0.03; P, 0.05, and Si02, 5.36
per cent. 2
Manganese in Lacustrine and Marine Beds.—Many sedimentary
beds in all parts of the world contain manganese derived from the degra­
dation of old land areas; it occurs as carbonate and stains or concretions
of dioxide in tuffs, quartzites, sandstones, clays, shales, and limestones.
It is frequently contained in beds of jasper or radiolarian chert. Strongly
manganiferous sediments may recrystallize to crystalline schists, the
manganese assuming the form of rhodonite, rhodochrosite, or manganese
garnet (spessartite). The presence of manganese nodules in deep sea
deposits is well known; they are considered to be rather a submarine
product of segregation from the red pelagic mud than a chemical precipi­
tate from the ocean. Very rarely, however, do these sedimentary rocks
contain manganese of economic importance; and it is only by subsequent
concentration by oxidation, especially effective in regions of deep secular
decay, that valuable deposits are developed (pp. 362-369).
An excellent example of an undoubtedly sedimentary and practically
unaltered deposit is described from Newfoundland by N. C. Dale. 3 It is
of little economic importance. The metal occurs as carbonate, with some
Mn02, in nodular form, in shaly and calcareous beds of Cambrian age
and is associated with calcium phosphate in nodular form, hematite
spherules, and barite in crystals and blades; the psilomelane in the deposit
also contains barium. Such deposits could probably only form in shallow
water mud near land areas subjected to secular rock decay.
There are many such low-grade sedimentary manganese beds. We
may recall the extensive manganiferous “iron formation” of Cuyuna
Range, Minnesota (p. 302).
The great manganese deposits of the province of Kutais, in Trans-
Caucasia (Georgian Republic) , 4 are apparently sedimentary, and marine;
but it is not impossible that here, too, enrichment by decomposition has
taken place. These deposits, said to be the largest in the world, are
beds in Eocene clays, marls, and sandstones, the last resting on Creta-
1 E. C. Harder, Manganese deposits of the United States, Bull. 427, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1910, p. 137.
2 E. C. Harder, idem., p. 171.
3 N. C. Dale, The Cambrian manganese deposits of Conception and Trinity Bays,
Newfoundland, Proc., Am. Philos. Soc., 54, 1915, pp. 371-456.
4 C. F. Drake, The manganese ore industry of Caucasus, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 28, 1898, p. 191.
E. C. Harder, op. cit., p. 208.
282 MINERAL DEPOSITS
ceous limestone, on the top of an extensive plateau. The ore beds, at
the base of the Eocene, are 5 to 8 feet thick, and consist of several strata of
oolitic pyrolusite with cementing earthy manganese ore. They are said
to extend over an area of 10 square miles. The ores average 40 to 50
per cent Mn and 0.16 per cent P. Drake gives a complete analysis of an
ore containing, M n02, 86.25; Mn 3 0 4, 0.47; Fe2 0 3, 0.61; NiO, 0.3 per cent,
and a trace of copper. Barium is present as usual in these ores. The
production in 1930 was 1,421,000 tons, even larger than before the World
War. Reserves are given as 73,000,000 tons. Similar large deposits of
Oligocene age occur at Nicopol, Jekaterinoslaw. Costs of production
are said to be about $ 1 0 per ton . 1
SEDIMENTARY PHOSPHATE BEDS12
Composition of the Calcium Phosphates.—Phosphorus enters in the
average composition of igneous rocks, according to F. W. Clarke, to the
extent of only 0.13 per cent, and the analyses of sediments show smaller
percentages. Nevertheless, it plays a most important part in the life
processes of plants and animals, in the sea and on the land; and in places
its compounds accumulate in large masses. Its most common salt is a
calcium phosphate; the phosphates of iron, aluminum, lead, and other
metals are entirely subordinate.
Apatite, the most common calcium phosphate, also contains CaF2
or CaCl2. The formulas may be written Ca5 (P 0 4)3F and Ca 5 (P0 4 )3Cl,
or 3 Ca3 (P0 4 ) 2 .Ca(F,Cl)2, the first part of the latter formula being the tri-
basic calcium phosphate. Fluorine apatite contains 42.3 per cent P2 C>5 ;
chlorine apatite, 41.0 per cent. The pure tri-basic phosphate, which is
used as a standard to express the tenor of phosphate rocks, contains 45.8
per cent P 2 0 5. The phosphate in sedimentary rocks approaches more or
less closely the tri-basic phosphate, but sometimes is almost identical with
a fluorine apatite.
In deposits of guano a considerable number of acid hydrous phos­
phates, such as monetite (CaHP04) and brushite (CaHP0 4 .2H2 0), have
been found, but they have little practical importance. In the same
deposits various complex phosphates of iron, magnesium, sodium, and
ammonium occur, but these also are unimportant.
1 K. V. Markov, Trans., U. S. S. R. Prospecting Service, 27, 1931, 41 pp.
2 F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924,
pp. 523-534.
O. Stutzer and W. Wetzel, Die wichtigsten Lagerstatten der Nicht-Erze, Berlin,
1932, pp. 1-291.
Eliot Blackwelder, The geologic role of phosphorus, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 42,
1916, pp. 285-298.
Mineral Resources, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930, pt. 1, p. 326.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 283
The mineralogical composition of the marine and residual phosphates
is complex. 1 Apatite is essentially a high temperature mineral and has
not been recognized in the marine phosphates; in the latter hydrous
carbono-phosphates play the principal part. The latter are amorphous
and doubtless hardened colloidal precipitates (Fig. 112A); there are two
species: collophanite ( C aO . P O .C aO .C O .H O + n H 20 ) and fluocol-
9 3 2 5 2 2

lophanite. The crystalline minerals which in part are altered colloids,

in part crusts and mammillary structures, comprise dahllite and francolite
both of which are similar carbono-phosphates with or without fluorine.
The marine phosphate rocks, aside from detrital impurities, thus
contain calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate; shell fragments and
glauconitic granules are frequently present. The poorer kinds may be
classified as phosphatic sands, marls, or limestones. The richer varieties
are usually oolitic, dark-colored rocks, occasionally with a peculiar
whitish efflorescence, and may carry large amounts of organic matter.
They are inconspicuous and in places difficult to recognize. The specific
gravity, averaging 2.9 in 70 per cent phosphate rock, is considerably
higher than that of limestone and may be used to aid in the identification.
A rapid field assay with ammonium molybdate is the best test.
Other Phosphates.—Among the iron phosphates, the blue vivianite,
Fe3 (P0 4 ) 2 .8 H 2 0 , is the best known, and appears frequently in bog iron
ores. Of the aluminum phosphates, wavellite, 4A1P04 .2A1(0H) 3 +
9H2 0, and turquoise, A1P04 .A1(0H) 3 + H 2 0, are the best known, the
former locally used as a source of phosphorus, the latter as a blue semi­
precious stone; both are usually products of the uppermost zone of the
crust, sometimes even forming in the zone of oxidation. In a similar
geological position occur the lead phosphate, pyromorphite, correspond­
ing in formula to chlorine apatite. Other phosphates, like amblygonite,
a fluo-phosphate of lithium and aluminum, monazite, and other phos­
phates of the rare earths, find their home in the pegmatite dikes. This
illustrates the variety of occurrence of the phosphates.
Phosphate Deposits.—The many kinds of deposits in which calcium
phosphate is of economic importance are shown by the following list:
1. Disseminated in igneous rocks or in their differentiation products
of metallic ores.
2. Apatite veins, closely allied to pegmatitic dikes.
3. Marine concretionary beds.

1 A. Lacroix, Sur la constitution mineralogique des phosphorites frangaises, Comple

Rendu, 150, 1910, p. 1213.
H. S. Gale and R. W. Richards, Bull. 430, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 464.
W. T. Schaller, Bull. 509, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1912, pp. 89-100.
A. F. Rogers, A review of the amorphous minerals, Jour. Geol., 25, 1917, pp. 515-
541 .
A. F. Rogers, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 3, 1922, p. 269.
284 MINERAL DEPOSITS
4. Sub-aerial accumulations of animal excrement—bat caves, guano
islands.
5. Metasomatic deposits by replacement of limestone by means of
phosphate solutions, from Nos. 3 and 4.
6 . Residual concretions, by action of atmospheric waters on No. 3.
Use.—The principal use of calcium phosphate is for soil fertilization;
all the classes enumerated above are so utilized. Under No. 1 comes,
for instance, the apatite concentrate from the Adirondack magnetite
ores; under No. 2 the apatite veins of Canada and Norway; the occurrences
of the remaining classes are described below.
For utilization it is necessary to transform the insoluble tribasic
phosphate into soluble form. This is generally effected by a 60 per
cent solution of sulphuric acid ; 1 hence the dependence of the phosphate
industry on an abundant and cheap supply of sulphuric acid, illustrated,
for instance, in the establishment of large sulphuric acid plants at the
pyritic copper deposits of Ducktown, Tennessee, for the treatment of the
sedimentary phosphates of the Southern states. The treatment with
H 2 SO4 results in a partial decomposition, with the formation of soluble
calcium phosphate, also called super-phosphate or mono-calcium phos­
phate (CaH 4 (P 0 4 ) 2 .H 2 0 ), and also some di-calcium phosphate, which is
much less soluble. The standard is 77 per cent of the tri-basic calcium
phosphate with less than 3 per cent of alumina plus iron, but not all of
the production reaches this grade.
Experiments show that even the tri-calcium phosphate or apatite
is soluble, particularly in water containing carbon dioxide; its solubility
in solutions of CaC0 3 or in pure water is slight, but the presence of sodium
chloride increases the solubility. 2 The marked absorption of phosphoric
acid by clays and soils is held to be due to the presence of colloidal bodies.
Production.—Though some phosphates are obtained from apatite
deposits and from basic slags, the greater part comes from sedimentary
and residual beds. In the United States, the bulk of the production
comes from Florida, Tennessee, and South Carolina, in the order named;
by far the most is mined in Florida. 3 The yield of the United States in
1930 was 3,951,363 long tons. Large quantities were exported. The
average price of phosphate was 83.56 per long ton in 1930.
Of other countries Algeria, Morocco, and Tunis produced about
5,951,000 metric tons, and the oceanic islands about 600,000 metric tons
1 The reaction is expressed by the following formula: Ca3(P04)2 + 2H2S04 =
CaHdPCbh + 2CaS04.
2 H. E. Patten and W. H. Waggaman, Absorption by soils, Bull. 52, Bur. Soils,
U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1908.
O. Schreiner and G. H. Failyer, Absorption of phosphates and potassium by soils,
Bull. 32, Bur. Soils, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1906.
3 R. W. Stone in J. E. Spurr and E. S. Wormser, The marketing of metals and
minerals, 1925, pp. 467-485.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 285
in 1929. Africa is now supplanting the United States in the markets
of Europe.
Origin of the Phosphate Rocks.—As all land animals absorb phos­
phoric acid and segregate it as calcium phosphate in their bones and excre­
ments, it is not difficult to understand the accumulation of phosphates
wherever animal life is particularly abundant and undisturbed. Besides
phosphates, such deposits contain much ammonia and nitrogen, except
where subjected to leaching by heavy precipitation. Of this kind are
the bone beds which are found occasionally in various formations and in
caves.
The guano of commerce is deposited by sea birds congregating in
enormous numbers on desert coasts and oceanic islands, for instance,
along the Peruvian and Chilean coasts, on Christmas Island in the Indian
Ocean, and in the West Indies. Some of these deposits cover whole
islands and, in places, may accumulate to a depth of 1 0 0 feet; and it is
stated that under favorable circumstances the rate of deposition is rapid.
The guano of dry climates varies greatly in texture and color, but gener­
ally is granular, light colored, and porous. It contains on an average
10.90 per cent nitrogen, 27.60 per cent phosphates, and 2 to 3 per cent
potash. 1
The West Indian deposits—for instance, those on Navassa2 and
Sombrero islands—have been leached and are in part hard and compact,
in part porous and friable. The phosphate has been concentrated to 70
or 75 per cent. The material contains from 21 to 40 per cent of phos­
phoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent sulphuric acid, 20 to 45 per cent lime, usually
also much ferric oxide and alumina. The underlying limestone or
igneous rock may be locally replaced by the phosphatic solutions.
The marine phosphate beds also derive their material from ani­
mal life. Sea water contains phosphoric acid, though the quantity is
extremely small, and likewise some fluorine, each amounting to about a
little less than one part per million.
Many shells, particularly those of the older formations, are rich in
phosphorus and fluorine. 3 A Cambrian Obolus contained 36.54 per cent
P2 0 5 and 2.78 per cent F; a recent Lingula yielded 23.20 per cent P2Os
and 1.52 per cent F . 4 The shells of crustaceans contain up to 26 per cent
Ca3 P 20 8. Pteropods, lamellibranchs, gastropods, corals, and protozoans
also carry phosphorus though in most cases the quantity is small. Phos-
1 R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., Bull. 46, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1888.
F. D. Power, Phosphate deposits of the Pacific, Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 266-281.
2 E. V. D'lnvilliers, Phosphate deposits of the Island of Navassa, Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., 2, 1891, p. 71.
3 F. W. Clarke and W. C. Wheeler, The inorganic constituents of marine inverte­
brates, Prof. Paper 124, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1922.
1 Andersson and Sahlbom, Ueber den Fluorgehalt schwedischer Phosphorite,
Bull. 4, Geol. Inst. Upsala, 1900, p. 79. Neues Jahrbuch, Ref., 1, 1903, pp. 195, 197.
286 MINERAL DEPOSITS
phorus and fluorine are found in the bones and teeth of fishes. The
marine sediments, then, all hold more or less phosphates; and it is a
matter of some surprise that fluorite does not more commonly occur in
sedimentary rocks. 1
In some beds the phosphates occur disseminated in small quantities,
in part as small concretions, in part remaining in the shell fragments.
In the more valuable deposits the phosphates appear in more concen­
trated form and characteristically assume the forms of nodules, or con­
cretions (sometimes of large size), or oolitic rocks, built up of small oolites
in part of concentric and fibrous structure. The nodules have often a

F ig . 112.— A , colloform, isotropic phosphate, Ocean Island, South Pacific. Magnified

30 diam eters. B , oolitic phosphate, Cokeville, W yoming. Magnified 30 diameters.
(R eprinted by 'perm ission fro m “ E conom ic G e o l o g y H . R ies, 6th ed., published by John
W iley & Sons, Inc.)
shell nucleus and, as a result of enrichment, may contain more phosphate
in the peripheral than in the central parts (Fig. 1125).
While phosphate nodules have been brought up by the dredge from
great oceanic depths, the conditions for their formation are probably best
at moderate depths, near shores, where the marine life is most abundantly
developed or, as pointed out by some authors, where sudden changes of
temperature, owing to conflicting currents, kill large numbers of marine
organisms.
The origin of the oolitic and nodular phosphate rocks, in some of which
recognizable organic remains are scarce, has been discussed extensively,
but is as yet not fully explained. It is believed that ammonium phos­
phate may form in the organic matter and that this reacts on shell
1 K. Andrce, Ueber einige Vorkommen von Flusspath in Sedimenten, Tschermak’s
min. u. pelr. MiU., 28, 1909, pp. 535-562.
H. S. Gale and R. W. Richards, Bull. 430, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 463.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 287
remains, replacing them with calcium phosphate, which eventually
accumulates in larger concretions. 1 These processes are likely to con­
tinue for some time at least after the sedimentation, in the yet soft
sediments.
After the beds have been uplifted and exposed to weathering, enrich­
ment takes place easily by the removal of calcium carbonate. This is
especially effective in regions of deep rock decay, as in the Southern states.
The rock phosphates of Utah and Idaho have remained almost unaltered.
Humus acids and C0 2 appear to be the best solvents for phosphates. 2
The cycle of migration of the phosphates is a fascinating study.
From their original home in the igneous rocks they are dissolved by
surface waters and absorbed by all living things, vegetable and animal,
on land and sea. After the death of the organisms the phosphates
return to the soil or to the sedimentary beds to be dissolved and used
anew by other generations.
Occurrences of Phosphate Rocks.—Deposits of phosphate rock are
found in the marine beds of all ages and in almost all countries, at least
from the Cambrian, when the segregation of phosphoric acid by the
inhabitants of the sea appears to have begun, to the Tertiary; and in the
present oceans such deposits certainly continue to form. In description it
is impracticable to separate the primary marine deposits from those
altered by weathering.
Large deposits, enriched by weathering, are worked in the Cretaceous
beds of northern France. In the southwestern part of that country, in
the departments of Lot and Lot-et-Garonne, phosphates occur in irregular
fissures with clay in Jurassic limestone. 3 These deposits are probably
formed by replacement effected by solutions descending from low-grade
sedimentary phosphate beds.
Phosphate beds are now mined on a large scale along the frontier of
Algeria and Tunis, also in Morocco. 4 The beds occur in the lower
Eocene, which covers Cretaceous strata, and consist in part of large
1 Renard and Cornet, Bull. 21, ser. 3, Acad. Belgique, 1891, p. 126.
L. Kruft, Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 15, 1902, pp. 1-65. Ref. in Zeilschr. prakt.
Geol., 10, 1902, p. 301.
R. Delkeskamp, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 12, 1904, p. 299.
2 W. A. P. Graham, Experiments on the origin of phosphate deposits, Econ. Geol.,
20, 1925, pp. 319-334.
3L. de Launay, Gltes mineraux, 1, 1913, p. 679.
4 M. Blayac, Description g^ologique de la region des phosphates du Dyr et du
Kouif, Ann. des Mines (9) 6, 1894, pp. 319-330.
O. Tietze, Die Phosphatlagerstatten von Algier und Tunis, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol.,
1907, p. 229.
On the Russian phosphates, see W. Tschirvinski, Neues Jahrbuch, Bd. 2, 1911, p.
51. For reports by J. V. Samoiloff see Miner. Mag., 18, 1917, p. 87.
A. C. Lawson, The phosphate deposits of Kourigha, Morocco, Econ. Geol., 26,
1931, pp. 480-484.
288 MINERAL DEPOSITS
concretions in marl, sometimes carrying the rich phosphate only as a
crust; other beds are formed of a soft material consisting of small and
smooth brown or yellowish grains of phosphate cemented by calcite and
containing many fossils and much bituminous matter. The thick­
ness of the richest phosphatic stratum is said to be 10 to 15 feet.
The deposits found in the United States are mainly in three regions—
(1) the Atlantic coast belt of Tertiary rocks in the Carolinas and Florida;
(2) the Tennessee area of Silurian and Devonian strata; (3) the Utah-
Idaho region of Carboniferous beds.
The phosphates of the Utah-Idaho region1 (production, in 1930,
67,276 long tons) are of great extent and prospective value. Owing to
difficulties and cost of transportation, the production is restricted.
They extend north of Ogden, Utah, through Idaho, Wyoming, and
Montana into Canada. The best deposits are in the ranges which
constitute the northern continuation of the Wasatch. Their position is
in the Phosphoria formation of the Permian, which has an average thick­
ness of 600 feet and consists of limestones, cherty in part, phosphate beds,
and shales. The phosphate horizon is in the middle of the formation
and the beds have an average thickness of 200 feet (see Figs. 13, 14, and
113). The rocks are massive brown to gray phosphatic shales and beds
of rock phosphate with some limestone. The richest bed mined at
Montpelier, Idaho, carrying 70 per cent or more of Ca3 P 2 0 8, lies at the
base of the phosphate section and is 5 or 6 feet thick. It is a black to
dull-gray oolitic rock, with cryptocrystalline ovules or concretions of all
sizes up to one-half inch in diameter (Fig. 112). The oolitic phosphates
contain small but definite amounts of chromium and vanadium doubtless
of organic derivation.
Large sections of the phosphatic beds, in places a thickness of 75 feet,
carry from 30 to 50 per cent of Ca3 P 2 0 8. The beds are folded and locally
have steep dips. The rock is hard and the mining is carried on by under­
ground operations. Very little enrichment is noted.
The phosphates of western Tennessee2 have been worked since 1894
and at present yield about 600,000 long tons per annum. They are of
three classes: (1) Brown residual phosphates, resulting from leaching of
Ordovician phosphatic limestones. The beds are from 3 to 8 feet thick and
1 F. B. Weeks and W. F. Ferrier, Bull. 315, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, pp. 449-462.
H. S. Gale and R. W. Richards, Bull. 430, idem, 1910, pp. 457-535.
Eliot Blackwelder, Bull. 430, idem, 1910, pp. 536-551.
R. W. Richards and G. R. Mansfield, Bull. 470, idem, 1911, pp. 371-439; also
Bull. 577, idem, 1914.
G. R. Mansfield, Prof. Paper 152, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1927, pp. 208-308, 361-373.
2 C. W. Hayes, The Tennessee phosphates, Seventeenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol.
Survey, pt. 2, 1896, pp. 513-550.
R. W. Smith, Geology and origin of the phosphate deposits of Tennessee, Eng.
and Min. Jour., 132, July 27, 1931, pp. 58-62.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 289
carry as much as 80 per cent of tricalcium phosphate. (2) The blue or
black bedded phosphates occur in beds of Devonian age and show varia­
tions from oolitic through compact and conglomeratic to shaly forms. The
high-grade rock is seldom more than 20 inches thick. The nodular
variety, which is embedded in a green sand, carries about 60 per cent
Ca3 P 2 0 8 - (3) The white phosphate, which is a post-Tertiary product of

Ferricr, U. S. Geol. Survey.)

replacement or filling of cavities of limestone of Carboniferous age.
None of it is now mined.
The phosphate beds of North and South Carolina, 1 discovered in
1867, extend along the coast for a distance of 60 miles. They are con­
tained in loose beds of Miocene age, rich in fossils. The land deposits lie
at a shallow depth and consist of so-called pebble rock, a solid mass from
which the calcium carbonate has been leached and partly replaced by
phosphate; the solution cavities give this material the appearance of a
1G. S. Rogers, Phosphate deposits of South Carolina, Bull. 580, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1914, pp. 183-220.
290 MINERAL DEPOSITS
mass of separate pebbles. The rock varies from 1 to 3 feet in thickness
and is covered by a green sandy marl. Similar deposits have been
dredged in the rivers, and consist essentially of water-rounded fragments
of the land rock. The mining is carried on by steam-shovel or dredge
operations.
The phosphate deposits of Florida1 are next to those of North Africa
the most productive in the world and large quantites are exported. In
1930, 3,261,539 long tons were produced.
The deposits follow in the main the northwestern coast of the State
but lie some distance from the shore. There are several types, all con­
tained in the Alum Bluff formation or above it, or in the underlying
Vicksburg limestone, both formations of Oligocene age. The clays,
marls and sandstones of the Alum Bluff contain in several horizons abun­
dant smooth yellowish or brown nodules or ovules of phosphate which
are considered by Matson and Sellards as of primary deposition and the
source of all the other deposits. These beds are worked in some places
but are not of great importance. The material is very similar to the
phosphates of Gafsa in Tunis.
The so-called “ land pebble” deposits of Polk and Hillsborough
counties, which are the most important, are rudely stratified detrital and
residual masses; they rest on the Alum Bluff formation and are believed
to be derived from this source. They are considered to be of Miocene or
Pliocene age. They contain concretions of white phosphate, averaging
65 to 70 per cent tribasic calcium phosphate, while the finer matrix often
contains 20 to 30 per cent of the same. They lie at elevations of about
1 0 0 feet and form parts of gravel beds with casts of shells, sharks’ teeth,
and bones of mastodon, horse, and rhinoceros. The average depth of
the deposit is about 12 feet, that of the sandy overburden up to 40 feet.
The workable deposits average several acres, though some cover as much
as 40 acres.
The type of deposit called “rock phosphate” occurs in the Vicksburg
limestone of lower Oligocene age and rests in depressions on its surface.
They are of secondary origin and are believed to be leached from the
overlying Alum Bluff formation. The concentration was effected by
chemical and mechanical means; the result is a mass of rounded or
subangular phosphate concretions (“rocks” or “ pebbles”), in places rudely
sorted in layers of coarse and fine, contained in a matrix of sand, clay, or
soft phosphate.
1 E. H. Sellards, Fifth Ann. Rept., Florida Geol. Survey, 1913, pp. 23-80.
E. H. Sellards, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 50, 1914, pp. 901-916.
G. C. Matson, The phosphates of Florida, Bull. 604, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915.
Mineral Resources, U. S. Bur. Mines, pt. 2, 1932, pp. 315-322; idem, for research
on flotation and gravity concentration to improve output.
B. I. Johnson, Phosphate rock, U. S. Bur. Mines, Information Circ. 6256, 1930.
 DEPOSITS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL PROCESSES 291
Pleistocene sand, up to 50 feet thick, covers the deposits. There are
many deposits covering from 5 to 35 acres, while some are mere pockets
in the limestone. The average thickness is 30 feet; transitions to the
underlying limestone, are sometimes observed. The concretions or
nodules vary from a few inches to 10 feet in diameter, are close grained,
light gray, and sometimes show cavities lined with secondary and
mammillary phosphate. Shells are rare but fragments of bones and
sharks’ teeth occur here and there. The processes which have operated
in the concentrations from the overlying Alum Bluff beds are replacement
ANALYSES OF PHOSPHATES
I II III
Insoluble............ ........... 1.82 6.69 3.05
Si02 ................. ........... 0.30
a i a .................. ........... 0.50 2.14 1.09
Fe2Oa.................. .......... 0.26 0.61 0.64
MgO.................... .......... 0.22 0.33 0.57
CaO..................... .......... 50.97 46.03 48.58
Na20 ................... .......... 2.00 .......... ) 0.09
k „6 ............... .......... 0.47 .......... (
H20 - ................. .......... 0.48 0.79
h 2o + ................. .......... 0.57 3.47
o o 2...................... .......... 1.72 3.93 4.60
P2o s .................. .......... 36.35 31.50 29.74
s o 3...................... .......... 2.98 2.75
Cl °...................... 0.11
F........................... .......... 0.40 1.86 2.12
7.45
99.04 97.35 100.79
I. Crawford Mountains, Utah. Geo. Steiger, analyst, Bull. 430, U. S.,
Geol. Survey, 1909, p. 465. No titanium, organic matter not determined,
trace chlorine.
II. Florida. Land pebble, G. H. Eldridge.
III. Gafsa, Tunis. O. Tietze, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 16, 1907, p. 248.
Analysis calculated on dry material, 3.81 per cent H20. P2Os equivalent
to 64.93 per cent Ca3P208; 2.35 per cent CaF2; 4.67 per cent CaSO*; 10.45
per cent CaC03.
of limestone by phosphate and solution of residual limestone with result­
ing slumping; in places there has been mechanical transportation. The
soft phosphates are thought to be formed by replacement of porous lime­
stone. The percentage of “recoverable” phosphate in the deposits does
not average much above 15 per cent. The higher grades of land-pebble
phosphate (76 to 77 per cent) sell at $6.50 per ton.
The so-called “river pebbles” are Pleistocene deposits in the present
rivers but are not worked now.
Mineralogically, the Florida phosphates are held by Matson to consist
of collophanite with francolite (p. 290).
292 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The material is mined by steam shovel, by hydraulic method, or by
dredge; it is then washed to remove the clay and afterward crushed,
screened, and hand picked. Poorer materials are successfully concen­
trated by soap flotation.
The chemical composition of the marine and residual phosphates is
shown in the analyses on page 291, of which I and III represent unaltered
marine deposits and II a residual occurrence.
 CHAPTER XIX
SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY
METAMORPHOSED
PRO CESSES IN V O L V E D

Mineral deposits are usually formed during comparatively brief

epochs, in which uniform conditions prevail, rendering a given set of
minerals stable. In the development of the epigenetic deposits this is
not invariably true, for we sometimes find evidence of successive changes
in the mineral-bearing solutions; early minerals are dissolved and a new
set formed. The replacement of calcite veins by silica offers an instance
of this process, as do also the successive generations of minerals in many
metalliferous veins and in pegmatite dikes.
After the epoch of mineralization has passed, the deposit will, as a
rule, be subjected to different temperatures and different degrees of
pressure, and solutions of various kinds will percolate through it.
Consequently, in many deposits the minerals of their ores are now
unstable and only the slowness of the changes may prevent them from
being wholly altered. “ Persistent” minerals remain unaffected except
by mechanical deformation, but very few minerals are persistent in all
zones.
In general, when by erosion, intrusion, or dynamo-metamorphism a
mineral deposit is transferred to a new zone, the characteristic minerals
of this zone will develop in it and become superimposed upon the original
minerals. Some deposits have a complicated history, having been sub­
jected to several changes, each of which has left its imprint on the ores.
It often happens that a deposit becomes involved in folding or dynamic
metamorphism of general or local kind; there will then be mechanical
deformation; veins and irregular masses will be squeezed out into lenses
which may in places overlap or imbricate. The minerals of dynamic
metamorphism, such as garnet, amphibole, and biotite of the lower
zones, or chlorite, epidote, zoisite, muscovite, albite, and talc of the upper
zones, will be formed from the old constituents. Hydrates may lose their
water and carbonates their carbon dioxide. The quartz-sulphide veins
are least affected, their minerals being comparatively persistent.
Most deposits have been exposed to static metamorphism at moderate
temperature, during which chlorite and carbonates have developed.
Increased temperature may leave some deposits unaltered, while others
in the vicinity of igneous masses may be profoundly modified. Examples
293
294 MINERAL DEPOSITS
are known of sedimentary deposits of limonite or siderite which, close to
intrusive rocks, change to magnetite and specularite and in which garnets
and other silicates develop. Such deposits may simulate those of pyro-
metasomatic origin, but in the latter the ores did not exist in the sedi­
mentary rocks but were introduced by solutions. Some of the deposits
in the pre-Cambrian terranes owe their complex nature to successive
changes, and their history may be most difficult to unravel.
The Banded Quartz-hematite (Magnetite) Ores.—In many parts of
the world the pre-Cambrian beds contain conspicuously banded forma­
tions, often folded and corrugated, which are essentially made up of fine­
grained quartz of various, often red, colors alternating with fine-grained
hematite with which more or less magnetite is admixed. They are also
known as banded, ferruginous chert or jasper, jaspilite, taconite, or
“ banded iron stones.” Neither “jasper” nor “ chert” is a strictly appli­
cable name, though in places the silica is so fine-grained as to suggest
chalcedony. Stronger metamorphism sometimes adds an amphibole,
or other silicates, to the assembly. On account of high silica they are
rarely suitable iron ores, and effective concentration is difficult to apply.
Nature, however, sometimes provides methods by which high-grade
bodies of hematite result from poor protore.
These “ iron formations” occur abundantly in the Lake Superior
region (p. 296) and are widely distributed in South Africa,1 in the
Dharwars of India,2 in Western Australia, in Scandinavia, and in Brazil
and Venezuela.
Although the typical concretionary and oolitic ores are absent from
these terranes a sedimentary origin is in most cases proved and admitted,
but opinions may differ as to the exact mode of genesis. Many of the
deposits are chemical precipitates and probably all are shallow water
marine deposits. Fossils are practically absent. The iron formations
may have a thickness of many hundreds of feet.
In the Lake Superior district the original material has been proved to
consist of siderite, an oolitic iron silicate, and silica, for of these original
iron minerals a considerable portion is preserved. Wagner has shown
that siderite was probably the original mineral in the Swaziland and
the Witwatersrand systems. In the higher “ iron stones” of the Pretoria
series of the Transvaal System the iron ore is a partly recrystallized
oolitic ore belonging to the magnetite-hematite-chamosite group. The
1 P. A. Wagner, The iron deposits of the Union of South Africa, Mem. 26, Geol.
Survey South Africa, 1928. An important and complete account which every one
interested in the Lake Superior Region should read. Wagner accepts the oxidation
and leaching theory of Van Hise and Leith.
2 C. M. Weld, The ancient sedimentary iron ores of India, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915,
pp. 435-452. Sir Thomas H. Holland, Twelfth Internat. Geol. Congress, Canada,
1913, p. 376, (Ottawa), 1914. J. A. Dunn, Origin of iron ores at Singhbhum, Econ.
Geol. 30, 1935, pp. 643-654.
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 295
transformation to the typical “banded iron stone” requires, therefore, an
oxidation of siderite and iron silicate, and the concentration to hematite
ore requires in addition that the quartz should be removed by solution
or else replaced by extraneous hematite. Regarding these oxidation and
concentration processes the opinions are not unanimous.
H E M A T IT E D E P O S IT S O F T H E L A K E S U P E R IO R R E G IO N

General Character, Distribution.—The iron ores mined in the Lake

Superior region in Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin amount to from
80 to 90 per cent of the total domestic output and in 1930 yielded
49,383,385 long tons. Since 1930 a rapid decline has set in, as in the produc­
tion of all other metals. The world’s production of iron ore in 1929 was
about 200,000,000 metric tons. The ore is mainly hematite with small
admixtures of limonite and magnetite. It occurs as masses, lenses, or
flat deposits in pre-Cambrian sedimentary rocks. The deposits are
believed to have been concentrated by the oxidizing and silica-dissolving
effect of waters of meteoric origin, in original sediments, called “iron forma­
tions,” which were originally rich in carbonate and silicate of iron. In
their present form they are products of pre-Cambrian weathering which,
probably under arid conditions, reached depths not approached elsewhere.
Only to a small degree and near the surface does this ore-forming activity
of the waters persist at the present time.
We owe most of our information concerning these deposits to the work
of C. R. Van Hise, C. K. Leith, and many others recorded in a series of
monographs of the United States Geological Survey. These and other
papers are cited below.1
1 R. D. Irving and C. R. Van Hise, (Penokee district) Mon. 19, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1892. C. R. Van Hise and W. S. Bayley, (Marquette district) Mon. 28, 1897. J. M.
Clements and H. L. Smyth, (Crystal Falls district) Mon. 36, 1899. C. K. Leith,
(Mesabi district) Mon. 43, 1903. J. M. Clements, (Vermilion district) Mon. 45,
1903. W. S. Bayley, (Menominee district) Mon. 46, 1904.
C. R. Van Hise and C. K. Leith, The geology of the Lake Superior region, Mon.
52, idem, 1911.
S. Weidman, The Baraboo iron-bearing district, Wisconsin, Bull. 13, Wisconsin
Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, 1904.
C. K. Leith, R. J. Lund, and A. Leith, Pre-Cambrian rocks of the Lake Superior
region, Prof. Pap. 184, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1935, 34 pp.
E. C. Harder and A. W. Johnston, Notes on the geology of the Cuyuna district,
Bull. 660, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, pp. 1-26; also, Bull. 15, Minnesota Geol. Survev,
1918.
J. F. Wolff (Mesabi range), Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 56, 1917, pp. 142-169.
J. W. Gruner, The origin of sedimentary iron formations (Mesabi), Econ. Geol.,
17, 1922, pp. 407-460.
W. H. Collins, T. T. Quirke, and E. Thomson, Michipicoten iron ranges, Mem.
147, Canada Geol. Survey, 1926.
W. O. Hotchkiss, Lake Superior Region, Guidebook 27, 16th Internat. Geol.
Congress, Washington, 1933, 101 pp.
296 MINERAL DEPOSITS
There are seven principal districts in the United States and three or
four in Canada, locally called ranges, as follows (Fig. 114):
1. The Mesabi, Vermilion, and Cuyuna ranges of northern Minnesota.

2. The Penokee-Gogebic, Marquette, Iron River, and Menominee

ranges, mainly in northern Michigan.
The Baraboo range of southern Wisconsin and the Michipicoten,
Gunflint Lake, and other districts in Canada are of minor importance.
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 297
SUCCESSION OF PRE-CAM BRIAN ROCKS
LAKE SUPERIOR REGION CANADA
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Cambrian: Potsdam sandstone. Paleozoic beds.
Great Unconformity and Peneplanation
Copper metallization. Copper-silver-nickelmetallization.
Intrusions of gabbro, granite, etc. Intrusion of gabbro, diabase, and
granite (Killarney).
Sandstone. Sandstone.
Basic lavas. Basic lavas.
Unconformity
/ Upper Huronian: Animikie series at Thunder Bay
Virginia and Michigamme slates, (Whitewater series with tuffs).
Goodrich quartzite. Deerwood Cobalt series (exact relation to Ani­
iron formation and upper iron mikie and Whitewater unknown).
formations of Crystal Falls and Quartzite and tillite 10,000+ feet.
Iron River.
Unconformity.
|Middle Huronian: Unconformity and erosion.
Quartzite, slate, and most iron forma­
tions: Biwabik, Vulcan, Negaunee,
Ironwood.
Unconformity.
Folding. Folding.
f Granite intrusions:
Giants Range granite.
Lower Huronian: Bruce series:
Quartzite, dolomite, and slate of Mar­ Quartzite, limestone, and graywacke
quette, Menominee, and Gogebic 15,000+ feet.
ranges. Knife Lake slates.
Great Unconformity and Erosion
/Folding. Basic intrusives.
Post-Timiskaming folding.
Gold-copper metallization:
Laurcntian: Syenite and syenite porphyry.
Main granite intrusions. Granite, granodiorite.
Intrusive Contact
Timiskaming series:
oO Graywacke and conglomerate (inter­
calated lavas).
Sudbury series.
Unconformity.
Keewatin: Keewatin series:
Lava flows with intercalated iron Basic flows and other effusives more
formation and other sediments. or less metamorphosed. Some
Soudan iron formation at Ver­ intercalated iron formations and
milion Range. other sediments (Dore series).
In eastern Canada the Keewatin is
represented by limestone (Gren­
ville) and amphibolite, intruded
by granite, gneiss, and alkaline
rocks with attendant pyrometa-
morphism.
298 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Geology.—Divisions of the pre-Cambrian geology in the Lake Supe­
rior region are given on page 297; on the right are the corresponding
Canadian formations.
The Archean, or basement, complex consists of gneiss and granite with
an extensive series of greenstones (basalt, amphibolite) which are largely
surface lavas. These lavas are now regarded as the oldest formation
exposed; the character of the basement upon which they were outpoured
is unknown. The gneisses and granites are in large part intrusive into
the Keewatin and Temiskaming series.
In the Vermilion and Michipicoten districts the productive formation
is in the Keewatin series.
Unconformably overlying the Archean is the Huronian, which in the
Lake Superior region consists of three parts separated by uncomformities.
The principal iron-bearing formations are concentrated in the Middle
Huronian, but the development differs materially in the several districts.
In the Marquette district all three divisions of the Huronian are
present. The lower Marquette series consists of quartzite, dolomite,
and slate 3,000 feet in maximum thickness. The middle Marquette
series, 3,000 feet in maximum thickness, includes quartzite, slate, and the
important Negaunee iron-bearing formation. The upper Marquette
series includes quartzite, schist, slates, and fragmental basic volcanic
rocks, accompanied by some iron-bearing formations
In the Crystal Falls and Menominee districts similar divisions appear.
In the Penokee-Gogebic district the Lower Huronian consists of quartz­
ite and dolomite; the Middle Huronian includes a basal quartzite and the
Ironwood “iron formation” which ranges up to 1,000 feet in thickness.
In the Mesabi district the Lower Huronian consists of conglomerates,
graywackes, and slates standing vertically; it is intruded by the granite
of the Giants Range, on the south slopes of which the iron deposits extend
from east to west for a distance of 100 miles. The Middle Huronian
comprises a basal quartzite, the Biwabik “iron-bearing formation”;
the overlying Virginia slate is considered Upper Huronian. The total
thickness is probably over 2,000 feet. The series dips gently at angles of
5° to 20° and is gently cross folded. Intrusive into these rocks at
the east end of the district are Keweenawan granite and basic igne­
ous rocks. Near these intrusives the sedimentary rocks are highly
metamorphosed.
Above the Huronian rests the less metamorphosed Keweenawan series
of sandstones, conglomerates, and igneous basic flows; the thickness is
estimated to be over 35,000 feet. It contains deposits of native copper
but no iron deposits.
The west end of Lake Superior consists of an eastward-pitching
synclinorium of Keweenawan rocks. The next underlying series, the
Upper Huronian, takes less part in this synclinal structure.
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 299

We have thus in the Lake Superior country six series, consisting, from
top to bottom, of the Keweenawan, Upper, Middle, and Lower Huronian,
Laurentian, and Keewatin, all but the last two separated by unconformi­
ties. Above them and separated by a marked unconformity rests the
Cambrian Potsdam sandstone.
The work of R. C. Allen,1 W. 0. Hotchkiss, and others has lately
changed the Huronian correlations to some extent. The latest conclu­
sions are embodied in a guide book by Leith and Hotchkiss, now in press,
for the International Geological Congress, to be held in 1933. The great
iron formations are now considered Middle Huronian, except a few at the
base of the Upper Huronian.
The “Iron Formations.”—The iron ores of the Lake Superior region
are believed to be derived through concentration by means of meteoric
waters from lean “iron formations” containing about 25 per cent iron.
The ores are products of enrichment of chemically deposited sediments,
such as siderite and hydrated iron silicates, for the most part interbedded
with normal clastic sediments, such as slate and quartzite.
The iron formations range from a few feet up to 1,000 feet in thick­
ness and are sedimentary beds consisting, according to Leith:
. . . m ainly of chert, or fine-grained quartz, and ferric oxide segregated in bands
or sheets, or irre g u la rly mingled. W here in bands w ith the quartz layers colored
red and the rock hig h ly c rystalline it is called jasper. W here less clearly
crystallized and either in bands or irre g u la rly interm ingled the rock is known as
ferruginous chert. The silica in these rocks varies from 32 to 80 per cent, the
ferric oxide from 31 to 66 per cent. O ther phases of the iro n form ation, subordi­
nate in q uan tity, are (1) ord inary clay slates, showing every possible gradation
through ferruginous slates into ferruginous cherts; (2) ‘p ain t rocks,’ oxidized
equivalents of the slates; (3) cherty iron carbonate (siderite) and hydrous ferrous
silicate (greenalite); (4) the iro n ores themselves. Alm ost the entire b u lk of the
iron form ations now consists of iron oxide and silica.

Spurr found that certain rocks of the Mesabi district contained, in a

matrix of chert and iron carbonate, abundant round granules of a green
chloritic substance at first called glauconite. Leith showed that potas­
sium was absent and gave the mineral the name greenalite. Its composi­
tion is approximately 30 to 38 per cent Si02, 8 to 34 per cent Fe20 3, 25
to 47 per cent FeO, and 7 to 9 per cent H20 (p. 268). The greenalite
rocks contain 50 to 80 per cent of this mineral, which is soluble in acids.
The same mineral occurs in some of the siderite rocks of the more easterly
districts.
Regional metamorphism (according to Grout and Broderick) or con­
tact metamorphism, caused by Keweenawan intrusions of granites and
gabbros, (according to Van Hise and Leith) have, in places, converted
1R. C. Allen, Correlations of formations of Huronian age in Michigan, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 63, 1920, pp. 188-212.
300 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the siderite and the greenalite rocks to magnetite-amphibole schists and
the soft hematite to specularite; this is especially well observed in the
Marquette and the east Mesabi ranges.
The Iron Ores.—The hematite ores are derived from the ferruginous
cherts by a process of concentration, and both laterally and in depth
gradually change into such rocks. The ores are admixed with enough
magnetite to affect the magnetic needle and render possible magnetic
surveys of the fields. The hard blue specular ores of the Marquette range
contain more magnetite than the others. In other ranges, such as the
Mesabi, Penokee, and Baraboo, the ore is soft, bluish, red, or brown in
color, and partly hydrated. The average analysis of Lake Superior ores
in 1909 was as follows:
Per Cent
Moisture (loss at100° C.).................................................. 11.28
Analysis of dried ore:
Iron................................................................................... 58.45
Phosphorus...................................................................... 0.091
Silica.................................................................................. 7.67
Alumina............................................................................ 2.23
Manganese....................................................................... 0.71
Lime.................................................................................. 0.54
Magnesia.......................................................................... 0.55
Sulphur............................................................................. 0.06
Loss by ignition.............................................................. 4.12
This corresponds to a composition as follows:
Hematite (more or less hydrated).................................. 86.45
Quartz................................................................................... 4.89
Kaolin................................................................................... 5.25
Chlorite................................................................................. 1.01
Dolomite.............................................................................. 0.81
Apatite.................................................................................. 0.48
Miscellaneous...................................................................... 1.11
100.00

The average analysis of natural (not dried) ore in 1925 was (in per cent)
51.74 Fe, 0.099 P, 8.42 Si02, 0.82 Mn, 10.58 moisture.
Some shipments run as low as 40 per cent Fe. Some ore from the
Cuyuna range contains as much as 17 per cent manganese. The sulphur
varied from 0.003 to 1.87 per cent, but it averages low. Phosphorus
averages 0.07 per cent. Accessory, more or less rare minerals in the ore
are apatite, wavellite, adularia, calcite, dolomite, siderite, pyrite,
marcasite, chalcopyrite, tourmaline, ottrelite, chlorite, garnet, mica,
rhodochrosite, barite, gypsum, analcite, goethite, and turgite. Most of
them are probably later additions.
In 1929 the ore reserves of the Mesabi Range were estimated to be
1,178,855,601 tons; those of the whole region 1,411,490,291 tons.
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 301
The total yield of the Lake Superior ores from 1848 to 1930 has been
1,455,685,644 long tons, much the greater proportion having been
extracted in the last four decades.
Carbonate ores have been mined in the Michipicoten district, Canada.
Form of Ore-bodies.—The ore forms irregular, often very large, but
as a rule distinctly bedded or banded masses in the iron formations. The
shape is commonly determined by impervious basements like clayey
dikes, decomposed amphibolitic rocks, or folded sedimentary beds like
slate, which have tended to guide the circulation of surface water into
certain channels; the ores usually occur in pitching troughs caused by any
or all of these factors.
In some ranges like the Gogebic, Marquette, and Iron River the strata
are strongly folded and may dip at high angles; some of the ore-bodies
have been followed to great depths. In the Marquette district ore is
known to a depth of 3,000 feet. Good ore is mined at present in the
Newport mine in the Gogebic district at 3,000 feet and is said to have
been drilled at 4,000 feet. In the Mesabi Range the rocks lie at gentle
angles; the alteration and concentration have extended over a wide area
and few of the mines are deeper than 200 feet; the ore is known to extend
to a depth of 900 feet. The shallow deposits of this range are mined on
an enormous scale by steam shovels. The production was 31,300,000
long tons in 1930, which was about 80 per cent of iron ore output in the
Lake Superior district.1
Marquette Range.—The mines of the Marquette Range are near
Negaunee and Republic, south and southwest of Marquette, Michigan.
The principal “iron formation,” the Negaunee, is in the Middle Huronian;
and the sedimentary rocks are intruded and metamorphosed by basic
igneous rocks. Extensive folding has taken place and the strata are
compressed into a great synclinal basin. The ores lie at the base of the
Negaunee formation, where the underlying slates have been folded so as
to form pitching synclinal basins, or where dikes have guided the con­
centrating waters. In part they occur also at the contact of the iron
formation with basic intrusions—for instance, in pitching troughs between
igneous masses and dikes branching from them. The surfaces of the
igneous rocks are much altered, leached, and changed to clayey masses,
called “soapstone” and “ paint rock.”
Menominee Range.—The iron-bearing district extends from western
Michigan into Wisconsin, the principal mines being located at Iron
Mountain, Norway, and Crystal Falls. The iron formation is chiefly
in the Middle Huronian and is called the Vulcan formation; it is overlain
by Upper Huronian slate and underlain by a Lower Huronian dolomite.
1 Regarding mining practice, methods, and costs see Information Circ., 6380 and
6390, U. S. Bur. Mines, (Marquette Range) 1930; Circ. 6325 (Mesabi Range), 1930;
Circ. 6369, 6348 (Gogebic Range), 1930.
302 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Intricate folding characterizes the structure of the range, the ores of the
different areas occurring in separate local basins. The deposits are large
and consist of soft red hematite, considerably hydrated in places, and are
generally found in pitching synclinal basins bottomed and capped by
slate layers.
Penokee-Gogebic Range.'—This range is in northern Michigan and
Wisconsin, the principal mines being at Hurley, Ironwood, and Bessemer.
The ore appears in the Ironwood formation (Middle Huronian), which
is overlain by slate and underlain by quartzite. The dip is steep

F ig . 115.—Longitudinal section of the M ontreal Mine, Gogebic Range, Michigan, showing

dependence of bodies of oxidized iron ore on dikes.

and the sediments are in part metamorphosed by Keweenawan

gabbro; for the most part the Ironwood formation is ferruginous chert.
The ores are concentrated in large irregular bodies in the angles between
the footwall quartzite or black slate and the basic dikes (Figs. 115 and
116), these rocks making an impervious trough, toward which the mete­
oric waters converged. Most of the deposits reach depths of 1,000 feet,
and some attain 3,000 feet. Both soft, partly hydrated ore and hard
slaty ore occur.
Cuyuna Range.—The Cuyuna district is situated near Brainerd,
Minnesota, about 70 miles southwest of the Mesabi mines.12 It extends
1 H. R. Aldrich, The geology of the Gogebic iron range, Bull. 71, Wisconsin Geol.
and Nat. Hist. Survey, 1929, 279 pp.
2 E. Newton, Manganiferous iron ores of the Cuyuna district, Bull. 5, Univ.
Minnesota School of Mines Exp. Sta., 1918, 126 pp.
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 303
for 65 miles along the strike of the rocks in a northeast direction. The
iron ore here is a partly hydrated hematite, in places accompanied by an
unusual amount of manganese oxide (up to 18 per cent Mn in the shipped
ores). It is contained in the Deerwood iron formation, probably of Upper
Huronian age, which in depth appears to change to cherty iron carbonate,
with some amphibole. The enclosing rocks are slates of various kinds

F ig . 116.— Vertical cross-section of the N ewport Mine, Gogebic Range, Michigan, showing
position of ore-bodies above dikes. {Data from H. L. Smyth.)
compressed into steep folds, the details of which are difficult to trace
owing to the covering glacial drift. The ore-bodies are elongated fol­
lowing the strike and while some cease at shallow depths others have so
far been followed down for 400 feet. The phosphorus ranges from 0.1
to 0.5 per cent. In 1930 about 700,000 tons of manganese-iron ore were
shipped, averaging 7.5 per cent Mn and 38 per cent Fe.
E. C. Harder and A. W. Johnston, The geology of east-central Minnesota, Bull.
15, Minnesota Geol. Survey, 1918.
G. A. Thiel, Econ. Geol., 19, 1925, pp. 132-145.
Carl Zapffe, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 71, 1925, pp. 372-385.
304 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The presence of manganite as the predominant manganese mineral
indicates, according to Thiel, that the present ore-bodies have been
enriched by solutions containing manganese from the overlying and
now eroded portions of the iron formation. Simultaneous replacement
of chert by hematite and manganite took place. Intimate intergrowth
of manganite and pyrolusite with hematite in martite crystals are features
observed.
Mesabi Range.—In northern Minnesota, the Mesabi Range extends
from east to west for a distance of 75 to 100 miles on the south slope of a
prominent ridge called the Giants Range. The principal mines are
situated near the towns of Biwabik, Eveleth, Virginia, and Hibbing. The
Huronian rocks here lie at gentler inclinations than elsewhere, dipping 8°
to 10° S.E. so that the iron formation outcrops in a general northeast-
southwest belt (Fig. 117).
The Biwabik iron formation of the Middle Huronian contains the de­
posits. It is underlain by the Pokegama quartzite and covered by the
thick Virginia slate (Upper Huronian). Except at the eastern end of the
N.

F ig . 117.— Generalized cross-section showing relation of iron-bearing form ation to asso­

ciated rocks in the Mesabi Range, M innesota. {After J. F. Wolff.)
range, where amphibole-magnetite rocks have developed, the iron forma­
tion is composed mainly of ferruginous chert in many complex layers.
The iron ores cover large irregular areas along the outcrop of the Biwabik
formation and descend to a maximum depth of 900 feet (Fig. 118).
At the present time more or less ore is mined by the underground method.
The deposits are most abundant at the synclines of the transverse folds
of the formation. They are bedded and along the edges change rather
abruptly to the ferruginous chert, from which they are derived by leach­
ing of the silica. This relationship is clearly indicated by the slumping
of the strata near the edges of the ore masses, as shown in Fig. 119. The
iron formation is locally called “ taconite.”
The secondary concentration of the iron ore has evidently taken place
under surface conditions since the remote time of the post-Keweenawan
folding, when the deposits first became exposed; it has also taken place
below as well as above the present water level, which is about 75 feet
underneath the surface.
Analyses show that the present surface water, containing about 20
parts per million of Si02, is slowly leaching silica, but removes little if
any iron. The deposits do not appear to continue underneath the edge
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 305
of the capping Virginia slate, perhaps because of the ponding of the
water below that impervious formation.
The amphibole-magnetite rocks in the lltiljjlj

F ig . 118.— N orth-south cross-section through Biwabik iron form ation, M esabi Range, M innesota. (After O. B. Warren and C. K . Leith,
il|ij {ll(P|||lJ
eastern part of the district are more stable
and have not suffered much alteration by
oxidation. <1 ®
During the development of the ore-bodies
erosion has continually cut down the iron • w
II
formation and this truncation has been
accompanied by slow downward and lateral II
migration of the iron. Glacial erosion finally spf
removed much material.
The ore is a soft and porous hematite, { p
brown, red, or blue in color, averaging 55 m
to 58 per cent iron. It contains a little w-
Si':

ipJ!i
magnetite and some limonite. The mineral
composition of the ore in 1909 was approxi­
mately, in per cent: hematite, 61.81; limo­
nite, 25.95; quartz, 4.10; kaolin, 5.30;
manganese dioxide, 1.30; miscellaneous, 1.54.
Sulphur is low and phosphorus varies
III'

U. S. Geol. Survey.)
from 0.03 to 0.07 per cent. There is con­ I I
siderably more phosphorus in the ore than in i (im
the ferruginous chert; the greenalite and
siderite rocks contain scarcely any phos­ I Is#
Sft
phorus. Manganese up to 2 per cent is
present.
Vermilion Range.—Northeast of the j r
Mesabi, near the Canadian boundary, is
the Vermilion Range, the principal mines flh
being near the towns of Ely and Tower.
The country rock is mostly the Keewatin % mt
greenstone, but infolded in it in synclinal ® it
basins or troughs is the iron formation,
known as the Soudan. The ores are
associated with ferruginous jaspers in these
troughs and generally have a footwall of fjl
greenstone (Fig. 120). The ore is a dense
and hard blue or red hematite which con­ ij
tains a little chalcopyrite, an unusual feature
in this region.1
1 J. W. Gruner, The Soudan formation and a
new suggestion as to the origin of the Vermilion
iron ores, Econ. Geol., 29, 1927, pp. 629-644.
306 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Origin of Lake Superior Iron Ores.—It has been shown by Van Hise
and Leith and their associates that the ferruginous cherts, jaspers,
amphibolite-magnetite schists, and iron ores of the iron formations result
from the alteration either of the cherty iron carbonate or of the greenalite.

F ig . 119.—Cross-section showing slumping of ore-body at Mesabi Range. (After J. F.

Wolff.)
The small amounts of iron carbonate or ferrous silicate now found in the
formations represent mere remnants left unaltered where protected by
other rocks. The steps in the alteration may be observed; and, in the
end products, the structures and textures of the original rock are often

F ig . 120.—Vertical section through the Chandler mine, Vermilion Range, Minnesota.

{After J. M. Clements, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
remarkably well retained. It is held that the ores and the ferruginous
cherts or jaspers on one hand and the amphibole schists on the other hand
represent alterations from the same original type. The source of the
ore is not, as a rule, in the present ferruginous cherts; but it was developed
from original lean siderite and greenalite rocks. It is held that in the
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 307
largest deposits ores and jaspers may have developed side by side, at
the same time, from such original minerals. Iron carbonate prevailed
in the Marquette, Gogebic, Vermilion, and Crystal Falls districts; green-
alite in the Mesabi district (Fig. 121).
The concentration has been effected, according to the Lake Superior
geologists, by water coming more or less directly from the surface,
especially at places where such waters converge owing to the existence
of impervious underlying formations, such as slate or “ soapstone,” that

F ig . 121.—Ferruginous chert with greenalite granulites, in part replaced by ferric oxide

(black). Magnified 40 diameters. (After C. K. Leith.)
form pitching troughs, or owing to brecciation and fracturing of the
iron formations.
The alteration of the iron formations, resulting in the concentration
of the iron ores or in the development of ferruginous cherts, jaspers,
and amphibolite schists, has taken place in different geologic periods
under varying conditions. So far as the alteration has proceeded con­
tinuously under the influence of surface waters, without interruption
by igneous activity or orogenic movements, soft ores and ferruginous
cherts have resulted. So far as these products have been subjected to
deep-seated alteration they have become dehydrated into hard red and
blue specular ores and brilliant jaspers. So far as the alteration of the
original iron formations has taken place within the sphere of influence of
great intrusive masses, when waters were heated and oxygen not abun­
dant, or under similar conditions, developed by deep submergence or by
orogenic movement, ferrous silicates and magnetite resulted, as shown
in the development of the griinerite schists.
The concentration of the ores was far advanced before Cambrian
time, as shown by the fragments of ores in Cambrian conglomerates.
308 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Most of the deposits were formed between the Keweenawan and the
Cambrian deposition. At the close of pre-Cambrian time the ores were
largely as we now find them, though some concentration has been going
on since. During the Cretaceous period the region of the Mesabi Range,
at least, was covered by the sea.
Regarding the origin of the cherty iron carbonates, Van Hise has
held that they were derived largely from the more ancient basic volcanic
rocks of the Lake Superior region. The iron was leached by underground
waters and carried to the sea as carbonate, partly also as sulphate solu­
tion, and there deposited as limonite, from which through reduction by
organic matter ferrous carbonate was formed.
About 1910 C. K. Leith expressed his views as follows: The iron was
brought to the surface by igneous rocks and either contributed directly
to the ocean by hot magmatic waters or later brought there by surface
waters from weathered rocks. The iron-bearing minerals were then
deposited as a chemical sediment in a conformable succession of sedimen­
tary rocks and still later, under conditions of weathering, were locally
enriched to ore by percolating surface waters.
As firs t deposited the iron form ation consisted essentially of iron carbonate or
ferrous silicate (greenalite) w ith some ferric oxide, a ll m in utely interlayed with
chert, form ing the ferruginous chert. W hen these were exposed to weathering
the ferrous compounds, the siderite and greenalite, oxidized to hem atite and
lim onite, essentially in situ, although some of it was sim ultaneously carried and
redeposited. The result was ferruginous chert or jasper, averaging less than 30
per cent of iron. The concentration of the iro n to 50 per cent and over has been
accomplished essentially b y the leaching of silica bands from the ferruginous chert
and jasper. In filtra tio n of iron has been on a sm aller and more variable scale.
The leaching of the silica develops pore space and allows the iron layers to slump,
thereby enriching the form ation sufficiently to constitute an ore.

Only a small part of the volume of the iron formations—less than 2 per
cent—has been altered to ore.
Later Work.—The literature of the Lake Superior iron ores is exten­
sive and many different views have been expressed. T. B. Brooks and
R. Pumpelly at one time considered them as dehydrated bog iron ores.
This view has been adopted by S. Weidman in his description of the
Baraboo ores of Wisconsin, where the ores appear to grade into dolomites,
and where igneous rocks are absent.
Grout,1 Broderick,2 and Gruner3 in later papers regard the iron
formations as chemical precipitates which received their iron from deeply
1F. F. Grout, The nature and origin of the Biwabik iron-bearing formation,
Econ. Geol, 14, 1919, pp. 452-464.
2T. M. Broderick, Detail stratigraphy of the Biwabik iron-bearing formation,
Econ. Geol., 14, 1919, pp. 441-451; also, Economic geology and stratigraphy of the
Gunflint iron district, idem, 15, 1920, pp. 422-452. F. F. Grout and T. M. Broderick,
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 309
weathered land areas. They place less emphasis on cooperation by igne­
ous agencies. The Biwabik iron formation has been studied in detail
by Wolff, Grout, and Broderick. Gruner found that there is much mag­
netite in the unweathered parts of the formation exposed by many deep
drill holes (Fig. 122) and that thus the magnetite is by no means
restricted to the East Mesabi district. Gruner believes that the original
iron minerals were siderite and greenalite, perhaps also hematite. Mag­
netite developed abundantly later by regional metamorphism and most
of this magnetite was then oxidized to hematite. Magnetite is the oxide
from which nearly all of the rich, so-called “ blue ore” has been derived

Horizonfal Scale
F ig . 122.— Cross-section through central p art of M esabi Range showing subdivisions
of the Biwabik form ation and abundance of m agnetite. H eavy black lines along drill
holes average 27 to 33 per cent m agnetite. (After J. W. Gruner, “ Economic Geology.")
as may be seen from the abundance of hematite pseudomorphic after
magnetite. Amphibole also occurs through the whole range and is not
confined to the East Mesabi.
Alga and bacterial structures have now been found in the Biwabik
formation, and Grout holds that the precipitation of iron minerals and
silica was largely caused by low forms of organic life.
While it is generally agreed that the original substances of the iron
formations were chert, siderite, and an iron silicate, opinions differ as to
the widespread oxidation converting them to banded hematites and as to
the process of concentration of rich hematite from the latter. There
are difficulties in assuming a thorough oxidation of solid formations at a
depth of several thousands of feet below the surface, even during an exces­
sively dry climate and depressed water level in pre-Cambrian times.
The leaching of silica (mostly quartz) from these massive formations
by surface waters seems an equally difficult proposition. In defending
this theory C. K. Leith*1 points to a probable rotation and tilting of erosion
Organic structures in the Biwabik iron-bearing formation, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser.,
48, 1919, p. 199.
aJ. W. Gruner, The origin of sedimentary iron formations, Econ. Geol., 17, 1922,
pp. 407-460; also Paragenesis of the martite ore-bodies and magnetites of the Mesabi
range, idem, 17, 1922, pp. 1-14.
l Econ. Geol, 26, 1931, pp. 274-288.
310 MINERAL DEPOSITS
surfaces, thus increasing the apparent depth below the surface. With
regard to the wholesale leaching of silica, Leith points to conditions
during weathering where enormous masses of silica are undoubtedly
removed by cold surface waters; but this silica is almost wholly derived
from the decomposition of silicates and not from granular quartz.
Grout and Broderick think that the general oxidation may have fol­
lowed very soon after deposition even before the burial of the beds,
and analogies with many other deposits, e.g., the iron ores of Wabana,
Newfoundland, suggest that this may be true.
Moore and Maynard 1 in a series of articles maintain that the pre-
Cambrian formations contained much organic matter, and that iron and
silica were extensively dissolved and transported as colloids stabilized by
organic material.
Gruner2 believes that the oxidation of the iron formations, and the
leaching of silica are chiefly the work of hot magmatic solutions derived
from Keweenawan igneous rocks. This would need unlimited quantities
of such water and a high temperature of about 200° C. In its present
form Gruner’s hypothesis appears improbable, but transportation of
silica and iron has certainly taken place. If effected by magmatic ascend­
ing waters, they would surely have left more conspicuous traces of their
passage than can now be detected. On the other hand, it seems certain
that the iron formations have been exposed to a higher degree of heat
than could be furnished by the ordinary meteoric waters. Note, for
instance, the high-temperature veins which intersect the Cuyuna iron
formation and the various silicates and sulphides often encountered else­
where. The Keweenawan igneous rocks may well have contributed an
increase in temperature in the underlying rocks. Replacement of chert
by hematite must have been of much importance in places. The problem
can not be regarded as solved as yet.
Another question of possible importance relates to the percentage of
phosphorus. It is remarkably low for sedimentary deposits in the origin
of which organic matter played a part. It is still more remarkable that
the primary siderite-greenalite rocks at Mesabi are almost free from
phosphorus.
Michipicoten Range, Canada.—The studies of Collins and Quirke3
on the Michipicoten iron range in Ontario, seem to indicate a radically
different origin. Collins holds that these steeply dipping beds of siderite,
pyrite, and fine-grained silica are replacements by thermal solutions of
beds of basic Keewatin lavas. The ore consists largely of siderite or
l Econ. Geol, 24, 1929, pp. 272-303; 365-402; 506-527.
2 J. W. Gruner, Hydrothermal oxidation and leaching experiments, Econ. Geol,
25, 1930, pp. 697-719; 837-867.
3 W. H. Collins, T. T. Quirke, and Ellis Thomson, Michipicoten iron ranges,
Mem. 147, Canada Geol. Survey, 1926.
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 311
ankerite, and has been mined for a number of years though the mines
are now idle.
Other Occurrences in the United States.—Regionally metamorphosed
banded iron ores are found in the pre-Cambrian of Wyoming1 and
Arizona; 2 both magnetite and hematite occur.
At Hartville, Wyoming, lenses of hematite occur in schist along a
limestone footwall and have been followed to a depth of 900 feet. Ball
shows that the deposit antedates the Guernsey formation, the lowest
Paleozoic terrane present, and believes that the iron was leached by
descending solutions from the upper part of the schist and deposited in its
lower part by replacement.
Typical quartz-magnetite ores, described by Sidney Paige, 3 occur
in the Llano region in Texas, but have not yet been utilized. The pre-
Cambrian series of crystalline schists in this region consists of gneiss,
mica schist, and quartzite with some limestone lenses. The ores are
thinly bedded and occur in granular schists or gneisses. A specimen of
lean ore consisted of magnetite 22 per cent, quartz 50 per cent, albite and
albite-oligoclase 26 per cent. There is much more soda than potash.
The iron was probably, according to Paige, deposited as glauconite; and
contact metamorphism by later pre-Cambrian granite has effected the
removal of potash and introduction of soda. Examples of adinole and
other contact-metamorphic rocks are cited to support this view. Low-
grade ore representing a bed 17 feet thick contained Fe 35.87 per cent,
Si02 34.57 per cent, Mn 1.05 per cent, P 0.07 per cent, S 0.04 per cent,
and Ti0 2 0.15 per cent.
The Grenville series of pre-Cambrian metamorphosed sediments in
northern New York contain, according to D. H. Newland, 4 similar deposits
of magnetite. The ores are mostly enclosed in quartzose gneisses with
hornblende and biotite (see p. 794).
OTHER REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED IRON ORES
General Features.—In metamorphosed sediments or in crystalline
schists, the origin of which may be in doubt, bedded deposits of magnetite
or specularite, or both, are often encountered. The well-known fact that
iron ores such as limonite, siderite, hematite, or iron silicates (chamosite
and thuringite) form integral parts of sedimentary series of all ages
suggests strongly that the beds of these ores in metamorphosed rocks also
had a sedimentary origin. As a rule this is no doubt true, but the
1S. H. Ball, Bull. 315, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, pp. 190-208.
T. S. Lovering, Bull. 811, idem, 1930, p. 219.
2 Howland Bancroft, Bull. 451, idem, 1911.
Waldemar Lindgren, Bull. 782, idem, 1926, p. 35.
3 Bull. 450, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911.
4Geology of the Adirondack magnetic iron ores, Bull. 119, N. Y. State Mus.,
1908, pp. 27, 40-41.
312 MINERAL DEPOSITS
metamorphism may have gone so far that the original sedimentary nature
of the surrounding rocks may be open to doubt; and some observers
maintain an igneous origin for some such deposits. Indirectly, igneous
rocks have often brought about the accumulation of bedded iron ores,
either by the weathering and denudation of intrusive rocks or lavas rich
in iron, or possibly by direct emanations from volcanic rocks.
Bedded metamorphic iron ores are accompanied by silicate minerals,
like feldspar, actinolite, and garnet, usually also by quartz, and have
assumed a thoroughly crystalline texture similar to that of other crystal­
line schists, the constituents being generally interpenetrating, indicating
almost simultaneous development. Relic structure showing the sedi­
mentary origin is rarely observed.
Swedish “Dry Ores.”1— Sweden and Norway are rich in these
bedded ores, which often appear in the vicinity of other iron deposits of
different kind. Some are found near the great magmatic deposit of
Kiruna, interbedded in tuff and shales of late pre-Cambrian age. Others,
which are worked more extensively, appear near the metasomatic magne­
tites of central Sweden (p. 739) and form part of the complicated leptite
series (p. 740). They are designated “ dry ores” (torr-sten) and are
usually siliceous, the accompanying beds averaging 84 per cent silica.
The ores average 50 per cent iron, contained in micaceous fine-grained
specularite with a little magnetite. The accompanying beds in places
contain garnet, amphibole, or epidote, each mineral often forming a
separate streak. They are markedly banded. Many of the beds are
10 or 15 feet thick, though some considerably exceed 15 feet, and have
been followed with regular, steep dip to a depth of several hundred feet.
These ores contain little phosphorus. An analysis of such ore from
Striberg is as follows:
Fe..................... .......... 52.20 CaO............... ............ 1.05
Fe203............... ............ 60.21 AI2O3............. ............ 0.89
FeO.................. ............ 13.93 Si0 2............... ............ 23.61
MnO................ ............ 0.09 fM h ............. ............ 0.043
Mg................... ............ 0.31 S .................... ............ 0 .0 2 1
Until recently little doubt has been expressed about the sedimentary
origin of these ores. H. Johansson has announced his opinion that the
fine-grained leptites are simply a product of extreme magmatic differ­
entiation and that the accompanying bedded iron ores are also of
magmatic origin. He even believes that the metasomatic limestone and
“skarn ores” (p. 740) have this origin. Hj. Sjogren does not share this
opinion but holds that the bedded ores and limestone ores are caused by
injection or replacement by “granitic extracts” while the differentiated
1 H. E. Johansson, Geol. For. Forhandl., 32, 1910, pp 239-410.
Hj. Sjogren, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 38, 1908, pp. 766-835.
See also references on p. 739.
 SEDIMENTARY IRON ORES, REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED 313
granulites were in the “anamorphic” zone. Holmquist thinks that by
deep burial these originally sedimentary ores have been subjected to
igneous metamorphism followed by slight regional metamorphism
(P- 742).
It does not seem that the opponents to the sedimentary genesis of the
ores have proved their case.
Norwegian Ores.1— Northern Norway is rich in deposits of the type
here discussed. Banded magnetites, variously interpreted, occur on a
large scale in thick beds that are traceable for several miles in South
Varanger, near the Finland frontier. The ores are mined on a large scale
and concentrated. Some of the larger bodies are 1,000 feet long and 25

F ig . 123.— Thin section of typical Syd V aranger ore. Black, m agnetite; white, quartz;
striated, hornblende. Magnified 25 diam eters. (A fter J . H. L . Vogt.)
feet thick and contain about 35 per cent iron. One hundred million
metric tons are available for open-cut mining. An analysis given by
Vogt shows 36.71 per cent Fe2 0 3, 15.40 per cent FeO, 43.92 per cent
Si02, 0.07 per cent P 2 O5 , and 0.04 per cent S. There is little alumina,
lime, or magnesia. The ores are beautifully banded and, according to
P. Geijer, are associated with fine-grained “ leptites” (granulites) rich in
quartz with some orthoclase and oligoclase; hornblende, garnet, and
diopside accompany the ore (Fig. 123). While Vogt considers the ores
to be due to igneous differentiation and Sjogren believes similar ores from
the Lofoten Islands to be intrusive into an igneous rock, Geijer gives good
1J. H. L. Vogt, Norway, in Iron-ore resources of the world, Stockholm, 1910.
J. H. L. Vogt, Norges jernmalmforekomster, Norges Geol. Undersok., No. 51,
Kristiania, 1910.
Hj. Sjogren, Om jernmalmerna i granit p& Lofoten, Geol. For. Forhandl., 30, 1908.
Per Geijer, Contributions to the geology of the Sydvaranger iron-ore deposits,
idem, 33, 1911, pp. 312-343.
314 MINERAL DEPOSITS
reasons why they should be held to be of sedimentary origin and deposited
as chemical sediments. It seems that the advocates of intrusive origin
for these occurrences have few cogent arguments.
Ores of distinctly sedimentary origin are found at Dunderland and
Naeverhaugen, also in northern Norway. They form beds traceable for
many miles, with a thickness of 3 to 10 meters, or in places even 50 meters.
They are intercalated in a thick series of mica schists and crystalline
marbles believed to be of Paleozoic age. The closely banded ores carry
mainly specularite and magnetite, but are of low grade. The concentra­
tion, attempted on a large scale and at great expense, proved difficult
because of the scaly character of the specularite. The average content in
iron is said to be 40 per cent. Hornblende, garnet, epidote, and feldspar
are accessory minerals. There is little sulphur, but phosphorus is pres­
ent in quantities as great as 0.3 per cent.
The Brazilian Hematites.—In the pre-Cambrian metamorphosed
sediments of Minas Geraes in Brazil1 there are thick beds of rich hematite
in a formation of ferruginous sandstone (itabirite) underlain by heavy
quartzite. The origin of this undoubtedly sedimentary hematite, which
as yet has been mined only on a very small scale, is in doubt. There is
no oolitic structure, nor are there fossils. Harder and Chamberlin state
that “not having much confidence in the hypothesis that the iron oxide
was precipitated directly from sea water by ordinary chemical means
we prefer to turn to the iron bacteria as perhaps forming a better
hypothesis.”
Another suggestion would be to regard these ores as detrital, extremely
fine-grained hematite, derived from the deeply oxidized mantle of neigh­
boring continents and subsequently more or less metamorphosed.
The reserves are enormous, consisting of at least a billion tons
of 50 per cent ore.
1 E. C. Harder and R. T. Chamberlin, The geology of Central Minas Geraes,
Brazil, Jour. Geol., 23, 1915, Nos. 4 and 5.
O. A. Derby, in The iron ore resources of the world, 11th Internat. Geol.
Congress, II, Stockholm 1911, p. 819.
C. K. Leith and E. C. Harder, Hematite ores of Brazil, Econ. Geol., 6, 1911,
pp. 670-686.
 CHAPTER XX
DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF BODIES OF
SURFACE WATERS
THE SALINE RESIDUES1
INTRODUCTION
The deposits thus far described have been in the nature of insoluble
residues, or chemical precipitates of relatively insoluble substances in
lakes, rivers, and seas. There are, however, other deposits which also
may be considered as chemical precipitates in surface waters but which
consist of soluble salts formed by the evaporation of waters in closed or
partially closed basins. They contain the easily soluble substances
largely leached from the rocks, brought down by the rivers to oceans
and lakes, and finally concentrated under certain characteristic conditions.
Closed basins are typical of dry climate and of deserts. The slow
crustal movements tend to create them everywhere, by folding, sub­
sidence, and uplift; but in the deserts the streams have not the power to
cut outlets and to keep the drainage lines established. On the contrary,
the movement of the debris from the mountain ranges in broad alluvial
fans or aprons increases the tendency toward closed basins. The dry
climate accelerates evaporation and the precipitation of the salts; dust
storms transport vast masses of fine detritus; blinding salt flats extend
between the barren mountain chains. Thus, at present, salt beds are
found in the Cordilleran deserts along the western side of the whole
American continent, in the Sahara, and in the arid, central part of Asia.
Similar conditions existed in the past in different parts of the world:
The Permian in central Europe, the Triassic in the Rocky Mountain
region, and the Silurian in eastern North America—all these ages were
at times characterized by arid wastes and deposition of salt and gypsum.
Saline deposits may then form: (1 ) in bays of the sea; (2 ) in lakes;
(3) in playas or intermittent lakes; (4) on arid slopes by rapid evaporation
of storm waters.
In the latter two classes capillary ascent of the solutions often helps
to bring the salts to the surface to form “ efflorescences” or saline crusts,
1 George P. Merrill, The non-metallie minerals, 1910.
F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp.
218-260.
A. W. Grabau, Principles of salt deposition, New York, 1920.
315
316 MINERAL DEPOSITS
as illustrated by the crusts of “ alkali” (carbonate, chloride, and sulphate
of sodium, and sulphate of calcium) which so often interfere with agricul­
ture in dry countries.
In regions of calcareous rocks, as in the undrained basins of Mexico,
soft or compact beds of calcium carbonate locally called “ caliche” or
“ tepetate” often cover the gentle slopes below the mountains. These
belong to class 4. Minor saline deposits may result from evaporation
at the surface of waters from ascending springs.
Bodies of soluble salts are rarely formed below the surface; but reac­
tions may take place in a buried deposit by which new salts are formed
or concentrations of disseminated substances are effected. In places
it may be difficult to distinguish these, strictly speaking, epigenetic bodies
from the syngenetic salts (p. 338).
Traces of copper are found in the saline residues. Minute amounts
of gold and silver have been found in salt from sea water (p. 7).
Regarding traces of gold in the potassium deposits in Germany the evi­
dence is conflicting. The later data seem to show that no gold is present.
TYPES OF WATER
From a geological standpoint there are two types of water in the
seas and closed basins. The first, which may be called the oceanic type,
contains dominant sodium chloride and is characteristic of the sea as
well as of partly evaporated lakes in regions where sedimentary rocks
prevail; the Great Salt Lake of Utah is an example. When such water is
subjected to extreme evaporation, as in the Dead Sea, a “ residual”
type rich in magnesium chloride results. The second main type is that
of generally smaller closed basins in regions of great volcanic activity;
this type contains sulphate, carbonate, and borate of sodium, besides more
or less chloride; it indicates the result of the first leaching of loose volcanic
ejecta and also shows the influence of the discharge of hot springs con­
taining sodium carbonate and borate.
Certain sedimentary series, such as the Cretaceous of the Western
states, contain abundant alkaline sulphates. Leaching of these beds by
atmospheric waters takes place and these products may be carried down
into salt flats and small lakes. By chemical reactions (p. 49) carbonate
of sodium forms from other sodium and calcium salts, and the lakes often
contain much of this salt besides the sulphates. Such alkali lakes occur
in Wyoming, for example. Borates characteristic of volcanic regions are
generally lacking in these lakes.
The first, “ oceanic” type of waters yields deposits of gypsum, com­
mon salt, and finally potassium and magnesium salts. The second and
third, which may be called, respectively, the “ volcanic” and the “sul­
phate” types yield sodium carbonate and sulphate, borates, probably
also nitrates, as well as more or less sodium chloride.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 317
COMPOSITION OF SALTS IN WATER OF SEA AND CLOSED BASINS
I II Ill IV V
Cl................................... .. 55.292 55.69 70.25 10.45 23.34
Br................................... .. 0.188 1.55
SO,................................ .. 7.692 6.52 0.21 54.07 12.86
n 32
C O ,............................... .. 0.207 tr. 4.24 23.42
L i.................................. 0.01
Na.................................. .. 30.593 32.92 6.33 25.88 37.93
K......................‘ ............ 1 106 1 70 1 70 1 ft*
Ca................................... .. 1.197 1.05 5.54 tr. 0.04
Mg................................. .. 3.725 2.10 14.42 5.36 0.10

0.01 tr. 0.14

100 100 100 100 100
I. Oceanic type. Average of 77 analyses, W. Dittmar, Challenger
Rept., 1, 1884. Salinity 3.5 per cent.
II. Oceanic type. Great Salt Lake, E. Waller, School of Mines, Quart.,
14, 1892. Salinity 23 per cent, subject to variations.
III. Residual type. The Dead Sea, Comptes Rendus, 62, 1866, p. 1329.
A. Tereil, analyst. Salinity 20.7 per cent.
IV. Sulphate type. Devil’s Lake, North Dakota, F. W. Clarke, Data
of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 165; H. W. Daudt,
analyst. Salinity 1.1 per cent.
V. Volcanic type. Mono Lake, Bull. 60, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1890, p.
53. T. M. Chatard, analyst. Salinity 5.1 per cent.
The general relation of the salts dissolved in oceanic waters to those
in rivers is as follows:
In ocean waters: Cl > S0 4 > C03; Na > Mg > Ca
In river waters: C0 3 > S0 4 > Cl; Ca > Mg > Na.
NORMAL SUCCESSION OF SALTS
When water evaporates until precipitation of the dissolved salts
begins, the least soluble salts will generally fall down first, while the most
soluble salts will remain in the solution until the last. Experiments by
J. Usiglio1 on sea water showed that the carbonates of calcium and mag­
nesium, with a little ferric oxide, were precipitated when one liter of the
water was reduced from one-half to one-fifth. Gypsum was precipitated
when the volume was one-fifth to one-seventh, but continued in lessening
amounts until only 30 cubic centimeters of the original liter remained.
Sodium chloride, the main constituent, was precipitated abundantly
upon reduction of volume to 1 0 0 cubic centimeters, but continued until
the volume of the water was only 16 cubic centimeters; even then some
1 Annales chim. phys., 3d scr., 27, 1849, pp. 92-172.
318 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of the salt remained in solution. Chloride and sulphate of magnesium
fell down within the same limits but in increasing quantities, and the
residual “ bittern” contained mainly the chlorides of magnesium and
potassium, bromide of sodium, sulphate of magnesium, and chloride of
sodium.
The whole series of these salts is rarely represented in the saline
deposits; the best known example of such complete evaporation is found
in the great Prussian potash and salt deposits. Often, as in the “Fed
Beds” of the Western states, the process ceased after the gypsum was
laid down; and changes of climate or invasion of the sea may have pre­
vented the precipitation of sodium chloride.
Actually the results of precipitation are far more complex than the
experiments mentioned would seem to show. Double or complex salts
are often formed.
A saline solution containing the same salts as sea water but in different
proportions would yield materially unlike results upon evaporation. In
brief, temperature, concentration, and time are always factors in the
origin of saline residues.
The study of the stability fields of these salts has received much
impetus by the labors of J. H. van’t Hoff and his numerous associates, 1
undertaken mainly to elucidate the problems of the potassium deposits
of Prussia.
The occurrence of thick beds of anhydrite is explained by the work of
van’t Hoff and Weigert, who established that the mineral forms from
gypsum in sodium chloride solutions at 30° C. In sea water the trans­
formation takes place at 25° C. Crystals of gypsum, sinking through a
salt solution at that temperature, are converted into anhydrite. This is
an example of the more general rule of dehydration of minerals in contact
with salt solutions, at temperatures considerably below their normal
inversion temperature.
Many minerals are deposited in nature from solutions in a lower state
of hydration than is produced at ordinary temperatures in the laboratory.
Thus natron, the ordinary sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO3 .10H2 O) rarely
occurs as a natural product, although it is stable at temperatures below
37° C. The more common product is trona (Na2 CO3 .NaHCO3 .2 H2O),
which is ordinarily stable only above 37° C.
From pure sodium sulphate solution mirabilite (Na2 SO4 .10H2 O) is
ordinarily deposited, but in the presence of a sodium chloride thenardite
(Na2 S04) is formed. From a solution of magnesium sulphate in the
presence of magnesium chloride kieserite (MgS0 4 .H 2 0) is precipitated
1 J. H. van’t Hoff, Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen, Braunschweig,
1905 and 1909, Physical chemistry in the service of the sciences, University Chicago
Press, 1903. H. Precht and E. Cohen, Ueber die Bildungsverhaltnisse der ozean­
ischen Salzlager, Leipzig, 1912.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 319
instead of the heptahydrate. The presence of a co-solute, by lowering
the osmotic pressure, acts in the same direction as a rise of temperature.
This principle is undoubtedly also applicable to minerals in rocks and
veins.
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
In desert valleys filled by temporary or permanent lakes we often
find a succession of salt beds of no great thickness alternating with detrital
matter of eolian or fluviatile origin. If the basin is large and deep a
considerable mass of salt may accumulate. The laws governing the
deposition of saline residues in the depressions of the deserts have been
ably set forth by J. Walther. 1
Salt deposits can be formed in marginal salt pans of the ocean subject
to periodic flooding; such deposits would not ordinarily be very thick.
The salt deposits of marine origin are frequently of great thickness.
In some cases they aggregate 1,000 to 2,000 feet; and it will be readily
recognized that any theory based on a single cycle of evaporation of sea
water, containing only 3.5 per cent of salts would meet with great
difficulties.
The “ bar theory,” presented by C. Ochsenius, 2 in 1877, but already
suggested by previously expressed views of Miller, Lyell, and Bischof,
attempts to explain these thick salt beds. Ochsenius believed that salt
deposits of the purity and thickness of those in central Germany could
not have been formed by the flooding of a series of shallow sounds and
lakes.
The bar theory premises a bay of the ocean separated from the open
sea by a practically level bar which permits only about the same quantity
of water to enter as is evaporated from the surface. A dry climate and
absence of fresh-water tributaries to the bay are also premised. Under
these conditions the sea water entering over the bar continuously carries
a new supply to the bay; the surface layers, becoming denser, always sink
and the concentration continually increases in the enclosed body of water.
The salt deposits on the bottom are increasing in thickness and the
heavy “ bittern” solution, with the remaining magnesium salts, corre­
spondingly rises toward the surface.
When these dense solutions reach the surface of the bar, the movement
is reversed and the residual “bittern” will flow outward into the ocean.
No accumulation of potassium-magnesium salts will occur. Should,
however, the bar have increased in height just at this time, the bittern
would be retained in the now closed basin and the deposition of the
potassium salts would follow.
1 J. Walther, Das Gesetz der Wiistenbildung, Leipzig, 1912.
2 C. Ochsenius, Bedeutung des orographischen Elementes “ Barre,” Zeitschr. prakt.
Geol, 1893, pp. 189-201; 217-233.
320 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The Gulf of Karaboghaz, on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea, is
frequently referred to as an excellent illustration of the bar theory 1
Salt deposits may also be found in relic seas, previously enriched in
salt and perhaps deepened by warping. Such conditions may have
existed in the Permian of Kansas and in the Permian of central Germany.
GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE2
Occurrence.—Gypsum (CaS0 4 .2H2 0) and anhydrite (CaS04) usually
occur in sedimentary beds as saline residues. Both are also found occa­
sionally as gangue minerals in ore deposits, and gypsum is in places a
product of ascending springs or of reactions of acid waters on calcareous
beds. Efflorescences of gypsum may be produced by capillary action
over gypsiferous beds or along saline lakes. Anhydrite, on account of
its slow transformation into the hydrous compound, has no economic
value, while gypsum is one of the most important non-metallic minerals.
Gypsum in sedimentary deposits frequently forms almost pure beds
of considerable thickness. It appears as snow white, fine-grained aggre­
gates; characterized by softness (H:2), low specific gravity (2.3), and
solubility in dilute hydrochloric acid. Anhydrite likewise forms white,
granular aggregates, but is easily distinguished from gypsum by its greater
hardness, its greater specific gravity (2.9), its pseudocubical cleavage and
resistance to weak HC1. Anhydrite slowly alters to gypsum, and many
occurrences of apparently solid gypsum contain remnants of anhydrite.
Beds of gypsum and anhydrite occur in many water-laid formations
all over the world. Gypsum predominates at the surface but alternating
beds of the two are common. Beds of anhydrite up to 300 feet in thick­
ness are found in the Permian of central Germany in connection with the
potash salts (p. 336).
Anhydrite occurs with gypsum overlying thick salt beds in Louisiana
and southern Texas; beds of anhydrite are also known from New Mexico,
Texas, Oklahoma, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Exceptionally
thick beds are reported from Carlsbad, New Mexico, where 1,325 feet
of anhydrite underlies 633 feet of salt. 3
The gypsum beds of the United States are rarely more than 30 or 40
feet thick though there may be several in any one section. They are
1 W. H. Twenhofel, Treatise on sedimentation, Baltimore, 2d ed., 1932, p. 499.
2 G. P. Grimsley, Michigan Geol. Survey, 9, pt. 2, 1904.
R. C. Wallace, Gypsum and anhydrite in genetic relationship, Geol. Mag., 1, 1914,
pp. 271-276.
R. W. Stone, Gypsum deposits of the United States, Bull. 697, U. S. Geol. Sur­
vey, 1920.
F. A. Wilder, Bull. Geol. Soe. Am., 32, 1921, p. 390. Mineral Industry, annual
issues.
D. H. Newland, Geology of gypsum and anhydrite, Econ. Geol., 16, 1921, pp.
393-404.
3 N. H. Darton, Bull. 715, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1921, p. 221.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 321
interstratified with limestone or shale; in places they are of great purity
and snow white. The compact, translucent variety is called alabaster
and is used for ornamental objects; gypsum in large plates or crystals is
called selenite. Recent surface deposits, mixed with clay are known as
“gypsite.”
Economically important gypsum deposits are found in the Salina
(Silurian) formation in northern New York and extend parallel to the
south shore of Lake Ontario.
Gypsum beds are also extensively worked in Michigan where they
are of Mississippian age (Lower Carboniferous). Equally important
beds of the same age are exploited in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
Iowa, Kansas, Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and other states are rich
in gypsum of Permian age; in the western part of this region gypsum
occurs at several horizons in the “ Red Beds” whose age ranges from
Upper Carboniferous to Jurassic.
Exceptionally thick, but not easily utilized deposits of uncertain age
overlie the “salt domes” (p. 333) of Louisiana and Texas. Tertiary
deposits are known from California, and Quaternary “gypsite” is abun­
dant in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The Tertiary beds in the basin
of Paris, France, are rich in gypsum, hence the name “ plaster of Paris.”
Uses.—Experiments relating to the possible artificial conversion of
anhydrite to gypsum by wet grinding are in progress. Gypsum finds
extensive use in various industries. Ground in its natural state, it is
employed as a fertilizer (land plaster) to counteract alkali in soils, to
retard the setting of cement, and for numerous chemical purposes. It is
often used as a “filler” or adulterant. Most important is, however, its
use as structural material. For this purpose it is calcined at 350° F.
when a large part of the water is expelled. After grinding and mixing
with water gypsum forms again and the whole sets to a hard mass called
stucco or plaster of Paris. The use of gypsum is increasing rapidly. In
1930 the production in the United States was 3,471,393 short tons. Most
of it was mined in New York, Michigan, Iowa, and Texas. Average
value of calcined product is about $11.50 per ton.
Stability and Solubility.1— As noted above gypsum is transformed to
anhydrite in sea water at 25° C. In pure water it begins to change
slowly to anhydrite at 63.5° C. At or above 25° C., a temperature often
reached in salt lakes, alternating beds of gypsum and anhydrite may form,
as indeed is often observed. To a large extent, anhydrite is the original
mineral. 2
The solubility of gypsum is a complicated problem owing to the exist­
ence of metastable forms—the hemi-hydrate and the soluble anhydrite—
1 C. Doeltcr, Handbuch der Mineralchemie, Bd. 4, Hft. 7, 8, 1927.
2 0. Bowles and M. Farnsworth, Physical chemistry of the calcium sulphates,
Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 738-745.
322 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and has been worked out by van’t Hoff and Meyerhoffer. 1 The solu­
bility of gypsum in water reaches a maximum of 0.21 per cent at 40° C.,
and decreases slightly above this temperature. At 63.5° C. the solubility
of anhydrite is, of course, equal to that of gypsum, but beyond this point
it decreases rapidly so that at 100° C. it is 0.06 per cent and at 200° C.
only about 0.005 per cent. 2 Other calcium salts, having a common ion,
depress the solubility of gypsum; but sodium chloride increases it about
three times owing to formation of CaCl2.
SODIUM CARBONATE AND SODIUM SULPHATE
Occurrence.—Most of the soda of commerce is an artificial product
from common salt, but both the carbonate and the sulphate of sodium
are often contained in saline desert lakes or in residues from such lakes.
The ordinary white efflorescence on the playas of the deserts consists of
these salts together with more or less sodium chloride and a little of the
chlorides and sulphates of potassium and magnesium; the soda lakes
contain all these salts. 3 In fact, they occur widely scattered in the
deserts of the Cordilleran region and Central Asia.
In the United States the commercial utilization of soda has been
attempted at Owens Lake, in California, at the Ragtown lakes, in Nevada,
and at the Wyoming soda lakes.
T. D. Chatard’s work on Owens Lake, where sodium carbonate forms
a little over one-third of the dissolved salts, showed that the order of
deposition upon evaporation is: (1) trona (Na2 CO3 .NaHCO3 .2 H2 O);
(2) sodium sulphate; (3) sodium chloride, and (4) the easily soluble
normal sodium carbonate. One or two of the Wyoming lake deposits
are rich in soda. At Green River, Wyoming, borings in the Wasatch
sandstone (Eocene?) at depths of 125 and 700 feet disclosed water forming
an almost concentrated solution of sodium carbonate, which for a time
was utilized for the manufacture of caustic soda.
Lakes containing sodium sulphate are widely scattered in the arid
regions of the western Americas and Central Asia. In the United States
1 Summarized by Cameron and Bell, Bull. 33, U. S. Bur. Soils, 1906.
2 A. C. Melcher, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 32, 1910, pp. 50-66.
3 A. R. Schultz, Deposits of sodium salts in Wyoming, Bull. 430, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1910, pp. 570-589.
R. C. Wells, Sodium and sodium compounds, Min. Res., U. S. Geol. Survey,
II, 1918, pp. 159-198.
O. P. Jenkins, Verde River lake beds, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 5, 1923, p. 65.
R. C. Wells, Sodium sulphate, its sources and use, Bull. 717, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1923.
F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 237.
L. H. Cole, Sodium sulphate of western Canada, Dept. Mines, Mines Branch,
No. 646, 1926.
J. P. De Wet, Sodium sulphate deposits of Saskatchewan, Can. Min. J., Novem­
ber, 1931.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 323
they occur in Wyoming, Arizona, and New Mexico; and the salts have
been leached from surrounding Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments. The
thickness of the salt beds amounts to 50 feet at most, and they may extend
over hundreds of acres. The salts consist mainly of thenardite
(Na2 S0 4 ), mirabilite (Na2 SO4 .1 0 H 2 O), glauberite (NaS0 4 .CaS04),
bloedite (Na2 S0 4 .MgS04 .4H2 0), epsomite (MgS04 .7H2 0), natron, and
halite. The largest known deposits are in the Saskatchewan lakes of
Canada.
Sodium sulphate is much more soluble in warm than in cold water,
but as the similar variation for sodium chloride is small, “ a mere change
of temperature between summer and winter in salt lakes may cause
mirabilite to separate out or to redissolve. ” The Great Salt Lake, Utah,
according to Gilbert, deposits sodium sulphate during winter. The
United States production amounted to 32,000 tons in 1930, chiefly from
Camp Verde, Arizona, and from Wyoming. The Canadian output was
32,000 tons. Sodium sulphate is used in paper and glass manufacturing
and for many metallurgical and industrial purposes. The price is about
$ 6 per ton.

SODIUM NITRATE
The alkaline nitrates are very soluble salts which are found in larger
masses only under exceptional conditions. Sodium nitrate is present in
the soil and is produced by the so-called nitrifying bacteria1 or by reac­
tions between organic nitrogenous matter and alkaline salts. Sodium
and potassium nitrates of great purity are sometimes found as efflores­
cences and veinlets on sheltered cliffs of various rocks and in caves and
are in many cases produced by organic agencies. Calcium nitrate is
known from limestone caves. Naturally, nitrate deposits are most
common in arid countries. In minor quantities nitrates are widely
scattered in the Western states12 and very frequently they are associated
with volcanic rocks, particularly rhyolite but also tuffs, basalts, and lake
beds in regions of volcanic activity. The volcanic origin of these nitrates
is not accepted by all writers but nevertheless it is the most probable
theory advanced.
There are two sources of nitrogen which may be utilized by nature
for the development of ammonia salts and nitrates. (1) The nitrogen
in the air, which may be fixed by organisms or by electric atmospheric
discharges and entrainment in rain water. (2) The nitrogen from the
1 H. S. Gale, Nitrate deposits, Bull. 523, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1912.
2 G. R. Mansfield and Leona Boardman, Nitrate deposits of the United States,
Bull. 838, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1932, 107 pp.
L. F. Noble, Nitrate deposits in southeastern California, Bull. 820, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1931, 108 pp.
324 MINERAL DEPOSITS
interior of the earth, which possibly is contained in the magma as a
nitride of boron or of some metal. At any rate the volcanic gases and
exhalations frequently contain nitrogen and ammonia; it is held by many
that a fixation of nitrogen from this source as nitrates is well possible. 1
The only place where nitrates are present in abundance is in the
Atacama Desert in northern Chile. 2 These wonderful deposits have
long supplied the world with nitrates though this industry is now suffering
keenly from competition of artificial nitrate made from the nitrogen of the
air; the annual production in 1930 amounted to 3,000,000 metric tons.
Improved processes for refining the caliche are now introduced by an
American company. The deposits are situated in the provinces of Tara-
paca and Antofagasta in the interior dry valleys between the Coast Range
and the Andes, at elevations ranging from 1 , 0 0 0 feet to 3,000 feet, and
extend for 300 miles parallel to the coast. The lowest depressions
are often occupied by salt flats with a little nitrate. The nitrate deposits
lie on the gentle slopes of the valleys. The nitrate bed is a superficial
formation of considerable, though irregular, extent; it lies below an over­
burden of a few feet of loose crumbly material with subangular gravel,
becoming harder toward the bottom. This overburden contains some
nitrate and often much sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, and gypsum,
as well as a little sodium iodate. The “ caliche” or nitrate bed is a reddish
brown sandy gravel cemented with salts; it averages a few feet in thick­
ness. Below the “ caliche” lies rudely stratified sand, gravel, or clay,
often of considerable thickness. The “ caliche” averages about 25 per
cent sodium nitrate and the lower limit of workable material is placed at
15 per cent. Associated with the nitrate are a large amount of sodium
chloride, more or less of the sulphate and borates of calcium and sodium,
and a small but constant quantity of sodium iodate. Small quantities
of the nitrates of potassium, calcium, and barium as well as a little calcium
iodate and iodo-chromate (lautarite and dietzeite) are found.
1 F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Gcol. Survey, 1924, p. 256.
2 The literature is very extensive and only part can be quoted.
L. Darapsky, Das Department Tal-tal, Berlin, 1900. Ref. Zeitschr. prakt. Geol,
1902, p. 153.
R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., Jour. Geol., 18, 1910, pp. 1-32.
J. T. Singewald, Jr., and B. L. Miller, Econ. Geol., 11, 1916, pp. 103-114.
Lorenzo Sundt, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917, p. 89.
C. Doelter, Die Mineralchemie, 3, 1, 1918, pp. 267-281.
A. H. Rogers and H. R. Van Wagenen, The Chilean nitrate industry, Bull. 134,
Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., Feb. 1918, pp. 505-522. Discussion, Bull. 136, idem, 1920,
pp. 845-848.
W. L. Whitehead, The Chilean nitrate deposits, Econ. Geol., 15, 1920, pp. 187-224.
W. Wetzel, Petrographische Untersuchungen an chilenischen Saltpetergesteinen,
Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1924, pp. 113-120.
F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp.
254-260.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 325
The material mined is usually of the following composition:
Per cent
Sodium nitrate.............................................................. 14-25
Potassium nitrate......................................................... 2- 3
Sodium chloride............................................................ 8-50
Sodium sulphate........................................................... 2-12
Calcium sulphate......................................................... 2 -6
Magnesium sulphate.................................................... 0 -3
Sodium biborate........................................................... 1 -3
Sodium iodate............................................................... 0.05- 1
Sodium perchlorate...................................................... 0.1 - 0.5
Insoluble......................................................................... 0-50
The origin of the nitrate deposits of Chile is a much debated question
and few authors are in agreement.
Pissis, the Chilean geologist, followed lately, for instance, by Rogers
and Van Wagenen, accounts for the deposits by fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen by thunderstorms and its descent from the Andes in the under­
ground circulation and ascent to the surface by capillarity.
Penrose and others hold that the nitrate came from beds of bird
guano accumulated at the time when the Coast Range did not exist and
that the nitrates were gradually leached and mingled with the salt waters
of a closed basin. Others are inclined to consider the deposits caused by
ordinary bacterial fixation or by oxidation of nitrogenous vegetable
matter. Singewald and Miller think that the nitrates have been carried
down by the ground water and emphasize that only the usual processes
in operation everywhere, have been active. The accumulation is simply
caused by the abnormally dry climate. Others like G. Steinmann, seek
the origin in the Tertiary volcanic rocks. At Maricunga nitrates are
said to occur in a recent volcanic tuff.
All these explanations appear inadequate or forced. The nitrate
deposits are not marine or lacustrine. Their extent corresponds in a
most remarkable way to the Jurassic and Cretaceous tuffs and lava
flows which occupy so much space in this region, and there must be some
causal connection. The nitrates may thus be of volcanic origin, and
have been leached from the Mesozoic rocks under unusual climatic con­
ditions. This view of the origin is supported by W. L. Whitehead1 and F.
W. Clarke. 2 The constant presence of borates is an additional suggestive
fact.
IO D IN E

The world’s need of iodine is now mainly supplied by the nitrate region
of Chile as a by-product. The production was 1,000 metric tons in 1929.
Much more could be produced if needed. Smaller quantities are still
1Op. tit.
2 Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 258.
326 MINERAL DEPOSITS
produced from seaweed in Japan, France, Norway, and England, and
from volcanic springs in Java. Brines from oil wells often contain some
iodine and may provide a future supply sufficient for the United States.1
BORATES12
General Occurrence.—Borates and other boron compounds appear
in nature under conditions indicating widely differing modes of origin.
As complex and insoluble borosilicates like tourmaline and datolite they
are disseminated in igneous and metamorphic rocks or in pegmatite
dikes and fissure veins, but are here of no economic importance except
that tourmaline occurring in this manner is sometimes utilized as a gem
stone. As boric acid and borates of calcium and magnesium they appear
in volcanic exhalations, of which the most famous are the “soffioni”
of Tuscany, Italy,3 from which large amounts of boric acid have been
recovered. Borates, principally in the form of borax (Na2 B 4 0 7 .1 0 H20 ),
occur in hot springs and in lakes of volcanic regions. Borax was first
obtained from such lakes situated in Tibet. The thermal waters of the
California Coast Ranges and Nevada (p. 55) often contain boron,
sometimes in large quantities. The borates from these springs are some­
times accumulated in little lake basins and there deposited by evapora­
tion as borax crystals. About 50 years ago much borax was won from
the Borax Lake, Lake County, California. The evaporated salts con­
tained 62 per cent sodium carbonate, 20 per cent sodium chloride, and 18
per cent borax.
The borates occur abundantly in the playas, or shallow basins inter­
mittently covered by water, or in Tertiary lake beds; they are as follows:4
Kernite. Na20.2B20,3.4H20. Synonym, rasorite.
Tincalconite. Na 20 .2 B 20 3 .5 H 20 .
Borax. Na20.2B20,i. 10H20. Synonym, tincal.
Kramerite. Na2O.2CaO.5B2O3.10H2O.
Ulexite. Na20.2Ca0.5B20 3.16H20. Synonym, boronatrocalcite.
Colemanite. 2 Ca0 .3 B 20 3 .5 H 20 .
1 P. M. Tyler and A. B. Clinton, Bromine and iodine, Information Circ. 6387.
U. S. Bur. of Mines, 1930, 26 pp.
2 M. R. Campbell, Reconnaissance of the borax deposits of Death Valley and the
Mohave Desert, Bull. 200, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1902.
C. R. Keyes, Borax deposits of the United States, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,
40, 1909, pp. 674-710.
H. S. Gale, The origin of colemanite deposits, Prof. Paper 85, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1913, pp. 3-9.
W. F. Foshag, The origin of the colemanite deposits, Econ. Geol., 16, 1921, pp.
199-214.
3 R. Nasini, I soffioni e i lagoni della Toscana, Rome, 1930, 652 pp.
4 W. T. Schaller, Borate minerals from the Kramer district, California, Prof.
Paper 158, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1930, pp. 137-170.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 327
Meyerhofferite. 2Ca0.3B20a-7H20.
Inyoite. 2Ca0.3B203.13H20.
Pandermite. 5 CaO.6 B 2Oj.9 H 2O. Synonym, priceite.
Howlite. 4 Ca0 .5 H 20 .5 B 203 .2 Si0 2 .
Marine Borate Deposits.—The marine deposits are mainly confined
to the beds of potassium salts in central Germany, but borates have
also been observed in sodium chloride, anhydrite, or gypsum. The
principal occurrence is as boracite (5Mg0.MgCl2.7B203) and several
other rare borates in the carnallite region (p. 336)—that is, in the
deposits of the last mother liquors of evaporating sea water. The boracite
usually forms small crystals or concretions, but one occurrence is recorded
of a mass weighing about 1,400 pounds. A few hundred tons of borates
are annually obtained by recrystallization. The boron compounds, then,
remained with the most easily soluble salts and were finally precipitated
as a magnesium salt because of the predominance of that metal over
calcium in the sea water.
Borax Marshes.—The deserts of southern California, Nevada, and
Oregon, are rich in borate deposits. Similar deposits occur in Argentina,
Bolivia, and Chile. The desolate plains between the barren ranges of
volcanic rocks contain shallow basins, which during the brief seasons of
rain are covered with thin sheets of water. The evaporation of this
water leaves dazzling expanses of white salt deposit or efflorescence, some
of which may become covered by the fine sand carried by the desert
storms. These deposits were discovered about 1870 and for many years
yielded a large production of borax at Searles Marsh (60 miles north of
Barstow, California), Death Valley, and other places. Though enormous
quantities of these salts remain, they are now of little importance because
richer and more easily worked deposits have replaced them. The crusts
are rarely more than 1 foot thick; the percentage of borax varies consider­
ably. According to Bailey, the crude salt from Searles Marsh yielded in
per cent 50 sand, 12 sodium chloride, 10 sodium carbonate, 16 sodium
sulphate, and 12 borax. Borings showed 20 feet of clay and sand with
crystals of calcium borate, underlain by a bed of solid trona 28 feet thick,
and below this 350 feet of clays impregnated with hydrogen sulphide.
On ground that had been worked over, a new crust formed by capillary
action that was thick enough to remove in 3 or 4 years. The area pro­
ductive of borax amounts to about 1,700 acres, on which in wet seasons
stands about 1 foot of water.
Though no ulexite was found at Searles Marsh, it is common in many
other playa deposits, in both California and Nevada and in Argentina.
It usually forms concretions of silky fiber, known as “ cotton balls.”
Tertiary Lake Beds.—The borates in the marshes and playas have
undoubtedly been leached from the older deposits in the Tertiary lake
beds, which have been recognized at many points in Inyo, San Bernardino,
328 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Kern, Los Angeles, and Ventura counties, California. These beds yield
colemanite almost exclusively.
The colemanite deposits begin near the Pacific coast at Piru, Ventura
County, and near Saugus, Los Angeles County, where, according to
Keyes, they lie in a series of yellow clays and sandstones, probably
Miocene in age and several thousand feet in thickness. The mineral is
present as nodules in clay, and above the borate beds are strata of gypsum.
Other important beds are in the foot-hills of the Calico Mountains
north of the Mojave River; they have a steep dip and have been mined
by shafts to a depth of 400 feet. These large masses of low-grade
colemanite shales, with 7 to 20 per cent boric acid, are not mined now;
attention being confined to two solid beds of the mineral 7 to 10 feet
thick. Rhyolite tuffs lie underneath the borate beds.
The richest colemanite beds are, however, in the Furnace Creek
region of the Funeral Range, which overlooks Death Valley, in Inyo
County, California. About 4,000 feet of Tertiary non-fossiliferous sedi­
ments are recognized here, which form a broad belt obliquely crossing the
range and dipping 20° to 45° N. E. The lower and thioker part, according
to Keyes, consists of conglomerates and sandstones, above which are
olive-colored clays interbedded with basalts. The upper part of the clay
series carries gypsum, colemanite, and thin layers of limestone. The
borate beds are traceable for 25 miles. Within the colemanite-bearing
beds, which may be as much as 50 feet thick, the bluish clays are thickly
interspersed with milky white layers or nodules of the white, coarsely
crystalline mineral, mingled with more or less gypsum, according to
Keyes. The solid layers may be 15 feet thick. Near by the clays are
impregnated with fine particles of colemanite and yield 10 to 25 per cent
boric acid, but these low-grade deposits are not utilized at present.
In 1926 an important deposit of kernite was discovered on the
Mojave Desert near Kramer, in Miocene “ lake beds,” mostly clay,
overlying a basalt flow. The mineral here occurs abundantly and pure,
associated with borax and a little stibnite and realgar. Near by the
lake beds were known to contain deposits of colemanite and ulexite.
Kernite occurs in clear crystals embedded in the clay, some of them
are up to 8 feet in thickness; it is slowly soluble in cold, easily in hot water.
The deposit is said to extend over an area of over 40 acres with an average
thickness of 80 feet at a depth of 400 feet. The larger part of the borax
produced in the United States now comes from this deposit.1 As no
other occurrences of kernite and kramerite are known, it is believed that
very special conditions governed their deposition.
Origin.—The colemanite deposits, which in places occur with gypsum
and limestone, are surely not of marine origin and can hardly be supposed
to be saline precipitates from evaporating lake water. Replacement of
1 Mineral Industry, 1930, p. 545.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 329
limestone has been suggested but Foshag points out that boric acid is not
likely to replace carbonic acid and shows on the basis of van’t Hoff’s
work that ulexite was the primary mineral which by leaching with NaCl
would be converted to colemanite.1 The strontianite deposits found in
similar lake beds (p. 402) form a somewhat analogous occurrence.
The reaction 2 NaCaB 5 0 9 .8 H 2 0 (Ulexite) Na2B4O7.10H2O (Borax)
+ Ca2B60n.5H20 (Colemanite) + H20 is reversible.
Van’t Hoff12 has produced pandermite and colemanite from meyer-
hofferite and states that ulexite, pandermite, and probably colemanite
can be formed at temperatures from 25° C. upward. The first salts
precipitated in oceanic waters are calcium salts. For borates the satura­
tion point is not reached until carnallite is precipitated.
W. T. Schaller and R. C. Wells obtained kernite and tincalconite
artificially from borax by a special method and temperature of 150° C.
It is therefore considered probable that it was formed by hot water acting
on a pre-existing borax deposit, and that this hot water was evidently of
volcanic origin as indicated by the presence of realgar and stibnite in the
deposit.
Production and Uses.—The borate industry is now concentrated in
southeastern California and has shown great expansion in the last years.
In 1930, 177,400 short tons of crude borates were mined. The products
are shipped direct to the sea board, where the material is manufactured
into borax and boric acid.
Borax is extensively used in industrial chemistry, in metal enameling,
in medicine, and in the household. Smaller quantities of borax are
produced in Italy, Turkey, Peru, Argentina, and Chile, but practically
the United States controls the industry.
SODIUM CHLORIDE
Occurrence. 3—Sodium chloride or common salt forms beds in sedi­
mentary rocks, and in most cases its derivation by evaporation of saline
solutions is clear. Of about 8,000,000 tons of salt produced in the
United States in 1930, one-fourth was mined in solid form. Most of it is
obtained from brines derived from solution of salt beds by natural waters
or by water forced down into bore-holes to the saline strata; much also is
produced by evaporation of sea water or water of saline lakes, such as the
Great Salt Lake of Utah. The price in 1930 was $3 per short ton.
1 W. F. Foshag, op. cit.
2 J. H. van’t Hoff, Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen, 2, 1909, pp.
45-75.
3 J. O. von Buschmann, Das Salz, Leipzig, 1906 and 1909, 2 vols.
W. C. Phalen, Technology of salt making in the United States, Bull. 146. U. S.
Bur. Mines, 1917 (with description of deposits).
A. W. Grabau, Principles of salt deposition, New York, 1920.
330 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Salt beds are present in formations of different ages, but are perhaps
most common in the Permian and Triassic strata; the oldest saline rocks
in the United States are those of the Silurian in New York State. As
may be easily understood from the general statements on previous pages,
strata of calcium sulphate are ordinarily associated with salt beds and

should appear below them; owing to recurrent and shifting epochs of

desiccation the order may be reversed and gypsum beds appear above the
salt. It is also very common to find crystals or streaks of anhydrite
or gypsum with salt, as well as streaks of clay. In thickness salt beds
vary enormously—from the thinnest strata to masses 1,500 feet or even
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 331
more in thickness. A bore-hole near Sperenberg, in the German potash
region, penetrated 3,900 feet of salt, but here, as in so many other places,
the apparent thickness may be deceptive, being due to movements of
folding and faulting. Besides, the plasticity of salt is remarkably great,
much greater than that of the accompanying clays and anhydrite, and

F i g . 1 2 5 . — Section of lower M ichigan basin. (A fter A. C. Lane.)

this, as the German geologists have found, leads to most astonishing and
confusing stratigraphic relations.
Examples.—Salt beds occur in New York State in the red Salina shales
of the Silurian and underlie a considerable area. Much of the salt is
recovered from artificial brines. The salt forms pure lenticular masses
and layers interbedded with soft shales, limestone, and gypsum; the salt-
bearing formation having a variable thickness up to 470 feet (Fig. 124).
At Ithaca several beds of salt occur at a depth of 2,244 feet with a total

F ig . 126.— Section of Perm ian salt form ation in Kansas. (From M ineral Resources of
Kansas.)
thickness of 248 feet. A magnesian limestone, containing gypsum, lies
above. Rock salt is mined at several places, one shaft opened at Cuyler-
ville being 1,100 feet deep and reaching a salt bed 21 feet in thickness.
Salt has also been mined near the outcrops of the beds at Livonia.
Similar beds are worked in Ohio by bore-holes and brines.
The greatest salt production in the United States is derived from
Michigan.1 The salt occurs as thick beds at different horizons in the
Salina formation and also in the sandstones of the Mississippian, or Lower
Carboniferous (Fig. 125). The salt is recovered by means of natural and
1 A. C. Lane, Water-supply Paper 30, U. S. Geol. Survey 1899.
332 MINERAL DEPOSITS
artificial brines; bromine, in which these brines are unusually rich, is
obtained as a by-product of the final mother liquor. Deep mining has
been undertaken under considerable difficulties near Detroit.
Kansas is likewise among the great producers.1 Some salt is obtained
from salt springs in the Carboniferous and on the “salt plains” leached
from Permian beds. From the latter the
Feet
principal product is derived; it occurs inter-
R ed b ed s stratified with shales, the total thickness of
.G ypsum an d a n h y d rite the salt beds being at most 500 feet. Some
i S h ale, etc.
[S a lt, 118 fe e t
of the beds are said to be over 200 feet
feet thick, but generally they are much less (Fig.
R ed sh ale w ith s a i u o
salt, sofeet 1 2 6 ) . The deposits extend into Oklahoma
■ Red sh ale an d g y p su m (Fig. 127).
S a lt, 3 fe e t In the western arid states playa deposits
ft
i sh ale an d lim esto n e
-™# ■ t i , A, 6 feet m of salt are common in the dry basins between
s i—
-------
}R ed sh ale, lim estone,
an h y d rite the ranges; they are usually thin.
S a lt, 168 fe e t
The most noted deposit of this kind is that
■ Red sh ale of Salton, Imperial County, California, where
the basin lies below the level of the sea.
[G ypsum an d a n h y d rite Before the recent flooding by the Colorado
>Shale, g ra y , on g y p su m River an important production was main­
[S a lt, 102 feet,
ra n d an h y d rite tained here. A large area is covered by
[A n h y d rite, som e sh ale salt crusts 10 to 20 inches in thickness.
: S a lt, 2 5 fe e t
' II11HI' Imi L111ITH Below this lies a thin mud deposit covering
another salt crust. D eeper borings
2 3 7 0

A n h y d rite , som e sh ale

encountered 22 feet of black mud containing
27<*e-
L im esto n e, som e sh ale salt and soda, and this covers 270 feet of
F ig . 127.— Deep boring three hard clay.2
ZfiHO'

miles east of G ate City, Okla­ The desert regions of northern Africa
homa. (A fter N . H. Darton, and central Asia offer similar occurrences in
U. S. Geol. Survey.)
abundance.
Large deposits of impure salt mixed with clay have been worked for a
long time in the Alpine Triassic of Tyrol; they lie between limestone beds.
Another important saline region fringes the outside of the Carpathian
chain in Roumania, Transylvania, and Galicia and is contained in
Miocene sands and clays. The beds are generally greatly disturbed,
brecciated, and pressed. The best-known place where mining is carried
on is Wieliczka, in Galicia, which is much visited by tourists on account
of the picturesque and extensive workings, now about 1,000 feet deep,
1 M. Z. Kirk, Mineral resources of Kansas, Univ. Kansas Geol. Survey, 1898.
N. H. Darton, Permian salt deposits of the southcentral United States, Bull.
715, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1921, pp. 205-224; “Red Beds” and associated formations
in New Mexico, Bull. 794, idem, 1928.
2 G. E. Bailey, Bull. 24, California State Min. Bur., 1902, p. 126.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 333
with elaborate carvings in solid salt. The salt beds of the Stassfurt region
will be described later.
The Salt Domes of the Gulf Coast.1— The greatest salt deposits in the
United States have been discovered by borings in Louisiana and the
adjoining coast belt of Texas; they show many unusual features and some
difficulty has been experienced in explaining their genesis. Above the
low and swampy coast west of New Orleans rise a number of low mounds
or knolls and below these most of the salt has been found. It does not
occur in regular beds but as enormous subterranean domes, surrounded

F i g . 1 2 8 . — Perspective drawing of W est Colum bia salt dome. D epths in feet. (After
D. P. Carlton.)
on all sides by thick and often steeply dipping beds of Quaternary and
Tertiary clays and sands. At some places a thin-bedded Cretaceous
limestone appears at the surface. Figure 128 gives a suggestion of the
strange relations encountered. At Petite Anse, according to Harris, the
drill shows 2,263 feet of almost pure salt, followed by 70 feet of foreign
matter, below which the drill again enters rock salt of unknown thickness.
On Cote Carline the drill entered salt at 334 feet and continued in salt
without change till the drilling ceased at 2,090 feet. At Belle Isle12 the
Knapp Well No. 1 penetrated 2,000 feet of salt and, below this, 236 feet
1 G. S. Rogers, Intrusive origin of the Gulf Coast Salt Domes, Econ. Geol., 13, 1918,
pp. 447-485.
E. L. DeGolyer, The theory of volcanic origin of the salt domes, Bull. 137,
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1918, pp. 987-1000.
2 A. F. Lucas, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 57, 1917, p. 1034.
334 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of anhydrite and gypsum. Another well at Humble is said to have
penetrated 5,410 feet of salt.
Oil, gas, and sulphur are often met in the drill-holes. Gypsum and
anhydrite, in beds 200, 400, or even 600 feet thick, cover the salt in some
places, or again the salt may be overlain (as at Spindletop, Texas) by
several hundred feet of a porous limestone carrying oil. The dip of the
loose strata forming the outside of the dome is steep and bore-holes only
a short distance from those disclosing salt may fail to encounter it.
These enormous salt resources are as yet little utilized. In Louisiana,
rock salt was mined in 1925 at Weeks Island, where the shaft is 645 feet
deep, at Avery Island, at a depth of about 500 feet, and at Carline at a
depth of 900 feet. The shafts are sunk in heavy, wet ground until the
impermeable salt is reached. In places there is considerable danger of
flooding the mine by driving into the loose strata.1
According to older views, these wonderful salt domes were deposited
by ascending solutions; some believed that the domes are uplifts caused
by laccolithic intrusions; others that they are produced by the expanding
power of growing salt crystals.
None of these views is convincing. Recent literature has shown the
existence of many salt domes along the coast and some quite a distance
inland.12 The same kind of salt domes are also found on the isthmus of
Tehuantepec back of Puerto Mexico,3 accompanied in places by oil and
gas.
The foreign literature indicates that such salt domes also exist in
northern Germany, in Transylvania, and in other countries particularly
in Persia.4
Hopkins shows clearly that the salt dome at Palestine, Texas, is
caused by a highly localized vertical uplift of quaquaversal form. Rogers
and DeGolyer arrive at similar conclusions. It is probable that these
domes are Carboniferous, Permian, or possibly Cretaceous salt beds forced
up through the softer sediments. This is made possible by the extraor­
dinary plasticity of rock salt, which easily yields to deformation. The
nature of the force producing these uplifts remains in doubt.
1 F. E. Vaughn, The five islands, Louisiana, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 9,
1925, pp. 756-797.
2 O. B. Hopkins, Bull. 616, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, p. 28.
3 Burton Hartley, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917, pp. 581-588.
4 F. F. Hahn, Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 120-135.
E. Fulda, Die Salzstocke am persischen Golf, Kali, 25, 1931, pp. 1-5; 120-121.
J. V. Harrison, The geology of some salt plugs in Laristan, Quart. Jour. Geol.
Soc. (London), 86, 1930, pp. 462-522.
In south Persia 107 salt domes are recognized; some of them at least are of
Cambrian age. Erosion has formed crater-like depressions in places, and there arc
also spire-like masses of salt that rise 1,000 meters above sea level. Origin by tan­
gential pressure on a series of sediments 25,000 feet thick is suggested.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 335
As these salt domes on the Gulf coast are the carriers of oil, gas, and
sulphur, much attention has been given to them and many new domes
have been discovered by modern methods of geophysical investigation,
that is, by the gravity balance or by seismometric instruments. Volume
9 of the Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists
contains 21 papers dealing with this subject which confirm in general the
conclusion referred to above.1
Composition, Production and Use.—Salt as marketed is usually very
pure. Calcium sulphate is the principal impurity and is often present
to the amount of over 1 per cent. Salt from some desert lakes contains
sodium carbonate and sulphate. In 1930, about 2,000,000 short tons of
rock salt was mined in the United States. The total production of salt
for the same year was 8,000,000 short tons. The average price was 83
per ton. New York, Kansas, Louisiana, and Michigan produced 99 per
cent of the output; the same states were practically the only producers
of rock salt.
The wide range of uses of salt for culinary, preservative, and industrial
purposes need not be specified. Large amounts are used in the manu­
facture of other sodium salts, particularly the carbonate.
Bromine and Calcium Chloride.—In 1930, over 4,000 short tons of bro­
mine were produced in California, Michigan, Ohio, and West Virginia from
residues of pumped salt brines; the price was about 25 cents per pound.
The production has increased rapidly. Experiments are in progress to
recover bromine from sea water on a large scale. A large production of
bromine is obtained from the German salt deposits. The output is
calculated as bromine, but actually much of it is in the form of alkaline
bromides.
About 116,000 short tons of calcium chloride at about $19 per ton are
produced annually in the United States from pumped brines. A partial
analysis of such a brine follows:12
ANALYSIS OF BRINE FROM POMEROY, OHIO
(Grams per Liter)
Sodium chloride.................................................................. 84.30
Calcium chloride................................................................ 14.34
Potassium chloride............................................................. 0.114
Magnesium chloride.......................................................... 5.50
Barium chloride.................................................................. 0.343
Strontium chloride............................................................. 0.257
Sodium iodide..................................................................... 0.004
Magnesium bromide.......................................................... 0.155
1E. L. DeGolyer, Origin of North American salt domes, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol., 9, 1925, pp. 831-874.
D. C. Barton, The salt domes of south Texas, idem, pp. 536-589.
2 J. A. Brownocker, Ohio Geol. Survey, 8, 1906,
336 MINERAL DEPOSITS
THE GERMAN POTASSIUM SALTS*1
If carried to its conclusion the process of evaporation of sea water will
result in the deposition of the easily soluble chlorides and sulphates of
potassium and magnesium, also chloride of calcium. Evidently this
seldom takes place. Almost the only locality thus far discovered where
the whole sequence of salts is present is in central Germany, north and
south of the Harz Mountains, in formations of Permian age. In 1930,
No. Thickness in Character of strata
meters

1 20 to 30............... Red clay with a little anhydrite and rock salt.

2 Rock salt.
50.........................
8 1 to 5 ...................
Anhydrite with salt.
4 5 to 15.................Red clay with anhydrite and rock salt.
5 100 to 150.......... Younger rock salt.
6 40 to 90............... Main anhydrite.
7 4 to 10.................Salt clay.
8 30 to 40............... Carnallite zone. Camallite (KCl.MgCl, +
6H20).
e 20 to 40............... Kieserite zone. Kieserite (MgSO, + H20).
10 40 to 60............... Polyhalite zone. Polyhalite (2CaS01.MgS01.
K2S04+ 2H20).
li 300 to 500........... Older rock salt, with narrow streaks of
anhydrite, interpreted as annual deposits.
12 70 to 100............. Older anhydrite.
4 to 10................. Limestone (Zechstein Kalk). Marine deposit.

!
13

14
Black copper-bearing shale.
0.5 to 4 ............... Conglomerate.
Lower Permian and Carboniferous beds.
The older series (Nos. 8 to 11) closed with deposition of potassium salts-
The younger series (Nos. 1 to 7) contains no potassium salts.
40 mines yielded annually about 12,000,000 metric tons of crude potassium
salts, of which 85 per cent is used as soil fertilizer and the remainder for
general industrial purposes. The value of this production was about
845,000,000. The mining is done exclusively by shafts from 1,000 to
2,500 feet deep. Circular shafts lined with concrete or iron tubing are
1 R. Ehrhardt, Die Kali-Industrie, 1907.
Beyschlag, Everding, Erdmann, Loewe, and Paxmann, Deutschlands Kaliberg-
bau, 1907.
Summaries: F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1924, pp. 221-228.
H. E. Boeke and W. Eitel, Grundlagen der physikalischen chemischen Petro-
graphie, Berlin, 1923, pp. 453-510.
R. Marc and H. Jung, Physikalische Chemie, Jena, 1930.
E. R. Lilley, Potash in Germany, Eng. Min. Jour., January, 1932, pp. 33-37.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 337
used and the greatest caution is necessary to prevent influx of water
during sinking or working; if the water once breaks in, the mine will
probably have to be abandoned.
Some of the products are sold for fertilizers without further chemical
treatment. Carnallite is the most important of these, and next to it
comes kainite; as mined, both are mixed with 30 or 40 per cent of common
salt. Other chemical products are chloride and sulphate of potassium

H o riz o n ta l sca le
0_________ j_________ 2_________ 3_________ 4 Miles
0 i 2 3 4 K ilo m e te rs
Vertical s c a le is 5 tim e s t h e h o r iz o n ta l
1. T e r tia r y b ed s
2 . T ria s s ic sh a le s (K e u p e rj oin ii. S a lt d a y
i2 P o ta s s iu m s alts

5
3. T ria s s ic lim e s to n e (MuscheikalM.) i/i ■3. O lder s a lt b e d s
4 . U p p e r sandstone] 4 14. P e rm ia n lim e s to n e ( Z e c h s te in )
5. M iddle ” L B u ntsan oste m 15. U p p e r P e r m ia n s a n d s to n e
6. Lower M j
4
( R o tlie g e n d e s )
7. U p p e r cla y >6 L o w e r P e rm ia n a n d u p p e r Car­
8. S e c o n d a ry sett
9. Y o u n g e r s a l t b e d s
tO. M a in a n h y d r i t e
(rLU
2
b o n if e r o u s ( R o tlie g e n d e s )
i7. C a rb o n ife r o u s a n d p r e - C a r b o ­
n ife r o u s

F ig . 129.— Section of the Stassfurt-Egeln anticline. (A fter Everding .)

and potassium-magnesium sulphate. Kieserite is refined to magnesium
sulphate.
The potassium salts lie as a relatively thin series of strata over a
heavy bed of rock salt in the Permian and are in turn covered by Triassic
sandstones and limestones, and finally by the Tertiary and Quaternary
beds. They form a series of faulted synclines and anticlines (Fig. 129),
in places approaching closely to the surface, but here generally changed
by secondary leaching processes.
The general section is as shown on page 336,1counted from the bottom
of the Triassic sandstone.
1 H. Everding, Deutschlands Kalibergbau, 1907, p. 36.
338 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Rock salt is really present throughout the section, for the carnallite
zone, which yields the greatest quantity of crude product, contains only
about 55 per cent of carnallite and includes also 25 per cent rock salt and
16 per cent kieserite. The kieserite zone yields 65 per cent rock salt and
only 17 per cent kieserite. Rock salt, kieserite, sylvite (KC1), carnallite
(KCl.MgCU + 6H20), and kainite (KCl.MgS04 + 3H20) are the main
products.
The German geologists have shown that extensive secondary changes
have taken place in the salt beds—in part immediately after the deposi­
tion, in part much later, following the Triassic sedimentation and pro­
gressing even now. These post-Triassic changes have occurred both in
the outcrops and at greater depth. The minerals just enumerated may
occur in all three generations, but in addition a large number of more or
less complicated secondary compounds were formed.
Kainite is in part a secondary product derived from carnallite by the
leaching of MgCl2. It forms along the crests of the anticlines. Under
some circumstances a secondary mixture of potassium chloride, kieserite,
and salt would be formed instead of kainite, and this constitutes an
important product under the name of “hartsalz.” Secondary deposits
of the older type appear between the carnallite and the salt clay. In all
these transformations the products are very complex.
Van’t Hoff1 and his associates have studied the various combinations
of salts in order to ascertain their fields of stability at temperatures
ranging from 25° to 83° C. Sylvite and carnallite are stable in con­
centrated NaCl solutions from 0° to 85° C. Many of the rarer salts
(langbeinite (2MgS04.K2S04), for instance) are stable under these con­
ditions only from 37° C. upward.
Some of the temperatures required seem high; kieserite with sylvite,
for instance, forming above 72° C.
However, the temperature in the middle depths of evaporating salt
lakes may be very high. A. V. Kaleczinsky2 found the temperatures of
certain Hungarian salt lakes to be as much as 71° C. during the summer
at a depth of 1.3 meters, while the surface and the bottom layers were
much cooler, about 20° C.
The present trend of thought is, however, that many of these meta-
morphic changes are caused by a depression of the primary salt deposits
into greater depths where a partial recrystallization took place. A later
rise of the beds again brought them near the surface, and resulted, in
places, in a reversal of the metamorphic reactions.3
1 Van’t Hoff, Die ozeanischen Salzablagerungen, 1905 and 1909.
H. Precht and E. Cohen, Die Bildungsverhaltnisse ozeaniseher Salzablagerun­
gen, Leipzig, 1912.
2 A. V. Kaleczinsky, Ref. Ann. Phys. (4) 7, 1902.
3 H. E. Boeke and W. Eitel, op. cit., 1923, p. 492.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 339
For recent papers on the transformation, see footnote.1
OTHER SOURCES OF POTASSIUM SALTS
The exhausted agricultural lands of all countries need potassium salts,*12
together with phosphates and nitrogen compounds. Germany is the
only country in which potassium salts in easily available form occur on a
large scale. The imports of the United States in 1913 amounted to about
1,800,000 metric tons while the highly stimulated domestic production
since the World War amounts to but 20 per cent of the former consump­
tion. This brief statement indicates the acute situation. In 1930
nearly 1,000,000 short tons of potassium salts were imported.
Promising beds of potassium salts similar to those of Germany have
been discovered in the Oligocene of Alsace and are now producing.3
Other deposits occur in the Tertiary beds of Northeastern Spain,4 and
Galicia (Poland). Both of these regions now contribute to the world’s
supply.
Important potassium salts have been discovered by drilling at Soli­
kamsk,56in the east Russian Permian and production has begun. The
minerals are halite, sylvite and carnallite.
An active search for potassium salts has been carried on in the United
States since 1910. Since the discovery, in 1912, by Dr. J. A. Udden, of
the presence of potash in the Permian salt beds of western Texas many
E. Jiinecke, Entstehung der deutsehen Kalisalzlagerstatten, 1915.
E. Janecke, Zeitschr. anorg. Chemie, 100 (1917), 102 (1918), 103 (1918).
1 K. Weber, Gcologisch-petrographische Untersuchungen am Stassfurt-Egelner
. . . , Kali, 25, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, 1931.
Older salt beds consist of anhydrite, polyhalite, and kieserite; above, potash
beds carry carnallite and “hartsalz.” Polyhalite and kieserite replace anhydrite;
vanthoffite replaces kieserite and carnallite; kieserite is altered to sylvite. Many of
the changes resulted from downward percolating KC1 and MgCl2. No gypsum is
primary.
M. R6zsa, Entstehung und Umwandlungsvorgange in den deutsehen Kali-
salzlagern, Kali, 25, Nos. 9 and 10, 1931. A detailed discussion of the various mineral
changes in the deposits.
2 H. S. Gale, The search for potash in the United States, Bull. 530, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1911. Also in Bull. 580, idem, 1914, pp. 265-317.
A. R. Schultz and Whitman Cross, Potash-bearing rocks of the Leucite Hills,
Wyoming, Bull. 512, idem, 1912.
B. S. Butler, and H. S. Gale, Alunite, Bull. 511, idem, 1912.
3 H. S. Gale, Potash deposits in Alsace, Bull. 715, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1921, pp.
16-56.
4 H. S. Gale, Potash deposits in Spain, idem, pp. 1-16.
Keyser, . . . , Die wichtigstcn Kalibergbaubezirke ausserhalb Deutschlands
und Frankreichs, Zeitschr. Berg-Hutten-u. Salinenwesen 77(7), 1929, pp. B. 499-512.
6 E. Kordes, Kali, 25, 1931, pp. 349-352.
E. Razumovskaiya, Description of the Solikamsk potash-salt, deposits, Trans.,
U. S. S. R. Geol. and Prosp. Service, 54, 1931, 43 pp. (Russian, with English summary).
340 MINERAL DEPOSITS
wells have been drilled which prove the existence of workable beds of
potash salts.1
The potash deposits lie in the southern part of the great Permian
geosynclinal salt basin and occupy, as far as known, an area of about 40,000
square miles (Fig. 130). They are embedded in a body of Permian
halite; above the salt lies Permian and Triassic red beds and Comanche
Cretaceous; the underlying formations are Permian and upper Penn-

F ig . 130.— T exas-N ew M exico potash area, show ing location and results of core testa.
{ A f t e r G . R . M a n s f i e l d a n d W . B . L a n g .)

sylvanian. The top of the salt beds lies from 300 to 2,000 feet below the
surface. The thickness of the salt series may average 1,000 feet; the
thickness of the Permian beds ranges from 4,000 to 11,000 feet.
Within the salt series are many beds of anhydrite and halite with
which are interbedded thinner layers of potassium salts. Drilling has
been done by the United States Government and by private parties.
Polyhalite is the principal potash mineral, usually replacing anhydrite.
1 W. B. Lang, Potash investigations in 1924, Bull. 785, U. S. Geoi. Survey, 1926,
pp. 29-43. Press Bulletin, idem, Mar. 25, 1929.
H. W. Hoots, Bull. 780, idem, 1926, pp. 33-126 (Geology of the beds).
G. R. Mansfield and W. B. Lang, Government potash explorations in Texas and
New Mexico, Yearbook, Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1929, pp. 241-255.
W. T. Schaller and E. P. Henderson, Mineralogy of drill cores from the potash
fields of New Mexico and Texas, Bull. 833, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1932, 124 pp.
(Detailed mineralogical descriptions of drill cores.)
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 341
In a government well in Eddy County, New Mexico, a thickness of
23 feet was found, averaging about 15 per cent K20.
The area was probably a shallow bay separated by a bar from the
ocean; changes in climate or slight structural movements altered from
time to time the position of the successive desiccation pans within the basin.
The earliest mineral is anhydrite, which is banded by layers of fine­
grained magnesite. Polyhalite and sylvite occur in considerable quan­
tity, but there are many rarer minerals similar to those found in the
German potash beds. Many of these potash minerals originated by
the reaction of pre-existing saline minerals with liquors rich in potash.
The relations of halite and sylvite are difficult to decipher.
A shaft was sunk in 1930 by the United States Potash Company near
Carlsbad, New Mexico, to a depth of 1,100 feet. A commercial bed of
“sylvite” was met at 980 feet, and shipments began in 1931 said to
contain 27 per cent K20. Output in August, 1931, was reported as
11.000 tons of ore.
Naturally it will take a long time to determine the extent of the
deposits and the commercial possibilities.
Potassium in Rocks and Minerals.—Granites, pegmatites, some
phonolites, and some leucite rocks contain a considerable amount of
potassium, varying from 5 to 12 per cent. Unfortunately there is great
difficulty in transforming the insoluble potassium silicates contained in
the orthoclase, leucite, or glassy base in these rocks into soluble salts.
If orthoclase or any potassium-bearing rock is ground to fine powder
and slimed with water a certain small percentage of potash salt is converted
into soluble form, probably as a potassium silicate; and it is said that such
finely ground powder has some slight fertilizing power. Processes have
been patented based on electrolytic treatment of the slimed rock or treat­
ment with quicklime and calcium chloride and subsequent calcining;
methods by which soluble potassium salts are said to be set free. Over
41.000 tons of leucite rocks were mined in Italy in 1930 for the manu­
facture of potash salts by treatment with nitric acid. It has been pro­
posed to utilize potash-bearing shale beds in Georgia and Minnesota.
Greensand marls—for instance, the Cretaceous beds in New Jersey—
contain from 3 to 6 per cent of potash besides some phosphoric acid, the
former in glauconite, the latter in calcium phosphate. These marls are
used in their crude state as fertilizers, and the recovery in soluble form
of their potassium content has been proposed.
Another source of potassium has been sought in alunite, a mineral
of inconspicuous appearance, white or pink, compact or fine granular,
rarely coarse granular. (K2 0 .3 A1 2 0 3 .4 S0 3 .6 H 2 0 ; 8 to 11 per cent K20.)
It is a product of rock alteration in volcanic regions probably caused by
waters containing sulphuric acid; it is much more common than the solu­
ble natural alum which sometimes appears as efflorescences. The alunite
342 MINERAL DEPOSITS
is found disseminated in the rocks or in well-defined veins. Notable
western occurrences are at Goldfield, Nevada; Marysvale, Utah; and
the Rosita Hills, Colorado. Among the foreign deposits which have
already been utilized are those at La Tolfa, in Italy; Almeria, in Spain;
and Bullah Delah, in New South Wales. The transformation of alunite
into soluble potassium sulphate is easily effected by calcination; part of
the sulphuric acid and all of the water are volatilized, leaving soluble
potassium sulphate and an insoluble residue of alumina. The manu­
facture of potassium sulphate from alunite was carried on at Marysvale
during the World War.
Potassium in Brines.—Potassium salts are easily soluble and therefore
remain with calcium and magnesium chlorides in the last residues, or
mother liquors, the so-called “ bitterns.” Many natural brines pumped
from bore-holes in salt-bearing beds contain some potassium and under
favorable circumstances may be used for the recovery of these salts.
Some of the Michigan brines from the Marshall formation of the Lower
Carboniferous (Fig. 125) contain from 3 to 5 grams per liter of potassium
chloride; salt, calcium chloride, and bromine are recovered from these
brines, but their potassium content appears to be too small for profitable
recovery. In places certain well-defined strata yield natural brines, or
residual “ bitterns.” One such bittern from Fairport Harbor, Ohio,
on Lake Erie, contains, according to W. C. Phalen, in grams per liter,
7.4 KC1, 110.1 NaCl, 134.4 CaCl2, 43.2 MgCl2. Such a brine could
possibly be utilized for the recovery of potassium. This stratum is
almost 400 feet above the topmost salt bed from which artificial brines
are pumped in Ohio. Potash brines, probably workable, are also found
in the Salt Lake Desert, Utah, on the line of the Western Pacific Railroad
Company.
Lakes in dry regions, especially in areas of former volcanic activity,
contain appreciable quantities of potassium. The water of Owens Lake,
in eastern California, yields almost 3 grams of potassium chloride per
liter. No production is reported.
Evaporation in the Quaternary lakes of the Lahontan basin in Nevada
and California has at many places resulted in deposits of salt of moderate
thickness. Changes in drainage among these basins sometimes resulted
in the residual brines, richer in potash, being drawn off into a neighboring
depression, and thus it happens, as at Searles Marsh, in San Bernardino
County, California, that the salt bed, which here is almost 60 feet in
thickness and covers an area of at least 11 square miles, is saturated with
a strong brine unusually rich in potassium. In the dissolved salts of
Searles Marsh there is almost 7 per cent of K20. Plants are here in
operation producing potassium salts and borax.
During the World War some potash was recovered from the brines
of certain small lakes in Nebraska and Colorado.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY EVAPORATION OF SURFACE WATERS 343
The earliest source of potassium was, as is well known, ashes of vege­
table matter. Seaweed is especially rich in this metal and also contains
iodine.
At the present time potash salts are recovered in the United States,
chiefly from the brines of Searles Marsh but also from other products,
such as molasses, distillery waste, and the dust of cement plants
and blast furnaces. The whole recovery for 1930 is 106,000 short tons
of crude potash equivalent to 61,300 tons of K 2 O; against this stands a
consumption for 1930 of 1,060,244 tons crude or 390,000 tons of available
K2 O. The future will show in how far this situation may be remedied
by the working of the newly discovered potash salts in Texas and New
Mexico. At the present time, France and Germany are the only large
producers of potash; the former enemies have now combined to regulate
the price of potash in the United States. The prices in 1930 were $35
to $37 a short ton for 80 per cent “ muriate” and $46 to $48 a short ton
for 90 per cent “sulphate.”
 CHAPTER XXI
MINERAL DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK
DECAY AND WEATHERING1
GENERAL CONDITIONS
The uplifted sedimentary beds, the lavas of the volcanoes, the granular
crystalline rocks uncovered by erosion—all these, when exposed at the
surface of the earth are subject to a series of changes, the sum total of
which is called weathering. The agents are water, gas, heat, and vege­
table and animal life. Water is essential—without it very little decom­
position could take place. Oxygen is also essential, and indeed we often
speak of weathering as synonymous with oxidation. Carbon dioxide
dissolved in water decomposes the minerals and hastens the process of
solution. Change of temperature acts mainly by promoting disinte­
gration, most powerfully by the expansion of water when freezing in
cracks and crevices, a force sufficient to break and dislodge heavy rock
masses. Vegetable life furnishes carbon dioxide and disintegrates the
soil by the vital energy in the roots, and bacterial life changes its com­
position. Animals burrow in the ground, loosening it and effecting
chemical changes.
Weathering differs from alteration and metamorphism in that its
ultimate result is the destruction of the rock as a unit; its chemical
processes are far more radical and intense than those of the depths.
Weathering effaces the texture of the rocks and segregates their chemical
compounds in ways wholly different from those of the other processes
mentioned. Metals closely associated in the primary rocks part com­
pany and seek new associates. Segregations of large masses of single
minerals are usually a result of the process. The ordinary silicates and
the carbonates of iron, magnesium, and calcium are unstable in the belt
of weathering. The uppermost thin mantle of the products of weathering
1 G. P. Merrill, Rocks, rock-weathering, and soils, 1906.
F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp.
479-505.
F. K. Cameron and J. M. Bell, The mineral constituents of the soil solution,
Bull. 30, U. S. Bur. Soils, Washington, D. C., 1905.
T. L. Lyon, and H. O. Buckman, The nature and properties of soils, New York,
1922, 588 pp.
A. Stebutt, Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Bodenkunde, Berlin, 1930, 518 pp.
H. Harrassowitz, Silicium, Aluminum, Eisen im Wechsel der Verwitterungs-
vorgange, ZciUchr. angew. Chemie, 43, 1930, pp. 185-190.
344
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECA Y 345
we call the soil; in it the disintegration and chemical changes are carried
to their limit, it is mixed with the products of life, and its constituents
and reactions are, of course, of more interest to the agricultural chemist
than to the student of ore deposits.
The depths to which weathering extends differ greatly; in some desert
regions, recently glaciated areas, or areas covered by fresh lava flows it
is practically absent, disintegration being the only visible effect. In
regions of heavy vegetation and rainfall the weathering may extend to a
depth of 100 or even 200 feet; along fractures in particularly permeable
and soluble rocks like limestone oxidation may be carried to still greater
depth; in mineral deposits its effects are in places felt for several hundred
or in extreme cases as much as 2,000 feet. As a rule, however, weathering
does not extend deeper than 50 feet, and its more intense effects are
usually limited to the zone above the surface of underground water.
Disintegration and decomposition work together, but the former is
likely to extend deeper than the latter. The upper layers, ordinarily
colored red or brown by ferric iron, gradually change into paler-colored,
more or less softened and disintegrated rock. In some areas, notably
over limestone strata, there is a sharp change to the unaltered rock—so
sharp, indeed, that the red clayey soil has often been taken for a different
formation resting on the calcareous rock.
Erosional transportation attends disintegration, and removal of mate­
rial by solution accompanies decomposition, both tending strongly to
reduce the volume of the rock. On the other hand, hydration and the
peculiar quality of absorption which the soils possess tend to increase the
volume. On the whole weathering lessens the volume. According to
G. P. Merrill, the granites of the District of Columbia may lose by weath­
ering 13.5 per cent of their volume; T. L. Watson calculates the loss of
granites of Georgia at 7 to 72 per cent. The most marked loss is the
shrinking in residual clays derived from limestone; often it is more than
95 per cent. Whitney long ago arrived at the conclusion that 1 meter of
residual clay in Wisconsin was derived from a thickness of 35 to 40 meters
of limestone or shale.
Except in the easily soluble rocks the decomposition is never complete;
for, as brought out by Cameron and Bell, even in the fine soils abundant
grains of the original minerals remain unaltered. Other conditions being
equal, weathering is most complete in tropical and moist countries. In
the United States the most intense action of this kind has taken place in
the Appalachian region south of the glaciated area, and this region con­
tains the majority of ore deposits caused by weathering.
In the air contained in rain water both oxygen and carbon dioxide are
greatly concentrated. In the soils carbon dioxide and air are absorbed;
soils and clays of various kinds contain from 14 to 40 cubic centimeters
of gas per 100 grams, with 14 to 34 per cent of carbon dioxide and con­
346 MINERAL DEPOSITS
siderably less oxygen than the air—indeed, in some soils oxygen appears to
be absent.1 Decaying vegetation still further increases the percentage of
carbon dioxide. As the ground-water level is approached the oxygen
decreases rapidly, as shown by the measurements made by B. Lepsius*
in bore-holes, and below this level there is probably little left.
Naturally the processes of weathering are hastened by the presence
of sulphuric acid derived from the decomposition of pyrite or exhaled
from solfataric vents. W. Maxwell3 has shown interestingly how exten­
sive a part this acid plays in the development of soils on the slopes of
volcanoes.
The processes characteristic of weathering are oxidation, hydration,
and solution. In the surface waters calcium and magnesium carbonates
ordinarily prevail, with a considerable amount of alkaline carbonates
and relatively much soluble silica, both derived from the decomposition
of the silicates. Under special conditions, as in volcanic regions or in
sediments rich in salts, the surface waters may be materially different
in composition, being predominantly sulphate solutions. The ground
waters contain in addition small amounts of iron and manganese, carried
mainly as bicarbonates, also phosphoric acid and sodium chloride.
In the weathered zone will remain the residual, almost insoluble
minerals, like quartz, hydrated aluminum silicates more or less closely
approaching kaolinite in composition, ferric oxides (as limonite, gothite,
or hematite), and manganese dioxide, all mingled to form a red or brown
clayey soil.
All these reactions involve the development of colloidal bodies like
aluminum silicates and hydroxides of iron, which before their trans­
formation into crystalline minerals are characteristic absorbents of many
salts. The colloids of manganese, for instance, have a tendency to adsorb
potassium and barium. The zone of weathering has indeed been called
the realm of the colloids.
DECOMPOSITION OF MINERALS
The silicates of the rocks are decomposed by water rather than dis­
solved, for the resulting solution does not usually contain the elements in
the same proportions as the original mineral. Owing to hydrolysis the
solution in most cases gives an alkaline reaction.4
According to the older viewpoint, the rock-forming silicates upon
weathering yield the soluble carbonates of alkalies, calcium, and mag-
1 Cameron and Bell, op. cit., p. 26.
2 Quoted in F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1924, p. 477.
3 W. Maxwell, Lavas and soils of the Hawaiian Islands, Honolulu, 1898.
N. E. A. Hinds, The weathering of Hawaiian lavas, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 17,
1929, pp. 297-320.
* F. W. Clarke, Bull. 167, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, p. 156.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 347
nesium, which together with much of the silica are carried away. Alumi­
num silicate remains with the larger part of the iron and manganese as
hydroxide, but the two last metals may be in part carried off as soluble salts.
The relative insolubility of alumina is an important factor in weathering.
The ferromagnesian minerals are attacked first, so that the ordinary
surface waters contain more of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium
than of other salts. The soda-lime feldspars come next while the alkali
feldspars are more resistant. Quartz is only partially attacked. The
decomposition of orthoclase is usually expressed in the following equation:
2KAlSi3 0 8 T 2 H 2 O T C0 2 = H 4 Al2 Si2 0 9 -T 4 Si0 2 T K 2 CO3 .
The ultimate product is kaolin, or allied colloidal bodies. Muscovite
or sericite does not result from weathering, although the colloidal
aluminum silicate may adsorb potassium and form amorphous compounds
related in composition to the white micas.
According to a more modern viewpoint, hydrolysis, and consequently
the hydrogen-ion concentration, is the dominant factor in the weathering
of silicates. The equation would thus be written:
KAlSi3 0 8 + H.OH = KOH + HAlSi3 0 8
KOH combining with C02 and kaolin forming from the unstable silicate
HAlSi30 8. The effect of C02 would in large part be due to its combina­
tion with the hydrolyzed bases rather than to direct solvent action. It
has been shown by Schwartz and Walcker1 that the mineral kaolinite
forms only at a certain hydrogen-ion concentration. Earlier workers
like Stremme had concluded that the colloidal precipitates from mixed
solutions of silicic acid and aluminum salts were mixtures rather than
definite compounds. Decrease in the acidity of water saturated with
C02 under atmospheric pressure (Ph3.8 at 20° and Ph4.2 at 70°) would
produce the optimum condition for the formation of kaolin. Both
hydrolysis and attack by the hydrogen ions of bicarbonate acid
(ITCO;) = H+ + HCO_3) lead to the same result. Salt solutions such
as exist in the zone of weathering may accelerate the decomposition as
may also adsorption phenomena of various kinds; exchanges of bases
(p. 55) of various kinds also take place.
The soil contains a certain amount of colloidal material derived from
both organic and mineral sources.2 It is assumed that the colloidal
material is derived from the breaking down of the finest of the soil min­
erals by action of water and carbon dioxide. The average composition
of this extracted soil colloid is about as shown on page 348.
1Zeitschr. anorg. Chemie, 145, 1925, pp. 304-310.
2 Milton Whitney, The colloid chemistry of the soil in R. H. Bogue, The theory
and application of colloidal behavior, New York, 1924, 2, pp. 466-487.
M. S. Anderson el al., Bull. 1122, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1922.
P. L. Gilc et al., Bull. 1193, idem, 1923.
348 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The composition of this soil colloid is very unlike the chemical com­
position of the soil. Si02 is much lower while A120 3and Fe20 3are higher.
Ti02 and P2Os are apparently concentrated. It does not correspond in
composition to any mineral. Ordinary soils contain from 6 to 25 per
cent of colloidal material, while some of the most plastic clays yield 60
per cent or more. The samples examined were collected from a maxi­
mum depth of 36 inches below the surface.
COMPOSITION OF AVERAGE SOIL COLLOID
Si0 2 ....................... .................. 43.13 N a,0.......................................... 0.37
AI2O3..................... .................. 27.07 P ,0 5.............................................. 0.28
Fe20 3..................... .................. 10.40 SO,................................................ 0.11
Ti0 2....................... ................... 0.64 Cl.................................................. 0.03
MnO..................... ................... 0 .1 1 H20 ............................................ 10.40
CaO....................... ................... 1 .0 2 Organic matter........................... 3.40
MgO...................... ................... 1.63 N ................................................... 0.26
K . 0 ....................... ................... 1.42

Zeolites are undoubtedly unstable in the zone of weathering. Mus­

covite or sericite is slowly attacked. Cameron and Bell1 treated 2 grams
of powdered muscovite with a liter of pure water for 14 months in paraf­
fine cylinders and obtained in the solution 10.4 parts K per million; when
treating it with carbon dioxide in water they obtained 18.3 parts per
million. The same quantity of orthoclase treated with pure water yielded
a solution containing 1.7 parts per million of K; with water saturated
with C02,2.5 parts per million. Muscovite thus yields its potassium more
easily than orthoclase. Albite treated in the same way gave 1.0 and 1.1
parts of sodium per million respectively. Earlier experiments leading to
similar results have been undertaken by A. Daubree, R. Muller, A. S.
Cushman, and F. Henrich.12
Magnetite is soluble with difficulty, but finally yields hematite and
limonite. Pyrite easily yields limonite and sulphuric acid. Apatite
appears to be rather easily soluble, especially in carbonated water. Cam­
eron and Bell3 treated powdered chlorine apatite suspended in water at
25° C. for 7 days, passing C02 through the liquid. The solution showed
0.0378 gram CaO, 0.0096 gram P2Os, and 0.0026 gram hydrochloric acid
per liter of solution. In soils and clays the phosphates are decomposed
or hydrolyzed, soluble phosphates being formed; but the percolating
1 Op. cit., p. 33.
2 A. Daubree, Etudes synthetiques de geologic experimentale, 1879.
R. Muller, Jahrbuch, k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 27, 1887.
A. S. Cushman, Bull. 92, Bur. Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905.
F. Henrich, Ueber die Einwirkung von kohlensiiurehaltigem Wasscr auf Gesteine,
etc., Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 18, 1910, pp. 85-94.
3 Bull. 41, Bur. Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1907.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 349
water contains these only in minimal quantities. It is stated1 that
humus suspended in water can adsorb calcium and a considerable amount
of phosphoric acid from the calcium phosphates.
Cameron and Bell ascertained that carbon dioxide greatly aided the
solution of ferric phosphate; 5 grams of which, shaken for 5 days with
100 c.c. H20 and later with 100 c.c. of saturated solutions of C02 and
CaS04, yielded respectively 74, 171, and 118 milligrams of phosphoric
acid. Organic matter in soils is said to be a solvent for ferric phosphate.
Zircon, pyrope garnet, tourmaline, chromite, and similar minerals
are almost insoluble.
Quartz also shows great resistance and appears practically insoluble
in the zone of weathering, except when exposed to the action of a stronger
solution of alkaline carbonates. C. W. Hayes,12 M. L. Fuller,3 and C. H.
Smyth4 have observed a marked corrosion of quartz pebbles in conglom­
erates, but the exact nature of the reaction is uncertain. Cherty and
fine-grained quartz is a little more soluble.5 The theory of the origin of
the Lake Superior iron ores, supported by Van Hise and Leith, is based
on the supposed solubility of such material. It was formerly thought
that certain organic acids had the power of dissolving quartz, but this
is now considered very questionable.
EXAMPLES OF THE CHEMICAL CHANGES BY WEATHERING
The following analyses6 are quoted to show the general charac­
ter of decomposition by weathering. More data are given in Clarke’s
Geochemistry.7
Merrill believes that a crystalline siliceous rock when passing into
a residual soil loses about 50 per cent of the original constituents through
the leaching action of meteoric waters.
The analyses generally show an apparent increase of alumina, a con­
siderable increase of water, and losses in silica, lime, magnesia, soda, and
potash. The loss in potassium is usually less than that of sodium. For
purposes of comparison the alumina is assumed to be constant, which
no doubt is approximately true. The action of weathering is not always
1 Patten and Waggaman, Absorption by soils, Bull. 52, Bur. Soils, U. S. Dept.
Agr., 1908.
C. W. Correns, Die Bedeutung der Adsorption fur die Bildung syngenetischer
Erzlagerstatten, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1924, p. 145.
2 Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 8 , 1897, p. 213.
3Jour. Geol., 10, 1902, p. 815.
4 Am. Jour. Sal., 4th ser., 19, 1905, p. 277.
5 G. Lunge and C. Millberg, Zeitschr. angew. Chemie, 1897, p. 393.
6 G. P. Merrill, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 8 , 1897, p. 160.
7 Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp. 479-496; also C. K. Leith and W. J.
Mead, Metamorphic geology, New York, 1915, pp. 3-24.
350 MINERAL DEPOSITS
constant but in general the analyses illustrate the trend of the
process.
Micaceous Gneiss Diorite
a b c d e f
Si0 2.................................. 60.69 45.31 52.45 46.75 42.44 37.31
A120 3................................ 16.89 26.55 0 .0 0 17.61 25.51 0 .0 0
Fe2Oa )
FeO J ........................... 9.06 12.18 14.35 16.79 19.20 21.03
MgO................................ 1.06 0.40 74.70 5.12 0 .2 1 97.17
CaO.................................. 4.44 tr 10 0.00 9.46 0.37 97.30
Na20 ................................ 2.82 0 .2 2 95.03 2.56 0.56 84.87
K20 .................................. 4.25 1 .1 0 83.52 0.55 0.49 38.75
Ignition........................... 0.62 13.75 gain 0.92 10.92 gain
P 2Ot................................. 0.25 0.47 gain 0.25 0.29 19.87'
100.08 99.98 100.01 99.99
а . Mica gneiss, Albemarle County, Virginia.
б . Residual soil of same rock, G. P. Merrill, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 8 , 1897,
p. 189.
c. Percentage of each constituent lost on assumption of constant alumina.
d. Diorite, Albemarle County, Virginia. G. P. Merrill, Rocks, Rock
weathering and soils, New York, 1906, p. 224.
e. Same, decomposed.
/. Percentage of each constituent lost on assumption of constant alumina.
CLAY2
Definition.—In a general way, clay is defined as an earthy substance
containing a mixture of hydrous aluminum silicates, with residual frag­
ments of minerals and colloidal material. The clays usually possess
1 For a study of the different methods used for the calculation of gains and losses,
see G. Grosser, Chemie der Erde, 7, 1932, pp. 130-176.
2 The literature of clays is exceedingly voluminous. For information more
detailed than can be given here, consult:
H. Ries, Clays, occurrence, properties, and uses, 1908.
H. Ries, A review of the theories of origin of white residual kaolins, Tram.,
Am. Ceramic Soc., 13, 1911.
I. E. Sproat, Refining and utilization of Georgia kaolins, Bull. 128, U. S. Bur.
Mines, 1916.
H. O. Buckman, The chemical and physical processes involved in the formation
of residual clay, Trans., Am. Ceramic Soc., 13, 1911.
J. H. Watkins, White-burning clays of the southern Appalachian states, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 51, 1916, pp. 481-501.
A full bibliography of the older literature by H. Rosier is contained in Neues
Jahrbuch., Beil. Bd. 15, 1902, p. 231.
C. Doelter, Handhuch der Mineralchemie, 2, pt. 2, 1917, pp. 30-145, with article
by Stremme.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 351
plasticity when wet and become hard when fired to a temperature of
redness (Ries).
Transported Clays.—The transported clays have been considered on
page 215. We may distinguish marine clays, flood plain clays, lake clays,
glacial clays, and eolian clays.
Residual Clays.—The residual clays are found in all parts of the world
where rock decay has proceeded for a long time and where the prod­
ucts have not been swept away by strong erosion or by glacial action.
In the United States such clays occur chiefly in the southern Appa­
lachian region. Acidic granular rocks, like granite or gneiss—particu­
larly those rich in feldspar and poor in ferromagnesian silicates—yield
the purest clays, but even these must often be purified by washing to
remove quartz and limonite. At varying depths, 100 feet at most, these
clays change into unaltered rocks. Pegmatite dikes sometimes yield a
high-grade residual clay. Sedimentary rocks, like limestone, by long-
continued solution yield residual clay; but such material is impure and
rarely used for anything but brick making. Some residual clays derived
from granitic rocks lack the property of plasticity. It is believed that the
conditions favor the development of kaolin underneath areas covered
by bogs and peat. During the oxidation of ore deposits kaolinite or allied
clay minerals frequently develop, largely owing to the action on rock
minerals of free sulphuric acid in the descending solutions.
Clay of Hydrothermal Origin.—Ascending waters, warm or tepid,
may produce a clay by action on the rock minerals, under certain cir­
cumstances. It is believed, however, that below the surface sericite or
white mica will be formed in preference to kaolin.
Use and Properties.—The ordinary varieties of residual clays are
used for brick making, the purer kind for fire bricks and the finer grades
for pottery. These pure white-burning clays are usually called kaolin,
ball clay, paper clay, or china clay, and are also used in manufacturing
paper and as fillers in paints, putty, and crayons. About 4,000,000
short tons of clays of all kinds were quarried in 1930 in the United States,
the price ranging from $3 to $10 per ton; and 236,000 tons of china clay
were imported at about $10 per ton, chiefly from England. Pennsylvania,
Missouri, California, and Georgia have the largest clay production.
H. Rios, W. S. Bayley et al, High-grade clays of eastern United States, Bull.
708, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1922.
R. E. Somers, idem, pp. 292-304.
C. S. Fox, The bauxite and aluminous occurrence of India, Mem., Geol. Survey
India, 49, pt. 1, 1923.
H. Harrassowitz, Laterit, Bd. 4, Hft. 14, Fortschr. der Geol. u. Pal., Berlin, 1926.
M. Storz, Die sekundare authigene Kieselsaure in ihrer petrogenetisch-
geologischen Bedeutung, Monographien zur Geologie und Palaeontologie, Berlin,
Teil 1, 1928, 137 pp.
352 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Evidently, the clay industry is growing very rapidly. Most of the local
china clays are residual after pegmatite and granite and are obtained in
Georgia and the Carolinas. The composition of such clays before and
after washing is indicated by the following analyses:
ANALYSES OF CRUDE AND WASHED KAOLIN, WEBSTER COUNTY,
SOUTH CAROLINA'

Crude Washed Kaolinite

Si0 2 ..................................... 62.40 45.78 46.5

A120 3................................... 26.51 36.46 39.5
Fe20 3.................................. 1.14 0.28
FeO."................................. 1.08
CaO..................................... 0.57 0.50
MgO.................................... 0 .0 1 0.04
0.98 0.25
H20 .................................... 8.80 13.40 14
0.25 2.05
T otal....................... 1 0 0 .6 6 99.84 100
66.14 93.24
1 H. Ries, Economic geology, 6 th ed., 1930, p. 178.
To eliminate quartz, washing in log washers or other contrivances is
used. Pneumatic concentration by air currents has also been introduced.
Iron in high-grade clay may be removed by treatment with acids.
Paper clays are mined in the Cretaceous beds of South Carolina and
Georgia; plastic kaolins, or ball clays, are obtained from Tertiary beds
in Florida and western Tennessee.
An important property of clay is plasticity, by means of which it can
be molded into r desired shape which it retains when dry. Not all the
residual clays are plastic, nor is the pure mineral kaolinite. The plasticity
of clay depends upon the presence of colloids.1
The transverse strength of air-dried clays varies from 15 to over 400
pounds or more per square inch, according to Ries. The shrinkage in
drying and firing is an important factor. The total shrinkage should be
about 8 or 9 per cent. The fusibility varies according to the impurities
present. In low grades of clay incipient fusion may occur at about
1000° C., while in refractory clays, which are low in fluxing impurities,
it may not occur until 1300° or 1400° C. is reached. The melting-point
of kaolin is about 1800° C.
1 H. E. Ashley, The colloid matter of clay and its measurement, Bull. 388, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1909, p. 65.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 353

The Clay Minerals.1— The term “kaolin,” often loosely used, is

properly applied only to a white, residual clay that is the product of
weathering or rock decomposition. The identification of the clay min­
erals is difficult owing to the fine distribution, the low double refraction,
and the presence of amorphous, colloidal compounds. The following
species may be distinguished:
1. Kaolinite (Anauxite), (Al2 O3 .2 SiO2 .2 H 2 O); monoclinic, present in
most clays and kaolins (sedimentary or residual), not decomposed by
HC1, partly decomposed by H 2 SO4 . The minerals nacrite and dickite
are very closely related to kaolinite but occur mostly in hydrothermal
ore deposits and often show definite crystals.
2 . Halloysite, (Al2 O3 .2 SiO2 .nH 2 O); colloidal form of kaolinite, decom­
posed by H2SO4.
3. Beidellite, (Al2O3.3SiO2.nH2O); orthorhombic, foliated, insoluble
in HC1.
4. Montmorillonite ((MgCa)0 .Al2 0 3 .5 Si0 2 .nH 2 0 ); orthorhombic,
foliated, insoluble in HC1.
5. Leverrierite, (Al2 O3 .2 SiO2 .nH 2 O); monoclinic, foliated, insoluble
in HC1. Variety of kaolinite?
6. Allophanite, (Al2O3.SiO2.nH2O); colloid, decomposed by H C 1.
7. Pyrophyllite, (Al2O3.4SiO2.nH2O); crystalline, not usually found
in clays.
It seems likely that there is another colloidal form of kaolin with
a formula similar to kaolinite but not decomposed by HC1.
The aluminum hydroxides, and their colloidal form, bauxite, are
present in lateritic soils formed under tropical conditions.
Kaolinite is commonly present in clays though not always easy to
identify. Most clays also doubtless contain a colloidal aluminum silicate
as shown by the composition of the soil solution.
Beidellite and allied minerals as well as allophanite are not usually
present in clays. They are more closely related to the white micas and
appear as decomposition products of that or similar silicates. A colloidal
form of beidellite probably also exists.
Origin.—There is a voluminous literature on the clay minerals, but
opinions differ considerably. There is some uncertainty as to whether
the products of weathering are definite silicates or mixtures of mutually
precipitating colloidal silica and alumina. Both cases probably occur.
Under certain conditions crystalline kaolinite will form. Under other
conditions a mixture of colloids will result. The experiments noted above
1 E. S. Larsen and E. T. Wherry, Beidellite, a new mineral name, Jour., Acad. Sci.
Washington, 1925, pp. 465-468.
C. S. Ross ana E. V. Shannon, Jour., Am. Ceramic Soc., 9, 1926, pp. 77-96.
C. S. Ross and P. F. Kerr, The kaolin minerals, Prof. Paper 165-E, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1931.
354 MINERAL DEPOSITS
show that colloidal substances are present in the soil (p. 348). About
1908, an animated controversy took place between Rosier,1 who main­
tained that kaolin was the result of hydrothermal decomposition, and
Stremme and Barnitzke,2 who showed that in the case of Meissen, Saxony,
where a high grade of chinaware is made, the deposit was decidedly a
product of weathering, gradually changing in depth to fresh rocks. The
fact seems to be that the clay minerals are usually products of weathering
and are formed abundantly in the zone of oxidation, in both rocks and ore
deposits, by the ordinary agencies of water, carbon dioxides, and sulphuric
acid. Kaolinite and allied minerals may also form near the surface and in
smaller amounts below this zone by the action of dilute thermal waters,
but the action of thermal waters containing alkalies on rocks usually
results in sericite. This has been abundantly proved in ore deposits of
all kinds, but observers have often confused the kaolin formed by super­
gene waters with the sericite formed by the ascending alkaline waters.3
Kaolinite, it is believed, is unstable under deep-seated processes of min­
eralization. G. Hickling4 has shown that the china clays of Cornwall
form a sheet covering the eroded surface of the granite and have resulted
from the weathering of sericite of hydrothermal origin.
RESIDUAL IRON ORES (LIMONITE AND HEMATITE)
Origin.—During the processes of weathering only a small part of the
iron is carried away in solution; the greater part remains in the rock
altered to limonite (2Fe20 3.3H20), to gothite (Fe20 3.H20), or to indefinite
colloidal mixtures of various hydroxides of iron. Hematite may also be
present. In places basic sulphates or phosphates may remain, as well
as somewhat indefinite and unstable ferric silicates. Nontronite,
(H4Fe2Si20 9), the equivalent of kaolin, is said to be present in weathered
rocks. In the zone of weathering the iron shows a strong tendency to
move outward and segregate in irregular or mammillary masses separated
by clayey material, though much of it, of course, remains intimately
mixed with clay. The same is true of manganese, some of which may be
associated with the limonite, though when much manganese is present,
it also tends to separate by itself.
The “ centrifugal” tendency of iron hydroxide is well seen in many
oxidized mineral deposits, often also in the weathering of pebbles. A
fine instance was observed in the cobbles of andesite in the Tertiary river
bed at Iowa Hill, California. The outside of these cobbles is hard and
consists of an impure limonite; the center contains soft yellowish kaolin.
1 H. Rosier, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 16, 1908, p. 251; Stremme, idem, p. 122.
2 Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 17, 1909, pp. 457-472.
3 W. Lindgren, The origin of kaolin, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 89-93.
4 Trans., Inst. Min. Eng. (London), 36, 1908-1909, p. 10.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 355
During the concentration, the ferric hydroxides (see p. 310) were
probably transported as colloids, which hardened and became crystalline,
as shown by the radial structure of many concretions. The chemical
character of these ores has rarely been studied in detail; probably it will
be found that barite, oxidized zinc minerals, and compounds containing
manganese, nickel, and cobalt are present. Many of the limonites are
rather pure and are of considerable economic importance.
Classification.—One class of residual brown iron ores is derived from
the decomposition of deposits of siderite or pyritic ores, both usually
formed by ascending waters, or from the weathering of black bands or
glauconite beds (Fig. 131). Such limonites in places reach considerable

]« ; ■••
Soil, sand,
«,
Ore dtfbria
qp
Limonite
ir-I.V V .-lv j
Glauconitic
m
G lauco nitic
^ Iro n
and gravel send s a n d y c la y ca rb o n a te

F ig . 131.— Section show ing oxidation of iron carbonate to lim on ite in T ertiary beds, Cass
C ounty, Texas. ( A f t e r E . F . B u r c h a r d , U . S . G c o l. S u r v e y .)
depths, dependent on the penetrating power of oxygenated waters.
The decomposed outcrops of pyritic ores are not often used as iron ores.
Another class consists of local segregations of limonite or allied
hydroxides in the decayed rock and residual clay near the surface.
These masses are particularly common in limestone area. Little or no
siderite is found near the surface, but may appear in the limestone at
greater depth. When oxygen is exhausted the iron is more easily trans­
ported as a bicarbonate and the metasomatic replacement of calcite by
siderite may then occur. There are, however, few deposits of limonite
which change in depth to large irregular replacements of siderite; so that
it may be assumed that the rate of solution and downward transportation
of the precipitated limonite is slow.
Finally, a third class of residual iron ores, consisting of limonites
mixed with hematite, occurs as widespread sheets formed by the gradual
decay of strongly ferriferous rocks.
Brown Hematites of the Appalachian Region.1—In the United States
the residual iron ores are most abundant in the Appalachian region,
1 C. W. Hayes and E. C. Eckel, Iron ores of the Cartersville district, Georgia, Bull.
213, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1902, pp. 233-242.
356 MINERAL DEPOSITS
mainly in Alabama, Georgia, Virginia, and Tennessee. The annual
production of such ores is gradually diminishing. In 1930, 720,500 long
tons were produced, about 1.2 per cent of the yearly output of iron ores
in the United States. These so-called “ brown hematites” are mined in
many small deposits; their content of iron ranges from 38 to 52 per cent
(limonite 59.89 per cent Fe); most of them are comparatively rich in
phosphorus.
Most of the southern limonites lie in Cambro-Silurian strata and
extend along the “ Great Valley” between the pre-Cambrian on the east

F ig . 132.— Vertical section showing structure of the valley brown ore deposits of the Rich
Hill mine, Virginia. (A fter E . C. Harder, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
and the Paleozoic rocks on the west. They are classed as valley ores,
mountain ores, and Oriskany ores.
The valley ores appear as irregular deposits of shallow pockets in
clay derived from the decomposition and solution of Cambro-Silurian
limestone or dolomite. The ores lie as scattered lumps in the clay, not
so much on the eroded surface of the limestone as higher up (Fig. 132).
Each deposit is soon exhausted, and few extend below a depth of
50 feet. The ores are mixtures of limonite, gothite, and clay; the com­
position ranges from 40 to 56 per cent Fe, 5 to 20 per cent Si02, 0.05 to
0.5 per cent P, and 0.3 to 2.0 per cent Mn.
E. C. Eckel, Limonite deposits of eastern New York, etc., Bull. 260, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1904, pp. 335-342.
R. J. Holden, in Mineral resources of Virginia, 1908.
E. C. Harder, The iron ores of the Appalachian region in Virginia, Bull. 380, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 215-254.
E. C. Harder and E. F. Burchard, Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, par­
ticularly pt. 2, chapter on Iron, 1908.
E. F. Burchard, C. Butts, and E. C. Eckel, Birmingham district, Bull. 400, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1910, pp. 145-167.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 357
Many of these ores were evidently concentrated under conditions
different from those of to-day; most of them are probably of Tertiary
age as shown particularly in the deposits south of Birmingham,
Alabama. It is not unlikely that the same applies to many “ mountain
ores.”
The mountain ores, according to Harder, show greater variation in
occurrence and appearance. They are found as small, discontinuous
pockets in residual material above the Lower Cambrian quartzite at or
near the contact with the overlying formation, generally a limestone.

F ig . 133.— Vertical section showing the structure of m ountain brown ore occurring as
mammillary masses in clay. M ary Creek mine, Virginia. (After E. C. Harder , U. S.
Geol. Survey.)

While these ores are mainly superficial, they are sometimes worked to
a depth of several hundred feet. The composition ranges from 35 to 50
per cent Fe, 10 to 30 per cent Si02, 0.1 to 2 per cent P, and 0.5 to 10
per cent Mn. These limonites are often glassy and concretionary.
The occurrences are classed by Harder as follows:
1. Pocket deposits in clay, in part replacements of limestone; some­
times manganiferous (Fig. 133).
2. Small replacement deposits in shale along fractures.
3. Deposits in quartzite or sandstone, not abundant, including
a. Breccia deposits accompanied by replacement.
b. Vein deposits along faults.
Many limonite deposits have been worked in New York, Connecticut,
and Massachusetts. Late work by R. Ruedeman and D. H. Newland
(1931-1936) seems to indicate that they have been derived from Cambro-
Ordovician rocks containing siderite.
358 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The Oriskany ores1 are mined in Virginia and form irregular replace­
ments along local folds or fracture zones on the flanks of greater anticlines.
They occur in the calcareous Oriskany sandstone which is overlain by the
Romney shale (Devonian) and underlain by the Helderberg limestone
Heldertjerg Limestone (Cherty)
(Devonian) (Fig. 134). The ore
Brown Cherty Clay largely replaces the sandstone,
Qre OrUkany Sandetonh sometimes also the limestone, and
Romney Shale may be from 10 to 100 feet wide.
1 !
Clue Clay
The greatest depth reached is 600
feet; at this or lesser depth the ore
grades into unaltered rock. The
iron is considered by some
authors to be derived from the
Romney shale but is more likely
derived from the sandstone itself.
The ore is made up of earthy
masses and rounded concretions of
00 Feet fibrous limonite filled with clay or
F ig . 134.— Vertical section showing the sand. The ore from the Callie
O riskany brown ore deposit a t the Callie mine and the footwall limestone is
mine, Virginia. (A fter E . C. Harder,
U. S. Geol. Survey.) said to contain about 0.2 per cent
of zinc. At the Callie mine the ore
production was about 2,700 tons per month. Probably hematite or
turgite is also present for the ore does not contain enough water for
'limonite; it averages 43 per cent Fe, 10 to 25 per cent Si02, 0.06 to 0.5 per
cent P, and 0.5 to 4 per cent manganese. Cobalt and nickel are reported
to be present in traces.
The Oriskany ores, like the other “ brown hematites,” are subjected
to a rough concentration in log washers in order to remove the clay.
Iron Ores of Bilbao, Spain.2—The great deposits of Bilbao, in northern
Spain, have for many years yielded several million tons annually; the ores
being exported to England and Germany.
The region shows folded and faulted Cretaceous beds; the most impor­
tant from a mining standpoint is a bed of limestone, 250 feet thick.
The scant igneous rocks are diabase and trachyte, of Tertiary age.
The primary ore, thought by most observers to be a replacement of lime­
stone by ascending hot waters, consists of coarse siderite and ankerite
with minor amounts of pyrite and chalcopyrite and appears to continue
in depth, mainly near the intersection of faults, though the quantity is
1 C. M. Weld, The Oriskany iron ores of Virginia, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 399—
421.
2 John, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 19, 1911, pp. 208-212.
P. Grosch, Geol. Rundschau, 5, 1914-1915, pp. 392-618.
R. W. Van der Veen, Econ. Geol., 17, 1922, pp. 602-618.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 359
much smaller than the large, sheetlike superficial bodies of limonite and
hematite. One of these latter was 2 miles long, 3,300 feet wide and
had a thickness of 100 feet. Such oxidized ores contain from 50 to 57
per cent iron and are of Bessemer grade. They are in part residual,
in part eluvial or alluvial. The primary mineralization is correlated by
Van der Veen with that of the zinc and quicksilver of Santander and
believed to be of Miocene age.

F ig . 135.— Sketch m ap of eastern p art of Cuba. (A fter W . L . Cum m ings, and B . L.

M iller.)
Residual Ores of Cuba.1— Iron ores have been mined for a number of
years in the vicinity of Santiago, Cuba; but these ores, of contact-
metamorphic origin, consist of hematite with some magnetite and
contain a high percentage of sulphur. The three new districts described
by Spencer and others are likewise in the eastern part of the island, but
are of an entirely different type. They are the Mayari and Moa districts
in Oriente Province, and the San Felipe in Camaguey (Fig. 135). The
ores occur as residual mantles resulting from the weathering of serpentine
and for the most part lie on plateaus at rather high elevations. They
were probably formed during the Tertiary before the uplift of the present
1 A. C. Spencer, Three deposits of iron ore in Cuba, Bull. 340, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1907, pp. 318-329.
C. M. Weld, The residual iron ores of Cuba, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 40,
1909, pp. 299-312.
J. F. Kemp, The iron resources of the world, Int. Geol. Congress, Stockholm,
1910, pp. 793-795; Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 51, 1916, pp. 3-30.
See also seven papers on the same subject by J. S. Cox, Jr., C. K. Leith, W. J.
Mead, A. C. Spencer, C. W. Hayes, W. L. Cumings, B. L. Miller, D. E. Woodbridge,
and J. E. Little, in Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 42, 1911, pp. 73-152. Also C. K.
Leith and W. J. Mead, idem, 53, 1916, pp. 75-78.
360 MINERAL DEPOSITS
plateaus. Near the surface the material is earthy and dark red, some­
times cemented, with shot-like lumps of hematite scattered over the
surface; underneath lie yellowish ores changing rather abruptly into
decomposed and soft serpentine. In places a layer of cherty material is
found immediately above the serpentine. In the Mayari district the
average depth of the ore is about 15 feet, and it extends over an area
of 10 by 4 miles. Hundreds of millions of tons are said to be available,
allowing for parts of the area which are below the workable grade.
The ore is removed by drag-line steam shovels.
According to analyses the ore is fairly uniform, the metallic iron
varying in percentage from 40 to 50. It is remarkably free from phos­
phorus and evidently contains hematite, limonite, a little magnetite, and
also some free aluminum hydroxide. It is, in brief, a typical iron-rich
laterite (see p. 374). There is much water; according to Kemp the Moa
ores yield 25 to 30 per cent hygroscopic and 10 to 12 per cent combined
water; silica is low and alumina high. The presence of nickel and
chromium is also notable; the latter metal is concentrated during the
oxidation but is removed during the smelting; the former is favorable to
the quality of the iron.
ANALYSES OF SERPENTINE AND ORE FROM THE MAYARI
DISTRICT, CUBA
( A fte r C. K . L e ith )
1 2
Si02............................ .......................39.80 2.90
AbOa.......................... ....................... 1.39 10.24
F62O3..................... .......................10.14 72.35
Fe............................... ....................... 7.10 50.56
MgO.......................... .......................33.69
Cr“ ............................. ....................... 0.20 1.66
Ni+Co...................... ....................... 0.97 0.84
P ................................ ....................... 0.001 0.016
S................................. ....................... 0.06 0.20
HaO + ...................... .......................13.31 10.96
99.561 99.166
1. Serpentine, at depth of 29 feet.
2. Iron ore, at depth of 6 feet.
The porosity of the ore is exceedingly great, amounting to 75 per cent
of its volume, but lessens near the surface.
In considering the alteration of serpentine to ore in terms of weight
it is found that the alumina has remained nearly constant. The changes
in the composition of the serpentine during its alteration to ore are shown
by Leith and Mead in Fig. 136, which is based on many analyses at
uniform intervals. The diagram illustrates the rapid destruction of the
serpentine by leaching of Si02 and MgO, and it also shows the marked
relative increase of iron and alumina as oxides. Toward the surface
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 361
hematite (with a little magnetite) develops from limonite, and bauxite
from kaolin. In the middle part of the ore-body iron has increased in
proportion to the alumina owing probably to re-deposition and oxidation
of ferrous iron dissolved by the reducing action of the vegetation. Silica
is lost throughout and magnesia is wholly removed.
In 100 pounds of typical serpentine there are 1.5 pounds of alumina
and 10 pounds of ferrous oxide. When the magnesia and silica are
removed in solution and the iron oxidized there remain approximately
11.75 pounds of limonite, 3.8 pounds of bauxite and kaolin, and, at the

Miscellaneous Kaolin Bauxite Hematite Limonite Quartz Serpentine

(Ni', Co, Cr, M’n’ls.)
F ig . 136.— Diagram representing in term s of weight the mineralogical changes in the
alteration of serpentine rock to iron ore, a t M ayari, Cuba, on the assum ption th a t alum ina
has remained constant. (A fter C. K . Leith and W . J . M ead.)
most, 2 pounds of minor constituents. This residual of 17.55 pounds
contains 7.8 pounds, or 44.4 per cent of metallic iron, and is an iron ore.
Distribution and Stability of Residual Iron Ore.—The residual iron
ores are widely distributed in countries of warm climate, where secular
decay has progressed without interruption for a long time. It seems,
however, that great concentration has been effected only'from relatively
soluble rocks like limestone and serpentine. Many of the laterites of
India, Africa, and other tropical countries are rich in ferric oxide and
have the same characteristic concretionary pellets and shots on the
362 MINERAL DEPOSITS
surface. Limonite deposits similar to those of Cuba have been discovered
in Macedonia, in Borneo and on Mindanao, in the Philippines.
Vegetation plays an important part in the origin of many of these
deposits. Underneath the mat of roots and decayed vegetation the soil
in tropical countries is often white or yellowish, indicating that the iron
is in the ferrous state, probably as carbonate. When, as happened on
the high volcanic plateau of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands,1 the vegetation
is destroyed the soil immediately turns red and hard and shows character­
istic pellets of ferric oxide. In part at least the rock is thus changed
directly to hematite without passing through the intermediate stage of
limonite.
According to H. Wolbling,2 the natural ferric hydroxides have great
stability and cannot readily be changed to ferric oxide, at least not by
exposure to air and salt solutions. The freshly precipitated hydroxides
are, however, easily converted to ferric oxide; and these colloids may
easily be crystallized. His experiments show that by the precipitation
of ferric solutions with calcite or siderite at 100° C., Fe2 0 3 is easily formed,
containing only 1 or 2 per cent H20, while during slow and wet oxidation
of ferrosalts, ferric hydrates of iron are obtained.
It is certain, at any rate, that ferric oxide, as well as the hydrates,
is very stable when once formed and is not easily altered.
No one can fail to be impressed by certain similarities of the Cuban
residual ores to those of the Mesabi range (p. 304). Similar large
expanses of rock, weathered under a tropical sun and covered by residual
ferric oxide, undoubtedly yielded the material for the sedimentary
hematite deposits.
R E S ID U A L M AN G AN ESE ORES 3
The minerals of the residual manganese ores consist of pyrolusite
(MnCh, 63.2 per cent Mn), psilomelane (Mn02.H20, 49 to 62 per cent
1 W. Lindgren, The water resources of Molokai, Water-supply Paper, 77, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1903, p. 19.
2 H. Wolbling, Bildung der oxydischen Eisenerzlager, Stahl und Eisen, 1909, p.
1248; also Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 17, 1909, p. 495.
3 R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., Manganese, its uses, ores, and deposits, Ann. Rept. Arkansas
Geol. Survey, 1, 1890.
E. C. Harder, Manganese deposits of the United States, Bull. 427, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1910, with bibliography.
E. C. Harder, Manganese ores of Russia, India, Brazil and Chile, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 56, 1916, pp. 31-76.
E. C. Harder and D. F. Hewett, Recent studies of domestic manganese deposits,
idem, 63, 1920, ppL 3-50.
Geo. A. Thiel, The manganese minerals, their identification and paragenesis,
Econ. Geol., 19, 1924, pp. 107-145.
J. Orcel and S. Pavlovitch, Characteres microscopiques de quelques . . .
minorais . . . de manganese, Bull., Soc. frangaise de mineralogie, 54, 1931, pp. 80-99.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 363
Mn), wad (perhaps M n02.nMn0 + H20, varying percentage of metal),
more rarely braunite (3Mn20 3.MnSi03 (?); 63.6 per cent Mn), manga-
nite (Mn20 3.H20, 62.4 per cent Mn), and perhaps hausmannite (Mn30 4;
72.05 per cent Mn).
Primary Sources.—Nearly all workable manganese deposits are of
secondary formation—that is, they are concentrated from manganese
minerals more sparsely distributed in rocks. Manganite, pyrolusite,
psilomelane, and wad are always, braunite usually, secondary, formed
under the influence of weathering, even where they descend to con­
siderable depths below the water level.
In igneous rocks manganese is always present but only in small
amounts. The largest percentages (about 0.36 per cent) are found in
syenite and its porphyries and in basalts. The proportion Fe:Mn is
smaller in acidic than in basic rocks.
The first concentration in sedimentary rocks may contain manganese
in the form of Mn02 and carbonate. Nodules of Mn02 occur in some
deep-sea deposits.
Analyses of limestones often show a small amount of manganese.
In many cherts and jaspers of the sedimentary series manganese is
characteristically present as rhodonite or rhodochrosite. Important
deposits of manganese may be produced by sedimentation (p. 280).
In crystalline schists, especially in those of more basic composition,
manganese is found as spessartite (manganese garnet), rhodonite,
piedmontite (manganese epidote), tephroite and alleghanyite.
Finally, rhodochrosite and rhodonite are rather common in ore
deposits of hydrothermal or contact-metamorphic origin; and much
manganese is present in some metamorphic specularite and magnetite
deposits. (Cuyuna, p. 302.) Psilomelane has also been found in hot-
spring deposits at the surface.
The inconspicuous, black or greenish manganese sulphide, alabandite,1
is probably far more common than has been suspected; in hydrothermal
deposits, it occurs at Bisbee and Tombstone, Arizona, and many other
places in the United States, Mexico, Peru, and Hungary. According to
Hewett, the normal hypogene paragenesis is rhodonite, alabandite, and
rhodochrosite. Oxidation of any of these would produce manganite,
psilomelane, etc.
Origin.—In most cases manganese has probably been transported
as a bicarbonate, sometimes possibly as a sulphate. V. Vincent12 found
that in a liter of water saturated with C02, 62.5 milligrams of MnC03is
dissolved. In such water 4.6 milligrams Mn20 3 and only 1.5 milligrams
1 D. F. Hewett and O. N. Rove, Occurrence and relations of alabandite, Ecnn.
Geol., 25, 1930, pp. 36-56.
2 Comples Rendus, 162, 1916, pp. 259-269.
364 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Mn02 dissolved. The peroxide is thus most insoluble. Dunnington1
showed that ferrous sulphate dissolves manganese from the carbonate, as
sulphate, with the separation of ferric sulphate and limonite; from the
compound solution calcium carbonate precipitates the iron but the
manganese is precipitated only upon access of air.
Solutions of manganese carbonates are more stable than those of
ferrous carbonate and a partial separation may thus be effected. G. A.
Thiel12 studied the precipitation of manganese salts by various rocks and
found that magnesium carbonate was the most effective substance.
Of the minerals mentioned above, manganite is very often well
crystallized in rhombic prisms; pyrolusite is generally believed to be a
pseudomorphic form after manganite. Psilomelane is always fibrous
and colloform,3 ranging into the earthy forms of wad. Braunite and
hausmannite are very often individualized in small octahedron-like
crystals. Any attempt to derive a consistent order of crystallization is
futile as may be seen from Thiel’s paper referred to above.4 The various
minerals were evidently deposited after the oxidation of the bicarbonate
solution, and almost certainly they were largely formed from colloidal
solutions. Manganite in part formed from normal solutions, but we
have also alternating colloform bands of manganite and psilomelane.
We have hausmannite and braunite disseminated through psilomelane.
The probability is that braunite is of colloidal origin; its peculiar composi­
tion and the absorbed barium indicate this almost certainly. We con­
clude that the residual manganese ores are largely of colloidal origin.
The sol Fe(OH)3 is positive while Mn(OH)4 is negative.5
Mixing of the sols induces precipitation of manganese in complex
proportions. H. Udluft6 states that pure Fe(OH)3 sol is unstable in
ordinary waters containing bicarbonates, but that it may be protected by
small quantities of manganese sol or humic colloids. Further investiga­
tions along these lines are desirable. In the literature the colloidal
phenomena of residual manganese ores are almost wholly overlooked.
These colloidal precipitates in part formed in open space, in part the gel
replaced earlier rock structures; and this possibility is again generally
neglected in the literature.
Manganese Deposits in the United States.—From the rocks above
mentioned, manganese is concentrated by processes of weathering, and
its ores are found in concretions embedded in residual clay or ocher and
accompanied more or less closely by limonites. During this process
1 Am. Jour. Sci., (3) 36, 1888, p. 177.
2 Am. Jour. Sci., (5) 7, 1924, p. 457.
3 Hollandite and romanechite are said to be individualized forms of psilomelane.
4 Econ. Geol., 19, 1924, pp. 107-145.
6 F. Behrend, Zeilschr. prakl. Geol., 32, 1924, p. 81, 102.
GKolloid Zeilschr., 34, 1924, pp. 233-237.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 365

some other metals, notably nickel, cobalt, zinc, lead, and barium, have a
tendency to accompany the pyrolusite and psilomelane. In general
such deposits are superficial or of slight depth and closely parallel the
residual limonites already described.
In California small deposits of secondary manganese ores occur in
areas of the radiolarian cherts or jaspers of the Franciscan formation
(Jurassic ?).
In Arkansas high-grade residual ores have been mined at Batesville,1
where they occur both in the Cason manganiferous shale, of upper
Ordovician age, and in clay derived from this formation. Penrose

20 0 20 Inches
111 ■ ■ i i .... i .... i________________________i

F ig . 137.— Sketch showing distribution of m anganese ore lum ps in clay a t the Crim ora
mine, Virginia. (A fter E . C. H arder , U. 5. Geol. Survey.)
believed that the manganese was derived from the pre-Cambrian area in
southeast Missouri and deposited in the sedimentary formation. Later
work of Ulrich, Miser, and others has shown that the Cason shale was
probably the local source of all the manganese. This shale was a deposit
on an old land surface where conditions would be favorable for concentra­
tion of manganese. Some of the manganese was transferred to the
underlying Fernvale limestone and there deposited as carbonate. The
final concentration took place when the region was peneplained, during
the Cretaceous or Tertiary. The Batesville ores contain much hausman-
nite and braunite. It is possible that some manganese deposits in Arkan­
sas and Oklahoma are derived from later veins of rhodochrosite, which
break through the sediments.
1 H. D. Miser, Bull. 734, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1922.
366 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In the Appalachian region small deposits occur in the granites and
schists of the Piedmont region, but chiefly in the Paleozoic sediments of
the Cambro-Silurian belt—that is, in the general area of the residual iron

F ig . 138.— Sketch showing occurrence of m anganese breccia ore at Reynolds Mountain,

Virginia. (A fter E . C. H arder , U. S. Geol. Survey.)
ores. At the Crimora deposit, in Virginia (Fig. 137), the ore is found as
“ masses of various sizes scattered through variegated clays in an elliptical
basin in a canoe-shaped syncline of the Cambrian quartzite,” into which
the manganese penetrates as dendritic forms and crystalline coatings.1

F ig . 139.— Sketch showing developm ent of breccia ore by replacem ent. White areas,
chert or sandstone; black, m anganese ore. One-fifth natural size. (After T. L. Waison.)
The manganese deposits of the Appalachian region occur in a decom­
posed surface zone of many different rocks (Figs. 138 and 139); but most
of the deposits are, according to Harder, associated with the top stratum
1 E. C. Harder, Bull. 427, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 60.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 367

of an impervious Cambrian quartzite overlain by limestone. Penrose

held that they were laid down in local basins during the deposition of the
rocks in whose residual clays they are now found. It is now believed1
that the metal was in the first place obtained from the crystalline rocks
ANALYSIS OF BEST QUALITY CRIMORA ORE
( T . L . W a tso n , M in e ra l R eso u rces o f V ir g in ia , p . 248)
Mn0 2.................. .............. 81.703 BaO................................... 0.829
MnO.................... .............. 7.281 CaO.................................... 0.880
Fe20.i................. ............... 0.533 MgO.................................. 0.630
CoO..................................... 0.354 P 2 O5 ................................... 0.171
NiO.................... .............. 0.096 (Na,K)20 ........................... 0.467
ZnO..................... .............. 0.623 II20 .................................... 3.405
AI2O3................... .............. 0.896 SiO;.................................... 2.132
Total............................. 100.000
Mn..................................... 57.297
of the Piedmont region and first concentrated in certain Paleozoic beds.
The final concentration occurred in the Cretaceous and Tertiary during
the several epochs of peneplanation.
In central Texas,12 in Mason, Llano, and San Saba counties, oxidized
manganese ores occur as products of weathering of crystalline schists
containing spessartite, piedmontite, and tephroite.
Many ore deposits contain manganese as carbonate and silicate, and
in the oxidized zone the metal is often highly concentrated in the form
of psilomelane, etc., mixed with limonite. These ores often contain gold
and silver, but rarely much copper, lead, or zinc. Considerable quantities
of such ores, used in part as flux for lead smelting and in part, if of high
grade, for the manufacture of spiegeleisen, are mined at Leadville, Colo­
rado.3 Here the oxidized ore is apparently derived from a manganiferous
siderite.
During the World War some high-grade ore was shipped from the
oxidized outcrops of the Butte manganese veins; and larger bodies of such
ore were found in the lodes of the Phillipsburg4 district, Montana, here
contained in limestone. Of late years rhodochrosite has been shipped
from the Emma mine at Butte.
The largest part of the manganese obtained in the United States is
derived from ores of the Lake Superior region, where manganese occurs
as oxides associated with specularite (p. 300), and from the zinc residues
of the great zinc deposit of Franklin Furnace, New Jersey. Here the
manganese is contained in the franklinite ((Fe,Zn,Mn)0.(Fe,Mn)20 3)
1 Stose, Miser, and Katz, Bull. 17, Virginia Geol. Survey, 1919; idem, 23, 1922.
2 Sidney Paige, Bull. 450, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911.
3 S. F. Emmons and J. D. Irving, Bull. 320, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, p, 26.
4 J. T. Pardee, Bull. 725, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1922, pp. 141-244.
368 M IN ERAL DEPOSITS
associated with zincite (ZnO) in a deposit of deep-seated, probably
contact-metamorphic, origin.
Brazil.—The high-grade manganese deposits of Minas Geraes, Brazil,
have been described by J. C. Branner and 0. A. Derby.1 In the main
they appear to be residual ores derived from the weathering of lenses in
the crystalline schists containing rhodochrosite, tephroite, and spessartite.
The ores are concretions, masses, and vein-like deposits of psilomelane
in the soft decomposed rock.
India.—Manganese ores are extensively distributed in India, and their
occurrence and origin have been described in a detailed manner by L. L.
Fermor.2 These rich ores are formed by the combined replacement and
decomposition of Archean rocks containing manganese silicates. In
part the rocks are crystalline schists with spessartite and rhodonite, in
part probably non-metamorphosed peculiar igneous rocks, one of which,
for instance, consists of spessartite (spandite) and orthoclase with 3.70
per cent apatite. To a smaller extent the ores are contained in jaspery
quartzites and in residual laterite.
Many deposits of the first class contain enormous masses of psilom­
elane, pyrolusite, and braunite. During the process of weathering almost
all the silica and alumina have been removed.
Many of them extend to depths far below the water level, and Fermor
believes that the oxidation may be of very ancient date, perhaps Archean.
In some ways these concentrations by surface waters recall the Lake
Superior iron deposits.
West Indies.3—Many residual manganese deposits occur in Cuba
and in Central America. Those in Cuba are replacements in limestone
and chert, perhaps also hydrothermally altered tuffs.
Africa.4—Large and important deposits of high-grade manganese ore
have been discovered on the Gold Coast. They are derived from meta­
morphosed sediments containing spessartite and rhodonite which are
similar to the rocks of India.
Another important deposit is found at Postmasburg, Griqualand,
west South Africa. It carries sitaparite (braunite rich in Fe and Ca),
braunite, specularite, a manganese diaspore, and barite. The original
deposit was probably an oolitic sedimentary material.
1Literature summarized by E. C. Harder, Bull. 427, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, p.
183.
2L. L. Fermor, The manganese ore deposits of India, Mem,., Geol. Survey India,
37, 1909.
3 E. F. Burchard, Manganese ore deposits in Cuba, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met.
Eng., 63, 1920, pp. 51-104.
4 A. E. Kitson and R. N. Junner, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 75, 1927,
pp. 372-396.
A. L. Hall, Trans., Geol. Soc. South Africa, 29, 1926, pp. 17-46.
H. Schneiderhohn, Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 64-A, 1931, pp. 701-725.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 369
Production and Uses.—The normal domestic output of manganese
ores containing above 35 per cent Mn is small. Forced production under
war conditions increased the output but not nearly sufficiently to supply
the demand. Heavy imports come from Russia, the Gold Coast, Brazil,
and India.
For the manufacture of spiegeleisen, an alloy of iron containing
less than 20 per cent Mn, low grades of manganiferous iron ore may be
used, but for other purposes the ores should contain at least 46 per cent
Mn, and not more than 6 per cent Fe, 8 per cent Si02, and less than 1.5
per cent P.
The higher grades of manganese ores are used extensively for the
manufacture of ferromanganese alloys, which are employed in the iron­
smelting industry, particularly for hardening steel. The pure manganese
S u rfa ce

F i g . 1 4 0 . — Section
in open cut a t the B ertha zinc mines, Virginia, showing relations of
the residual ore to the lim estone chimneys and the residual clay. (After T. L. Watson.)
dioxide ores also find an extensive chemical use, for the generation of
chlorine and for the manufacture of cells for dry electric batteries. Such
ores should contain not less than 65 per cent Mn02 and no Cu, Ni, or Co.
In 1930, 67,000 long tons of ore with 35 + per cent Mn were mined
valued at 11,438,000. The imports of the same class of ores were 586,000
long tons. Of ore containing 10 to 35 per cent Mn, 77,414 long tons were
produced, and of ores with from 5 to 10 per cent, 707,973 tons.
RESIDUAL BARITE
Barite as residual material and nodular concretions is not uncommon
in the residual soils of Virginia and Georgia and in Washington County,
Missouri. While it is possible that some barite is concentrated from
syngenetic deposits in sedimentary rocks, the opinion is gaining ground
that most of the residual barite is derived from epigenetic veins. In
Missouri the barite is concentrated in the soil from veins in the Ordovician
Gasconade limestone. Much of the barite produced in the United States
is obtained from residual clays (p. 399).
RESIDUAL ZINC ORE
In the Appalachian region, in western Virginia and eastern Tennessee,
the Cambro-Silurian limestones contain in places sulphides of lead and
370 M IN ERAL DEPOSITS
zinc distributed in brecciated and crushed zones. At such localities the
deep residual soil often contains calamine and smithsonite, the hydrated
silicate and the carbonate of zinc, with some cerussite and galena. These
ores occur next to the limestone at the bottom of the clay (Fig. 140),
not scattered through it like limonite and pyrolusite.1
RESIDUAL OCHERS12
The residual ochers are impure deep-red, yellow, or brown pulverulent
materials consisting usually of predominant limonite and hematite w'th
more or less clay and are generally used for pigments. They are no
doubt colloidal precipitates. The terms Indian red, sienna, and umber,
the latter two for the darker yellowish-brown and brown shades, are in
use. Not all mineral pigments are natural products, for roasted pyrite,
siderite, slates, and shales are also used.3 The Clinton iron ores in New
York State are also employed for these purposes.
The residual iron ore deposits of the southern states contain material
which is used as ocher. Especially interesting are the Cartersville
deposits,4 in Georgia. These ochers occur only in the Weisner
(Cambro-Silurian) quartzite, in the lower part of the residual zone
immediately above the yet solid rock, and also in shattered zones in
the quartzite itself. The quartzite contains about 90 per cent SiOj,
1.5 per cent FeS2 , 0.5 per cent Fe20 3, and an unusual percentage of
barium sulphate (4.46 per cent in the analysis given by Watson). The
calculated constituents of the ocher are 66 per cent limonite, 25 per cent
clay, and 9 per cent quartz; a little hematite is probably also present.
Hayes and Watson are in agreement regarding the origin of the ocher,
considering it as resulting from a metasomatic replacement of the cement
and quartz grains of the quartzite by limonite. The process begins
by the permeation of the grains by dendritic limonite. This direct
formation of the ocher is scarcely probable, but more likely it has pro­
gressed by means of an intermediate stage of siderite. The replacement
1 T. L. Watson, Lead and zinc deposits of Virginia, Bull. 1, Virginia Geol. Survey,
1905.
T. L. Watson, Lead and zinc deposits of the Virginia-Tennessee region, Trans.,
,4m. Inst. Min. Eng., 36, 1906, pp. 681-737.
2 G. P. Merrill, Non-metallic minerals, 1910, pp. 104—111.
3 B. L. Miller, The mineral pigments of Pennsylvania, Rept. 4, Topographic and
Geologic Survey Commission of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg, 1911.
F. T. Agthe and J. L. Dynan, Paint-ore deposits near Lehigh Gap, Pennsylvania,
Bull. 430, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909, pp. 440-454.
1 C. W. Hayes, Iron ores in the Cartersville district, Georgia, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., 30, 1901, pp. 403-419.
T. L. Watson, The ocher deposits of Georgia, Bull. 13, Georgia Geol. Survey,
1906.
R. B. Ladoo, Non-metallic minerals, New York, 1925, pp. 368-391.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 371
of quartz by iron carbonate is a well-known phenomenon, illustrated, for
instance, in the Coeur d’Alene lead deposits of Idaho.
The annual domestic production of natural pigments amounts to
about 57,000 tons. The mining is done mainly in open pits; and the
material is crushed,- washed in a log-washer, and allowed to settle in
tanks.
RESIDUAL PHOSPHATES
As described more fully on page 285, many sedimentary beds contain
much phosphate of calcium, often in oolitic or concretionary form. When
these beds are exposed to surface waters an enrichment usually takes
place by solution of calcium carbonate, provided the beds are permeable
to the circulating waters. Many important phosphate deposits—for
instance, those of Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee—have been
thus enriched.
DEPOSITS OF HYDRATED SILICATES OF NICKEL
The original home of nickel, cobalt, and chromium is in the peridotites
and pyroxenites and in the serpentines derived from them, although
traces of these metals are also frequently noted in analyses of other basic
rocks. The primary condition of the nickel in the rocks is not always
known; probably it occurs both as silicate and as sulphide, the latter in
microscopic grains, the former as an admixture in iron-magnesium sili­
cates. From the serpentines and peridotites the nickel is sometimes
concentrated in commercially important quantities by processes of weath­
ering, and the ores thus formed are always the green hydrated silicates
of nickel. Chromite, which always occurs in these basic rocks, does not
readily yield oxidized minerals in the zone of weathering. No chromium
silicate analogous to garnierite exists.
Nickel silicates are uncertain in composition and generally of colloidal
origin. The most important are genthite, H 4 Ni2 Mg2 (Si0 4 ) 3 .4 H 2 0 ;
connarite, H4Ni2 Si3Oi0; and garnierite, (Mg,Ni)Si03 + nH20. Accord­
ing to an analysis by A. Liversidge, garnierite contains 38.35 per cent
Si02; 32.52 per cent NiO; 10.61 per cent MgO; 0.55 per cent A120 3 and
Fe20 3; 11.53 per cent H20 (at red heat) and 6.44 per cent H20 (at 100° C.).
Such deposits are superficial, and the oxidizing surface waters have
been the carrying and concentrating agency. The ores rarely extend
far below the water level and in some cases are contained in the residual
clays of the completely weathered rock. These nickel ores are often
accompanied by cobalt in the form of separate masses of asbolite, a rather
indefinite mixture of hydrous oxides of manganese and cobalt.
These deposits do not contain sulphides, and copper is rarely present.
The accompanying minerals are quartz, chalcedony, opal, and various
obscure hydrous magnesium silicates, sometimes also a little magnesite.
372 M IN ERAL DEPOSITS
Nickel ores of this kind are not uncommon, but have attained commercial
importance only in New Caledonia.
The nickel mine at Riddles, in southern Oregon, has been described by
several authors.1 The parent rock is a peridotite containing 0.10 per
cent of NiO. The olivine separated from the rock contained 0.26 per
cent of NiO, and all observers agree that the nickel ores are formed from
this silicate. In the finest joints of the rock, silica and nickel-magnesium
silicates are deposited, and between them lies the oxidized rock converted
to a limonite with some clay and chromite.
One of the two most important nickel-bearing districts of the world is
in New Caledonia.2 The island is about 250 miles long and 30 miles
wide; one-third of the area is underlain by post-Eocene serpentine and
peridotite. The lower slopes are covered by a deep mantle of decayed
rock (“variegated clay”) which really is an iron ore containing, in per
cent, 18 silica, 69 ferric oxide, 0.45 alumina, 1.64 nickel oxide, and 10
water. The garnierite deposits are found at elevations of from 400 to
2,500 feet, sometimes on fairly steep slopes, or in the saddles of ridges
and spurs. Underneath the “variegated clay” at depths of from 20 to
75 feet the nickel ores occur, often descending into the serpentine along
fissures and accompanied by chalcedony and opal. There are many
small deposits; the largest contained only 600,000 tons. The ores are
worked by open cuts and carefully graded and sorted. Glasser classifies
the deposits into veinlike, brecciated, impregnations, and earthy masses.
In the last there is much dark brown “ chocolate ore” in which the
green silicate is not visible. The clayey ore averages, in per cent, 23
water, 5 to 7 nickel oxide, 10 to 12 ferric oxide, 25 magnesia, 40 silica, no
lime, 1.1 chromic oxide, 0.12 cobalt, and 1.5 alumina. Most of the ore
is exported. Some of it is sun dried and briquetted for local smelting,
with limestone and gypsum flux, to nickel matte. Nickel metal is now
also produced.
The New Caledonia deposits were discovered by the geologist Gamier
in 1864; the mines were opened 10 years later, and the cheaply mined
rich ores made all nickel deposits elsewhere unprofitable. In 1906 an
output of 144,000 metric tons was reached. Lately, owing to the active
competition of the Sudbury mines (p. 803), the output has been
reduced. However, in 1931, about 147,000 metric tons of ore were
1 Diller and Clarke, Bull. 60, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1890, p. 21.
G. F. Kay, Bull. 315, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, p. 120.
2 E. Glasser, Rapport sur les richesses mindrales de la Nouvelle Caledonie, Ann.
des Mines, (10) 5, 1904, pp. 29-154, 503-701.
G. M. Colvocoresses, Eng. and Min. Jour., Sept. 21, and 28, 1907.
W. G. Miller, Nickel deposits of the world, reprinted from Report of Royal
Ontario Nickel Commission, Toronto, 1917, pp. 234-264.
M. Piroutet, Etude Stratigraphique sur la Nouvelle Caledonie, Protat Freres,
Macon. Also in Bull. Soc. geol de la France, ser. 4, 3, 1917, pp. 155-177.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 373

produced and about 5,534 metric tons of 75 per cent nickel matte were
exported to France and Belgium. The ore treated contained 5.35 to 5.67
per cent nickel. A small quantity of cobalt ore, a black, earthy asbolite,
was exported for a number of years, but at present can not compete with
the ore from Cobalt, Ontario. The island also produces much chromite
(p. 786).
BAUXITE1
Introduction.—Clay, as more or less impure kaolin, is the most abun­
dant product of rock decay; but, although it carries up to 39.8 per cent
alumina, its use as a source of metallic aluminum has not been found possi­
ble. Corundum is not abundant enough to be used for this purpose.
Cryolite (Na3AlFl6), a mineral obtained from pegmatitic masses occurring
in Greenland, was formerly an important aluminum ore and is still used,
in smaller quantities, in the electrolytic processes for the extraction of
aluminum and for other purposes.
In certain places the weathered zone, however, contains the hydroxides
of aluminum, and of these bauxite is the most important aluminum ore.
There are three aluminum hydroxides: Diaspore, A120 3.H20, with 85 per
cent A120 3; gibbsite or hydrargillite, A120 3.3H20, with 65.4 per cent
A120 3; and bauxite, A120 3.2H20, with 74 per cent A120 3.
The independence of bauxite as a mineral species is, however, ques­
tioned, and many authors consider it a hardened and in part crystallized
hydrogel of indefinite composition. Some French and Georgian bauxites,
correspond well to gibbsite. Bauxite forms compact, earthy, also very
commonly pisolitic masses, the individual concretions often having a
diameter of several centimeters. It is gray, cream-colored, yellowish, or
brown and is usually admixed with silica and ferric oxide. The bauxites
contain in places crystalline gibbsite as crusts or veinlets. Diaspore has
been identified more rarely, and quite naturally, as it usually formed at
higher temperature than that prevailing in residual deposits.
The bauxites always contain titanium, averaging as much as 4 per
cent Ti02, and some vanadium, but in this they merely share the peculiari­
ties of residual and sedimentary clays. Some investigators state that
bauxite contains residual rutile while others have failed to find any
titanium mineral. In part, at least, the titanic dioxide is probably
present in colloidal or metacolloidal form. Other forms of the mono-
hydrate, called boehmite and tanatarite, have been identified from France
and Russia.2
1 C. W. Hayes, Bauxite, its occurrence, geology, etc., Sixteenth Ann. Rept., U. S.
Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1895, pp. 547-597.
T. L. Watson, Bull. 11, Georgia Geol. Survey, 1904 (Bibliography).
F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp.
496-510.
2 J. de Lapparent, Bull. Soc frang. mineral., 53, 1930, pp. 255-273.
374 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Little or no hydroxide of aluminum forms in ordinary rock weathering.
Cameron and Bell1 state that during an examination of several thousand
soils from all parts of the United States, hydroxide of aluminum was
observed in only one sample, which came from southern California.
Bauxite, it may be concluded, is thus rarely formed in the temperate region.
In tropical countries, on the other hand, the deep residual soil very
often contains aluminum hydroxide. This has been called laterite (later,
brick) and is variously defined. We may say that true laterite is essen­
tially a mixture of the hydroxides of iron and aluminum with more or
less free silica, but there are all gradations toward an ordinary ferruginous
clay. The laterite may be derived from any igneous or sedimentary rock
but serpentine and limestone are specially favorable. The iron ore from
Mayari, Cuba (p. 359) is a laterite exceptionally rich in iron. Many
so-called laterites are not true residual but transported deposits. Later-
ites may or may not contain bauxite of economic value. They have been
described from many lands and the literature is very extensive.12
In apparent contradiction to this, many of the worked bauxite deposits
are found in temperate regions such as Georgia, Arkansas, France, Hun­
gary, etc.; but this is explained by the fact that these are not being formed
at the present time, but are of Tertiary age when a climate like that of
Cuba prevailed in large parts of the temperate zone.
Origin.—The desilication of clay in low latitudes has been discussed
extensively. The action of nitric acid, supposedly derived from rain
during tropical thunderstorms, has been suggested as the cause. T. H,
Holland3 has mentioned the possibility of bacterial action and G. A.
Thiel4 has brought out experiments verifying this in part.
Clay is decomposed by sulphuric acid and by sodium hydroxide or
sodium carbonate, and at some places aluminum hydroxide may have
1 Bull. 30, Bur. Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 28.
2 A. Streng, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., 39, 1887, p. 621 (Germany).
A. Bauer, Neues Jahrbuch, Festband, 1907, p. 33, and 1898, Bd. 2, p. 192 (Seychellc
Islands).
R. D. Oldham and T. H. Holland, Records, Geol. Survey India, 32, pt. 2, 1905,
pp. 175-184.
L. L. Fermor, The manganese deposits of India, Mem., Geol. Survey India, 37,
1909, pp. 370-380.
J. B. Harrison, Laterite in British Guiana, Geol. Mag., 47, 1910, p. 440.
C. S. Fox, Mem., Geol. Survey India, 49, pt. 2, 1923.
G. C. DuBois, Tschermak’s min. u. petr. Milt., 22, 1903, pp. 4-18 (Surinam).
A. Lacroix, Nouv. Arch., Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris), 5th ser., 15, 1913, p. 255;
reviewed by L. L. Fermor, Geol. Mag., 1915, pp. 28, 77, 123 (French Guinea).
J. M. VanBemmelen, Zeitschr. anorg. Chemie, 66, 1910, p. 322 (General review).
J. Morrow Campbell, Laterite, its origin, structure, etc., Min. Mag. (London),
August-November, 1917 (Tropical Africa).
3 T. H. Holland, Geol. Mag., 1903, p. 59.
4 Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 480—493.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECAY 375
originated in this way. W. Maxwell1 has demonstrated this origin for
some of the soils of Hawaiian volcanoes. Nevertheless it is clear that
sulphuric acid does not always produce this effect, for diaspore and
hydrargillite occur rarely in the oxidized portions of mineral deposits where
the sericitic rocks are acted upon by sulphuric acid solutions. Bauxite
also has rarely been observed. In the oxidized zone the sulphuric acid
transforms sericite into kaolin, which is frequently accompanied by more
or less alunite (K2 O.3 Al2 O3 .4 SO3 + 6H20).
These suggestions do not suffice to explain the formation of the lateritic
aluminum hydroxides. It is now generally conceded that this is caused

Fiu. 141.— Triangular diagram showing the gradation from syenite to bauxite in
terms of the principal chemical constituents. Each triangle represents an analyzed
sample. (After W. J . Mead.)

simply by the long continued action of ordinary ground-waters under

special conditions of moisture and heat.12 W. J. Mead3 has shown that
there is a complete gradation in the case of the Arkansas deposits from the
original syenite (Fig. 141), that the pisolitic structure develops in place,
and that residual syenite boulders are surrounded by bauxitic material.
The texture of the syenite is sometimes visible in the pisolitic bauxite.
There is some evidence of downward leaching of the bauxite, for the
1 W. Maxwell, Lavas and soils of the Hawaiian Islands, 1898.
2 R. Schwarz, Ueber das Problem der Kaolinbildung, Tonindustrie Zeitung, 1924.
3 Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 28-54.
See also Leith and Mead, Metamorphic geology, New York, 1915, pp. 25-38.
376 MINERAL DEPOSITS
top layer is usually more siliceous than the lower parts of the deposit.
J. Morrow Campbell believes that bauxite forms only in the zone of
percolation close to the fluctuating water level and that it never occurs
far below the water level.
The sedimentary bauxites, of which numerous examples may be found
in the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of the southern states, are probably
in part deposits swept out into the sea by the normal processes of erosion
from bauxite rich laterites on the shore.
Occurrences.—The bauxite deposits of commercial importance are
of several different types. In the United States they are confined to
Arkansas and the southern Appalachian States.
In Arkansas1 the mineral occurs in Pulaski and Saline counties as
superficial beds over areas of various sizes up to 20 acres. The deposits
range from 10 to 60 feet in thickness; both open-pit and underground
methods are used; production in 1933 was 153,000 tons. They rest on
nepheline syenite or on a kaolinized form of that rock; the lower part
retains traces of granitic structure, while the upper part is distinctly
pisolitic. Tertiary sands and clays in places cover the bed.
Other deposits of importance, described by Hayes2 and also by Wat­
son,3 are found at a number of places in Georgia and Alabama. The
principal occurrences are scattered between Jacksonville, Alabama and
Cartersville, Georgia, along a belt about 60 miles in length, one of the
typical localities being at Rock Run, Alabama. The bauxite occurs as
pockets and irregular masses or curved strata of various colors, with clay
and limonite, in the heavy mantle of residual clay overlying the Knox
(Cambrian) dolomite, but sharply separated from it. The ore is in part
pisolitic and is mined in open cuts, at some places to a depth of 50 feet or
more. The bottom of the clay masses is rarely exposed; before it is
reached the pockets of bauxite generally terminate in tapering points.
Occasionally associated minerals are gibbsite (A120 3.3H20) and halloysite,
which is similar to kaolin in composition but has more water.
A suggestive fact is the occurrence of the deposits at or about the
900-foot contour, which coincides with the elevation of a probable Eocene
peneplain. The ores were thus accumulated under topographic and
climatic conditions different from those which prevail to-day.
1 C. W. Hayes, Twenty-first Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1901, pp. 435—
472.
J. C. Brainier, Jour. Geol., 5, 1907, pp. 263-289.
W. J. Mead, Occurrence and origin of the bauxite deposits of Arkansas, Econ.
Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 28-54. For recent operations see G. C. Branner, Mining Met..
16, March, 1935, pp. 123-124.
2 C. W. Hayes, The geological relations of the southern Appalachian bauxite
deposits, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 24, 1895, pp. 243-254.
3 T. L. Watson, Bull. 11, Georgia Geol. Survey, 1904, 169 pp.
W. A. Nelson, Appalachian bauxite deposits, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 34, 1923,
pp. 525-532.
 DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM PROCESSES OF ROCK DECA Y 377
Deposits differing considerably from those already described have
been found in several southern states.1 They occur near the contact
of the flat-lying sands and clays of the Tuscaloosa (Lower Cre­
taceous) and Claiborne (Tertiary) formations. The ore occurs either as
beds resting directly upon Cretaceous clay or disseminated as nodules
through it. A perfect series of transition to clay exists, as shown by
analyses. Bauxite beds 10 feet in thickness have been observed; the
mineral is clayey, dense, or pisolitic. The origin is still a point in
controversy.
For a number of years much bauxite has been imported from British
and Dutch Guiana.12 The deposits are found along the coast and some
distance inland and are mined by steam shovels, one plant producing 800
tons per day of which 70 per cent is ore. The bauxite occurs in beds 6 to
26 feet thick covered by Tertiary and recent clays and sands. The
beds appear to be sedimentary, probably washed down from older deposits
in the uplands. The ore contains in per cent: 59 to 61, A120 3, 2 to 5, Si02;
and 3 to 6, Fe20 3.
In France,3 bauxite occurs as pockets and pipes in Lower Cretaceous
limestone, probably formed during an interval of peneplanation and
transgression in the Upper Cretaceous or perhaps between the Cretaceous
and the Tertiary. In eastern Europe, bauxite is found in Istria, Italy,
generally in similar deposits or in sink holes and was probably formed
from clay by long-continued leaching.
Large deposits have recently been reported from the Atlas Mountains
in Morocco and from the Gold Coast Colony in West Africa, 100 to 200
miles inland from Sekondi.
Uses and Production.—The annual production of bauxite in the
United States in 1930 was 330,612 long tons, most of which was mined in
Arkansas. The importations were 409,700 long tons, largely from the
British and Dutch Guianas. The mines in France, also yield an increas­
ing amount, about 608,500 metric tons in 1925. The price of bauxite is
from $6 to $8 per ton. The bauxite ores of commercial grade contain
1 O. Veatch, Bull. 18, Georgia Geol. Survey, 1909, pp. 430-447.
R. F. Morse, The bauxite deposits of Mississippi, Bull. 19, Mississippi Geol.
Survey, 1923.
E. F. Burchard, Bauxite in N. E. Mississippi, Bull. 750, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1925.
R. E. Rettger, The bauxite deposits of S. E. Alabama, Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp.
671-686.
W. B. Jones, Bauxite in Alabama, idem, 21, 1926, pp. 792-802.
R. W. Smith, Sedimentary kaolins of the coastal plain of Georgia, Bull. 44,
Georgia Geol. Survey, 1929, 489 pp.
2L. Litchfield, Bauxite mining in Dutch Guiana, Eng. and Min. Jour., Aug. 17
and Sept. 21, 1929.
3 J. de Lapparent, Les bauxites de la France mfiridionale, Mem., Minist. Travaux
Publique, Paris, 1930, 187 pp.
378 MINERAL DEPOSITS
52 to 65 per cent A120 3. The best ores contain 1 per cent Fe and 3 to
5 per cent Si02. Silica and iron should be less than 15 per cent. Ores
with more than 4 per cent Fe20 3are not utilized at present. The ores are
mined in open cuts, often necessitating the removal of heavy overburden,
washed to remove the clay, and dried. For purposes of aluminum smelt­
ing the ores must be of high grade and low in silica. In 1930, 114,518
short tons of aluminum were produced in the United States ; exact data
are not obtainable. The uses for the metal and its alloys are steadily
increasing.
Large works for the electric smelting of aluminum are located at
Niagara Falls and in Tennessee; also in Canada, Norway, and other coun­
tries. Artificial corundum (alundum) is made from the ore in the elec­
tric furnace. Bricks of bauxite for basic non-corrosive lining of furnaces
are widely used. Aluminum salts, especially alum, are also manufactured
from bauxite. An addition of bauxite promotes the rapid setting of
cements.
ANALYSES OF BAUXITE

Si02 Ti02 A120 3 Fe2Ot h 2o Analyst

Baux, France (pisolitic). 4.8 3.2 55.4 24.8 10.8 Deville.

Jacksonville, Ala............ 21.08 2.52 48.92 2.14 23.41 Hillebrand.
Floyd County, Ga......... 0.80 3.52 52.21 13.50 27.72 Nichols.
Pulaski County, Ark.... 2.00 3.50 62.05 1.66 30.31
Wilkinson County, Ga.. 9.38 2.76 57.58 0.96 29.12 E. Everhart

Great variations are often shown in one locality. For further analyses
see G. P. Merrill, Non-metallic minerals, 1910, p. 91. The average of a
long series of analyses of commercial ore from Georgia tabulated by T. L.
Watson1 gives: Si02, 4.274; Ti02, 3.791; A120 3, 58.622; Fe20 ‘3, 1.507;
and H20, 31.435; total 99.629. This corresponds to A120 3.3H20.
The “Diaspore” Clays.2—During the last years bauxitic clays unusu­
ally high in alumina have been mined in Missouri. They fill sink holes
in Cherokee (Pennsylvanian) sandstone approximately 250 feet in diam­
eter and 100 feet deep. They are surrounded by a casing of non-plastic
flint clay and carry from 50 to 75 per cent A120 3. Enrichment by solution
of silica is suggested.
1 Bull. 11, Georgia Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 45-46.
2 D. C. Wysor, Diaspore clay of Arkansas and Missouri, Jour. Am. Ceramic
Soc., 6, 1923, pp. 501-509.
H. S. McQueen, Mining of diaspore clay, burley, and flint clay in Missouri,
idem, 11, 1929, pp. 687-697; also 12, 1929, pp. 204^214.
 CHAPTER XXII
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES
CONTAINED IN THE SURROUNDING ROCKS, BY MEANS
OF CIRCULATING WATERS
GENERAL STATEMENT
The water which sinks through the soil and effects the weathering of
rocks becomes charged with small amounts of carbonates of calcium,
sodium, magnesium, potassium, iron, and other metals, and also with
soluble silica. By far the larger part of it, after a short journey through
the belt of oxidation, returns to the surface as springs and seepages and
is carried off in the watercourses to the sea. A smaller part of this water
sinks into the ground and either joins the active circulation, descending
in smaller fractures and openings to ascend on the larger fissures and
other waterways, or becomes a part of the stagnant or almost stagnant
and gradually diminishing ground-water of deeper levels. In comparison
with the depth of the ground-water, the depth of oxidation, or rock decay,
is on the whole insignificant; and that part of the dissolved substance
which is carried down is also insignificant in comparison with the vast
amount of underlying rocks, so that we cannot expect that the material
added from the zone of weathering will produce any far-reaching changes
in the composition of these rocks.
Nevertheless dissolved salts are carried down from the weathered
belt and may cause deposits in open cavities or may form more or less
complex replacements. In the openings silica may be deposited as
chalcedony, chert, or quartz; calcium carbonate may fill fissures and
replace silicates; or ferrous carbonate may be substituted for limestone.
Chlorite, kaolin, and sericite may develop in igneous rocks. All these
changes are, however, accompanied by renewed solution; and it is a
debatable question whether the solution does not more than balance
deposition. On the other hand, the water returning to the surface after
a journey of varying length, more or less heavily loaded with soluble
salts, deposits these by reason of decrease of temperature or by reaction
with other surface waters of different composition. Finally, hydration
absorbs much water, both from the active circulation and from the more
stagnant ground-water; and deposits of valuable minerals may result
from this simple process.
In a rough way the deposits resulting from the work of underground
waters of meteoric origin may be divided into: (1) Those formed from
379
380 MINERAL DEPOSITS
abundant material contained in the surrounding rocks, for instance,
magnesite, serpentine, sulphur (by reduction of gypsum), and certain
kinds of hematite; and (2) those formed by the deposition of rarer sub­
stances dissolved by the water from the surrounding rocks or from rocks
that lie deeper. As examples of the second division may be cited the
vanadium and copper deposits of the “Red Beds” in the western states.
Waters of atmospheric origin doubtless have the power to dissolve
many of the rarer metals contained in rocks, to carry them for consider­
able distances, and to concentrate them in places suitable for deposition;
but unless it is aided by higher temperatures at considerable depths below
the surface, this power is not often strong enough to produce important
deposits of these rarer metals.
SULPHUR1
Modes of Occurrence.—Native sulphur may be formed by various
reactions. The oxidation of pyrite sometimes results in crusts of sulphur
coating the cavities once occupied by the dissolved crystals. In the
craters of volcanoes where sulphurous gases ascend on crevices sulphur
is often found, as the result of a reaction between sulphur dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide (H2S + 2S02 = H2S04 + 2S), or more probably, by
incomplete oxidation of hydrogen sulphide (2H2S + 0 2 = 2H20 + 2S),
or by the reaction 3S02 + 2H20 = 2H2S04 + S. A large deposit of this
kind is worked at the Abosanobori mine, Hokkaido, Japan, and consists of
clayey beds in an old crater lake. Considerable quantities have been
exported from Japan to the United States. It has been proposed to
utilize a similar deposit in the crater of Popocatepetl, Mexico. Other
deposits are found in the volcanoes of the Chilean and Argentine Andes.
Much more commonly sulphur is found at active or extinct hot springs
in the tufas or other adjoining porous rocks, like volcanic tuffs. It
evidently results from the incomplete oxidation of H2S, by the oxygen,
or by bacterial action, or by a reaction between suspended CaC03 and
H2S resulting in Ca(SH)2. This, as well as soluble polysulphides and
thiosulphates, is decomposed by C02 with the liberation of H2S and S.
Such deposits have been observed at many places in the Western states—
for instance, at Cuprite, Esmeralda County, Nevada; at the Rabbit
Hole mines in Humboldt County, Nevada;2 at Sulphur Bank, California;
at the Cove Creek mine, Beaver County, Utah;3 and at Cody and Ther-
mopolis, in Wyoming.4 The three last-named deposits have been worked.
In Wyoming the sulphur in part replaces the limestone underlying the
1 0. Stutzer, Die wichtigsten Lagerstatten der Nicht-Erze, 1911, pp. 185-263.
U. S. Bur. Mines, Information Circ. 6329 (Sulphur), 1930.
2 G. I. Adams, Bull. 225, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 497-500.
3 W. T. Lee, Bull. 315, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, pp. 485-489.
4 E. G. Woodruff, Bull. 340, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 451-456.
E. G. Woodruff, Bull. 380, idem, 1909, pp. 373-380.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 381
travertine or tufa. All these deposits are superficial; and, though
some are fairly productive, they play no great part in the world’s
output.
The greater part of the native sulphur is not connected with volcanic
processes or hot springs but is obtained from sedimentary beds in close
association with gypsum and limestone; calcite, aragonite, barite, celestite,
opal, more rarely quartz, together with
gaseous and solid hydrocarbons, are
found with the sulphur. This associa­
tion is constant and characteristic and
recurs in almost all the great gypsum
beds of the world, though the sulphur
is not always present in quantities of
economic importance. The sulphur is
in earthy or resinous masses and forms
lenticular beds, irregular masses, and
veinlets in marl, limestone, and gyp­
sum. Sulphur is widely distributed in
the Miocene and Pliocene of the Med­
iterranean countries, everyw here
accompanied by gypsum. It is mined F ig . 142.— B anded sulphur rock
particularly in Sicily, which is one of from Sicily, one-half original size.
the great sulphur-bearing regions in the limestone.
Black, sulphur; white, calcite; stippled,
(After 0. Stutzer.)
world. Another mode of occurrence is
in the upper part (cap rock) of the salt domes which occur so commonly
in the Gulf Coast of Louisiana and Texas. The salt domes (p. 333) are
cylindrical masses of sodium chloride, usually capped with anhydrite
and gypsum. They are derived from lower salt beds and have been
forced up through the overlying soft rocks, in some cases almost to the
surface. They are known as “ diapiric” (piercing) structures. At
present, by far the greater part of the world’s sulphur production is
obtained from these salt domes.
Sicily and Italy.—In south-central Sicily the sulphur-bearing region
extends for 160 kilometers east and west; and scattered through this
territory are innumerable small mines. The largest mines lie between
Agrigento and Caltanissetta in the Trabia-Tallarita folded basin. The
depth attained is 800 feet. They supply about half of the production
of the island. Mining and reduction are carried out by modern methods.
The bed worked reaches a thickness of 70 feet in places. The sulphur is
accompanied by calcite, some gypsum, and bituminous matter. It lies at
the top of the Miocene and is covered by Pliocene marls. Below the sul­
phur bed lies heavy platy gypsum and below that the Tortonian (Upper
Miocene) marls. This succession is almost constant, though the thick­
ness of the sulphur bed varies greatly. The ore is rich, sometimes mas­
382 MINERAL DEPOSITS
sive, much of it containing 25 per cent S (Fig. 142). Crystallized sulphur
and celestite, more rarely barite, coat the walls of cavities. Sulphur
deposits also occur at various places in Italy. The Altavilla-Irpina mine,
100 miles east of Naples, is actively worked with heavy production. The
deposit occurs in steeply dipping Miocene beds. The sulphur occurs in
kidneys and lenticular masses in clay shale, some of them 15 feet in
diameter; apparently this sulphur has replaced gypsum. Above and
below are alternating beds of gypsum and clay.
Louisiana and Texas.—The most productive sulphur deposits in the
world are those which occur in the cap rock or top part of the salt domes
(Figs. 128, and 143, p. 383).1 The salt dome consists of a stock-like,
round, or oblong mass of nearly pure salt extending from unknown
depths into the overlying, soft, Tertiary sediments, the diameter ranging
from less than % mile to 2 miles or more. The sides are steep, sometimes
even vertical or overhanging. These diapiric or piercing structures have
often a cap of thin sedimentary limestone, underneath which the sulphur
ore is found, extending over the fiat top and usually thickest at the edges
but soon contracting along the steep sides. The cap rock of the worked
sulphur deposits is from 500 to 1,500 feet below the surface, but in many
domes it has not yet been found and in other cases it is still nearer to the
surface.
The cap rock consists of granular calcite, sulphur and some gypsum,
aragonite, and dolomite. It often contains celestite; it also contains more
or less bituminous matter or oil; oil in larger quantities often occurs in
the Tertiary upturned sediments surrounding the dome. Sulphur occurs
in irregular masses, veins, and lenses. Below the cap rock lies a variable
thickness of probably sedimentary anhydrite (also with some celestite);
below the anhydrite the drill enters into the main salt mass, which rarely
has been penetrated. The cap rock is essentially a recrystallized material
evidently derived from gypsum and anhydrite.
None of these deposits are inexhaustible. The dome at Sulphur,
Louisiana, in Calcasieu County, was exhausted in 1924 after producing
10,000,000 tons of sulphur. The largest dome known is at Boling,
Texas, worked by the Texas Gulf Sulphur Company; it is reported to
contain reserves of 45,000,000 tons. Other localities worked are at Long
Point, and Palangana; two important deposits are Bryanmound and
1 For recent descriptions and map of the salt and sulphur domes sec:
P. K. Kelly, The sulphur salt dome, Louisiana, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol., 9,
1925, pp. 479-496.
R. F. Bacon and H. S. Davis, Recent advances in the American sulphur industry,
P t o c ., Am. Inst. Civil Eng., December, 1920.
M. I. Goldman, Petrography of salt dome cap rock, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petr.
Geol., 9, 1925, pp. 42-98.
Levi S. Brown, Cap rock petrography, idem, 15, 1931, pp. 509-529.
Jack Logan, Oil Weekly, Oct. 3, 1930.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 383

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384 M INERAL DEPOSITS
Hoskins Mound, near the mouth of the Brazos River. Over 82 salt domes
are known, located in part by seismic and torsion-balance methods.
Probably all contain some sulphur, but few are of economic importance.
Bryanmound, which so far has produced over 5,000,000 tons, occupies
an area of 780 acres rising 22 feet above tidewater. The total number
of wells drilled up to 1930 was 1,148. The sulphur-bearing rock is found
at depths from 700 to 1,500 feet. The safest sampling is done by assaying
drill cores, calculating the thickness of the sulphur in each hole, and
then extending this to adjacent holes. Naturally the thickness of the
sulphur-bearing formation is an important factor. The content is usually
expressed in tons per acre, anything less than 5,000 tons being probably
unprofitable. The extraction is, of course, never complete and probably
often less than 50 per cent.
The development of these deposits was long delayed by the impossi­
bility of sinking shafts through the quicksand. The final difficulties
were overcome by the invention of the Frasch process. Through 12-inch
pipes superheated water is forced down to the sulphur which is thereby
melted; hot air is then supplied under pressure to aerate the molten mass
and facilitate its ascent to the surface.
Origin of Sulphur Deposits in Gypsum.—In spite of structural
differences these deposits have many similar features, such as the constant
association with recrystallized calcite, presence of bitumen or oil, as well
as celestite and barite. The sulphur is later than the gypsum or anhy­
drite. The direct reduction of gypsum by carbon compounds below 600°
to 700° C., suggested by G. Bischof, appears to be ruled out by the chem­
ists. The introduction of H2S from foreign sources (springs, mud volca­
noes, etc.), advocated by V. Lasaulx, Mottura, G. Spezia, and Baldacci,
does not help much, for in all these theories oxygen is needed to oxidize
H2S, or calcium or sodium sulphides, and in most cases the presence of
much oxygen seems unlikely under the assumed conditions of deposition.
For the older literature on this subject see Clarke’s, “ Geochemistry” and
Hunt’s paper quoted below.
A purely sedimentary origin of the Sicilian deposits is advocated by
O. Stutzer.1 Hydrogen sulphide is generated in large amounts in closed
basins, such as the Black Sea, by the decay of organisms. Yet, no sulphur
appears to have been brought up by deep dredgings in that basin, though
they contain abundant iron sulphide.
1 O. Stutzer, Die wichtigsten Lagerstatten der Nicht-Erze, 1911, pp. 185-263.
W. F. Hunt, The origin of the sulphur deposits of Sicily, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915,
pp. 543-579.
Sir John Murray, The deposits of the Black Sea, Scottish Geog. Mag., 16, 1900,
pp. 673-702.
Stelzner and Bergeat, Erzlagerstatten, 1, 1904, p. 470. A comprehensive review
by Doss is given in Neaes Jahrbuch, 1, 1900, pp. 224-228.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 385
It has been proved1that certain bacteria are able to reduce sulphates
at temperatures up to 55° C. with the liberation of H2S. In part these
bacteria are anaerobic, and Bastin finds that they are present in deep
oil-well waters. The oxidation of H2S and the action of C02on Ca (OH)2
and Ca (SH)2, products formed by the reduction of CaS04, would cause a
separation of sulphur and CaC03. Calcium polysulphide formed would
be immediately decomposed to sulphur by H2S.
The oxidation of H2S may also be performed by bacteria, the so-called
sulphur bacteria (Beggiotoa) which deposit sulphur in thin cells. The
following oxidation of this sulphur supports the life of the organisms,
which are found in the mud of hot springs, lakes, and seas. This is the
theory advanced for the sedimentary origin of the sulphur deposits of
Sicily. Even if this is true, there must have been a great deal of subse­
quent recrystallization in the Sicilian deposits.
For the sulphur deposits in the cap rock of the salt domes this theory
can not be applied; they are certainly not sedimentary; on the contrary,
sulphur and allied minerals are the latest product formed in the cap while
under a heavy covering of Tertiary sediments. If the theory of Bastin
of the occurrence of bacteria in oil-well waters is correct, bacterial action
might here too be possible, though the organisms probably must have
been of the anaerobic type.
Besides the direct reduction of sulphates we have here another
source of H2S from the waters ascending on the flanks of the salt domes;
they are almost invariably rich in H2S and sulphates; but even if this
mode of origin is admitted, there is the necessity of oxidation by free
oxygen in inorganic reactions or by bacterial action. The ascending
H2S waters usually meet potable sodium carbonate waters near the sur­
face, and the mixture would probably result in sodium sulphide or
polysulphides; but for these, too, some mode of oxidation must be
provided.
Production.—The Sicilian deposits, with an annual output of about
450,000 metric tons, formerly supplied the world’s demand. In 1901
the Frasch process revolutionized the trade conditions, and the production
of the United States rose at once to 200,000 long tons, and the importa­
tions fell off correspondingly. The interesting trade conditions develop­
ing from these changes and the struggles of the Italian government to
aid the distressed Sicilian operators have attracted much attention.
In 1930, the Sicilian output was 246,814 long tons. In the same
year, the production of the United States was 2,558,981 long tons.
The price was about $18 per ton. Practically no sulphur has been
imported since 1916, and the deposits of the United States now supply
1 See papers by Stutzer and Hunt cited above and E. S. Bastin, The problem
of the natural reduction of sulphates, Bull. 10, Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol., 1925, pp.
1270-1299.
386 M IN ERAL DEPOSITS
85 per cent of the world’s demands. Almost the entire output is produced
by the Texas Gulf Sulphur Company and the Freeport Texas Company.
Uses.—The manifold industrial uses of sulphur need not be specified;
the larger part is used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, for bleaching
purposes by the development of sulphur dioxide, for the prevention of
mildew on grapevines, for the manufacture of gunpowder, matches, etc.,
and for the rubber industry.
Sulphuric Acid.—Just before the World War, the production of
sulphuric acid in the United States was about 3,500,000 short tons.
In 1930, 7,625,000 tons of acid (50° Baume) were consumed. Of the
production in 1916, 40 per cent was made from Spanish (Rio Tinto)
pyrite, 6 per cent from Canadian pyrite, 13 per cent from domestic
pyrite, marcasite, and pyrrhotite, 22 per cent from fumes from copper
and zinc smelters, leaving about 19 per cent which had to be supplied
from native sulphur.1 At the present time sulphur supplies a much larger
percentage, probably over 70 per cent. The manufacture of super­
phosphate and petroleum refining consume the largest part of the
sulphuric acid.
Many countries, particularly Spain, Norway, Portugal, France,
United States, Italy, and Germany, in the order of importance stated,
produce annually over 200,000 tons of pyrite.
Pyritic ores are obtained, in the United States:
(1) From pyrite deposits along the Appalachian .mountains from
Alabama to Vermont; (2) from pyrite deposits in California; (3) from
pyrrhotite deposits in Virginia and Tennessee; (4) from marcasite
as a by-product of coal mines in Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania;
and (5) from marcasite as a by-product in zinc-lead mines of Wisconsin
and Illinois.
The domestic production of pyrite in 1930 (including marcasite and
pyrrhotite) was 347,512 long tons, of which the larger part came from
Tennessee, California, and Virginia. Pyrite was also imported from
Quebec, Ontario, and the Rio Tinto district in Spain (325,000 long tons
in 1930). The mining and importation of pyrite have been unfavorably
affected by the great increase in the production of sulphur. The produc­
tion of pyrites in Spain for 1929 was about 3,000,000 metric tons.
The “pyritic deposits” comprise many types (p. 618); but aside from
the minor supplies mentioned under 4 and 5, they are mainly products of
high or intermediate temperature under intrusive conditions. Most of
them may be considered as copper deposits of very low grade. Many
among those along the Appalachian belt are of early Paleozoic age and
more or less strongly dynamometamorphosed. We may mention the
pyrrhotite deposits of Ducktown, Tennessee, and of the “Great Gossan
1 W. Y. Westervelt and A. G. White, Bull. 130, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., November,
1917, pp. v-xii.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 3 8 7
Lead,” Virginia, and the pyritic deposits of Louisa County, Virginia,
which form long lenses in a Cambrian sericite schist and northward
change into lead and zinc deposits. Other deposits of pre-Cambrian
age are found in St. Lawrence County, New York. The sulphur ores
contain from 30 to 50 per cent of sulphur with up to 10 per cent of insolu­
ble. Lead, zinc, antimony, and arsenic are objectionable constituents.
The residues from sulphuric acid manufacture are often used as copper
and iron ores.
THE MAGNESIAN DEPOSITS
The magnesian silicate rocks lend themselves easily to transformation
and yield a number of economically valuable products, among them
serpentine, magnesite, meerschaum, talc, soapstone, and asbestos. All
of these result from the action of water, in most cases doubtless of atmos­
pheric origin, on peridotites, pyroxenites, or gabbros, either near the
surface or, with the cooperation of stress, at greater depths. Talc, soap­
stone, and asbestos belong, in part, to the latter class.
SERPENTINE1
Serpentine forms by simple hydration from a rock consisting of
enstatite and olivine according to the following equation:
Mg2Si04 -|- MgSiCL -j- 2H20 = H 4 lVlg3Si2 09.
(Olivine) (Enstatite) (Serpentine)
It may also develop from olivine alone, with the removal of some
magnesium as carbonate:
2Mg2Si04 -f- C02 -f- 2H20 = H 4 MgaSi209 -f- MgCCL.
The latter equation probably represents the usual process of serpen-
tinization a short distance below the surface. Under oxidizing clonditions
serpentine is unstable, though, of course, the change takes pace very
slowly and erosion may work far ahead of decomposition.
Serpentine is, however, also formed on a large scale at greater depths,
where quantities of C02 could not very well be assumed for the reason
that such alteration would result in a mixture of serpentine and carbo­
nates, whereas the large serpentine masses rarely contain admixed
carbonates. The deep canons of the Sierra Nevada, in California, show
clearly that the serpentines of this range are not superficial, but descend
to the depth of several thousand feet. The modus operandi of such exten­
sive hydration is not fully explained. Some have held that it might
have been effected by ascending waters, shortly after the intrusions.
Serpentine is generally rich in iron, for the original rocks are not of
the purity indicated by the equation given above; the iron is present
1 H. Leitmeier in Doelter’s Mineralchemie, 1, pt. 1, 1914, pp. 385-428.
388 M IN ERAL DEPOSITS
as both silicate and magnetite, and also in chromite which forms a
characteristic accessory. Serpentine rock that is not too much broken by
joints finds fairly extensive use as building and ornamental stone. For
the latter purpose the oily green translucent varieties, formed in crystalline
limestone by serpentinization of the contained pyroxene, are particularly
valued.
MAGNESITE1
Origin.—Magnesite (MgC03) appears in two modifications: (1) As a
cryptocrystalline (often called amorphous), earthy, hard, and compact
mineral, which probably is a hardened colloidal precipitate. It is often
concretionary and has a conchoidal fracture like that of unglazed porce­
lain. In this form it is an alteration product of serpentine or allied
magnesian rocks as illustrated by the equation
H 4 Mg3 Si209 3C02 = 3MgC03 d- 2H20 -|- 2Si02.
(2) As a crystalline mineral, isomorphous with calcite and usually holo-
crystalline granular. In this form it is generally a replacement of
dolomite produced by magnesian solutions in connection with intrusions.12
Brucite (Mg (OH)2) is sometimes present.
Occurrence.—The amorphous magnesite is not uncommon in areas
of serpentine, and occurs in fissures or crush zones or irregular masses,
mixed with more or less serpentine and some opal or chalcedony. It is
often pure with slight admixtures of iron, alumina, and lime and a few
per cent of free silica. Magnesite occurs abundantly, but generally in
small deposits, in the California Coast ranges. Until recently the pro­
1 G. W. Bain, Ty'pes of magnesite deposits, Econ. Geol., 19, 1924, pp. 412-433.
M. Dittrich, H. Leitmeier, and K. A. Redlich in Doelter’s Handbuch der Mineral-
chemie, 1, 1912, pp. 212-267.
F. L. Hess, The magnesite deposits of California, Bull. 335, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1908.
W. W. Bradley, Magnesite in California, Bull. 79, California State Min. Bur.,
1925.
C. D. Dolman, Magnesite, etc. Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 63, 1920,
pp. 175-187.
2 Certain minor occurrences are of interest: Magnesite of the amorphous type is
found as sedimentary beds and lenses in clays of Miocene lake beds near Bissell, San
Bernardino County, California. See H. S. Gale, Bull. 540, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1914,
p. 512.
Crystalline magnesite occurs, in many crystalline schists of the Austrian Alps.
Hydromagnesite (3MgC03.Mg(0H)2 + 3H20) is reported from Atlin, British
Columbia, as a deposit of fine white powder several feet deep and appearing like a
spring deposit. In connection with this It is recalled that H. Leitmeier found that a
magnesian hydrocarbonate was deposited by the mineral waters of Rohitch in Styria.
Zeitschr. Kryst. Min., 47, 1909, p. 118.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 389
duction has been small owing to distance from the eastern market.
Similar deposits of great extent producing annually 134,000 tons are
worked on the coast of Euboea, in Greece.1 Other localities are found at
Salem, near Madras, India, in the Transvaal, and many other lands where
serpentinoid rocks abound. Magnesite does not always accompany
serpentine, however; and it may be surmised that ascending springs with
much C02, as are so common in California, may have ‘some connection
with its genesis.
The largest magnesite deposits in the world are at Yeitsch, in Styria,2
Austria, where in 1914 about 200,000 metric tons were mined in open
quarries. This crystalline magnesite is a replacement of dolomite
formed under the influences of intrusions of porphyry and other acidic
and basic rocks. The Austrian magnesite, though otherwise pure,
contains, like that from Greece, a few per cent of iron which makes it
desirable for basic linings and bricks. In 1916 a large magnesite deposit
was discovered near Chewelah, Washington, which bids fair to supply
the domestic demand. Like the Styrian deposits it is a replacement of
dolomite of Carboniferous age, near granite; in places the material
contains a few per cent of silica, lime, and iron. Very similar to these are
the deposits found some years ago in Grenville township,3 Quebec, and
which are now being worked. At this locality the magnesite contains
several per cent of lime and very little iron (Fig. 144). Large deposits of
magnesite have been found in Manchuria4 in pre-Cambrian schists.
The origin is still in doubt.
Production and Use.—The domestic production of crude magnesite
in 1930 was 129,320 short tons, at $10 to $14 per ton. The imports in
the same year were 842 short tons crude and 3,911 tons calcined. Much
dolomite was also mined in the United States, mainly for use in refrac­
tories. Magnesite gives off its carbon dioxide at 550° C., and is, there­
fore, preferred to calcite in the production of this gas. After calcining,
the substance is used for the manufacture of various magnesium salts,
and in the paper and sugar industries. It is employed extensively with
magnesium chloride for the so-called Sorel cement, used for flooring, etc.
Its most important use is for basic furnace lining. Until recently the
Styrian magnesite was imported for this purpose. Magnesite for bricks
1 H. C. Boydell, The magnesite deposits of Euboea, Econ. Geol., 16, 1921, pp. 507-
523.
H. S. Gale, Bull. 540, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1914, pp. 483-520.
2 K. A. Redlich, Die Genese der Pinolitmagnesite, Siderite und Ankerite der
Ostalpen, Tschermak’s min. u. petr. Mitt., 26, 1907, pp. 499-505.
K. A. Redlich, Genesis der kristallinen Magnesite, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 21, 1913,
pp. 90-101.
3 M. E. Wilson, Magnesite deposits of Grenville districts, etc., Mem. 98, Canada
Geol. Survey, 1917.
4 K. Niinomy, Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 25-53.
390 M INERAL DEPOSITS
should contain a few per cent of FeO and little CaO; 8 per cent CaO
being the allowable limit.1
Magnesite serves also as an ore for the production of metallic magne­
sium, which on account of its low specific gravity (1.74) is now used in
alloys with aluminum and other metals. The reduction is effected by

Fig. 144.— Thin section of Grenville magnesite-dolom ite; dark, mngnesite; light, dolo­
m ite; black spots, serpentine. Enlarged 2 diam eters. (After M. E. Wilson.)
treating the chloride made from magnesite in an electric furnace. The
best ore for the purpose is naturally carnallite (KCl.MgCl2 + 6H20)
from the Stassfurt salt beds (p. 337). The production of magnesium in
the United States in 1930 was 559,631 pounds, the price being about
$1 per pound but declining to 48 cents at the end of the year.
MEERSCHAUM2
Meerschaum or sepiolite (H4Mg2Si3Oi0, containing Si02, 60.8 per cent;
MgO, 27.1 per cent; H20, 12.1 per cent) is a hydrated silicate of magnesia
of tough, compact texture, white or cream color, and smooth feel. As is
well known, it finds a rather extensive use in the manufacture of pipes
and cigar holders. Its analysis usually shows a little iron, alumina, and
lime. It is probably derived from serpentine by slow hydration and is in
most cases a colloidal precipitate. The principal occurrence is in Asia
Minor at Eski-Shehr, where it is found as nodular masses near the sur-
1 J. S. McDowell and R. M. Horne, Basic refractories for the open hearth, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 62, 1920, pp. 90-112.
2 C. Doelter, Mineralchemie, 2, pt. 1, 1914, pp. 374-383.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 391
face; at this and several other localities in Crimea and Bosnia serpentine
rocks are found in the vicinity, although the material itself is embedded
in Quaternary or Tertiary beds. A different occurrence is that discovered
in New Mexico,1on the upper Gila River, where the substance forms veins
and balls in a Paleozoic cherty limestone. Here it is probably derived
from a dolomitic carbonate.
TALC AND SOAPSTONE2
General Occurrence and Origin.—Talc (H2Mg3(Si03)4, or 3Mg0.4-
Si02.H20; 63.5 Si02, 31.7 MgO, 4.8 H20) is a hydrated magnesium
silicate, but holds much less water than serpentine. It is a soft,
crystalline, foliated or compact mineral of white, gray, or pale-green
color and greasy feel. The more compact, as well as some impure,
varieties are usually called soapstone; and contain, besides talc, more or
less serpentine, chlorite, and amphibole.
Talc often contains 1 or 2 per cent of iron and aluminum, as well as a
little calcium; according to the analyses given by Merrill3 the soapstones
contain, in addition to silica and magnesia, in per cent, 5 to 11 alumina,
7 to 13 ferrous oxide, and 1 to 4 lime; some of them contain so much water
that a strong admixture of serpentine must be assumed. Traces of
nickel and chromium are frequent in talc. The synthetic reproduction
has not been successful.
By fusion, talc is transformed into enstatite (MgSi03); and it is also
evident from the formula that this compound forms the basis for talc.
Talc forms pseudomorphs after a large number of minerals, such as
enstatite, diopside, olivine, actinolite, hornblende, chlorite, epidote,
muscovite, and calcite. It is very often, at least, a product of hydration
of magnesian rocks like gabbro, pyroxenite, and peridotite, or of crystal­
line limestone containing such pyrometasomatic minerals as enstatite,
tremolite, or actinolite. The purest talc deposits are associated with
such metamorphosed limestones or dolomites.
From any magnesian amphibole or pyroxene talc may be formed if
they are acted upon by H20 and C02 according to the following reaction:
4MgSi03 + C02 + H20 = H2Mg3Si40 12 + MgC03
If iron and calcium be present, corresponding carbonates will be formed.
It seems that the solutions active near the contacts of intrusive rocks were
most potent to effect this change and that moderately high temperature
furnished the best conditions. The direct derivation from dolomite
1 D. B. Sterrett, Bull. 340, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
2 C. Doelter, op. cit., 2, pt. 1, pp. 356-374.
M. E. Wilson, Talc deposits of Canada, Econ. Geol., Ser. 2, Canada Geol. Survey,
1926.
3 G. P. Merrill, Non-metallic minerals, 1910, pp. 208-216.
392 M IN ERAL DEPOSITS
under influence of siliceous magmatic emanations is advocated by Wilson
for some deposits in the Grenville limestone of Ontario (Fig. 145). Talc
is thus a product of the later stages of pyrometasomatism; but the mag­
nesia is chiefly, at least, derived from the rocks in which it occurs.
Talc may probably also be formed during dynamometamorphism,
and perhaps in part by the action of the deeper ground-water, but the
process outlined above has produced the largest deposits. Very rarely is
talc found in ordinary ore deposits.

E. Weinschenk,1in his description of the talc deposits of the Austrian

Alps, holds that the mineral develops by replacement of schist composed
of quartz, chlorite, chloritoid, and graphite along its contact with lime­
stone and believes this transformation due to waters following the irrup­
tion of large igneous bodies. On the other hand, Heim12finds that certain
talc deposits of Switzerland are formed from peridotites and serpentines
under heavy dynamometamorphism.
Occurrences.—The crystalline rocks of all countries yield talc. Some
occurrences are known from the Pacific coast, but the production in the
United States is chiefly from the belt of ancient crystalline rocks which
forms the axis of the Appalachian Mountain system from Canada to
Alabama.
1 Zeitschr. prakl. Geol., 8, 1900, pp. 41-44.
2 A. Heim, idem, 26, 1918, pp. 9-10.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 393

North Carolina is rich in talc, and one belt of Cambrian marble along
the Nantahala Valley and Nottely River1yields many lenses as much as
200 feet long and 50 feet thick. The mineral is mined in open cuts and by
shafts and tunnels.
New York and Vermont easily outrank all other States in the produc­
tion of talc. The output of New York comes from a small district about
12 miles southeast of Gouverneur,2which has been worked for many years
by underground methods. One mine at Talcville has attained a depth of
550 feet. The mineral occurs in schistose layers of enstatite, and tremo-
lite, gradually merging into the surrounding crystalline limestone. The
deposit forms a persistent layer, averaging 20 feet in width, within the
enstatite-tremolite rock.
The talc deposits of Vermont3occur in sericitic gneiss or in serpentine.
Gillson4 finds that they are later than the serpentine and the allied basic
intrusions of Paleozoic age extending from Blandford, Mass., to Quebec.
The association of minerals is similar throughout. The minerals in order
of deposition are: actinolite, magnesian chlorite, ferriferous dolomite and
talc, and, lastly, magnetite and pyrrhotite. The deposits are regarded as
replacements formed by emanations from the basic magmas, but it can
hardly be considered as proved that all of the magnesia originated from
the emanations.
Virginia yields most of the soapstone produced in the United States.
It is derived from a belt nearly 30 miles long and less than one mile wide.
The soapstone occurs as sheets or dike-like masses, 100 feet or more in
thickness. Burfoot5 concludes that the soapstone and talc are formed
from pre-Cambrian pyroxenites and peridotites by the action of hot
magmatic waters.
Production and Uses.—The production of talc in the United States
was about 179,000 short tons in 1930. The larger part was sold in pow­
dered form. The value of powdered talc is about $12 per ton.
Talc is used as a filler for paper (including wall paper), also for admix­
ture or adulteration of pigment, as a heat insulator, lubricant, polishing
powder, for toilet powders, and as an absorbent for nitroglycerine. The
compact talc or soapstone is used for fire bricks, laboratory tables, gas
burners, crayons, etc.6
1Arthur Keith, Bull. 213, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1903, p. 443.
J. H. Pratt, North Carolina Geol. Survey, Economic Paper 3, 1900, p. 99.
J. H. Pratt, Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, p. 1361.
2 C. H. Smyth, Jr., School Mines Quart., 17, 1896, pp. 333-341.
3 E. C. Jacobs, Report Vermont State Geologist, 1913-1914, pp. 423-425.
3 J. L. Gillson, Origin of the Vermont talc deposits, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 243-
287
5 J. D. Burfoot, Jr., The origin of the talc and soapstone deposits of Virginia,
Econ. Geol., 25, 1930, pp. 805-826.
6 R. B. Ladoo, Talc and soapstone, Bull. 213, U. S, Bur. Mines, 1923.
394 M IN ERAL DEPOSITS
ASBESTO S 1
Amphibole Asbestos.—The asbestos of mineralogy is a monoclinic
amphibole which develops in seams and slips in normal amphibolitic
rocks, especially where the rocks have been subjected to pressure
and movement. Chemically it is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate.
According to the series of analyses given by Merrill the silica varies from
52 to 58 per cent, the lime from 12 to 16 per cent, the magnesia from 20 to
30 per cent. Other constituents are alumina, varying from 1 to 6 per
cent, and ferrous oxide, usually from 1 to 6 per cent, though in some
cases considerably higher. Water is always present, the amount gener­
ally varying between 2 and 5 per cent. The water appears to be an
essential constituent and the mineral is really a hydrated form of
tremolite or actinolite. The extinction angle appears, however, to be
that characteristic of these amphiboles, or about 18°.
Anthophyllite (rhombic, (Mg,Fe)Si03), and crocidolite (monoclinic,
NaFe(Si03)2, FeSi03), a dark-blue sodium amphibole, also yield asbesti-
form varieties.
Merrill has shown that the fibers are polygonal in outline and run out
into needle-like points; down to a diameter of 0.002 or 0.001 millimeter
the fibers retain their uniform diameter and polygonal outlines. The
color of amphibole asbestos is usually white to greenish white. Only
the finer kinds are utilized, but even these are more brittle than the ser­
pentine asbestos. The mineral is classed as slip-fiber or cross-fiber,
according to the position of the fibers in the veinlets. The radial or
divergent structures are designated as mass-fiber.
Most of the small quantity of asbestos mined in the United States is
anthophyllite.
There are many occurrences along the Appalachian Mountain system,
from Vermont to Alabama. One of the most important localities worked
is in Habersham County, Georgia, where, according to Hopkins,2 the
anthophyllite asbestos is derived from the alteration of a peridotite.
Almost the entire domestic production is derived from Georgia, mainly
of the mass-fiber variety.
Crocidolite3 asbestos is extensively mined in Griqualand West, Cape
Colony. It occurs in thin cross-fiber layers, interbedded with jaspers,
slate, and ironstone in a sedimentary series. Its origin is in doubt.
1 G. P. Merrill, Proc., U. S. Nat. Mus., 18, 1895, p. 181. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 16,
1905, p. 113. Non-metallic minerals, 1910, pp. 183-197.
F. Cirkel, Chrysotile-asbestos, Canada Dept. Mines, Mines Branch, 1910, 316 pp.
2 O. B. Hopkins, Bull. 29, Georgia Geol. Survey, 1914.
3 A. L. Hall, Asbestos in the Union of South Africa, Mem. 12, Geol. Surv. South
Africa, 1918; also Trans., Geol. Soc. South Africa, 21, 1918, pp. 1-26.
M. Peacock, Amphibole asbestos in South Africa, Am. Mineralogist, 13, 1928,
pp. 241-286.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 395
Like glaucophane it might be considered a product of metamorphisin,
though Hall expressly excepts contact metamorphism. A brown silici-
fied variety is used as a precious stone under the name of Tiger’s eye.
“Amosite” is a similar amphibole, named by Hall, containing more
ferrous iron and less soda and magnesia.
Serpentine Asbestos (Chrysotile).—Chrysotile asbestos is green or
yellowish-green and is easily reduced to a white fluffy state. The fiber
is short, but of very uniform diameter and great divisibility and flexibility.
The decomposing effect of hydrochloric acid distinguishes it from
amphibole asbestos. In composition it is practically identical with the
purer kinds of serpentine. A typical analysis of the Canadian material
yielded per cents as follows: 42 Si02, 42 MgO, 14 H20, 1 FeO, and 1.7
AI2O3.
This variety is found as veinlets, rarely over 6 inches thick, in ser­
pentine or peridotite, and has almost always a cross-fiber—that is, the
silky fibers lie perpendicularly to the plane of the veinlet.
The pure yellowish-green serpentine which occurs in contact-meta-
morphic limestone and which is an alteration product of diopside some­
times contains chrysotile of exceptionally high grade. A deposit of such
material is now worked in Arizona, northeast of Globe.1
Chrysotile veinlets may be found in almost any serpentine area, but
are rarely so abundant and large as to be of economic importance. The
views regarding their origin differ.
Dresser shows that serpentinization in the Canadian deposits pro­
ceeded along irregular cracks in the peridotite, and that the chrysotile
veinlets are found in the center of the serpentinized bands. These vein-
lets were interpreted by Pratt and Merrill as fillings of contraction cracks,
but other authors consider them the result of a recrystallization of the
serpentine, proceeding outward from the cracks. Along the margins
definite evidence of replacement is often observed.
In conclusion, the asbestiform products are mainly formed by aqueous
agencies from older magnesium minerals under conditions of fairly high
temperature; and often, it would seem, their development followed soon
after the intrusion of the original rocks.
S. Taber12 believes that all cross-fiber veins are formed by a process of
lateral secretion, the fibers being supplied with a supersaturated solution
at their base and the growing veins pushing aside the enclosing walls.
Since, however, the material in the veins is derived from the serpentine
itself it is not apparent why there is any need of increase of volume.
1 A. M. Bateman, An Arizona asbestos deposit, Econ. Geol., 18, 1923, pp. 663-683.
E. D. Wilson, Asbestos deposits of Arizona, Bull. 126, Arizona Bur. Mines, 1928,
100 pp.
2 S. Taber, The genesis of asbestos, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 57, 1918, pp.
62-98.
396 M IN ERAL DEPOSITS
Bain and Keith/ in important papers, have carefully investigated
the Vermont deposits. They find chrysotile veins in fresh olivine rock
and conclude that they are filled torsion and crush cracks (Fig. 146).
Serpentine and olivine must be removed to produce the chrysotile veins
in the same intrusive body.
Since 1895 Canadian mines have supplied this country. The Cana­
dian deposits12center in Asbestos Hill at Thetforu, in the eastern townships
of Quebec. As stated, the mineral occurs
as irregular veinlets in serpentine and
peridotite. These rocks are in places
accompanied by somewhat later gabbro
and granite, and all are intrusive into
Ordovician sediments. The mineral is
mainly mined in open pits, one of which,
for instance, is 700 feet long, 200 feet wide,
and 165 feet in greatest depth. A small
percentage is obtained by hand cobbing,
but the larger part—30 to 60 per cent—
of the crude material quarried is crushed and
drawing of intersecting asbestos screened, and the fibers separated by air cur-
veins, from M oretown, Vermont, rents.3 The extraction of fiber is from 6to
(After S. B. Keith andG. W. Bain.) -,^
10 per cent of the rock milled.
mi j
Of late years, the deposits in southern Rhodesia in the Bulawayo dis­
trict and in the Transvaal in the Barberton district are becoming impor­
tant. Other producing regions are in the Ural mountains, in Italy, and
on the island of Cyprus.
In the United States4 chrysotile of economic importance occurs in
Vermont, near Caspar, Wyoming, and in Arizona. Thus far the produc­
tion is small.
Uses.—The fundamental property of asbestos, upon which its use
depends, is its flexible, fibrous structure; but coupled with this are the
scarcely less important qualities of incombustibility and slow conduction
of heat and electricity when the mass is fiberized and porous. The
spinning and weaving of fireproof cloth form an important part of the
asbestos industry carried on in the United States with Canadian raw
1 S. P. Keith and G. W. Bain, Chrysotile asbestos, Econ. Geol., 27, 1932, pp. 169-
188.
G. W. Bain, idem, pp. 281-296.
2J. A. Dresser, Econ. Geol., 4, 1909, pp. 130-140.
J. A. Dresser, Preliminary report on the serpentine, etc., of southern Quebec,
Mem. 22, Canada Geol. Survey, 1913, p. 103.
3W. A. Ru Keyser, Asbestos mining and milling in Quebec, Eng. Min. Jour.-
Press, April, 15 and 22, 1922.
4J. S. Diller, Bull. 470, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, pp. 505-524.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 397
material. The highest grade of the crude mineral is expensive, costing
$250 to $400 per ton; the fines cost $25 to $125 per ton, while the lowest
grade—a mixture of serpentine and asbestos—is sold at less than $1 per
ton. Amphibole asbestos is much cheaper, costing about $10 to $18 per
ton. Crocidolite is more easily fusible but is more resistant than chrys-
otile to acids and sea water. The London price is about $125 per ton.
The Canadian production in 1930 was 219,641 short tons; almost the
whole production was exported to the United States. In the same year
the output in the United States was 3,653 short tons of chrysotile asbes­
tos, from Arizona and Vermont, valued at $75 per ton and 589 short tons
of amphibole asbestos at about $27 per ton.
THE ALUMINOUS DEPOSITS
Pyrophyllite.1—Pyrophyllite is a hydrous silicate of alumina
(H2Al2(Si03)4), containing, in per cent, 66.7 Si02, 28.3 A120 3, and 5.0 H20.
In composition and physical qualities it is similar to talc, though it does
not command so high a price as the best talc. It is mined in the Deep
River region, North Carolina, where it occurs in thick beds associated
with schistose volcanics of pre-Cambrian age. The mineral is believed
to be a late product of heated waters near intrusive rocks and formed by
replacement of quartz and silicates. The alumina is derived from sur­
rounding rocks.
Anhydrous Aluminum Silicates.12—Andalusite, sillimanite, and cya-
nite, all of them having the composition Al2Si05(Al20 3 63.2 per cent), are
the products of high-temperature metamorphism of sediments. A use
for these minerals for refractories and spark plugs has been developed in
the last few years. While frequent in disseminated form, the minerals
rarely occur in large masses; but such high-grade deposits of andalusite
have recently been found in the pre-Cambrian rocks of the Inyo Range,
California.3 Cyanite has been mined near Ogilby in southern California
and also in Virginia and North Carolina. Large deposits occur in India,
1 C. H. Clapp, Alunite and pyrophyllite . . . in B. C., Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp.
70-88.
J. L. Stuckey, On pyrophyllite . . . of North Carolina, idem, 20, 1925, pp. 442-
463.
A. F. Buddington, Pyrophyllitization, etc., at Conception Bay, N. F., Jour. Geol.,
24, 1916, pp. 130-152.
2 R. B. Ladoo, Non-metallic minerals, New York, 1925.
A. V. Petar, Sillimanite, etc., U. S. Bur. Mines, Information Circ. 6255, 1930.
F. H. Riddle, Sillimanite, Eng. Min. Jour., March, 1932, pp. 141-142.
Dumortierite, a blue or purple borosilicate of aluminum, is sometimes used
mixed with andalusite. A deposit is worked near Oreana. Nevada. It is affiliated
with pegmatites.
3 A. Knopf, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 7, 1917, pp. 549-552.
A. B. Peck, Am. Mineralogist, 9, 1924, pp. 123-129.
398 M INERAL DEPOSITS
at Singhbum. Large deposits of sillimanite are reported from Assam,
India.1 Several thousand tons have been mined in the last few years.
Artificial sillimanite, mullite (3 Al2 0 3 .2 Si0 2), is now manufactured in
electric furnaces in the United States. The three minerals mentioned
above change to mullite upon heating to 1400° C.
Alunite.—The occurrence of alunite (K(A1 0 H)3 .(S0 4 ) 2 .3 H 2 0 ) has
already been referred to on page 341. It is used for the manufacture of
potassium and aluminum salts, and is a product of hydrothermal solutions,
or descending surface waters acting on aluminous and potassic rocks at
moderate temperature.
BARITE2
Modes of Occurrence.—Barite, the sulphate of barium, also known as
barytes or heavy spar, contains when pure in per cent 65.7 BaO and 34.3
S03. It fuses at 1580° C. It is usually white and coarsely crystalline
with curved cleavage faces but appears also, especially in residual deposits,
with granular, earthy, or even fibrous texture. Many barites contain
from a fraction to several per cent of strontium sulphate. The material
mined is often quite pure except for small amounts of silica, calcite, gyp­
sum, kaolin, and iron hydroxide.
Witherite, the barium carbonate, is a much rarer mineral and is
found in barite veins associated with galena. It occurs rather abun­
dantly in such veins in Cumberland and Northumberland in England,
particularly at the New Brancepeth colliery where it is secondary after
barite. Allstonite and baryto-calcite are related minerals.
Barite is not a mineral of igneous rocks, nor does it occur in contact-
metamorphic deposits. It is common, however, as lenses and veins in
almost all kinds of rocks. It is also formed during sedimentation. In
general, it is a mineral of aqueous origin.
All igneous rocks contain at least a trace of barium oxide but rarely
more than 0.1 per cent. Leucite and analcite rocks from the Wyoming-
Montana province are unusually rich in this metal, some analyses showing
from 0.5 to 1.2 per cent of BaO, probably present in the feldspathoids as a
silicate. Granites, rhyolites, andesites, and basalts are poor in barium.
In more concentrated form barium is often present in many sediments
though rarely in limestone. Ordovician limestones from Missouri
contain, according to Steel, only 0.001 to 0.005 per cent BaO. Dickson
failed to find it in many limestones. F. W. Clarke does not mention its
presence in single and composite analyses of limestone in his book on
Geochemistry. Some sandstones contain barite; it has also been found
in shales with sedimentary manganese ores (p. 281). Sea water contains
1 Edwin Pascoe, Records, Geol. Survey India, 61, pt. 1, 1928, pp. 68-71.
2 R. M. Santmeyers, Barite and barium products, U. S. Bur. Mines, Information
Circ. 6221, 6223, 1930.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 399
traces of barium and strontium and many natural waters, particularly
salt brines, hold quite a little barium in solution as chloride or carbonate.
Many cases of deposition of barite by hot springs or by normal meteoric
waters are mentioned on pages 65-78.
Barite is soluble in water to the extent of 2.7 milligrams per liter at
18° C.; it is somewhat more soluble, probably with decomposition, in
waters containing alkaline carbonates and chlorides.
Barite is a common gangue mineral in many ore deposits but is here
scarcely ever of economic importance. In some cases it may have been
dissolved from the rocks traversed by the ascending solutions. The
barite deposits worked generally contain few other minerals and occur
in sedimentary rocks of all ages as veins and lenses whose width in places
may be from 10 to 50 feet. Sometimes a little quartz, fluorite, pyrite,
galena, or sphalerite is associated with the barite.
The larger part of the barite mined in the United States is a residual
mineral, forming lumps in clay resulting from the decay of limestone or
other rocks containing barite veins.
Deposits in the United States.—The barite deposits now worked
are mostly contained in the Paleozoic limestones in the southern Appala­
chian and the central states; the order of importance being Georgia,
Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia.
In Missouri barite often accompanies the zinc and lead deposits, but
the important deposits are found in a separate area in Washington
County, in southeastern Missouri,1 not far from the great lead mines in
the Bonneterre (Cambrian) dolomite (p. 439). The principal deposits
are found in the Potosi, Proctor, and Gasconade dolomites (Ordovician)
as filling of irregular veins and other open cavities. The order of pre­
cipitation is given by Steel as follows: A thin coating of chalcedony was
first deposited; this was followed by quartz, pyrite, and marcasite, later
galena and sphalerite, lastly the main barite filling. In places there is
a later coating of ruby-red sphalerite on the older barite. The barite
mined is derived from residual masses in the red clay covering the
formations.
In Georgia barite occurs in the Cartersville district2 as deposits from
solution in fractures and cavities in the Weisner quartzite in intimate
1 C. W. Dickson, The concentration of barium in limestone, School Mines Quart.,
23, 1902, pp. 366-370.
A. A. Steel, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 40, 1910, pp. 85-117.
W. A. Tarr, Econ. Geol., 14, 1919, pp. 46-67.
W. M. Weigel, The barite industry in Missouri, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met.
Eng., Yearbook, 1929, pp. 256-279.
2 T. L. Watson and J. S. Grasty, Barite of the Appalachian States, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 51, 1916, pp. 514-559.
J. P. D. Hull, Barite deposits of Georgia, Bull. 36, Geol. Survey Georgia, 1920.
Albert H. Fay, Cartersville, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, April 2, 1927.
400 M INERAL DEPOSITS
association with yellow ocher, and as fragments embedded in residual
clays.
The barite deposits of Virginia have been described by T. L . Watson.1
Deep rock decay characterizes the whole region. The barite in part
fills fractures and in part replaces limestone. It occurs:
1. In crystalline Cambrian or pre-Cambrian limestone as irregular,
lenticular lodes, or pockets, replacing the limestone and associated with
calcite and chalcopyrite (Fig. 147).

F i g . 1 4 7 . — Section of the B ennett mine, Virginia, showing occurrence of barite as residual

and as replacem ent deposit. (After T. L. Watson.)
2. In crystalline schists as the filling of fractures.
3. In the Shenandoah (Cambro-Ordovician) limestone as the filling
of fractures or in residual soil.
4. In Triassic shales and limestone as the filling of fissures in a
crushed zone.
Large and pure barite veins have been described from the Ketchikan
district2and near Wrangell3in Alaska. They are contained in crystalline
limestone and in schists. Witherite has been found at a few localities
in the United States. At El Portal,4 California, a witherite deposit has
1 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 38, 1907, pp. 953-976.
T. L. Watson and J. S. Grasty, op. cit.
2 T. Chapin and G. H. Canfield, Bull. 642, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1916.
3 E. F. Burchard, Bull. 592, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1914, pp. 109-117.
4 A. A. Fitch, Barite and witherite from near El Portal, Mariposa County, Cali­
fornia, Am. Mineralogist, 16, 1931, pp. 461-468.
For milling processes at this place see G. L. Young, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press,
130, 1930, p. 70.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 401
been worked for some time. Veins up to 20 feet wide replace limestone,
with development of andradite, hedenbergite, etc., near a granite intrusion
and of witherite and barite farther away, the minerals replacing calcite.
Here apparently witherite is a primary mineral, and in part it is replaced
by barite.
Foreign Deposits.—Barite deposits are common in all countries.
The abundant barite veins in the Northumberland region and in Derby­
shire contain more or less fluorite and galena and are associated with
basic sheets (Whin Sill).1 Bodies of exceptional size and purity are found
in central Germany12 in sedimentary rocks of Permian and Triassic age,
the barium being probably derived from brines from the underlying
Permian salt deposits. One of the largest barite deposits of the world
is located at Meggen, where it occurs as replacement of a limestone bed
in folded Devonian shales (Fig. 106).
Witherite is also produced from a vein, with some sulphides, in
Russian Turkestan.3
Origin.—Barite is to some extent formed during sedimentation, but
the important deposits are either residual masses formed during weather­
ing of rocks containing barite, or veins deposited by ascending waters.
In the latter case the barite may be brought up in the emanations from
intrusive magmas and occurs mainly in the mesothermal and epithermal
veins. In other cases the evidence seems strong that pure barite veins
may have been formed by leaching of rocks containing barium, or by
reaction of salt brines carrying barium carbonate or chloride with other
waters of a sodium sulphate or calcium sulphate type.
Uses and Production.—Barite is an important mineral largely on
account of its inertness and weight and is used as a pigment in the manu­
facture of mixed paint (lithopone: barite and zinc sulphide) and to give
weight to paper. It is the raw material for other barium salts, such as
the nitrate which is used in pyrotechnics for green fire. For most of
the purposes indicated its purity and white color are essential. The
crude material is crushed and treated in log washers and jigs. After
grinding the pulp is classified and the settled cream-colored mud is finally
treated with sulphuric acid to remove the staining ferric hydrate. The
domestic production in 1930 was about 237,505 short tons, which came
from a great number of small operators in Missouri, Virginia, Kentucky,
Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. About 50,000 tons of barite
and barium salts are imported annually, largely from England and Ger­
1 Maps of both districts in J. M. Sweet, Notes on British barytes, Mineral. Mag.,
22, 1930, pp. 257-270.
2 R. Bartling, Die Schwerspathlagerstatten Deutschlands, Stuttgart, 1911.
A. W. Staub, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., Abhand. 80 (1), 1928, pp. 43-96.
3 Annotated Bibliography of Economic Geology, 4, pt. 2, 1932, No. 540.
402 M INERAL DEPOSITS
many. The average price of barite is $7.50 per ton. The carbonate
(witherite) is used for paints, glass, and enamels.
CELESTITE AND STRONTIANITE
Occurrence.—Strontium accompanies barium as a primary constit­
uent of igneous rocks but is present in much smaller quantities. As
celestite (SrS04) and strontianite (SrC03) it is sometimes found in fissure
veins of hydrothermal origin, but the two minerals are much more com­
monly found as veins, nodules, and layers in sedimentary rocks, particu­
larly limestone and anhydrite.
Celestite is found in crystals and granular masses often of bluish
color; but sometimes it is dark or brownish. It usually, but not always,
contains BaS04. Strontianite is crystalline, fine-grained, fibrous, or
nodular and has a white, brownish, or dark color. It has often been mis­
taken for calcite, and always contains a few per cent of CaC03.
In geodes, veins, disseminations, and replacements celestite is found
in Paleozoic dolomite and limestone of Michigan,1New York,2 and Ohio.
A cave at Put-in Bay, Ohio, is said to have yielded 150 tons of celestite.
Deposits in the limestone quarries of northwestern Ohio and southeastern
Michigan, near Toledo, also at Bagot, Ontario, Canada, are said to be of
possible economic importance. Celestite also occurs in Cretaceous lime­
stone in Texas3 near Austin. Interesting deposits of celestite have been
discovered in Tertiary lake beds in Arizona,4 near Gila Bend, where the
mineral occurs in sandstone and shale with gypsum and salt; similar beds
have been described from the Awavatz Mountains near the southern end
of Death Valley. Strontianite is of subordinate importance. Strontia­
nite deposits in Miocene lake beds 10 miles north of Barstow,5 San
Bernardino County, have been discussed by A. Knopf who believes that
the beds, veins, and fibrous concretions at this place are replacements
of lacustrine limestone.
All these deposits are of low grade. In 1916, 250 short tons of
strontium ore were mined in the United States. In 1917 the output had
increased to 4,035 short tons. There has been no production of late
years. About 2,000 tons of strontium ore and chemicals are imported
annually. The value of crude celestite is about $8 per ton.
1 E. H. Kraus and W. F. Hunt, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 21, 1906, p. 237.
W. A. Sherzer, idem, 3d ser., 50, 1895, p. 246; Rept., Michigan Geol. Survey,
pt. 1, 1900, p. 208.
2 E. H. Kraus, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 18, 1904, p. 30; 19, 1905, p. 286.
3 First report, Geol. Survey Texas, 1889, p. 125.
F. L. Hess, Eng. and Min. Jour., July 17, 1909, p. 117.
4 W. C. Phalen, Celestite deposits in California and Arizona, Bull. 540, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1914, pp. 526-531.
6 Strontianite deposits near Barstow, California, Bull. 660, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1918, pp. 257-270
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 403
The principal supply of strontium was for many years derived from
the strontianite veins in Cretaceous marl and limestone of Westphalia,
Germany; the mineral is here accompanied by calcite and a little pyrite.1
The strontium used in the United States before the World War came
largely from England. Important celestite deposits are found near
Bristol, where the mineral forms lenses and veins in a Triassic marl and
in the underlying rocks.12
Celestite is also concentrated, like barite, during the formation of
sulphur from gypsum and, as noted above under Sulphur, occurs in
considerable quantities in the sulphur mines of Sicily; also in the anhy­
drite of the salt-dome cap rocks. For commercial purposes celestite
should contain at least 95 per cent SrSCU.
The principal use of strontium is in sugar refining, in the so-called
Scheibler process, in which strontium hydroxide is used for the recovery
of sugar from beet molasses. The nitrate is used in pyrotechnics for red
fire.
Origin.—It is evident that celestite and strontianite are concentrated,
probably from surrounding rocks, by meteoric waters,- this being fre­
quently observed in sediments of various kinds. K. Dinger3 believes
that strontium carbonate was precipitated with calcium carbonate in the
sea, and that later solutions carried it into gypsiferous beds where it was
re-precipitated as celestite. These minerals also occur in veins, associ­
ated with sulphides and gold (e.g., at Cripple Creek, Colorado), and
in such cases they may well have originated in magmatic emanations.
ORES OF COPPER, LEAD, VANADIUM, AND URANIUM IN SANDSTONE
AND SHALE
General Features.—Ores of copper, lead, vanadium, and uranium
are found disseminated in sandstones and shales far from igneous rocks.
The sedimentary strata containing the ores are usually parts of thick
series of terrigenous or shallow-water beds, frequently of reddish color.
The ores are of low tenor and can be utilized only in exceptional cases.
Nevertheless this class of deposits presents many interesting features.
The ore minerals are chalcocite, roscoelite (a vanadium mica), various
copper and lead vanadates, carnotite (a vanadate of uranium, etc.).
Bornite, chalcopyrite, galena, and pyrite are less common. The ores
frequently carry small amounts of silver, nickel, cobalt, chromium,
molybdenum, and selenium. Gangue minerals occur sparingly and are
usually confined to a little barite, calcite, and gypsum. The outcrops
are likely to be brilliantly colored by malachite and azurite. While
1 Gotting, Oesterr. Zeitschr. Berg.-u. Hiitlenwesen., 37, 1889, p. 113.
2 R. L. Sherlock, Mem,., Geol. Survey England, Special reports on mineral resources,
3, 1918, pp. 48-61.
3 Chemie der Erde, 4 (2), 1929, pp. 167-177.
404 M INERAL DEPOSITS
the deposits are confined to certain formations or members, they do not
continuously follow a particular horizon and give no evidence of being
of sedimentary origin. They often appear in fractured and brecciated
beds or in strata rich in carbonaceous matter and plant remains. More
rarely the ores follow distinct fissures in the sedimentary rocks. They
do not seem to have any genetic relation with thermal springs. There is
no reason why the deposits should be confined to any particular geological
age; but, as a matter of fact, almost all of them are in the Upper Carbonif­
erous, Permian, Triassic, or Jurassic.
Origin.—In considering the class as a whole it appears that igneous
agencies had no part in the genesis. The ores are assuredly epigenetic
and their universal appearance in land or shallow-water beds is significant.
In all probability these ores have been concentrated by meteoric waters
which leached the small quantities of metals disseminated in the strata.
The sediments were rapidly accumulated, under arid conditions, from
adjacent land areas and the metals were probably carried down in fine
detritus and in solutions from older ore deposits.
The waters which concentrated the ores are believed to have been
mainly sodium chloride and calcium sulphate solutions containing sul­
phates and, perhaps, chlorides of copper and lead. The mineral associa­
tion and geological features indicate deposition at low temperature,
probably well below 100° C., and at shallow depths, but below the zone of
direct oxidation. Very likely these ores have been forming continuously
since the establishment of active water circulation in the beds.
European Occurrences.1—The European occurrences are confined to
the Permian and the Triassic, both, generally speaking, ages of arid
climate and saline deposits.
The Russian Permian, extending far west from the Urals, consists in
in its lower division of sandstones, marls (in part marine), and con­
glomerates. The sandstones are rich in vegetable remains. Copper
ores are found over wide areas, but have not been worked extensively of
late. The average tenor is said to be 0.9 per cent metallic copper. The
chalcocite ores replace plant remains and tree trunks or the cement of
the sandstones. The minerals mentioned from this locality are (besides
secondary malachite and azurite) chalcocite, chalcopyrite, barite, vanadi-
nite, and volborthite (vanadate of copper and calcium).
Much interest has been taken in the copper deposits of the Khirgiz
Steppes,12 between the Urals and the Altai, in the Karkaralinsk and
1 For an excellent review and complete index of literature, in part difficultly
accessible, see Stelzner and Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstatten, 1, 1904, pp. 388-439.
2 A. Addiassewich, A journey to central Asia, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met.
(London), 17, 1907-1908, pp. 498-522.
J. Macintosh Bell, The Spassky and Atbasar copper mines, Min. Sci. Press,
May 22 and June 5, 1920.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 405
Akmolinsk districts. Very rich copper ores, in part oxidized and carry­
ing pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and chalcocite, have been found here
in sandstones of Permo-Carboniferous age. At Nankat, west of Kokand
in Turkestan, deposits of metallic copper have been discovered in sand­
stones and gypsiferous marls of Tertiary age, fossil wood and chalcocite
are also found. 1 Some authors consider a telemagmatic genesis possible.
Over a large part of western Europe the Triassic is copper-bearing,
and together with the copper more or less lead is found.
In England, at Alderley Edge and Mottram St. Andrews, 2 south of
Manchester, copper ores have been mined. They occur in the cement of
Triassic sandstones and conglomerates and consist of copper carbonates,
galena, pyromorphite, and vanadinite, also some barite, manganese,
and cobalt. The ores are said to contain at most 1.4 per cent copper.
The mineral mottramite, a vanadate of copper and lead, was discovered
at this place and vanadium was extracted from the ores.
In the “ Buntsandstein” of the Triassic in Prussia and Lorraine, near
Saarlouis and other places, a formation known as the Voltzia sandstone is
particularly rich in lead and copper ores, which at times have been mined.
The bed contains abundant plant remains. The minerals are cerussite,
galena, chalcocite (?), and copper carbonates.
The best-known deposits of the European Triassic are those of Com-
mern and Mechernich, not far from Aix-la-Chapelle, Rhenish Prussia.
Lead ores have been mined here for several hundred years, but it is
reported that the mines may soon be closed. The ores are of low grade
and are mined in open cuts by removing about 130 feet of overburden.
In 1903 the ores averaged 1.5 per cent lead. The ore minerals are galena
and cerussite, with a little chalcopyrite and barite, the latter filling veins
and veinlets in the sandstone. Small amounts of silver, nickel, and
cobalt are present. The thickness of the ore-bearing sandstone is about
20 meters. The general occurrence of the galena in so-called “ Knoten”
or knotty concretions is very remarkable. They often enclose several
sand grains and some of them are bounded by the crystal faces of the
galena. The epigenetic character of the ores is beyond doubt, but
whether they really belong to this division is less certain. Beyschlag
regards them as impregnations from hydrothermal veins.
American Occurrences.3—On the North American continent copper
ores are widely distributed in the “ Red Beds” of the southwest, in Texas,
1R. Beck, Lehre von den Erzlagerstatten, 2, 1909, p. 172.
2 Phillips and Louis, Ore deposits, 1896, pp. 266-269.
E. B. Papenfus, Econ. Geol., 26, 1931, p. 323.
3 E. J. Schmitz, Copper ores in the Permian of Texas, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 26, 1896, pp. 97-108.
S. F. Emmons, Copper in the Red Beds, Bull. 260, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, pp.
221-232. W. H. Emmons, The Cashin mine, Bull. 285, idem, 1906, pp. 125-128.
E. P. Jennings, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 34, 1904, p. 839.
406 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and
Idaho but, though conspicuous by green and blue colors, rarely prove of
economic importance.
The ore occurs in arkosic sandstone, conglomerate, or clay shale and
is usually associated with plant remains and fossil wood. These strata
were accumulated in shallow seas or as subaerial deposits by a process of
rapid degradation of adjacent land areas of the Rocky Mountain region,
and have been referred to the Upper Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic,
and Jurassic.
In Texas the copper-bearing beds appear over large areas in Permian
sandstones and shales. They lie at several horizons, in strata rich in
plant remains; covellite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite are the
minerals mentioned. The area is said to extend from 33° to 34° in
latitude and from 98° to 100° in longitude.
In Oklahoma nodules of chalcocite are found in red shales and sand­
stones of the same age. Fossil wood is often converted to chalcocite,
sometimes with a shell of chalcopyrite; unusually high silver assays of
31 ounces per ton and traces of gold are reported.
In Colorado these ores have been recorded at several places, notably
at Red Gulch, Fremont County, where Lindgren observed nodules of
chalcocite with barite in black carbonaceous shale; sections show that the
copper sulphide actually replaces the coal and shale. The horizon is
probably the uppermost Carboniferous. North of the Colorado River
they appear in the Carboniferous of the Kaibab Plateau. S. F. Emmons
believed that the copper in the oxidized ore and chalcocite in the Aubrey
limestone near Grandview, Arizona, was leached from the “ Red Beds”
and carried down into the limestone.
In southwestern Colorado copper, often accompanied by vanadium
ores, is widely distributed in the Jurassic La Plata sandstone. W. H.
Emmons has described the Cashin vein in this formation near Placerville.
The ores are here argentiferous chalcocite, covellite, and bornite, with
some calcite. No igneous rocks are present and Emmons believes that
the ores were leached from the “ Red Beds.” There is an active circula-
H. W. Turner, idem, 33, 1903, p. 678.
W. Lindgren, L. C. Graton, and C. H. Gordon, The ore deposits of New Mexico,
Prof. Paper 68, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910.
H. S. Gale (Idaho), Bull. 430, idem, 1909, pp. 112-121.
W. Lindgren (Colorado), Bull. 340, idem, 1907, pp. 170-174.
W. A. Tarr (Oklahoma), Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 221-226. A. E. Fath (Okla­
homa), idem, 10, 1915, pp. 140-150. L. M. Richard (Texas), idem, 10, 1915, pp.
634-650.
A. F. Rogers, Origin of copper ores of the “ Red Bed” type, idem, 11, 1916, pp.
366-380.
B. S. Butler et al.. Ore deposits of Utah, Prof. Paper 111, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1920, pp. 152-158.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 407
tion of water in the formation, and springs with salt, sulphates, and
hydrogen sulphide abound. A production of about 300,000 ounces of
silver and 700,000 pounds of copper is recorded from this mine.
The greatest development of the copper-bearing sandstones is in
New Mexico; considerable production from picked ore has been achieved
at the Nacimiento deposits, in the northern part of the State, where the
Triassic “ Red Beds” rest on pre-Cambrian granitic rocks which contain
much older copper deposits. According to Schrader, 1 most of the copper
ores occur in the basal beds and are confined within a thickness of 25 feet
in a reddish-white sandstone rich in fossil wood, which is largely chalco-
citized. A tree trunk 60 feet long with a basal diameter of 2 ^ feet is
mentioned, which was almost wholly converted to chalcocite. Some
barite occurs.
According to the same geologist, the copper-bearing beds of the
Zuni Mountains, in northeastern New Mexico, lie at the base of the
“Red Beds,” resting on pre-Cambrian gneisses which contain older copper
veins. The sandstones, shales, and marls for 30 to 60 feet above the
base of the beds contain oxidized ores and chalcocite replacing wood.
Graton describes the ores from the Tecolote district, San Miguel
County, which are partly in the “ Red Beds” of the Upper Carboniferous
(Abo formation), and partly at a higher horizon, the Dakota sandstone (?).
The calcareous cement of the arkose is replaced by chalcocite, bornite, chal-
copyrite, and pyrite, the replacement extending into the feldspar grains.
In the Oscura Range, also in New Mexico, red sandstones, probably
Carboniferous, contain chalcocite, bornite, and chalcopyrite, in part as
replacement of fossil wood. Turner mentions the occurrence of the Trias­
sic Podozamites crassifolia, the same cycad found in the deposits at Abi-
quiu, first studied by Newberry.
Graton believes, contrary to Turner, that the copper ores have been
introduced into the strata by hot waters ascending along a number of
dislocations in the sandstone.
Finally, H. S. Gale describes copper ores from southern Idaho which
occur in the Ankareh maroon shales and sandstones (Triassic or Carbonif­
erous) (see Fig. 15).
There are then at least two main cupriferous formations in the South­
west—(1) the Upper Carboniferous “ Red Beds,” equivalent to the Permo-
Carboniferous, or the Abo formation; (2) the undoubtedly Jurassic La
Plata sandstone.
The silver deposits in the supposedly Triassic sandstones of Silver
Reef, 2 in southern Utah (Harrisburg district), which created a boom
1 F. C. Schrader, Prof. Paper 68, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, pp. 141-149.
2 C. M. Itolker, The silver sandstone district of Utah, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,
9, 1881, pp. 21-33.
B. S. Butler, Prof. Paper 111, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1920, p. 582.
408 MINERAL DEPOSITS
about 1880, are now worked only on a small scale. The ores were silver
chloride above the water level, and native silver and argentite in depth;
copper was also present, and selenium is reported. Plant remains were
distinctly abundant. A secondary concentration from a primary
argentiferous chalcocite is the probable genesis. Butler, who has written
the best account of the district, points out that the ores are later than the
Leeds anticline in which they occur. He rather doubts the derivation

F ig. 148.— Polished section showing cross-section of wood structure, Blue Dike mine,
U tah. Light areas, chalcopyrite; dark areas, chalcocite. Magnified 120 diameters.
(After B. S. Butler, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
of the silver minerals from chalcocite and thinks that the genesis of the
deposit is still uncertain.
In Nova Scotia, Cumberland County, chalcocite nodules, with
remains of pyrite, and also chalcocitized wood, are found in the Permian
sandstone. 1
Genesis of Sedimentary Copper Ores.—The epigenetic character of
the copper deposits in sandstone is proved beyond reasonable doubt.
The replacement of coal, carbonaceous shale, and calcareous or kaolinic
sandstone cement by chalcocite is also proved. The gangue minerals
are few and quartz is conspicuously absent. Barite in small amounts
is rather common. Irregularity in dissemination is typical, though the
ores often follow certain horizons rather persistently. The independence
of the occurrence of igneous rocks is marked.
1 E. B. Papenfus, Econ. Geol., 26, 1931, pp. 314—330.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 409
The occurrences are mainly on the flanks of older continental areas
containing pre-Cambrian copper deposits; the sandstones were rapidly
laid down as arkoses, indicating a long epoch of rock decay, the products
of which were swept away during a following arid epoch. Considering
the evidence as a whole the sedimentary deposits must have contained
finely divided copper ores, in part from solutions derived from the land
area, in part as cupriferous detritus. When atmospheric waters charged
with salt and gypsum searched these beds they must have taken this
copper into solution and concentrated it at certain horizons where reducing
substances like coaly vegetable matter were available. In most cases
the solution probably contained the copper as sulphate, though where
much salt was present it might well have been transformed into chloride.
Ascending thermal solutions of meteoric origin may have formed
some deposits. Magmatic agencies seem in most cases to be definitely
excluded.
Pyrite, bornite, and chalcopyrite often appear in the nodules or in the
fossil wood, the chalcocite often replacing earlier sulphides (Fig. 148).
Rogers and Finch have discussed the general genetic features of the
deposits. 1
Chalcocite nodules from the Nova Scotia occurrence show plainly
that this mineral replaces earlier pyrite concretions; but other specimens
from the same place point to a direct replacement of carbonized wood by
chalcocite without an intermediate pyrite stage.
VANADIUM AND URANIUM ORES IN SANDSTONES12
Composition.—Vanadium with some uranium and a trace of radium
has been shown to be common in certain Jurassic sandstones in Colorado
1A. F. Rogers, Econ. Geol., 11, 1916, pp. 366-380.
J. W. Finch, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 76, 1928, pp. 378-392.
2 W. F. Hillebrand and F. L. Ransome, Carnotite, etc., in western Colorado, Am.
Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 10, 1900, pp. 120-144. Bull. 262, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, pp.
9-13.
R. C. Coffin et al., Uranium and vanadium deposits of southwestern Colorado,
Bull. 16, Colorado Geol. Survey, 1921.
H. S. Gale (Carnotite in Colorado), Bull. 340, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908; idem,
Bull. 315, 1906, pp. 110-117.
F. L. Hess, Vanadium deposits in Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico, Bull. 530,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1912.
F. L. Hess, A hypothesis for the origin of the carnotites, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp.
675-688.
F. L. Hess, New and known minerals from the Utah-Colorado carnotite region,
Bull. 750, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1925, pp. 63-78.
K. L. Kithil and John A. Davis, Mining and concentration of carnotite ore,
Bull. 103, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1917. Parsons, Moore, Lind, and Schaefer, Extraction
and recovery of radium, uranium and vanadium, etc., Bull. 104, idem, 1915. R. B.
Moore el al., Analytical methods for certain metals, Bull. 212, idem, 1923.
410 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and Utah. Few of the deposits in western Colorado are now worked.
A reduction plant was located at Vanadium, near Placerville.
A number of unusual minerals are contained in these deposits. Most
of them are fine-grained or cryptocrystalline and, in part, are probably
of colloidal origin. The three most important species are carnotite,
vanoxite, and roscoelite.
Carnotite, a potassium-uranium vanadate, usually appears as a
bright-yellow crystalline powder occurring on seams and in fossil wood.
Its formula is 2 UO3 .V2 O5 .K 2 O.xH2 O, with about 56 per cent U03, 20
per cent V2 0 5, and small quantities of calcium, barium, copper, lead, and
molybdenum. In tyuyamunite (named after a locality in Turkestan)

F ig . 149.— Vanadium ores in sandstone. W hite areas, quartz; shaded areas, roscoelite,
partly radial. Magnified 25 diam eters. {After F. L . Hess, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
calcium replaces potassium. In this, as in many other minerals of this
group, the water is variable and some of it is given off at low temperatures.
Vanoxite is a black powdery material with the formula 2 V2 0 4 .V2-
0 5. x H 20 , a hydrous vanadyl-vanadate. It replaces the cement in
sandstones, or occurs in gypsum veinlets or in fossil wood.
Roscoelite1 is a vanadium mica of greenish color, essentially a musco­
vite in which aluminum is partly replaced by vanadium to the extent of
20 to 29 per cent V2 0 3, and occurs in minute scales replacing the cement in
sandstones (Fig. 149). Some sandstones contain 20 per cent roscoelite.
Among the rarer minerals are metahewettite (CaO.3 V2 O5 .xH2 O), ura­
nium micas of the autunite type (CaO.2 UO3 .P 2 O5 .xH2 O), and a few
uranium and vanadium sulphates, also hydrous in varying degree.
1 Roscoelite is also known from some gold-quartz veins and is here often associated
with gold and tellurides. Mariposite, a green chromium mica, is a characteristic
mineral of gold-quartz veins occurring in serpentine.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 411
Uvanite (2 UO3 .3 V2 O5 .xH2 O), a brownish-yellow uranium vanadate, was
mined in Emery County, Utah. Volborthite, a hydrous vanadate of
calcium, copper, and barium, occurs in places.
Chromium, in the form of mariposite, usually at a separate horizon
slightly below the roscoelite sandstone, is also present in these remark­
able ores. Barium, copper, lead, molybdenum, and arsenic also occur.
Molybdenum is quite abundant in some places and appears as a soluble
sulphate—the dark blue ilsemannite. Native selenium has been identi­
fied by Hillebrand, associated with metahewettite.
The uranium minerals, among which carnotite is the most abundant,
contain a small trace of radium1 which is recovered. Gypsum is about
the only gangue mineral associated with the ores.

F ig . 150.— Sketch of vanadium -bearing sandstone at mine of Primos Chemical Com­

pany, on the cast side of Bear Creek, Newmire, Colorado. (A fter F. L. Hess, U. S. Geol.
Survey.)
The ores are not rich. The carnotite ores contain about 1.5 to 3 per
cent U03and 3 to 5 per cent V2 O5 . Concentration has been attempted in
some cases.
The roscoelite ore at Placerville contains about 3.50 per cent V2Ob
and 0.05 per cent U03.
Occurrence.—The ores are found in the Plateau province of horizontal
or gently inclined strata in western Colorado and eastern Utah (Fig. 151).
The best known localities are at Placerville, Colorado, where roscoelite
ores occur in the LaPlata sandstone; also in the LaSal, Paradox, and Sind-
bad valleys somewhat farther west, where carnotite ores are worked in the
McElmo formation of sandstone and shale covering the LaPlata sand­
stone. Other deposits are worked at Rifle, Colorado, and at several
places in the San Rafael swell, Utah.
The ores are mainly confined to the McElmo and LaPlata formations
of white, often cross-bedded, Jurassic sandstone which frequently contain
much transported partly carbonized wood. They follow certain horizons
1 At the rate of 1 gram of radium in 3,000 kilograms of metallic uranium.
412 MINERAL DEPOSITS
or appear in fissures or flat veins or in brecciated zones (Figs. 150 and
151) and are often associated with the fossil wood. Carnotite is always
associated with fossil wood.
Some observers have thought the ores merely superficial, but it now
seems certain that they may be found in depth. At Placerville the work­
ings are said to have penetrated 2,000 feet under ground, in a horizontal
direction.
Roscoelite is apparently not known in sandstones outside of the
Colorado-Utah area; but carnotite and other uranium minerals, such

as autunite and volborthite, are not uncommon in conglomerates, sand­

stones, and shales of various ages, though rarely in economic quantities.
Not similar to these deposits, yet perhaps of a similar origin, are the
important vanadium deposits at Mina Ragra1 near Quisque, Province
of Pasco, Peru, first described by D. F. Hewett and W. F. Hillebrand.
These deposits now supply the main part of the demand for vanadium.
The vanadium sulphide, patronite (VS4?), occurs here on a large scale as
greenish-black masses associated with a hydrocarbon and a peculiar
nickel-bearing pyrite as well as with many secondary vanadium minerals.
An analysis of the patronite gave in per cent 58.79 sulphur, 19.53 vana­
dium, 0.18 molybdenum, 1.87 nickel, and 3.47 carbon. Patronite is a
fine-grained mixture of three sulphides and is probably of colloidal origin.
1 D. F. Hewett, Vanadium deposits of Peru, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 40, 1809,
pp. 274-299.
W. F. Hillebrand, The vanadium sulphide, patronite, Jour., Am. Chcm. Soc., 29,
1907.
W. F. Hillebrand, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th scr., 24, 1907, p. 141.
W. S. Hutchinson et al., Report of the subcommittee on vanadium, Bull. Mining
Met. Soc. Am., 175, 1925.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 413
The deposit is intersected by a porphyry dike, and dips with the beds.
It appears to be a lens, probably conformably enclosed, in gently dipping
Cretaceous shales which contain much gypsum. It extends for 400 feet
north and south, is from 50 to 100 feet wide, and has been followed to a
depth of 300 feet. The larger part of the world’s production of vana­
dium has been obtained from this rich deposit; the ores contain from 10 to
13 per cent vanadium.
Genesis.—The intimate relation of vanadium with arsenic and phos­
phorus is shown by its position in the periodic table of elements. In
its occurrence it is closely allied to titanium and iron. While the igneous
rocks of the crust average 0.026 per cent V2 O3 it is not present as any
definite vanadium mineral, but augite, biotite, rutile, magnetite, and
ilmenite often contain notable amounts of it in isomorphous mixtures.
During the decomposition of these minerals vanadium remains with the
iron, largely at least, and so it is present in limonite and limonitic soils.
During sedimentation it seems to be concentrated in fine and clayey
sediments probably in colloidal form. Many vanadium minerals show a
marked tendency to colloform development. Lastly, vanadium plays an
important, as yet scarcely understood part in biochemical reactions.
Replacing phosphorus it is a constituent of the blood of certain holo-
thurians and is doubtless absorbed from sea water. And as it is a com­
mon constituent in the ashes of bitumens, asphalt, coals, and petroleum,
the inference is justified that it enters into vegetable and low animal
growth. Frequently it.is contained in carbonaceous shales; such Cre­
taceous shales from Peru contain in places 0.1 to 0.4 per cent V20 3, and
the vanadium phosphate sincosite appears in them. It is not surprising
then to find vanadium with coaly materials as in Colorado and Utah,
or as at Mina Ragra in Peru. At the latter place the probable genesis
is by leaching of vanadiferous sediments by, possibly warm, meteoric
waters.
In the Colorado-Utah field the carnotite, vanoxite, and hewettite
ores are perhaps secondary enrichments of an unknown vanadium
mineral; but the roscoelite, with which little uranium is associated,
appears more like an original product of the meteoric circulation; and
these waters may well have been tepid. Carnotite is strongly attacked
by sulphuric acid and by sulphate solutions.1
It is more difficult to explain why the vanadium minerals are mainly
confined to certain horizons, as in Colorado. Hess believes that the
ores were concentrated by meteoric waters and that they were chiefly
carried down to the flood plains during an epoch of deep disintegration
of veins and pegmatite dikes of adjacent crystalline, pre-Cambrian rocks.
He thinks both uranium and vanadium were mainly transported as
1 F. B. Notestein, Some chemical experiments on uranium-vanadium, Econ. Geol.,
13, 1918, pp. 50-64.
414 MINERAL DEPOSITS
sulphates. At any rate the concentration must surely have been effected
by meteoric waters, and they were probably of the sulphate type. In
fact gypsum is the common associate of the ores.
The salic extracts (the pegmatites) contain few, if any, vanadium
minerals. The later volcanic emanations contain little vanadium for,
in the deposits formed by hot ascending waters, roscoelite is about the
only hypogene vanadium mineral and that very scarce. It is true that
especially in lead deposits, lead and copper vanadates, such as vanadinite
and descloizite, are not uncommon in the oxidized zone; but in this case
the vanadium was probably derived from the country rock. It is pos­
sible, however, that vanadium is present, to a greater extent than is now
suspected, in the sericitic minerals and in the sulphides of ore deposits.
Uranium while associated with vanadium is not chemically related to
it. The home of the uranium minerals is in the pegmatites (p. 761)
and in certain mesothermal veins like those of Joachimsthal, Bohemia,
and Gilpin County, Colorado (p. 596). The primary uranium minerals
yield many products of decomposition among which carnotite and the
uranium micas (autunite group) are prominent. It is easily transported
in surface waters as shown by the occurrence of the uranium micas in
sandstone and in alluvial peats (Madagascar, Lacroix).
Uranium is also found in ashes of certain bitumens and coals, particu­
larly in the Swedish “ Kohm” of Cambrian age. It is probable that it
enters into biochemical reactions of vegetable life; it forms many col­
loidal compounds.
In conclusion, it seems fair to assume that, in the sediments here
discussed, it has been concentrated with vanadium, by meteoric waters,
which derived the metals from terrigenous sediments resulting from the
disintegration of pre-Cambrian igneous rocks and pegmatites.
The constant association with nickel, molybdenum, chromium,
copper, and selenium is very suggestive.
Production and Use.—In 1915, 47,000 tons of ore were mined in
Colorado containing, according to U. S. Geological Survey, 19.9 tons of
metallic uranium, 627 tons of vanadium (mainly from roscoelite ores)
and 6.1 grams of radium, the value of the metals being about $700,000.
Some years ago most of the uranium ores were exported and radium
extracted abroad. In 1914, the ores mined contained 87.2 tons of ura­
nium and 22.3 grams of radium. The pure vanadium ores of Placerville
were roasted with sodium chloride, the resulting sodium vanadate extracted
with water and precipitated with ferrous sulphate as iron vanadate which
was shipped east for reduction to ferrovanadium. The price of ferro-
vanadium, with about 35 per cent vanadium, is about $3.25 per pound
of contained vanadium. About 1 per cent vanadium added to steel
increases its toughness and resistance to torsion and high temperature.
It is, however, less essential to the steel industry than tungsten. The
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 415
principal supply is obtained from the Peruvian patronite mine, from
which 6,000 tons of 12 per cent ore were imported in 1930. Large
amounts of vanadate of lead and copper are mined from oxidized deposits
in Southwest Africa and in northern Rhodesia. Minor amounts of
vanadium salts are used as mordants for dyeing and cloth printing and
for other chemical purposes.
Uranium salts have a limited use for a yellowish-green glass and for
pottery; also as a mordant in dyeing. Ferro-uranium is at present not
used in the steel industry. Radium1 is separated from uranium by a
complicated process explained in Bulletin 104, United States Bureau
of Mines. It is produced as a chloride or bromide and its principal
use is in medical science, various diseases yielding to its emanations.
Radium in corresponding quantities is also contained in uraninite
(crystalline) and pitchblende (amorphous), both essentially U02 with
80 ± per cent uranium oxides. These minerals are found in pegmatite
dikes and in hydrothermal veins.
In recent years12 the output of the vanadium-uranium deposits in
Colorado and Utah has been small, owing to the domination of the radium
market by the Katanga deposits lately discovered in the Belgian Congo,
where, in 1930, 1,296 metric tons of uranium-radium ore were mined.
This ore is rich in uranium and as each per cent of uranium means 2.57
milligrams of radium per ton, the cost of reduction is said to be only a
few dollars per milligram, whereas formerly the cost of extraction was
reported to be $37 per milligram. It is reported that, in 1930, 60 grams
of radium salts were produced of which 17 grams were imported into the
United States. Price quoted $70 per milligram.
About 115 tons of uranium salts, chiefly sodium uranate, were
imported at $1.50 per pound. Of these a large part was produced at
Joachimsthal, Czechoslovakia. A few grams of radium were produced
at this place. In 1931 a possibly important new source of radium was
discovered, for much pitchblende occurs in the silver-cobalt veins of
Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories, Canada.
THE COPPER-BEARING SHALES OF MANSFELD3
It seems proper to consider at this place the celebrated cupriferous
shale (Kupferschiefer) of Mansfeld, in central Germany, for, though
not identical with the deposits described in this chapter, it presents most
interesting analogies to them.
1P. M. Taylor, Radium, U. S. Bur. Mines, Information Circ. 6312, 1930.
2 F. L. Hess, Vanadium, uranium, and radium, Mineral Resources, U. S. Bur.
Mines, 1930. J. Thorcau and R. de Terdonck, Le gite d’uraniuin do Katanga
(Shinkolobwe), 16, Int. Geol. Congress, Washington, 1933 (abstract). Related to the
Katanga copper deposits. Of magmatic origin.
3 Best description with literature in Stelzner and Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstatten, 1,
1904, pp. 391-417.
416 MINERAL DEPOSITS
A flourishing mining industry, which began in A.D. 1150, is si,ill based
on the Kupferschiefer, the annual production being approximately 700,000
metric tons of ore containing between 2 and 3 per cent of copper and
yielding 24,000 metric tons of copper and 125 tons of silver.
The first stratum deposited in the subsiding basin of the upper
Permian in central Germany was a marine conglomerate of slight thick­
ness. “ Above it extends like a black shroud the thin bed of cupriferous
shale, one of the most remarkable products of the geologic ages. Charac­
terized by its fauna as a shallow-sea deposit, full of plant remains carried
in from adjacent coasts, the formation bears the stamp of an organic
mud deposit admixed with inorganic precipitates.”1
Above the cupriferous shale (k), which is less than 1 meter thick,
extends a marine limestone, Zechstein (z), 6 to 10 meters thick, and above
Prospecting

F ig . 152.— Section of a p art of the copper-bearing shale bed a t Mansfeld, Germany.

(After Schrader.)
that lie the great gypsum and salt masses (s) of the uppermost Permian,
again covered by Triassic sandstone (6). Folding and faulting have since
affected the beds, and the mining now follows the inclined strata to a
depth of 500 meters. The cupriferous bed averages 50 centimeters in
thickness, but only the lower 20 to 30 centimeters is utilized as ore
(Fig. 152). The Permian “ Rothliegendes” (r) underlies the copper bed.
The ores are sulphides, in minute distribution through the shale
giving it a bronzy appearance. Bornite predominates, but there are also
chalcocite, and rarely galena, sphalerite, and tetrahedrite. Pyrite and
chalcopyrite, when present, are later products. Small quantities of
nickel, cobalt, selenium, vanadium, and molybdenum have been recog­
nized; there is also about 0.015 per cent of silver. Zinc is present, and
1 F. Beyschlag, in Deutschlands Kalibergbau, 1907, p. 4.
P. Krusch, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 27, 1919, pp. 76-84.
H. Schneiderhohn, Neues Jahrbuch., Beil. Bd. 47, 1923, with literature (micro­
scopic study of ores).
P. D. Trask, Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 746-761 (review of theories).
J. W. Gregory, The copper shale of Mansfeld, Bull. 315, Inst. Min. and Met.
(London), 1930, 28 pp.
A. Cissarz, Metall u. Erz. 27, June 2, 1930, pp. 316-319 (spectroscopic analysis of
ore).
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 417
in the upper part of the bed, not mined, there is more zinc than copper.
An average analysis quoted by Stelzner and Bergeat is as follows:
AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF CUPRIFEROUS SHALE
(Dr. Haase, Analyst)
Per cent Per cent
Si02............... ............ 33.15 Ag.................... .......... 0.014
Al^Oa........... ............ 17.3 N i.................... .......... 0.018
CaO........................... 10.4 S ...................... .......... 2.31
MgO............ ............ 1.0 CO,................. .......... 9.24
Fe.............................. 2.6 H ,0 ................. .......... 1.7
Zn.............................. 1.276 Bitumen......... .......... 9.06
Cu................ ............ 2.75
There is about 3 per cent K20 and 1 per cent Na20; lead amounts to
1.50 per cent, manganese to about 0.25 per cent.
There is practically no gangue, except veinlets of gypsum and barite.
The bed is cut by faults, along which in places occur barite, anhydrite,
calcite, niccolite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite, and near these breaks (called
“Riicken”) the metal content is subject to enrichment, impoverishment,
or removal upward in adjacent beds. Bergeat declares that these
changes take place on secondary fissures and cracks.
There has been much controversy about the Mansfeld deposits. The
majority of geologists regard them as sedimentary and syngenetic: von
Groddeck, Stelzner, Freiesleben, and von Cotta held this view, and it is
shared by Bergeat. Posepny and Beck, as well as Krusch, believe them
epigenetic and think that the metals were probably introduced in the
shale from the “ Riicken.”
The Kupferschiefer is certainly not an ordinary marine deposit pre­
cipitated from the sea water.1 It was laid down in a shallow sea which
was full of decaying vegetable and animal remains and into which were
probably discharged cupriferous waters from the surrounding littoral,
most likely, sulphate solutions derived from the eruptives and the ore
deposits of the early Permian epochs. The arguments for a syngenetic
origin are very strong.
The presence of nickel, cobalt, vanadium, molybdenum, and selenium
recalls the epigenetic deposits in sandstone so abundant around the shores
of the Permian sea, in Bohemia, and Russia, for instance. The Mansfeld
basin was simply, then, the final collecting place of the solutions derived
from adjacent desert shores. Schneiderhohn concludes that the copper
sulphides were formed syngenetically as mixed iron-copper sulphide gels
under the influence of bacteria of the sulphur cycle.
COPPER S U L P H ID E V E IN S IN B A S IC LAVAS

General Features.—All basic lavas contain copper, but in many cases

conditions were evidently unfavorable for the concentration of copper
1Sea water contains a trace of copper, but the amount present seems utterly
insufficient to account for the Mansfeld deposits.
418 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
immediately after the eruption, and the rocks retained their copper until
later opportunities for ore formation were offered. The existence of
vast masses of such basic lavas near the surface, without any indication
of copper concentration (e.g., the Columbia River lava or the basalts of
the Hawaiian volcanoes), shows plainly that the ordinary surface waters
at slight depth are not competent to dissolve and concentrate accessory
metals contained in these rocks. A depth of perhaps a few thousand feet
seems to be necessary, under the most favorable conditions, for waters of
meteoric origin to extract the copper; though it is, of course, possible that
such waters, when ascending in suitable channels, may deposit the dis­
solved copper at higher horizons. In some of the veins here discussed
epidote is present, but more frequently it is absent, and the veins then
assume the well-known type of chalcopyrite in a quartz-calcite-siderite
gangue. Such veins, deposited by ascending surface waters of the deeper
circulation, may not be easy to distinguish from those whose develop­
ment is a phase of intrusive after-effects. Nor can it be denied that in
these veins may be concentrated some gold and silver from the igneous
rock; in general, however, they will be found much poorer in gold and
silver than deposits connected with the intrusive processes.
Whether native copper, bornite, or chalcopyrite will form may be
dependent upon the quantity of sulphur which the lavas were able to
retain at their eruption.
The Kennecott Mine, Alaska.—The copper deposits in the Nikolai
greenstones of the Copper River region, described by F. C. Schrader,
W. C. Mendenhall, A. C. Spencer, and again by F. H. Moffit,1 are of
special interest. Flows of Triassic or Carboniferous basalts about
4,000 feet in thickness are covered by 2,000 feet of Triassic dolomitic
limestone, which in turn is overlain by a thick series of Jurassic strata.
The latter are cut by monzonitic intrusives, which are accompanied by a
different kind of metallization, characterized by gold deposits.
The Nikolai greenstones are amygdaloid flows of basalt; the amyg-
dules contain chlorite, chalcedony, quartz, epidote, and some zeolites
and calcite, with specks of native copper, chalcocite, bornite, and chal­
copyrite. Copper sulphides also occur in slips, brecciated zones, and
faults. Even the apparently fresh greenstone contains copper.
The ore-bodies of the Bonanza and Jumbo mines,12which have yielded
annually for many years from 10,000 to 20,000 tons of copper, are located
at an elevation of about 6,000 feet in the Kennecott Range far above the
1 F. H. Moffit and S. R. Capps, Bull. 448, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911.
F. H. Moffit, Bull. 662, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, pp. 155-182.
2 A. M. Bateman and D. H. McLaughlin, Geology of the ore deposits of Kennecott,
Alaska, Econ. Geol., 15, 1920, pp. 1-80; also idem, 27, 1932, pp. 297-306.
S. G. Lasky, A colloidal origin of some of the Kennecott ore minerals, Econ. Geol.,
25, 1930, pp. 737-757.
 DEPOSITS FORMED B Y CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 419

snowline and in a region of enormous glaciers heading in the Wrangel

Range at elevations of about 16,000 feet (Fig. 153). The ground-water
is frozen so that no oxidation is proceeding at the present time. The
Bonanza ore-body was exposed in the cliffs above the glacier and there was

F ig . 153.—View of K ennecott mill and mine, Alaska. M ine near sum m it of Snowy Peaks.
+ indicates position of mines. (A fter A . M . B atem an and D . H . M cL aughlin.)
a great quantity of almost solid chalcocite in the talus masses below the
outcrop. The ores occur only in the limestone or dolomite and extend
up into the carbonate rock from near the greenstone contact (Fig. 154).
The chalcocite forms large wedge-shaped masses, one, for instance, traced

0 5000* lOOflO'

F ig . 154.—-Vertical cross-section showing position of (A) Bonanza mine; ( B ) Jum bo mine.

No vertical exaggeration. (A fter A . M . B atem an and D. H . M cL aughlin.)
for 400 feet with a greatest width of 25 feet; but eventually these masses,
which follow joints transverse to the greenstone contact, contract to
small dimensions. Along the greenstone contact there is a strike fault
which follows the lowest shaly beds of the limestone. There is some
420 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
oxidation but it evidently antedates the present glacial epoch. The
ore consists of chalcocite with very small amounts of bornite, covellite,
enargite, luzonite, tennantite, pyrite, galena, and sphalerite. The
limestone shows no alteration near the ore. The ore as mined contains
from 7 to 10 per cent of copper, and the earlier shipments were much
richer. The chalcocite is in part of an apparently colloidal variety, in
part orthorhombic. Some of it is granular showing cleavage, which Bate­
man and McLaughlin consider to indicate the isometric variety, and
contains 9 per cent covellite in solid solution, which would prevent rever­
sal to the rhombic variety. Graton believes the cleavage to be inherited
from bornite. Concentric or colloform structures occur in the ore.
Covellite is demonstrated to be hypogene and generally earlier than
chalcocite. Succession is said to be chalcopyrite, bornite, tennantite,
enargite, covellite, chalcocite.
The genesis of this most remarkable deposit is not fully clear. Bate­
man and McLaughlin believe that before the present erosion epoch and
shortly after the intrusion of monzonite porphyry (which is miles
distant and apparently not directly related to the deposit) meteoric warm
waters searched the underlying greenstone, whose copper content ante­
dates the main deposits, and carried copper solutions up into the limestone
where it was precipitated as chalcocite with minor amounts of other
minerals. Evidently the temperature during deposition was low; in
the case of rhombic chalcocite it must have been below 90° C. The
absence of alteration of the country rock points to comparatively low
temperature.
Naturally the greenstone mineralization recalls Michigan deposits,
and the chalcocite deposition might be regarded as its last phase; at any
rate the magmatic origin of the solutions can not be regarded as proved
conclusively.
COPPER S U L P H ID E V E IN S IN IN T R U S IV E B A S IC ROCKS

Veins containing pyrite and chalcopyrite, occasionally with other

sulphides, in a gangue of quartz, calcite, dolomite, and siderite, more
commonly quartz alone, occur abundantly in intrusive basic rocks, such
as diabase or gabbro. Here, however, the distinction between the results
effected by water of atmospheric origin and those effected by magmatic
solutions becomes increasingly difficult.
F. E. Wright1has pointed out the fact that the intrusive Keweenawan
gabbro of Mount Bohemia contains veins with chalcopyrite, bornite,
chalcocite, calcite, and quartz, while in the surface lavas of the same series
native copper is the principal ore mineral. This seems an excellent illus­
tration of the retention of volatile sulphur by intrusives, contrasted with
1 F. E. Wright, The intrusive rocks of Mount Bohemia, Michigan, Seventh Ann.
Rept., Geol. Survey Michigan, 1908.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTANCES 421
its escape from the extrusive flows. The origin of the water which was
the vehicle of deposition in these veins may remain an open question.
Along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada of California extends a belt
of andesitic rocks of Jurassic age collectively called “ greenstones.” They
consist of massive and schistose rocks, including surface flows, tuffs,
and intrusions mixed. Within this belt, for instance in Yuba and Nevada
counties, short and irregular quartz veins with pyrite and chalcopyrite are
common. Probably these veins derived their copper from the green­
stones, and undoubtedly they were formed at a time when the rocks now
exposed were covered by several thousand feet of overlying and now
eroded igneous rocks.
Other deposits in Placer County and at Campo Seco in Calaveras
County are, according to Knopf, replacement deposits in shear zones in
amphibolite and greenstone. The minerals are pyrite and chalcopyrite
with a little galena and sphalerite. The sulphides contain a little silver
and a trace of gold. Whether these deposits were formed by meteoric
waters is, however, very uncertain.
Other and much larger copper deposits are found in the same region
to the north in Shasta County, but in this case the evidence points
unmistakably to an origin by solutions derived directly from the magma
(p. 621).
OTH ER V E IN S D E P O S IT E D BY W ATERS OF TH E UPPER C IR C U L A T IO N

In the region of the saline Paleozoic and Mesozoic beds of central

Germany, a certain amount of vein deposition by saline meteoric waters
appears to have taken place. Veins of this origin are likely to contain
an abundant gangue of calcite, dolomite, or barite, with some quartz
and a scant amount of sulphides.1
Similar examples of ore deposition by saline waters also exist in the
western part of the United States; one, the Cashin mine of Colorado, is
mentioned above (p. 406). The prevailing influence of igneous intrusions
on ore deposition is, however, so strong that it is difficult to establish the
proofs of the less conspicuous deposition by purely meteoric water.
That the ordinary surface waters are in most cases quite incompetent
to effect concentration is plainly shown by the lack of important minerali­
zation in fissures and joints cutting the rocks of mining districts. In the
Globe district, Arizona, for instance, the Paleozoic rocks are intersected
by a network of dislocations which would offer excellent paths for these
waters; and yet the important deposits are in no way connected with
these fractures. Similar post-mineral fissures traverse lead and zinc
veins in the Coeur d’ Alene district, Idaho, but generally show no trace
of mineralization.
1 P. Krusch, Ueber die Zusammensetzunp; dor Westfiilischen Spaltenwasser,
Zeitxchr. prakl. Geol., 12, 1904, p. 252.
422 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
The Cordilleran region contains many great ranges of pre-Cambrian
rocks capped in places by Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata. Among them
may be mentioned the Front ranges of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado,
the Wind River Range in Wyoming, and the Mission Range in Montana.
Uplift, folding, and faulting have in each of these ranges intensified the
circulation of meteoric waters, but in spite of this the ranges are remark­
ably poor in mineral deposits, which appear only in the vicinity of intru­
sive masses. These relations show very plainly the slight concentrating
power of ordinary cool surface waters and even of the waters of atmos­
pheric origin that have become a part of the deeper circulation.
 CHAPTER XXIII
LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS;
ORIGIN INDEPENDENT OF IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
Characteristic Features.—The lead and zinc deposits which form
the subject of this chapter represent a type of world-wide distribution
and, in spite of local variations, of remarkably constant characteristics.
They appear to be independent of igneous rocks and occur in limestones,
dolomites, cherts (derived from limestone), or calcareous shales. In
the United States this type is represented by the ores of the Mississippi
Valley, chiefly in Oklahoma and Missouri. In Europe characteristic
occurrences are in Belgium and in Upper Silesia.
The mineral composition is simple, and the ore minerals few. Galena
and sphalerite are essential constituents, with their train of oxidized
minerals near the surface1 (sulphates, carbonates, and silicates); there is
more or less pyrite, almost always marcasite, occasionally a little chal-
copyrite. Gold, antimony, arsenic, and molybdenum are almost wholly
absent; in some districts the galena contains a little silver, but on the
whole the deposits are non-argentiferous. Cadmium is often contained
in the sphalerite, which is mainly red, light brown, or yellow and carries
little iron. Cadmium sulphide, greenockite, occurs as a secondary min­
eral. Nickel and cobalt are often present in small quantities. Among
the gangue minerals dolomite is the most characteristic; quartz in crystals
is not common, but a secondary chert with bitumen is typical of many
districts; barite is found, but is not characteristic.
The ores commonly fill open spaces in zones of local brecciation or in
crevices (gash veins) or joints which have been enlarged by solution.
Less commonly they occupy fault fissures; sometimes they are purely
metasomatic, the minerals occurring disseminated in limestone or dolo­
mite and closely following certain sedimentary horizons. Even in this
case they are not spread over irregular areas, but tend to follow certain
lines in the plane of stratification (so-called “ runs”). In regions of
slightly disturbed strata, many observers have noted the tendency
of the ore to follow pitching troughs. The ores usually lie within a few
hundred feet of the surface and are oxidized in the vicinity of the water
level. Frequently they are found below impervious shale beds. The
1 The oxidation of lead and zinc sulphides is treated in Chap. XXXII. The
principal oxidized zinc minerals are smithsonite and calamine, while hydrozincite and
willemite are rare; goslarite, the soluble sulphate, is frequently found as efflorescences.
423
424 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
mineral association and the frequent colloform texture indicate deposi­
tion at low temperature.
Origin.—Simple as the deposits of this type are, the views as to their
origin diverge strongly. The earliest interpretation of them, as marine
deposits, is generally abandoned; it is recognized that even if the metals
are derived from primary ocean sediments the finely divided sulphides
must have been concentrated and redeposited. Their epigenetic nature
is clear. Some geologists hold the ores to be deposited by ascending
waters; others see in them the work of descending surface waters.
In either case many American geologists believe that atmospheric
waters have effected the concentration of the lead and zinc from sedi­
mentary Paleozoic rocks and that igneous agencies have had nothing to
do with the deposition. This opinion is not unanimous for a number of
investigators have suggested an origin by thermal waters ascending from
great depths. Some of these consider that the metals were extracted by
the hot waters from the underlying pre-Cambrian rocks, while others
believe they can see a relationship of the deposits with deep intrusions
and magmatic sources. Beyschlag, Krusch, and Vogt in their handbook
on ore deposits uphold the theory of origin by thermal waters. By
authors holding this view, the deposits are often referred to as “telemag-
matic” (tele = distant).
No one can, however, deny that galena and sphalerite are of wide­
spread occurrence in many limestones and dolomites far from regions of
deep Assuring and igneous action ,l Before appealing to igneous agencies
it will be advisable to examine into the competency of waters of atmos­
pheric origin to effect the concentration of these metals.
In the first place, the mineral association indicates a shallow deposi­
tion at temperatures and pressures not very different from those pre­
vailing at the surface. The deposits contain no characteristic substances
carried by thermal waters of volcanic origin, and no primary silicate
minerals. The marcasite suggests strongly deposition near the surface.
Regarding nickel and cobalt, it has already been pointed out that
minerals of these metals are not uncommon in sedimentary strata, as is
shown, for example, by their occurrence with the marine siderites and
limonitic oolites, or by the occasional discovery of millerite in limestone.
This granted, it remains to account for the two principal metals, lead and
zinc. The majority of geologists who have studied these deposits believe
1 Cf. for instance the repeated finds of galena and other minerals in deep borings
on the Gulf Coast. See A. C. Veatch and G. D. Harris, Bull. 7, Louisiana Geol.
Survey, 1908, p. 25; also, G. D. Harris, Bull. 429, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 45.
Regarding zinc in sedimentary iron ore, see p. 274.
Gilbert Van Ingen has pointed out the frequent occurrence of grains of galena
and sphalerite in fossils where perhaps decaying organic matter might have brought
about precipitation. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 26, 1915, p. 85.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN S EDIM EN TARY ROCKS 425
that the lead and zinc originally were contained as silicates or sulphides
in the older crystalline rocks from which the limestones and other sedi­
mentary rocks were derived. A number of analyses have been made
showing the presence of copper, lead, and zinc. Still more convincing is
the analysis by George Steiger of a composite sample of 329 igneous rocks
which have been analyzed in the laboratory of the United States Geo­
logical Survey. This gave in per cent 0.00513 zinc, 0.00075 lead, 0.00932
copper, 0.00515 nickel, and 0.00048 arsenic.1 Another series of analyses
of igneous rocks from England by A. M. Finlayson12 gave an average of
0.0032 per cent lead and 0.0016 per cent zinc.
According to J. B. Weems and J. D. Robertson, the Cambrian and
Ordovician limestones of Missouri average in per cent 0.00425 zinc,
0.00096 lead, and 0.00126 copper.3 Considered in conjunction with the
composite analyses of silts from the Mississippi River delta (p. 253) these
figures in part support the opinion referred to regarding decreasing metal
content in successive sedimentations.
No analyses of shales are included among those given above. They
can not be safely excluded, however; and it is probable that they will
average higher in metal content than the limestones as suggested by
partial analyses quoted by E. R. Buckley4 and G. H. Cox.5
It is assumed by Siebenthal that the metal contents of the igneous
rocks are gradually dissipated in successive sedimentations. This may be
offset, however, by the fact that limestones are far more easily leached by
waters than the crystalline rocks.
In the publication referred to Siebenthal has compiled all available
analyses of foreign and domestic waters and has shown that zinc particu­
larly, but also copper and lead, is contained in many samples of the deeper
circulation of meteoric waters. Out of 392 waters from Kentucky ana­
lyzed by A. M. Peters 89 contained zinc; of these waters 36 also contained
H2S or Na2S. Most of these waters were obtained from Silurian or
Ordovician formations. Similar, though less extensive data are shown
from Missouri waters. The zinc is carried by sulphureted salt waters
and by alkaline-earth carbonate waters, the latter usually containing
H2S or C02 or both. That acid waters derived from pyritic shales also
contain zinc, copper, lead, and nickel is shown by the analyses given on
pages 51 and 52, and these certainly demonstrate that the metals may be
extracted from sedimentary silt deposits. Siebenthal finally found
that reservoir deposits from fifteen deep wells of alkaline or saline type
in Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma contained much iron sulphide as
1C. E. Siebenthal, Bull. 606, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915, p. 67.
2 Quart. Jour., Geol. Soc. London, 66, 1916, p. 301.
3E. C. Siebenthal, op. cit., p. 79.
4 Missouri Bur. Geol. and Mines, 9, 1909, p. 221.
6Econ. Geol., 6, 1916, p. 587.
426 MINERAL DEPOSITS
well as zinc, lead, and copper, all of them probably also present as sul­
phides. The dried deposits contained a maximum of 0.6 per cent zinc,
0.2 per cent lead, and 0.1 per cent copper. Zinc was present in thirteen
samples, lead in eleven, and copper in nine. The waters themselves
commonly yielded a trace of zinc, the greatest amount found being 0.6
part per million.
According to these investigations1 which represent the most detailed
evidence offered by those who advocate an origin from meteoric waters of
the deposits under discussion, the zinc and lead existed as finely dissemi­
nated sulphides in the older Paleozoic limestone. Waters containing
carbon dioxide decomposed the sulphides with the formation of bicar­
bonates and hydrogen sulphide. In the presence of carbon dioxide,
H2S is not an effective precipitating agent, but when the moving solutions
become stagnant in places suitable for deposition, C02 would escape and
the remaining H2S precipitated the metals as sulphides.
The chlorides of lead and zinc are far more soluble than the bicar­
bonates, and strong brines of sodium chloride are undoubtedly effective
in the transportation of the metals. R. C. Wells found that weak salt
solutions decomposed but little zinc sulphide.2 Stronger solutions might
be more active. The theory explained is then based on the leaching of
lead and zinc occurring as minutely disseminated sulphides in limestone
and shale.
Moresnet.3—The Moresnet district in Belgium, Luxembourg, and
Rhenish Prussia, is situated in a region of folded Devonian and Car­
boniferous limestones and slates cut by several large faults and covered
unconformably by Cretaceous beds. In the main the ore follows these
dislocations, in part as filled veins, in part as large replacement deposits
in limestone at the slate contacts or at the intersection of faults. Dolo-
mitization of the limestone is often mentioned. The ore contains
sphalerite, galena, iron sulphides, and calcite; and the galena and sphaler­
ite are often intimately intergrown. Nickel is occasionally present.
Masses of calamine appeared near the surface and extended to depths of
160 feet; in some cases, notably at Vieille Montagne, they were of enor­
mous size and reached a depth of 330 feet; the sulphides appeared at depths
of 170 to 330 feet, much below the water level.4 Concentric intergrowths,
of colloidal origin, of wurtzite and sphalerite (schalenblende),5 are very
common.
1 E. C. Siebenthal, op. cit., pp. 42-66.
2 Bull. 606, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915, p. 58.
3 Ch. Timmerhans, Les gttes metalliferes de la region de Moresnet, Liege, 1905, p.
28.
F. Klockmann, Die Erzlagerstatten der Gegend von Aachen, Berlin, 1910.
4 The oxidation of this deposit may be of pre-Cretaceous age.
5 H. Ehrenberg, Der Aufbau der Schalenblenden, Neues Jakriuch, Beil. Bd. 64,
1931, pp. 397-422.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN SE D IM EN TA R Y ROCKS 427
The quantity of ore is said to diminish in depth, and large amounts
of water are found. A considerable part of the world’s production of
zinc has been obtained from these deposits.
Silesia.1—Silesia, until 1919 a province of Prussia, remains one of
the world’s most important zinc-producing regions. The deposits are
mainly in the territory transferred to Poland. The ore occurs in Triassic
sandstone and limestone, which lie in flat synclines (Fig. 155). In the
lower part of the “ Muschelkalk ” extensive dolomitization has taken
place, mainly along fissures, and the dolomite is underlain by an imperme­
able “ Sohlenstein ” or clay rock. Between the two lies a thin layer of
decomposed limestone (vitriol-letten), and the ore lies immediately above
Syncline of

F ig . 155.—Section through the synclines of Tarnowitz and Beuthen, Silesia. P.St.,

Carboniferous; B, Triassic sandstone; s, Triassic limestone; Do, dolomite; b, galena deposits;
2, sphalerite deposits; g, oxidized zinc ores; e, limonite; T, Tertiary beds; Dt, Quarternary
beds. {After Giirich.)

the latter. The ground-water circulation, dolomitization, and mineral­

ization are all apparently closely connected. The replacement ore
occurs along two horizons—the lower in a bed of dolomite several meters
thick, at most 400 feet below the surface, carrying galena, sphalerite, and
abundant marcasite; and the upper in a bed of smithsonite (zinc carbon­
ate) of considerable thickness. The galena contains a little silver
(0.02 to 0.03 per cent); manganese, as psilomelane-, is sometimes present.
The pyrite contains a little arsenic and a trace of nickel. Jordanite, a
lead sulpharsenide, occurs at the Bleischarley mine. The succession is
marcasite (oldest), sphalerite, and galena.12 The sphalerite and marcasite
show fine colloform structures. The ore yields about 17 per cent zinc
and 5 per cent lead. In 1930 the Polish reduction works produced
174,400 metric tons of zinc.
1 G. Giirich, Zur Genesis dcr oberschlesischen Erzlagerstatten, Zeitschr. prakt.
Geol., 11, 1903, pp. 202-205.
A. Sachs, Die Bildung der schlesischen Erzlagerstiitten, Centralblatt f. Min.,
1904, pp. 40-49; Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., 56, 1904, pp. 269-272.
2 E. Schultz, Geol. Rundschau, 4, 1913, pp. 126-136.
428 MINERAL DEPOSITS
There has been much discussion concerning the origin of these ores.
Beyschlag and Michael1 have shown that some ore-bearing fissures
descend into the Carboniferous, and hence believe that ascending waters
did the work; others, like Sachs, believe that the ores resulted from
descending waters and that organic matter caused the precipitation.
In the recent literature on these ores, quoted below, there is general
agreement as to the low-temperature origin of the ore, with frequent
transitions from pronounced colloidal to crystalline structures. While
some authors do not commit themselves as to a possible telemagmatic
origin, Stappenbeck agrees in substance with Siebenthal’s theory of
leaching and deposition by ascending waters. Bernicke gives the para-
genesis as: sphalerite (oldest), wurtzite and sphalerite, galena, iron sul­
phide, main galena deposition.
Alpine Trias.—The Alpine Trias in Austria contains a number of
deposits of this type. At Bleiberg, in Carinthia, the ores occupy filled
flats and gash veins. They consist of light-colored sphalerite and mar-
casite, with calcite and barite gangue, and a little anhydrite and fluorite,
but no quartz. No silver, antimony, copper, or arsenic is present.
At Raibl, made famous by Posepny’s investigations,12 the ores form
fillings and replacements along three dislocations. The minerals are
sphalerite, occasionally with wurtzite and galena, with a little marcasite
and chalcopyrite; and their deposition was accompanied by extensive
dolomitization. Posepny describes stalactites of galena, pyrite, and
sphalerite, but such occurrences are exceptional.
Other European Localities.—The great deposits of Santander, Spain,
are contained in Carboniferous limestone and are said to be replacements
connected with dislocations. The light-yellow sphalerite from these
deposits is famous. Some cinnabar is present.
1 Beysehlag, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 10. 1902, p. 143.
Michael, Zeilschr. dcutsch. geol. Gesell., 56, 1904, Protocol, pp. 127-139.
R. Stappenbeck, Ausbildung, etc., der oberschlesischen Pb-Zn Lagerstatten,
Archiv Lagerstallenforsch., Preuss. Geol. Landesanstalt, 41, 1928, 143 pp.
P. Krusch, Ueber kolloidale Vorgange bei der Entstehung der oberschlesischen
Pb-Zn Lagerstatten, Zeilschr. Oberschles. Berg-u. Huttenm. Vereins, June, July, 1929,
pp. 284-290; 344-349.
Duwensee, Die oberschlesischen Pb-Zn Lagerstatten, MetaU u. Erz, 26,1929, pp.
481-492.
H. Schneiderhohn, Mineralchem., etc., der Deutsch-Bleischarley-Grube, Ober-
schlesien, Chemie der Erde, 5, 1930, pp. 385-395.
F. Bernicke, Die primaren Erzmineralien der Deutsch-Bleischarley-Grube, bei
Beuthen, O. S., Archiv. Lagerstattenforsch., Preuss. Geol. Landesanstalt, 53, 1931,124
pp.
2 F. Posepny, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 23, 1873, pp. 315-420.
The genesis of ore deposits, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 23, 1894, pp. 197-369.
An elaborate series of illustrations of this deposit has been published by the
Department of Agriculture of Austria.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN S EDIM EN TARY ROCKS 429
At Monteponi,1 Sardinia, large “ stocks” of galena with sphalerite
and pyrite are contained in Paleozoic limestones. There is much dolomit-
ization, and a little quartz and barite occur. Cinnabar is reported and
the ores contain silver in part. Igneous rocks are represented only by
a diabase.
The genetic relations of the Austrian, Spanish, and Sardinian deposits
are as yet uncertain. Probably they are formed by ascending waters,
and may have affiliation with Tertiary igneous rocks.
The Lead-zinc Ores of the Mississippi Valley.—One of the most
remarkable metallogenetic provinces characterized by lead and zinc
ores extends over the valley of the Mississippi in the generally flat-lying
limestones of the Paleozoic, ranging from the Ordovician to the lower
Carboniferous (Mississippian) inclusive. These ores are found in Arkan­
sas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Kansas, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa and
reach eastward as far as western Virginia and Tennessee. The ores are
mined on a large scale in comparatively few regions. Small deposits of
lead and zinc are widely spread and are even found in Pennsylvania,
New York, and Ontario.12 Igneous rocks are absent. There are, how­
ever, a few small deposits in southern Arkansas, Kentucky, and southern
Illinois in which gold, silver, antimony, mercury, or fluorite is present and
which appear to be genetically related to local intrusions of igneous rocks.
The main characteristics of the predominating type are sufficiently
described in the introduction to this chapter. In details they differ
considerably.
In point of production the deposits in the “ Tri-state field,” including
parts of Missouri, Oklahoma, and Kansas (Fig. 156) easily predominate.
The zinc-mining industry in these areas, particularly in Oklahoma, in
1930, yielded 216,961 short tons of spelter, of a value of about $20,828,256,
making about 44 per cent of the production of the United States. The
lead mining in the southeastern part of Missouri in the same year pro­
duced 198,622 short tons of lead, having a total value of $19,862,200.
This is 35 per cent of the lead production of the United States. The ore
mined is generally referred to as “ dirt” ; the concentrates are spoken of
as “ore.” The total quantity of crude lead and zinc ore raised annually
in Missouri, Oklahoma, and Kansas is now about 21,000,000 tons, conse­
quently it is of low grade. Practically all of it is treated in concentrating
works, to yield high-grade material suitable for the reduction plants.
The Tri-state Region,3—The Joplin region includes adjacent parts
of Kansas and Oklahoma (Fig. 156). The principal camps are at Aurora,
1 It. Beck, Lehre von den Erzlagerstatten, 2, 1909, p. 257.
2 Similar deposits have been found in Devonian beds at Great Slave Lake, Canada.
J. Mackintosh Bell, Econ. Geol. 26, 1931, pp. 611-624.
3 H. F. Bain (with C. R. Van Hise), Preliminary report on the lead and zinc deposits
of the Ozark region, Twenty-second Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901.
430 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
Granby, Webb City, Joplin, Galena, Baxter Springs, and Picher. In
the early days lead was the only metal won, but since 1870 zinc ores
have been mined and now predominate entirely. From the districts in
Missouri, near Joplin, the quantity of lead recovered is about one-fourth
that of the zinc. The yield of lead and zinc from the crude ore averages
about 3.0 per cent zinc and 0.7 per cent lead. The concentrates average,
respectively, 59 per cent zinc, and 79 per cent lead. They are smelted in
Kansas and Oklahoma.
The districts are situated on the flanks of the Ozark uplift (Fig. 157).
The ore occurs in the Boone formation and in rocks of Kinderhook age,
both belonging to the lower Carboniferous (Mississippian). The beds

F ig . 156.— Sketch showing position of known mineralized area in the Tri-State field.
form a very flat anticline pitching gradually northwest and are displaced
slightly by the Seneca fault in Missouri and Oklahoma as well as by the
Miami fault in Oklahoma and Kansas. All three structural features
appear to be of importance in the ore deposition. The Boone formation
contains much light-colored chert, especially in the Grand Falls chert
member, which contains the so-called “ sheet ground” deposits. The
surface of the Boone contained numerous sink-holes and caves, perhaps
also drainage channels, and over this “ Karst” topography were deposited
W. S. T. Smith and C. E. Siebenthal, U. S. Geol. Atlas, Folio 148 (Joplin), 1914.
E. R. Buckley and H. A. Buehler, The geology of the Granby area, Missouri
Bur. Geol. and Mines, 4, 1909.
C. E. Siebenthal, Contour map of the surface of the beds underlying the Cherokee
shale (Picher district), U. S. Geol. Survey, 1925.
R. V. Ageton, idem, Quapaw district, 1931.
G. M. Fowler and J. P. Lyden, The ore deposits of the Tri-state district, Tech.
Publ. 446, Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1931, 46 pp.
S. Weidman, The Miami-Picher zinc-lead district, Bull. 56, Oklahoma Geol.
Survey, 1932, 177 pp.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN SE D IM EN TA R Y ROCKS 431
the sandstones and shales, in part carbonaceous, of the Coal Measures
(Pennsylvanian). There is, then, an unconformity

F ig . 157. — General east-west section through Joplin, Missouri, and the St. Francis M ountains, showing the flat-topped dome of
Cam brian and Ordovician limestones and pre-C am brian crystalline rocks overlain by thin D evonian shale and Carboniferous sediments.
by erosion. Post-Carboniferous erosion has now
removed much of these rocks, but near Joplin the <J
Pennsylvanian shale still remains in many of the old
depressions (Fig. 158) and covers the whole district
in Oklahoma.
The succession of the ore minerals is given by
Smith and Siebenthal as follows: Dolomite (oldest),
chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, ^
marcasite, pyrite, calcite, barite, and marcasite, the 1
whole series being seldom found in one locality. All o
the minerals are frequently well crystallized. There 5
is general agreement among the investigators that £
the mineralization began by dolomitization, and
Bain sees in it a result of the more rapid diffusion <
of the magnesia in the ore-forming solutions than u
of the zinc. The sphalerite occurs as crystals and i-
grains in the secondary chert which forms the gangue <
of the ore, the primary chert containing no metaso- ->
matic sphalerite (Fig. 159). This secondary chert, «-
largely made up of cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline
quartz, contains much organic matter with minutely ^
disseminated sulphides,1 and is darker than the a.
primary chert, which antedated ore deposition. The <
chert is probably in part a replacement of limestone, n
in part, where cementing breccias, a silicified mud. o
It is apparently a colloidal, recrystallized deposit.
A composite sample of the zinc concentrate rep­
resenting 3,800 lots has the composition shown on
{After Sm ith and Siebenthal , U. S. Geol. Survey.)

page 432.12
The galena contains only a trace of silver.
The ores are found as irregular deposits in the
“broken ground” near the surface and as flat
“blanket deposits,” or “ sheet ground,” in a chert
member of the Boone formation at depths of 150 to
300 feet. Below this horizon there are, as yet, un-
1 Cox, Dean, and Gottschalk, Studies on the origin of
Missouri cherts and zinc ores, Bull. Univ. Missouri School
of Mines., Tech. Ser. 3, No. 2, 1916, 34 pp.
2 W. G. Waring, The zinc ores of the Joplin district, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 57, 1918, pp. 657-670. Waring has
also found thallium, indium, gallium, and germanium in
the flue dust and in the zinc metal.
432 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
worked deposits of disseminated ore of doubtful value. The ore occurs
mainly as fillings of cavities, the fillings of distinct veins or crevices being
ANALYSIS OF ZINC CONCENTRATE FROM THE JOPLIN REGION
Zinc............. ................. 58.260 Sulphur......................... 30.720
Cadmium... ................ 0.304 Calcium carbonate.... 1.880
Lead............ ................ 0.700 Magnesium carbonate. 0.850
Iron............. ................. 2.230 Barium sulphate......... 0.820
Manganese.. ............... 0.010 Silica.............................. 3.950
n .04ft
99.773
subordinate. The ore minerals, with secondary chert, fill spaces
brecciation or solution cavities along the stratification, perhaps also
spaces of discission in limestone caused by stretching and adjustments.
"Circle" with
Mlssissipplan Broken Ground Pennsylvanian Shale
Limestone

F ig . 158.— Diagram of zinc-lead deposits a t Joplin showing “ broken ground” around

“ circle” near surface and “ sheet ground” deposit in G rand Falls chert member below.
Black areas represent ore. Scale 100 feet-1 inch.
In the “ broken ground,” which extends for 100 or 150 feet below the
surface, the ores occur in clayey chert breccias in old sink-holes filled with
Pennsylvanian sediments, or along the outside of such sink-holes, forming
“ circles” where the slipping and settling provided open ground (Fig.
158). In these occurrences the galena predominates, partly because of
solution and oxidation of sphalerite, and partly because the deposition
of galena prevailed at these upper levels, below the shale. Large masses
of galena are found here, in contrast to the conditions in the sheet ground.
Both at Joplin and at Aurora (Fig. 160), as well as in camps in Okla­
homa, the “runs” are also a characteristic form of the upper deposits;
these sometimes extend for 1 or 2 miles, following the same horizon at
depths less than 250 feet—usually much less. The width of the run is
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN SE D IM EN TA R Y ROCKS 433

rarely more than 50 to 150 feet, the height ranges from a few feet up
towards 80 feet. These runs appear to be determined by solution cavi­
ties along joint systems in the rocks.

F i g . 1 5 9 . — Thin section of “ black ch ert” showing m atrix of fine-grained quartz with

grains of sphalerite (shaded) and crystals of dolomite. Note quartz crystals developing in
dolomite. Magnified 53 diam eters. (A fter Sm ith and Siebenthal , U. S. Geol. Survey.)

MASSIVE OffA Y FLIN T O R F B E A R IN G G R A Y D O L O M IT E E3 LIMESTONE

I JBARSEPCECRIAO t D
CUT B Y VEIN L E T S COATED W IT H WITH C H E R T
O F CAL C IT E P IN K D O LO M IT E NO DULES

F i g . 1 6 0 . — D etail of section through lim estone bar between runs, showing relation of dolo­
m ite to ore-bodies. (After JV. F. Netzeband.)
While in places the brecciation and mineralization continue down to
the blanket deposits of the sheet ground, the latter extends in the main
 434 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
independently of the old pre-Pennsylvanian surface. In this sheet
ground, which is from 6 to 15 feet thick, the galena and sphalerite occur
in dark chert, filling brecciated old chert, and in elongated, narrow solu­
tion cavities due to dissolved streaks of limestone in the prevailing chert.
The sheet ground is poor and is not the most important source of ore
(Fig. 162).
The deposits in northeastern Oklahoma, at Picher1 (Fig. 161), are
now by far the most productive. Within an area of about 30 square miles

F ig . 161.— Plan and section showing workings in typical lead-zinc mine at Picher,
Oklahoma.
there were (1925) 132 mines, which in that year, yielded 272,000 tons
of zinc and 78,000 tons of lead. Since 1908 this district is said to have
produced zinc and lead to the astonishing value of $800,000,000. Few
mines are deeper than 250 feet. An individual mine or lease covering
say 40 acres is soon worked out. There are, however, possibilities for an
extension of the field. There are 100 mills equipped for wet concentration
supplemented by flotation. The mills are as ephemeral as the mines.
1 C. E. Siebenthal, Bull. 340, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 187-228.
Maps by H. A. Buehler in “War minerals of the Joplin district,” Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., Joplin-Miami meeting, October, 1917.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN SE D IM EN TA R Y ROCKS 435
The production for 1930 was 4,100,000 tons of crude ore averaging 3.08
per cent zinc and 0.71 per cent lead.
The ores are similar to those of Joplin. Chert, dolomite, and calcite
are the gangue minerals; sphalerite and galena the principal ore min­
erals, with a little chalcopyrite and locally marcasite. An analysis of a
large composite sample of concentrate shows in per cent 58.40 Zn, 1.80
Fe, 0.92 Pb, and 0.42 Cd. There is no evidence of colloidal deposition
or colloform structures, the ore minerals being well developed and often
beautifully crystallized. The ore lies in the Short Creek oolite hori-

Fio. 162.— Sketch illustrating the occurrence of galena and sphalerite in cavities in the
sheet ground, Joplin, Missouri. (A fter C. E . Siebenthal , U. S. Geol. Survey.)
zon and about 200 to 250 feet below the surface. It is closely connected
with the extensive chert replacement, and where there is no chert the
limestone contains little ore. The runs, while very irregular, have a
tendency to extend northeast and follow irregular zones of fracture.
In few places does the ore reach up to the base of the shale; generally
it lies about 100 feet below this erosion surface. The shale is from 100
to 150 feet thick and contains no ore. The runs are up to 50 or 70 feet
wide, usually, less, and have a “face,” or height of from a few feet up to
80 feet. In the case of large runs the tonnage becomes very large. The
ore forms brecciated masses, fragments of white (early) chert being
cemented by “ black chert,” dolomite, calcite, and sulphide (Fig. 160).
436 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
In part there is “ open ground” ; in many places the ore occurs along
the obscure stratification, in lenticular openings or solution cavities,
Often there are “runs” on two or more levels, say within 100 feet, and the
upper and lower runs may connect.
There is evidence of an ascending circulation of water in places heavily
charged with hydrogen sulphide. Bitumen is abundant in places. The
whole occurrence supports strongly the theory of origin by ascending
waters. Possibly a lower ore horizon of “ sheet ground” at the level of
the Grand Falls chert, may be developed. A few mines are operating in
this horizon, but it is not believed to contain deposits as large as those
now worked.
Arkansas.—In northern Arkansas,1 a short distance southeast from
the Joplin region, the sphalerite generally without galena, occurs in
fissures or crevices, in fault breccias, and in solution breccias, accompanied
by secondary chert or dolomite, sometimes also by crystallized quartz.
The ores are found in Ordovician limestone and also in the Boone (Missis-
sippian) formation.
Upper Mississippi Valley.12—The districts of the upper valley lie
in Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois. The important districts are in Wiscon­
sin and Illinois and yielded in 1930 about 1,800 short tons of lead and
12,600 short tons of zinc. The ore deposits are found in Ordovician
strata of almost horizontal position. The following formations are
recognized:
Feet
Cincinnati or Maquoketa shale.............................................. 160
Galena dolomite......................................................................... 240
Platteville limestone (Trenton).............................................. 55
St. Peter sandstone................................................................... 100
Lower magnesian limestone..................................................... 350
Below the magnesian limestone is 700 feet of the Cambrian Potsdam
sandstone. The so-called “oil rock,” a thin bed of bituminous shale, is
found at the base of the Galena formation or at the top of the Trenton.
The rocks dip gently southwest and are flexed into very shallow troughs.
The ores are confined to the Galena limestone and the upper part of
the Platteville limestone; the minerals consist of marcasite, sphalerite,
1 G. I. Adams, Prof. Paper 24, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.
J. C. Branner, Arkansas Geol. Survey, 5, 1900.
E. T. McKnight, Lead-zinc deposits of northern Arkansas, Press Bull., U. S.
Geol. Survey, Nov. 28, 1932. Ore said to contain a little enargite.
2 T. C. Chamberlin, Geology of Wisconsin, 4, 1882.
H. F. Bain, Bull. 294, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
U. S. Grant, Bull. 14, Wisconsin Geol. Survey, 1906.
G. H. Cox, Econ. Geol, 6, 1911, pp. 427-448, 582-603.
H. C. George, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 59, 1918, pp. 117-150.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 437
and galena, deposited in the order noted. The gangue is crystallized
calcite, rarely barite. Cadmium is absent, but a trace of silver is found.
The abundance of marcasite causes metallurgical difficulties and neces­
sitates treatment of the concentrates in electrostatic or magnetic separa­
tors, in the latter case preceded by partial roasting. The ores occur as
fillings of open spaces, vertical crevices of varying strike, or “gash veins”
connected with “pitches” or “flats,” all probably due to solution along
joint planes and tension cracks (Fig. 163). Stalactites of sulphides are
sometimes found indicating that the spaces were not always filled by
solutions. In part there are also flat bodies of disseminated ores. The
galena predominates near the surface, probably largely because the sphal­
erite has been dissolved as sulphate and transformed to silicate or
carbonate in the lower levels. In depth sphalerite with a little galena

F ig . 163.—Section showing occurrence of lead and zinc in vertical crevices, flats, and
pitches; also of dissem inated ores in the rocks, gd , Galena dolom ite; tk, T renton limestone;
of, upper flat; uf, lower flat; k, connecting flats, pitches, and verticals. (A fter T. C.
Chamberlin.)

is the principal ore. Mining operations extend to a depth of at most 200

feet. The distribution of the oil shale, according to Bain, seems to
coincide with the extent of the deposits. Cox, however, holds that the
metal was derived from the overlying Maquoketa shale and carried down
to be concentrated in the Galena limestone.
Virginia and Tennessee.1— In western Virginia, and near Knoxville,
Tennessee, lead and zinc ores occur in the Cambro-Ordovician (Shenan­
doah) limestones, mostly where the rocks are faulted or brecciated. The
1T. L. Watson, Lead and zinc deposits of Virginia, Bull. 1, Geol. Survey Virginia,
1905.
Frank L. Nason, Characteristics of zinc deposits in North America, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 57, 1918, pp. 830-855.
H. A. Coy and J. A. Noble, Mining methods at Mascot, Tenn., idem, 72, 1924,
pp. 55-76.
M. H. Secrist, Zinc deposits of East Tennessee, Bull. 31, Tennessee Geol. Survey,
1924 .
438 MINERAL DEPOSITS
gangue consists of calcite, dolomite, and rarely barite. There is little
quartz or pyrite; sphalerite predominates and is of very light color.
Southeastern Missouri.1— In eastern Missouri not far from the Missis­
sippi River and south of St. Louis, lead mining has been carried on more
or less extensively since the early part of the eighteenth century; but in
the last years the industry has assumed very large proportions, the St.
Joseph Lead Company being the principal producer. In 1930 the yield
of lead from this region was 278,000 short tons, worth $16,559,000. The
crude ores, which yield on the average 3.4 per cent of lead, are treated at
the rate of 20,000 tons per day in large concentrating works and a part

0 50' 100' * 00'

Horizontal and Vertical Scale

F ig . 164. — Vertical section showing workings in m ine No. 4 r Federal Lead Company,
southeastern Missouri. Horizontal bodies of disseminated ore, following bedding of shaly
dolomite of Bonneterre form ation. (A fter E . R. Buckley.)
of the galena is smelted in the district. Practically no zinc is contained
in the ore.
The geological position of the deposits is in the Cambro-Ordovician,
and therefore lower than those of the other Mississippi Valley ores. On
an irregular surface of pre-Cambrian granite and porphyry rests the basal
La Motte sandstone, about 200 feet thick (Fig. 164). Above this lies
the arenaceous dolomite of the Bonneterre formation, often chloritic,
with beds of shale, having in all a thickness of 300 to 400 feet. Covering
the Bonneterre are the Davis, Derby, Doe Run, and Potosi formations,
mainly dolomites and shales.
1 A. Winslow, Missouri Geol. Survey, 6 and 7, 1894.
C. R. Keyes, idem, 9, 1896.
E. R. Buckley, Geology of the disseminated lead deposits, Missouri Bur. Geol.
and Mines, 9, pts. 1 and 2, 1909.
A. P. Watt, Concentration practice in southeastern Missouri, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., 57, 1918, pp. 322-419.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS I N SE D IM EN TA R Y ROCKS 439
The principal ore horizon is in the lower part of the Bonneterre dolo­
mite, though some galena occurs throughout that formation. A second,
less important ore horizon is in the Potosi dolomite, where the galena is
accompanied by barite. The strata are horizontal or have very gentle
dip.
The ore minerals are mainly galena accompanied by calcite, a little
pyrite, and sometimes chalcopyrite. In places—for instance, at Mine
La Motte and Fredericktown—the ores contain nickel and cobalt, as
linnmite (Co,Ni)3S4; some of the ores have been worked for these metals.
Watt quotes a representative analysis of the crude ore of the southeastern
district.
ANALYSIS OF DISSEMINATED ORE FROM SOUTHEASTERN MISSOURI
Pb...................................... 4.32 AI2O3................... 1.16
Cu.................................... . 0.03 CaO..................... . . . . 30.80
Zn...................................... 0. 50 MgO.................... . . . . 17.96
S....................................... . 0. 97 C()2...................... . . . . 32.79
Si0 2.................................. . 4.83
Fe-iOa............................... . 6. 64 10 0.00
Silver 0.12 oz. per ton. Trace Ni, Co, Mil.
Watt states that the silver follows the zinc. Concentrates of sphal­
erite contain up to 10 ounces of silver per ton.
The ores are often called disseminated, for the galena usually occurs
as grains or crystals disseminated in the greenish-gray dolomite (Fig. 165);
sometimes these crystals are several centi­
meters in diameter. According to Buck-
ley the ores of the lower part of the
Bonneterre occur as follows:
1. As horizontal sheets along bedding
planes, generally along the upper side of
thin shale beds.
2. Disseminated in dolomite.
3. Filling or lining joints.
4. In cavities or vugs.
The galena is persistently associated
with dark dolomite and black shale.
The ores are mined from vertical developing r,IG\ 165. C rystals of galena
in shaly dolom ite. Black,
shafts, 100 to 550 feet deep. lh.e ore galena; shaded and stippled, shaly
does not extend in all directions like .a „coal about
dolomite; white, quartz M agnified
bed, but the flat shoots or “ runs „ follow 10 diam eters. (A fte r E . R .
B u ckley .)
rather persistently one or two directions,
undoubtedly controlled by joints and small faults. Some of these runs
have been followed for miles and may be several hundred feet wide.
Some of the mine workings in the Bonneterre district are 100 feet high.
440 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Genesis of the Mississippi Valley Deposits.—An unusually extensive
literature, full of controversy and divergent views, covers the question
of the genesis of these ores. A majority of the authors agree that the
source of the ores was in the Paleozoic sedimentary beds, also that the
deposition was effected by atmospheric waters. At present there are
three strongly contrasting opinions regarding the Missouri deposits.
The descensionists are represented by Whitney, Chamberlin, Blake,
Robertson, Winslow, Buckley and Buehler and the ascensionists by Van
Hise, Bain, W. S. T. Smith and Siebenthal. Buckley and Buehler
hold that the source of the lead and zinc was in the Pennsylvanian sedi­
ments, which, however, contain no important deposits and only in places
small amounts of galena and sphalerite. The finely distributed sul­
phides were dissolved as sulphates and carried downward in acid solutions
which finally mingled with neutral or alkaline solutions from the unoxi­
dized parts of Pennsylvanian sediments. These mingled waters deposited
galena and sphalerite in the sink-holes and drainage channels of the
underlying Mississippian limestone and chert. The obvious difficulties
in their theory are that it requires the waters to have descended through
an impervious shale cover and that the shale seems utterly incompetent
to furnish the enormous amounts of metals required. Decidedly, the
ascensionists have the best arguments.
A similar theory was advocated by Buckley for the lead deposits of
southeastern Missouri.
The ascensionists believe that the source of the ores is in the various
formations below the Pennsylvanian, particularly in the Cambro-Ordo-
vician, and that atmospheric waters penetrating these rocks were carried
up towards the impervious beds of the Pennsylvanian and here deposited
the ores in the pre-Pennsylvanian breccias and sink-holes. Smith and
Siebenthal hold that the ores were formed much later than the Penn­
sylvanian, after the Ozark uplift (Fig. 157) had established an artesian
circulation. The surface waters entered the older Paleozoic outcrops to
the south and east of the Joplin region. After following these beds they
passed upward through the jointed and brecciated Mississippian limestone
until they reached the vicinity of the impermeable shales. There is,
indeed, in the deep wells of Joplin as well as at Picher and in southeastern
Wisconsin, good evidence of the existence of artesian pressure. Sieben-
thal’s strong arguments in favor of the artesian theory have already been
reviewed in the general part of this chapter.
An interesting hypothesis bearing on this subject has been advanced
by E. S. Bastin.1 Certain deep waters in the oil fields contain anaerobic
bacteria capable of reducing sulphates and generating hydrogen sulphide.
If now solutions carrying metals in balance with the sulphate, chloride, or
1A hypothesis of bacterial influence in the genesis of certain sulphide deposits,
Jour. Geol., 34, 1926, pp. 773-792.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 441
bicarbonate radicles come in contact with relatively stagnant H2S bearing
water, precipitation as sulphides must occur. The importance of this
hypothesis is clear, and it is particularly applicable to the Oklahoma
area.
For the deposits of Wisconsin and Illinois, Van Hise and Bain assume
that the metals were minutely disseminated as sulphides through the
Galena dolomite and concentrated, probably in late Tertiary time, by
the action of surface waters descending in shallow troughs through the
fractured Galena limestone; and that the reduction was effected by the
organic matter of the oil rock. In the Galena limestone the solutions
were practically confined between two beds of almost impermeable shale.
According to Cox, the metals were derived from the overlying Maquo-
keta shale, in which he finds some evidence of the presence of sulphides,
particularly sphalerite. He points out, with good reason, that the shales
are shore formations in which the metallic substances derived from adja­
cent continents would most easily be deposited as detritus or precipitated
from solutions.
There is a third opinion on the Mississippi Valley deposits which was
early advocated by Jenney and by Nason. According to these men,
thermal waters ascended from regions below the Paleozoic beds, and the
source of the ore is deep-seated. More recently W. A. Tarr, who studied
the barite-galena veins of Washington County, Missouri (p. 369), held
that the ores are of magmatic origin. In 1915, L. V. Pirsson1expressed
the view that the zinc-lead deposits of the Mississippi-valley type might
well result from “the quiet upward movement of volatile magmatic
material. ” Still more recently, J. E. Spurr expressed the same opinion.
Beginning with the galena-fluorite veins of the Kentucky-Illinois field
(p. 634), he later expanded his views to the Joplin, Wisconsin, and south­
eastern Missouri fields,2and explained the ore deposition as the result of a
"magmatic surgence” of igneous material which rarely reached the
surface, though the “ore magmas” or solutions (both words being used)
derived from these hypothetical igneous rocks deposited their content
in favorable places. One of the strongest arguments against this view
is that the ores have never been traced in depth; in other words the
avenues of approach can not be found. On the other hand the enormous
quantity of ore at these places, particularly at Picher, seems difficult to
reconcile with a leaching of limestone and still more with the views of
the descensionists.
In 1932, Fowler and Lyden3 presented a paper containing a renewed
study of the Tri-state district. A detailed subdivision was given of the
1 Origin of certain ore deposits, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 180-186.
2 Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, Feb. 9, 1924; Dec. 18, 1926; Jan. 29, 1927.
3 The ore deposits of the Tri-state district, Tech. Publ. 446, Am. Inst. Min. Met.
Eng., 1932, 46p d .
442 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Boone formation; the ore deposition was connected with a series of shear
and tension fissures, which is more emphasized than in the earlier litera­
ture. The presence of an intrusive granite in the Paleozoic of Kansas1
was pointed out and the ore deposits were considered as of probable
magmatic origin.
In the same year S. Weidman published an account of the Oklahoma
zinc-lead deposits and came to a similar conclusion. He mentions a
drill hole at the Bird-Dog mine which encountered granite at a depth
of 1,246 feet. This granite, he states, is intrusive and probably of Meso­
zoic age.
Later C. K. Leith12 held that there is only slight evidence of deep-
reaching regional stresses, and, in agreement with the views of Buehler,
that most of the structures resulted from settling during the consolidation
of the strata on an uneven basement. The Grand Falls chert is held to
represent silicification on an old erosion surface.
Buehler points out that the deposits follow the depressions in the
pre-Cambrian bed rock; none occur on the ridges (determined by mag­
netometric observations).
Still more recently, W. H. Newhouse3 showed that the galena from
the Tri-state field contained many large inclusions of a strong NaCl
solution and considered these as part of the original mineralizing fluid.
This, taken in connection with Siebenthal’s data and particularly with
the lead-zinc sediments in the saline sulphur springs of Arkansas,4seems
to prove definitely that sodium chloride solutions with H2S and probably
C02 were the cause of the ore deposition. Naturally, this does not solve
the problem of the origin of the water. The very large volumes of water
needed can scarcely have been of magmatic origin. If the metals
ascended from the supposed intrusions in depth, the solutions were no
doubt very liberally mixed with waters of meteoric origin.
W. H. Emmons5 emphasizes that all the deposits occur in Paleozoic
rocks and in some relation to fault lines; also that they are of Late Paleo­
zoic age and are formed by ascending magmatic solutions related to
underlying (“ cryptobatholitic”) intrusions. They are thus telemag-
matic deposits. He believes there is evidence of horizontal zoning as
follows: (1) Iron ores with specularite, pyrite, and quartz; (2) iron ores
with pyrite, chalcopyrite, and in places a little lead and zinc; (3) zinc-
1 W. H. Twenhofel, Intrusive granite of the Rose dome, Kansas, Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., 37, 1926, pp. 403-412.
2 Structures of the Wisconsin and Tri-state lead and zinc deposits, Earn. Geol,
27, 1932, pp. 405-418.
3Econ. Geol. 27, 1932, pp. 419-436.
4Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 758-767.
6 William H. Emmons, The origin of the deposits of sulphide ores of the Mississippi
Valley, Econ. Geol., 24, 221-271, 1929.
 LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 443
lead ores with chert, dolomite, and barite; (4) manganese ores (Bates-
ville, Arkansas). The paper is a very valuable contribution, though
not entirely convincing. Many geologists believe that the deposits are
of Cretaceous age.
The problem is not yet solved, but looking beyond these controversies,
we cannot deny that in many countries transition types appear which
seem to connect these apparently distinct non-igneous deposits with
deposits of igneous affiliations.
Northern Rhodesia.—Important deposits of zinc, lead, and vanadium
nave been opened by the Rhodesia Broken Hill Company on the railroad
100 miles south of the Congo border.1 From the scant information avail­
able these ores occur in the same dolomite which farther north carries
the Katanga copper deposits. The ores are said to occur as replacements
along “more or less vertical bedding planes and fissures,” and extend
over a considerable area. To a depth of 100 feet or more oxidized ores
prevail with many beautifully crystallized species of calamine, cerussite,
and smithsonite, and a host of rare phosphates, vanadates and arsenates
of zinc and lead. The deeper ores, developed to 350 feet, contain
sphalerite and galena with a little pyrite. The vanadium plant was
completed in 1930 and is expected to produce 570 tons of ferrovanadium
per annum. If this is realized, it will make the deposit the largest
source of vanadium next to Mina Ragra. There are no igneous rocks
present, “within miles.”
There is much uncertainty about the genetic position, but it is clearly
analogous to the vanadium ores near the Tsumeb mine, Southwest Africa.
1Mining Mag., October, 1919, Mar. and Apr. 1927. See also Guidebook 22, 15th
Int. Geol. Congress, 1930.
 CHAPTER XXIV
EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS
METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS FORMED NEAR THE SURFACE BY ASCENDING
THERMAL WATERS AND IN GENETIC CONNECTION WITH
IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARACTER AND ORIGIN
General Features.—The deposits at the orifices of hot ascending
springs have been described in Chapter VI. It has been shown that
they consist of opal, chalcedony, quartz, calcite, aragonite, barite, and
fluorite, with a number of other gangue minerals; and that they also
contain in places metallic gold and certain sulphides, such as cinnabar,
stibnite, and pyrite, but not the other common ore minerals such as
chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and arsenopyrite. The ore deposits
described in the present chapter present some striking analogies to those
products of the hot springs.
In regions of comparatively recent volcanic activity where the meas­
ure of erosion since the eruptions ceased is in hundreds rather than in
thousands of feet, we find a group of important ore deposits, usually in
the form of fissure veins. They generally occur in igneous flow rocks'
and most commonly in andesite, latite, trachyte, and rhyolite. They
are rarely found in basalts. But they also cut the underlying or adjacent
formations. They constitute the source of a large part of the world’s
production of gold, silver, and quicksilver, and contain the spectacu­
lar bonanzas of the Cordilleran region, of which examples are found at
Tuscarora, Virginia City, Goldfield, Cripple Creek, Pachuca, Guanajuato,
and many other districts. Following the Tertiary outbursts of effusive
rocks, these deposits accompany the “ circle of fire” that encompasses
the Pacific Ocean. We find them in Japan, in the East Indian Islands,
and in New Zealand. They are characteristically developed in that
classical mining region of the Old World, in Hungary and Transylvania,
1 We are accustomed to consider as intrusive rocks those which have congealed
with granular texture far below the surface. Intrusions are, however, not confined to
any particular depth or texture. Intrusive bodies may be found in any series of
rocks even near the surface and may then have fine-grained, trachytic or even glassy
texture. The distinction between flows and intrusions may in such cases become
difficult; and, as shown in case of the Tonopah, Waihi, and other districts, the relations
may have far-reaching bearing upon the richness and continuation of the deposits
contained in such a series of rocks.
444
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 445
where one of the elements—tellurium—which so often accompanies them,
was first found.
Though most of these ore-deposits are found in the Tertiary flow rocks
they are not confined to rocks of this period. There is good reason to
believe that veins are developing now in some regions of recent volcanism,
and that similar veins have been formed during pre-Tertiary out­
breaks, although erosion has removed most of the older representatives
of this type. These deposits have certain well-marked characteristics
which are partly of a mechanical, partly of a chemical origin.
Because the Assuring of the rocks took place near the surface, under
slight load, open cavities were abundant, and filling, crustification, and
comb structure are conspicuous. The walls are likely to be irregular, and
the vein matter is often “frozen” to the walls. Splitting, chambering,
and brecciation are features of the veins. While metasomatic processes
have been active in the surrounding rocks, the ore is usually confined to
the open fissures. Short and irregular veins are more frequent than the
regularly developed conjugated fractures resulting from strong compres­
sive stress. Divergent systems of fractures or several parallel systems
with little apparent relationship are thought to be due to the gravitative
settling of volcanic piles.
Banding caused by crustification is common, as illustrated in Figs.
180, 187, 193, 197, and 204. It is much more delicate and frequent than
in deposits formed at greater depth and higher temperature.
The occurrence of the ore in “ stockworks, ” or in pipes, or below
impervious beds is often observed. In superimposed lava flows of differ­
ent kinds, some are usually better adapted to the deposition of ore than
others, and this difference may result in the development of ore-shoots
which are approximately horizontal.
Among the metals contained in these deposits gold and silver are by
far the most important. Base metals are present, plentifully enough in
places, but the mines are rarely worked for these. Large bodies of galena
and sphalerite occur in some places, but it is decidedly rare to find impor­
tant copper deposits. The “ pyritic” deposits are not represented; they
are confined to the deeper zones or to those of higher temperatures.
Arsenic and antimony, bismuth, tellurium, and selenium are common
but are rarely of economic importance; quicksilver is present in some
deposits and indeed the typical quicksilver deposits belong to this class.
Cobalt and nickel, tungsten, and molybdenum are not unknown, but are
entirely subordinate. Their home is in the deeper deposits.
The pure gold deposits are relatively scarce. Those carrying silver
only are common in certain regions, like Mexico. The usual metals are
gold and silver occurring together in varying proportions.
Among the ore minerals, native gold should be mentioned first. It
contains silver, as a rule, and is of pale yellow color; a proportion some­
446 MINERAL DEPOSITS
times occurring is ounce for ounce when the mineral is of very pale gray­
ish-yellow color (electrum). Deep yellow gold is not unknown, however.
The gold is often present in very fine mechanical distribution, being some­
times so closely intergrown with ore minerals and gangue that no colors
can be obtained by panning. When derived by oxidation of tellurides
it is of dull brown color and is difficult to recognize even in rich specimens.
The whole series of tellurides is present. As the gold generally occurs
in minute particles rich placers below the outcrops of these deposits are
rather unusual.
Native silver is ordinarily a product of oxidation. The primary and
most abundant silver mineral is argentite; complex silver sulphanti-
monides and sulpharsenides are also characteristic; it is often difficult to
say which are secondary (supergene) and which are primary (hypogene).
Among them are proustite, pyrargyrite, miargyrite, stephanite, poly-
basite, tetrahedrite, and, more rarely, enargite.
Stibnite is plentiful in deposits of certain types. Among the base
minerals pyrite is always present, but in small quantity and fine distribu­
tion; marcasite, a mineral typical of deposition near the surface, is not
unusual; often it is secondary. There are also galena, sphalerite, chal-
copyrite, and sometimes alabandite; rarely arsenopyrite; never pyrrhotite
or magnetite.
Of gangue minerals quartz is the most abundant, and crystals of it
are plentiful but rarely large; an amethyst color is often noticeable. The
quartz aggregates are not glassy or milky but usually fine-grained (horn-
stone) and often chalcedonic, with rapidly changing grain. In many
cases the quartz is a crystallized colloid and the original, delicate colloform
banding is still visible.1 Calcite, dolomite, barite, and fluorite are locally
the dominant gangue minerals, while siderite is rare. Manganese min­
erals, like rhodochrosite and sometimes rhodonite, are typical of certain
groups. Kaolin accompanies the veins, sometimes in large amounts,
but is probably in most cases a product of secondary changes by descend­
ing waters. The alteration of the country rock is propylitic with chlorite,
carbonates, pyrite, less abundantly sericite as secondary minerals. In
limestones and in siliceous rocks there may be silicification. Zeolites
occur in a few deposits.
One of the most widespread and characteristic gangue minerals and
the most difficult to explain is adularia (or valencianite).12 Discovered
by Breithaupt in specimens from the Valenciana mine at Guanajuato,
1 Such quartz from many districts is described by S. F. Adams, A microscopic
study of vein quartz, Econ. Geol., 15, 1920, pp. 623-663.
2 A. Breithaupt, Ueber die Felsite und einige neue Specien ihres Geschlechts,
Schweigg. Jour., Bd. 60, 1830, p. 322.
W. Lindgren, Orthoclase as a gangue mineral in fissure veins, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th
ser., 5, 1898, p. 418. Twentieth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1900, p. 167.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 447
Mexico, this mineral has since been found in numerous other places, mainly
in the Cordilleran region, as part of the filling, and as a metasomatic product-
in the country rock. Among the places where this feldspar plays an
important part m ay be mentioned Silver C ity (Idaho), Tuscarora,
Tonopah, and Rawhide (Nevada), Gold Road (Arizona), Republic
(Washington), and Cripple Creek and Creede (Colorado). It does not
occur at Goldfield, N evada, where solutions of acid reaction appear to
have deposited the ore. The mineral is usually a pure potassium feld­
spar, although varieties with several per cent of sodium have been found

F ig . 166.—Adularia (ad) replacing soda-lime feldspar (An) in andesite from Tonopah,

Nevada. Magnified 17 diam eters. (After J. E. Spurr, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
at Waihi, New Zealand, and in the Gold Spring district, U tah .1 Some­
times the adularia replaces orthoclase, biotite, and other rock minerals
(Fig. 166); it is also found in the form of well-developed crystals of prism
and dome intergrown with vein quartz (Fig. 167). The cross-sections of
the adularia crystals are usually of rhombic shape. The mineral also
occurs abundantly in some veins that had originally a calcite gangue,
now replaced b y an intimate intergrowth of adularia and quartz.
The high-temperature minerals, such as augite, amphibole, olivine,
biotite, tourmaline, topaz, garnet, magnetite, ilmenite, and chromite, are
conspicuously absent.
Successive Phases of Mineralization. — Veins formed near the surface
in volcanic regions are sometimes subject to peculiar changes, which
are rarely observed in deposits of more deep-seated origin. An earlier
1 B. S. B utler, P rof. P a p e r 111, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1920, p. 565.
448 MINERAL DEPOSITS
gangue mineral, such as calcite or barite, may be wholly wiped out and
replaced by a new gangue of quartz and adularia. This alteration has

Fig. 167.—Intergrowth of quartz (q) and adularia (a), Fraction vein, Tonopah, Nevada.
Magnified 38 diameters. (After J. E. Spurr, U. S. Geol. Survey.)

F ig . 168.—Section of lamellar ore, De Lamar, Idaho. Natural size.

nothing to do with surface waters, though the latter by the solution of
calcite may sometimes produce a similar cellular or lamellar structure;
it is plainly caused by a change in the composition of the ascending cur­
rents. Indications of this process may be seen even where it has not been
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 449
carried to completion. In many veins at Cripple Creek deposition began
by the growth of slender crystals of celestite from the walls, and these
crystals were subsequently replaced by quartz, in which the pseudomorphs
are now embedded.
In many instances the vein was completely filled by calcite, each grain
separated by a slender partition of quartz; at the beginning of the second
stage this calcite was dissolved, leaving a skeleton of thin silica walls;
secondary quartz and often also adularia were deposited upon these

F ig . 1G9.—Lam ellar aggregate of quartz, calcite, and adularia, Tom Reed mine, Ari­
zona. Drawn from thin section. The thin plate9 of calcite are fringed w ith bristling
quartz crystals and separated by granular quartz (clear) with some adularia (light-line
shading). One small cavity lined with quartz crystals. Magnified 15 diam eters. (After
F. L. Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
walls, giving them more strength, but the ore remains a delicate aggregate
of “hackly” or lamellar quartz, such as is characteristic of some mining
districts. At De Lamar, Idaho, this ore consists only of quartz (Fig. 168).
In the veins at Oatman, Arizona, the original gangue material consisted
of calcite and fluorite and the “ pseudomorphic ” ore consists of quartz
and large amounts of adularia.
As plainly shown by A. Knopf,1F. L. Ransome,12 and E. V. Shannon,3
much of the earlier calcite was the lamellar variety called “ argentine”
1Bull. 527, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913.
2 Bull. 743, idem, 1923.
3 Minerals of Idaho, Bull. 131, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1926.
450 MINERAL DEPOSITS
developed parallel to the basal plane, and was replaced by quartz
producing a thin platy, microcrystalline quartz (Figs. 169 and 170) with
adularia. Similar ore may be seen in the Mount Baldy district, southern
Utah, at Jarbidge, Nevada, and at many other places. This important
development of adularia, involving transportation of alumina by siliceous
solutions, remains without full explanation. The composition of the
ore may be similar to that of a pegmatite dike, but the structure is
wholly different, and the evidence in favor of aqueous deposition is
incontrovertible.

F ig .170.—Lamellar cal cite ore, Belmont mine, Marysville, Montana. Thin section, c,
calcite; q, quartz. Magnified 30 diameters. (After A. Knopf, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
There is reason to believe that this “ pseudomorphism” is accom­
panied by a change in the metal content of the vein. At least it seems
as if the original filling of barite, calcite, and fluorite carried more silver
and as if the silicification and feldspathization were accompanied by a
concentration of the gold.
Paragenesis.—In general the paragenesis of the ore minerals conforms
with that observed in mesothermal veins (p. 543), though the scarcity
of metallic minerals makes the investigation more difficult. In the
Smuggler mine, Colorado,1 the hypogene succession is as follows: (1)
Quartz; (2) pyrite, arsenopyrite, and rhodochrosite; (3) chalcopyrite;
(4) sphalerite and chalcopyrite; (5) galena; (6) tetrahedrite, polybasite,
and chalcopyrite; (7) gold; (8) calcite.
1 M. E. Hurst, Earn. Geol., 17, 1922, p. 695.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 451
Zeolitic Replacement.—Zeolites are foreign to veins of the deeper
zones; in the veins formed near the surface they are occasionally found,
but they are rare. At a few places zeolites are reported in the altered
country rock (Tonopah, the Comstock, and Waihi). At Guanajuato,
apophyllite, laumontite, and stilbite are found in the filling of the veins,
but here they always belong to the latest phases of vein formation.
Few of these occurrences in the vein filling have been carefully studied.
In the Southern Republic mine at Republic, Washington, laumontite,
associated with calcite, occurs on a fairly large scale.1 At this place the
ordinary fine-grained banded quartz filling had evidently been dissolved
and the laumontite-calcite aggregate was deposited in its place. The ore
in this zeolitic zone, or shoot, contains mainly silver, whereas elsewhere in
the mine gold predominates in the quartz gangue. It seems to be worth
while to draw attention to this occurrence with a view to ascertaining
whether the development of zeolites is not favorable to silver enrichment.
Many facts noted in veins of other classes, like those of Kongsberg, Norway,
and Andreasberg, Germany, point in this direction.
Primary Ore-shoots, Oxidation, and Sulphide Enrichment.—Rich
oxidized ores are often encountered in these deposits at the surface and
down to the water level. Whether the primary ore is greatly enriched in
this zone depends really more on the texture and composition of the ore
than on its original tenor. In veins of hard fine-grained quartz oxidation
often fails to produce an ore of higher grade. There are many districts
(Cripple Creek and Tonopah, for instance) in which the oxidized ores
are little, if any, richer than those below the oxidized zone.
The largest and richest masses of ore are often found just below the
oxidized zone and, in general, contain sulphides, sulphantimonides, and
sulpharsenides. It will suffice to call attention to the great silver
bonanzas of Guanajuato and Pachuca, Mexico; to the Comstock, Nevada,
where in one month silver-gold ores valued at $6,000,000 were extracted;
to Tonopah, Nevada, wherein three months ore yielding over $3,000,000
was extracted; to the Caledonian mine at Thames, New Zealand, which
in one year from a small ore-shoot produced $6,000,000 in gold; to Cripple
Creek, Colorado, where in one year from a small area but a considerable
number of mines $18,000,000 in gold was produced; to Goldfield, Nevada,
where during a single year over $10,000,000 in gold was recovered from
one property, the ore averaging $38.50 per ton, and where, of the phe­
nomenally rich ore shipped in 1907, one carload of 47 tons yielded $600,000
in gold.
Most of these high yields proved ephemeral. The bonanzas were
extracted, poorer ore was found in depth, and the mine was abandoned or
continued in feeble existence.
W. Lindgren, Trans., Canadian Min. Inst., 15, 1912, pp. 187-191.
452 MINERAL DEPOSITS
These great bonanzas were in part formed by primary (hypogene)
deposition—in large degree probably by the later, reconcentrating phases
of primary deposition; in part they owe their origin to sulphide con­
centration by descending (supergene) waters charged with precious metals
from the upper parts of the veins. It should not be overlooked that
ore-shoots of primary origin are common enough. Take, for instance,
the Cripple Creek gold ores, in which evidence of enrichment is con­
spicuously lacking; these primary shoots are usually of a markedly irreg­
ular form; many of the smaller ore-bodies are likely to follow intersec­
tions of fissures. In depth the rich shoots show a tendency to contract,
to feather out, or simply to become impoverished to a scant minerali­
zation of pyrite and sphalerite.
On the other hand sulphide enrichment is conspicuously marked,
especially in silver veins. In gold-bearing veins the enrichment in gold
is likely to be localized in the lower part of the zone of oxidation. The
secondary (supergene) silver minerals are cerargyrite, native silver,
argentite, stromeyerite, stephanite, polybasite, and pearceite. It is often
exceedingly difficult to distinguish primary ore and enriched ore, and
when in addition to this we recognize that the later effects of primary
mineralization may sometimes closely simulate the products of descend­
ing surface waters, the difficulties of correct interpretation will be fully
realized.1 The distinction is made easier when the secondary sulphides
form a distinct zone immediately below the oxidized part of the lode.
The conditions for the deposition of gold and silver are apparently
much more favorable near the surface than at greater depths; on the
other hand, deposition took place rapidly and the gold and silver contents
of the solutions were doubtless exhausted before they reached the actual
surface.
Types of Deposits.—The merging of the various types makes it
difficult to establish a rigid classification.
One type, namely, the zeolitic copper ores in amygdaloid rocks
presents certain controversial features, and will be described in Chapter
XXV. The deposits are classified as follows:
1. Cinnabar Deposits.—Cinnabar, marcasite, stibnite, hydrocarbons,
quartz, opal, calcite.
2. Stibnite Deposits.—Stibnite, pyrite, and some other sulphides;
also quartz.
3. Base Metal Deposits.—Chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetra-
hedrite, in an abundant gangue of quartz, carbonate, fluorite, or barite.
Principal values usually in gold and silver.
4. Gold Deposits.—Native gold, alloyed with silver. Subordinate
argentite, ruby silver, etc. Quartz.
1 E. S. Bastin and F. B. Laney, The genesis of the ores at Tonopah, Nev., Prof.
Paper 104, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1918.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 453
5. Argentite-gold Deposits.—Argentite, silver selenides, ruby silver,
tetrahedrite, etc.; native gold, quartz, calcite.
6. Argentite Deposits.—Argentite, ruby silver, tetrahedrite, etc.;
quartz or calcite, barite, and fluorite.
7. Gold-telluride Deposits.—Gold tellurides, quartz, or quartz and
fluorite.
8. Gold-telluride Deposits with Alunite.—Gold tellurides, gold pyrite,
alunite, kaolin.
9. Gold-selenide Deposits.—Gold selenides, pyrite, quartz, calcite.
Older Representatives of This Class.—The types just enumerated
almost wholly represent veins or similar deposits in Tertiary lavas of the
Cordilleran, Pacific, or Hungarian regions, but a close examination will
easily discover examples of similar deposits of a greater geological age.
Beck1 described relatively unimportant deposits in the Mesozoic mela-
phyres and quartz porphyries at Imsbach, in the German Palatinate,
that carry chalcopyrite, galena, and tetrahedrite in a gangue of calcite,
barite, and rhodochrosite and are probably ancient representatives of
this class. The celebrated veins of Freiberg, or at least three types of
them, namely, the “ noble quartz formation,” the “noble carbonate
formation,” and especially the “barytic lead formation,” should be
mentioned in this connection. There seems to be good evidence that
these are Carboniferous representatives of veins formed near the surface,
although the lavas in which they probably reached the surface are now
eroded. Their structure and composition point clearly to a shallow
deposition, and were the physiographic conditions in the Erzgebirge fully
analyzed, the results would probably confirm this view. The “ barytic
lead formation,” for instance, carries barite, fluorite, quartz, and dense
quartz as gangue minerals with beautiful crustification, while the ore
minerals are argentiferous galena, tetrahedrite, bournonite, and
chalcopyrite.
Other occurrences comprise the veins in the Triassic diabase flows at
Bergen Hill, New Jersey, which contain pyrite and galena in a gangue
quartz and adularia, with secondary zeolites; also the copper veins at
Bristol, Connecticut.
Proof of Depth below Surface.—Physiography furnishes the data on
the original surface during deposition. We may be able to trace the old
surface of the volcanic plateau and ascertain the relation of the outcrops
to the uppermost flow, or in dissected volcanic piles it may be possible to
reconstruct approximately the old surface of the volcanic cone. Of this
latter possibility Cripple Creek is an instance (Fig. 188); the present sur­
face was probably less than 1,500 feet below the original surface of the
volcanic cone. Ransome estimates that at Goldfield, Nevada, the sur­
1R. Beck, Lehre von den Erzlagerstatt.en, 1, 1909, p. 334.
454 MINERAL DEPOSITS
face has been degraded but a few hundred feet below the original contours
of the flows. A fine example showing the connection of deposits formed
near the surface with those of more deep-seated type is offered by the
San Juan region, in Colorado, where erosion has not only intersected the
flows but laid bare the intrusive masses forced into them—all within a
vertical interval of 6,000 feet.
Proof of Temperature.—The similarity to hot-spring deposits is least
marked in deep-seated veins, but becomes striking in the veins here
under consideration. The fine-grained chalcedonic and banded quartz
of spring deposits (Fig. 5, p. 67) is entirely similar to the often delicate
and beautifully banded and crustified portions of these veins. Both
kinds are colloidal deposits. The evidence indicates beyond any doubt
deposition by hot waters that held in solution large quantities of sub­
stances and which at the surface could not have had a temperature of
more than 100° C. The minerals present are those which we have reason
to believe were developed at a temperature less than 200° C. At
Republic, Washington, the veins now exposed were probably not more
than 1,000 feet below the original surface. They carry much adularia.
If it be conceded that they were formed by aqueous deposition the
temperature at the levels now exposed could hardly have exceeded
150° C., assuming that the waters reached the surface at boiling point.
Doelter believes that adularia may form at a temperature of 100° C.
Considering the case of the Camp Bird mine, Colorado, Boydell1
finds that the temperature of the ascending water would not be materially
influenced by the heat of a single lava flow, and that the assumption of
150° C. at the place of deposition would be entirely reasonable.
An interesting sidelight on the temperature is obtained from the gold
deposits at Manhattan, Nevada.2 Here we have normal quartz-adularia
veins in volcanic rocks and also replacements in the Cambrian White
Caps limestone. In the latter the gold occurs in very fine distribution;
adularia is present. The limestone is recrystallized but the temperature
was not high enough to produce lime silicates in the rock. There are also
stibnite and realgar, which may have been added by still later hydro-
thermal action.
The hot springs are volcanic “ after effects” and usually ascend
through the cooled lavas. In some cases the waters rise through bodies of
hot rocks, and then the temperature may become so high that the solutions
issue at the surface as gases and form “fumaroles” and “soffioni” which
sometimes, at their orifices, have a temperature of as much as 600° C.
In these rarer instances the high-temperature deposits, marked for
instance by tourmaline or cassiterite, may develop close to the surface.
1 H. C. Boydell, Temperature of formation of an epithermal ore deposit, Bull. 331,
Inst. Min. and Met. (London), paper read April, 1932, 43 pp.
2 H. G. Ferguson, Bull. 723, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 455
Genesis.—There is strong evidence connecting the class of deposits
here discussed with igneous action and ascending hot waters. The best
proof that the ores were not formed by the ordinary circulation of surface
waters is the fact that deposition has not proceeded uniformly, but that
the vein-forming epochs were of brief duration and followed closely after
each considerable eruption. At Jarbidge, Nevada, the veins are con­
tained in the early rhyolite, while the later rhyolite is barren. At Waihi,
New Zealand, the rich veins are sharply truncated by erosion and capped
by a rhyolite of later age.
The occurrence of these deposits in lavas really counts for but little;
there are vast areas of lava flows absolutely barren of mineral deposits.
Several of the Hungarian authors have pointed out that the veins are
confined mainly to the vicinity of volcanic necks or centers of eruption.
Exactly the same conclusions have been reached in the United States.
These veins do not disappear in depth. The gangue minerals con­
tinue as far as followed, but the ore becomes low grade, therefore the
exploitation stops. The deposits have nothing to do with the superficial
volcanic phenomena, though some authors seem to think so. The
solutions were truly of deepseated origin but their load was precipitated
within about 3,000 feet of the surface.
The question naturally arises: Why should not the veins gradually
assume the aspect of the deeper zones? Indeed, there is some scant
evidence from the San Juan region in Colorado that they do so occasion­
ally, but this is not a final answer. It would seem logical to suggest that
the epithermal veins were formed from hot solutions which had their
origin in the deep reservoirs where the magma was differentiated into the
various types of flow rocks, and not, like most mesothermal and hypo-
thermal deposits, in batholithic intrusions nearer to the surface. Why
the ores should not have been precipitated before they reached the
epithermal region still remains an open question.1 J. E. Spurr has
introduced the apt term of “telescoped” veins, which I should interpret
to mean: (1) That the ascending cooling solutions encountered precipitat­
ing influences near the surface causing rapid deposition of their content
within a short vertical distance; or (2) that the same happened in a vein
previously formed at a higher temperature; or (3) that several ore zones
were deposited rapidly covering each other owing to the solutions
gradually becoming hotter, an exceptional condition which, however,
might locally obtain.
M E T A S O M A T IC PRO CESSES

Extent of Alteration.—At considerable depths, the ore-forming solu­

tions move in the paths prescribed by Assuring and brecciation; they
rarely penetrate great masses of rocks. Near the surface, especially in
1J. E. Spurr, Ore magmas, New York, 1923, p. 300.
456 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the great volcanic piles, different conditions prevail. There are here
thick beds of tuffs and agglomerates with great porosity, and the stresses
may irregularly shatter large volumes of rock. The solutions and
gases—of meteoric or telluric origin—move far more freely and alteration
is effected on the largest scale. Here, too, we find most emphasized the
peculiar effects of the mingling of ascending and descending solutions.
Any one who has visited an active or recently extinct volcano has
undoubtedly observed the areas of discolored reddish, brown, and yellow
rocks which indicate alteration. Erosion of older volcanoes discloses
similar zones of alteration on a large scale and exposes metalliferous
deposits formed in their interior. Types of alteration are described
below.
Silicification.—Gases given off by ascending lavas penetrate the vol­
canic flows, often reaching the surface as fumaroles. They are admixed
with steam in part or wholly of magmatic origin. The gases are ordi­
narily acid and contain carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydrochloric,
hydrofluoric, and boric acids, and many other minor constituents. The
rocks are decomposed and generally silicified with the formation of kaolin,
alunite, jarosite, and diaspore. Small deposits of magnetite and sul­
phides may form.
The fumarolic gases are condensed, by surface waters, with develop­
ment of heat and the mixtures forming ascending springs penetrate the
volcanic flows. These springs contain a moderate amount of sulphates,
a little free sulphuric acid, and a large amount of silica (up to several
hundred milligrams per liter). They produce the same alteration in
the rocks as above indicated.1
In volcanic regions extensive areas of strong silicification are found in
places, as have been described, for instance, from the Rosita, Silverton,
and Bonanza districts, Colorado. The type of alteration has been well
described by W. S. Burbank2 from Bonanza. This barren silicification
resulted in the (probably colloidal) replacement of the igneous rocks by
fine-grained quartz and chalcedony. The silica was in part derived from
the original silicates, but in part new material was carried in by the
waters. In addition, kaolin minerals, alunite, diaspore, rutile, and
zunyite [8 Al2 0 3 .6 Si0 2 .9 H 2 0 (0 ,F 2 ,Cl>)] develop; more rarely, barite,
hematite, and pyrite.
The silicification described by Ransome3 from Red Mountain, near
Silverton, is of the same type. This rock contains, in per cent: 60.9
quartz, 26.3 kaolinite, 3.8 diaspore, 5.6 pyrite, 0.6 rutile, and 0.6 apatite.
This silicification was apparently not a superficial process, but proceeded
1 A. L. Day and E. T. Allen, The volcanic activity and hot springs of Larsen Peak,
Pvbl. 360, pt. 2, Carnegie Inst. Washington, 1925.
2 Prof. Paper 169, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1932, pp. 71-75.
3 Bull. 182, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1901.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 457
at considerable depths and penetrated large rock masses. It represents
an early stage of alteration which was later followed by the deposition
of economically important ores with propylitization and sericitization.
This extreme mode of alteration, by acid solutions, results in the
almost total elimination of calcium, magnesium, alkali metals, and car­
bon dioxide; its operation is somewhat similar to that of weathering by
descending acid surface waters.
The Development of Kaolin.—Kaolin in mineral deposits results
chiefly from the leaching by surface waters containing free sulphuric
acid. This mode of alteration is, then, superimposed on the products of
chloritization and sericitization formed by ascending alkaline waters.
Below the water level and the influence of free oxygen, sulphides may
be deposited by supergene enrichment. Such sulphides are marcasite,
chalcocite, covellite, argentite, ruby silver, etc. (see Chap. XXXII).
In places such supergene kaolin may contain finely divided gold, undoubt­
edly concentrated by secondary reactions. This supergene kaolin is
often reported in the literature to be of hypogene origin.
Hypogene kaolin doubtless exists, and occurs mainly, in the silicified
areas described above, as an earlier type of alteration, as, for instance, at
Bonanza, and the Red Mountain and Silverton districts. It is often
well crystallized and belongs to the variety of kaolin which has recently
been named dickite.1 The author fully agrees with the conclusions of
A. L. Day, and E. T. Allen.12 They say that “ kaolin is the product of
acid waters, hot or cold; where sericite is formed, the waters are presum­
ably alkaline.” Which one of the clay minerals is formed, depends on
temperature and pH value; weakly acid waters would probably be most
favorable for kaolin deposition.
Propylitization.—After the epoch of fumaroles and hot acid waters
has passed and the rocks have cooled somewhat, the epoch of metalliza­
tion proper begins; and the ore deposits are formed by rising hot solu­
tions which now contain carbon dioxide, silica, and hydrogen sulphide and
are of alkaline rather than acid reaction. Some of these waters move
slowly, percolating through great masses of rocks; others move rapidly
in prescribed channels and effect extensive changes in the immediately
adjoining rock.
One of the most common types of alteration is that resulting in the
propylitic facies.3 It affects mainly andesites and basalts, more rarely
1 C. S. Ross and P. F. Kerr, The kaolin minerals, Prof. Paper 165, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1931, p. 158.
2Volcanic activity and hot springs of Larsen Peak, Publ. 360, Carnegie Inst.
Washington, 1925, p. 141.
3 Propylite, named by von Richthofen, was formerly supposed to be a primary
andesitic rock, but G. F. Becker showed at the Comstock mines that it was really a
highly altered volcanic rock.
458 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
rhyolites, often spreading over wide areas in mineralized districts. Its
mineralogical characteristics consist in the abundant development ol
chlorite and pyrite, sometimes also epidote; in places it is accompanied
by the development of carbonates and a little sericite. The rock, which
assumes a dull green color, usually directly adjoins the ore-bearing vein.
The chemical changes consist of a moderate leaching of both potassium
and sodium; the silica is usually decreased, as are also calcium and
magnesium, except when carbonates of these metals are formed. The j
composition of the rock changes but little and the additions consist only j
of sulphur and some water of hydration. Takeo Kato1finds that in some
propylitized rocks of Japan the soda-lime feldspars are altered to albite
or potash-albite. Propylitization generally precedes the metallization.
Still another type of alteration, seen mostly in siliceous rocks like
rhyolite, consists in a general silicification of the ground mass and phene-
crysts, with aureoles of quartz developing around quartz phenocrysts.
Where limestone adjoins epithermal veins, a fine-grained silicification
without lime silicates may be observed. Sandstones and shales are
usually little altered.
Sericitization and Vein Quartz.—Near the veins, the sericitization
may become more intense, although here, too, simply chloritized rock
may often adjoin the fissure filling. In sericitization sodium is almost
entirely carried away and potassium is accumulated in a marked degree
in sericite and adularia; the latter mineral has a wide distribution, both
in the altered country rock and in the fissure filling. Unless carbonates
are formed, calcium and, to a less degree, magnesium are carried away;
much pyrite is introduced which usually contains at least traces of
precious metals. The percentage of silica is reduced. Close to the vein,
silicification often assumes the ascendancy and quartz, adularia, and
sericite, with more or less sulphides, develop and may form part of the ore.
In rare cases hydrargillite and zeolites may appear in the altered rock.
Rutile appears to be the only stable titanium mineral.
Alunitization.—Nearer the surface another potassium-aluminum
mineral—alunite—appears in considerable quantities. This hydrous
sulphate is characteristic of large altered areas in volcanic regions,12but,
being inconspicuous, is easily overlooked. Its development in this
phase is probably confined to the zone where the descending waters
carrying free sulphuric acid meet the ascending currents of alkaline
waters.
1 The last stage of magmatic differentiation as represented by Tertiary gold-
silver veins, 15th Internat. Geol. Congress, Pretoria, C. R. 2: 1930, pp. 9-12.
2 B. S. Butler and H. S. Gale, Alunite, Bull. 511, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1912.
R. J. Leonard, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 14-17. Leonard experimented with the
action of various alkaline salts and acids on feldspar. He obtained alunite readily at
100° C. and 200° C. but no kaolinite or sericite.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 459
As soon as the mineralized rocks become exposed to the air, oxidation
begins and sulphuric acid is generated by the action of oxygen on sul­
phides. This sulphuric acid descends with the surface water and converts
the sericitized rocks into kaolin mixed with alunite and other oxidation
products. Where waters exceptionally rich in sulphuric acid have acted
on the rocks, almost everything but quartz is carried away and the final
result is a loose quartz aggregate. Descending still farther, these sul­
phuric acid solutions soon lose their oxygen, and, under certain circum­
stances, secondary sulphides, with alunite and sericite, may again develop.
This indicates the complication of the series of reactions and how the same
minerals may form at different steps of the process.
ANALYSES OF FRESH AND ALTERED ROCKS IN THE THAMES DISTRICT

1 2 3 4 5

Si02.................. 57.42 52.69 57.99 55.38 58.98

TiOz.................. 0.68 0.53 0.51 0.24 0.11
A 1A ................ 17.61 18.33 17.59 15.63 11.21
Fe20 3................ 2.34 2.32 1.56 1.88 1.45
FeO.................. 3.77 2.98 2.37 2.95 2.42
MnO................. 0.43 0.25 0.21 0.23 0.11
MgO................. 2.19 3.09 2.01 1.88 1.43
CaO.................. 5.69 7.87 5.45 6.01 8.11
Na20 ................ 3.22 2.62 1.98 0.83 0.61
K20 .................. 1.94 0.98 1.65 3.28 3.93
H20 - .............. 0.85 0.73 1.56 2.41 2.54
H20 + .............. 2.62 3.71 1.89 1.92 1.15
C02................... 0.95 3.59 3.89 4.58 4.69
P A .................. 0.31 0.42 0.35 0.11 0.06
FeS2.................. 1.42 2.35 3.13
Total............ 100.02 100.11 100.43 99.68 99.93

1. Fresh hornblende andesite, Thames.

2. Chloritized hornblende andesite, Halcyon mine.
3. Altered andesite, 14 feet from Ophir vein,
Halcyon mine.
4. Altered andesite, 5 feet from Ophir vein, Sericite-pyrite-carbonate
rock from the 386-foot
Halcyon mine.
5. Altered andesite, adjoining Ophir vein, level.
Halcyon mine.
Metasomatic Processes at Thames and Waihi.—Extensive propylitiza-
tion has been described by several authors from observations in the
Hauraki Peninsula, in the northern island of New Zealand,1 where rich
1 A. M. Finlayson, Problems in the geology of the Hauraki gold fields, Econ. Geol.,
4, 1909, pp. 632-645.
460 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
gold-bearing veins appear in volcanic rocks, like pyroxene andesite oi
dacite. The extreme phase, close to the veins, is a grayish-white rock
but a more widespread type is a chloritized andesite which correspond!
to the propylitic facies as defined on a previous page. In this second type
the ferric minerals are chloritized, the pyroxene often passing first through
a uralitic stage, while the plagioclase remains comparatively fresh, but
contains some calcite and sericite.
Finlayson has presented two extremely valuable series of analyses,
which are given on pages 459 and 460. They represent rocks from
Thames and Waihi, the two most important fields in the peninsula. The
first column in each table gives the composition of the fresh rock, the
second that of the propylitic or chloritic facies; and the rest are analyses
of the more altered forms in which sericite and adularia are the pre­
dominating metasomatic products.123456
ANALYSES OF FRESH AND ALTERED ROCKS AT THE WAIHI MINE

1 2 3 4 5 6

Si02..................... 63.45 58.39 61.78 69.35 76.61 85.65

Ti02..................... 0.75 0.68 0.69 0.43 0.28 tr.
A120 3................... 15.26 16.51 14.89 11.66 8.31 1.35
................... 2.28 2.46 2.08 1.53 1.08 0.43
FeO...................... 3.01 2.98 2.51 1.66 0.59 0.21
MnO.................... 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.11 0.11 0.12
MgO..................... 1.29 1.66 1.08 0.46 0.51 0.31
CaO...................... 3.44 4.08 3.16 2.09 3.61 2.56
Na20 .................... 2.21 2.08 2.18 1.06 0.29 0.28
K20 ............... .... 1.78 2.89 3.68 3.31 1.98 1.41
H20 - ................. 1.10 2.41 1.89 1.61 0.43 0.24
H20 + ................. 2.90 2.87 3.05 2.12 1.08 1.33
C02...................... 1.08 1.56 2.01 2.24 1.87 2.04
P A ................. 0.29 0.31 0.30 0.26
0.65 1.88
0.11
3.59
tr.
FeS2..................... 4.69
Total............... 99.20 99.20 100.23 99.77 100.45 100.62
1. Fresh hornblende dacite, Waihi.
2. Chloritized hornblende dacite, 45 feet from Empire vein.
3. Altered dacite, 30 feet from Empire vein.
4. Altered dacite, 15 feet from Empire vein.
5. Altered dacite, adjoining Empire vein. |>850-foot level.
6. Replacement ore, Empire vein.
The hydration is caused by the development of chlorite. The per­
centage of alkali metals decreases, but only to a moderate degree. If
sericite or adularia has formed, the potassium may be higher in the
altered rock. The two excellent series of analyses quoted above show a
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 461
slightly differing trend. At Thames the altered rocks contain 10 or 11
per cent of carbonates, while at Waihi the carbonates form only one-
half of that amount. As in the California gold-quartz veins, this develop­
ment of carbonates results, at Thames, in the fixing of calcium, while
magnesium shows slight changes. At Waihi there is little change in
calcium, while the magnesium has been somewhat reduced. In both
places there is strong leaching of sodium and progressive accumulation of
potassium, except that at Waihi the potassium finally diminishes in the
highly quartzose vein material. Iron, in ferric and ferrous states, is con­
verted to pyrite, but the total iron is not much increased. At Thames,
where carbonates are abundant, the silica tends to decrease; at Waihi
the opposite is true. In both places there is an apparent decrease in
alumina, and a remarkable and unmistakable leaching of titanium, phos­
phorus, and manganese, as has also been noted by Spurr at Tonopah.
Mineralogically the alteration close to the vein results in sericite,
calcite, siderite, pyrite, quartz, and adularia, the last mineral in places
forming pseudomorphs after soda-lime feldspars, while also occurring in
small fissures. The adularia (valencianite) from Waihi was analyzed
by Finlayson and found to contain 11.25 per cent K20 and 4.11 per cent
Na20.
Stilbite and laumontite have been identified in the altered rocks of
Waihi,1 and analyses 4 (Waihi) and 5 (Thames) suggest the possibility
of their presence.
Finlayson does not accept Spurr’s view that the vein-forming waters,
filtered through rock masses, caused propylitization, but thinks that
this alteration is due to solutions or gases rich in C02, which permeated
the rocks immediately after solidification. The sericite-pyrite carbonate
rock along the veins, according to Finlayson, is caused by ascending
solutions of a later type.
Metasomatic Processes at Tonopah.—During the alteration of the
trachyte near the veins at Tonopah, Nevada,12 biotite and hornblende
have usually been completely destroyed; their outlines are marked by
aggregates of sericite, quartz, pyrite, and siderite, the latter two often
crystallizing together. The primary andesine-oligoclase has changed to
quartz and sericite or to adularia; the latter two are not often associated
in the same specimens. The microlitic groundmass is largely altered to
fine-grained quartz with fibers of sericite; pyrite and siderite are dis­
seminated. Apatite and zircon are residual minerals. Kaolin, when
present, is believed to result from the alteration of sericite by descending
solutions.
1P. G. Morgan, Trans., Australian Inst. Min. Eng., 8, 1902, p. 186.
2 J. E. Spurr, Prof. Paper 42, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905; Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp.
713-769.
462 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Within short distances from the larger veins, a propylitic type of altera­
tion appears, in which calcite and chlorite, together with pyrite and siderite,
are the important minerals. The feldspars are altered to calcite with a
little quartz; epidote is not abundant. There are transitions between
the propylitic and the sericitic alteration; and, according to Spurr, they
ANALYSES OF FRESH AND ALTERED ROCKS,
TONOPAH, NEVADA

1 2 3 4

S i0 2............................................... 67.69 55.60 72.98 91.40

T i0 2 ................................... 0.72 0.44 0.07
AI2 O3 ...................................... 17.67 16.70 14.66 4.31
F6 2 O3 ...................................... 2.43 2.23 1.01 0.77
FeO......................................... 0.80 3.51 0.16 0 .1 1
MgO....................................... 0 .8 8 2.60 0.33 0.18
CaO........................................ 0.45 4.27 0.18 none
0 .1 2 0 .0 2
Na20 ...................................... 2.54 4.08 none 0.06
K20 ........................................ 5.11 3.17 6.03 1.68
H jO - .................................................. 0.88 0.97 0.46
H j O + .................................................................. 3.06 2.95 0.98
c o 2 ........................................................................ 2.76 none none
P 2O b....................................... 0.28 0.16 0.04
97.57 99.98 99.87 GOO. 08
1. Partial analysis of relatively fresh “ Mizpah” trachyte. Booth,
Garrett, and Blair, analyst.
2. Altered andesite, Siebert shaft. Propylitic alteration to quartz,
calcite, chlorite, and sericite. George Steiger, analyst.
3. Altered trachyte, Mizpah mine. No original minerals remaining.
Sericitic alteration. George Steiger, analyst.
4. Ore material of Mizpah vein. Dense quartzose rock mixed with
kaolin-like material. Silicified trachyte. George Steiger, analyst.
1 Also 0.12 Zr02 and 0.06 MnO
were produced by the same waters. Near the veins these waters intro­
duced silica, potassium, and metallic sulphides; as they penetrated
farther from these channels their metal contents were exhausted, while
silica and potassium were still introduced; finally only carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide were left in the cooling waters, which, therefore,
had little to precipitate and small power of abstracting. The wall rock
acted as a screen for the traversing solutions.
As noted above, these views are not entirely accepted by Finlayson.
The most prominent features of the alteration are the almost complete
removal, adjacent to the veins, of ferrous iron, calcium, magnesium, and
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 463
sodium and the partial removal of ferric oxide. Even the resistant
apatite and rutile seem to have been dissolved to some degree. On the
other hand, there is a decided increase of silica, and the potassium has
increased. There is a moderate hydration, but no carbonates appear.
Marysville, Montana.—In a description of certain epithermal veins,
including the Drumlummon lode, A. Knopf1 gives comparative analyses
which show a decided sericitization of the quartz monzonite wall rock.
The altered rock contains only a few per cent of carbonates, but 27 per
cent of sericite. He states that the sericitization has been selective, the
orthoclase being practically exempt from alteration. A net decrease of
mass amounting to 5 per cent is calculated for the altered rock. This
lode is credited with a production of $15,000,000 in gold and silver.
Summary.—We may say that propylitization is the dominant process
of rock alteration of epithermal veins. Close to the vein, silicification
with adularia and sericite may appear; and nearer the surface, or under
the influence of descending sulphuric acid solutions, we find kaolin, or,
where sulphuric acid is present in abundance, alunite.
QUICKSILVER DEPOSITS
The Ores and Their General Occurrence.—The principal quicksilver
ore is cinnabar (HgS), which contains 86.2 per cent mercury. It is
usually massive, rarely well crystallized. A black modification of this
mineral, called metacinnabarite, rarely occurs in large amounts and is
probably a secondary sulphide deposited by descending waters.12 Native
quicksilver, calomel (HgCl), montroydite (HgO), and several oxychlorides
are evidently secondary minerals, developing from the sulphide (p. 869).
Primary but rare minerals are the black telluride of quicksilver, colo-
radoite; the selenide, tiemannite; the sulphoselenide, onofrite;3 and other
still rarer combinations of the selenides of copper, lead, and quicksilver.
Mercurial tetrahedrite is not uncommon, and some varieties contain as
much as 17 per cent quicksilver, although the percentage is usually much
smaller. In smaller quantities this metal is also sometimes present in
other minerals, for instance, in the native silver of Kongsberg, Norway,
and in the dyscrasite of the silver-bearing veins of Cobalt, Ontario (p. 608).
The occurrence of quicksilver minerals is by no means confined to
any certain kind of deposits or to any given age or epoch of metallization.
However, such minerals are not known to occur in deposits of distinctly
1Bull. 527, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913.
2 E. T. Allen and J. L. Crenshaw, The sulphides of zinc, cadmium, and mercury,
Am. Jour. Sd., 4th ser., 34, 1912, pp. 367-383.
3 Tiemannite and onofrite occurred as fissure filling in limestone at Marysvale,
Utah, and the ore was worked for some time. Volcanic rocks are abundant. Sele­
nides are reported from Guadalcazar, S. L. P., Mexico; livingstonite (HgSb<S7) at
Huitzuco, Guerrero.
464 MINERAL DEPOSITS
igneous origin, or in pegmatite dikes, or in veins of the deepest zone,
High temperature is evidently unfavorable for their development. How­
ever, there is coloradoite in the gold telluride veins of Western Australia,
which contain, among other minerals, magnetite and tourmaline, indicat­
ing deposition at fairly high temperature. In gold-bearing quartz veins
of the ordinary type, believed to have been formed at a considerable
depth, but at lower temperature and pressure than pegmatite dikes,
cinnabar is not an uncommon mineral. It occurs in several of these veins
in California,1 as well as in the similar veins of central Idaho, and is
frequently found in the placers derived from the erosion of these veins,
as at Stanley Basin and Warren, Idaho. In northeastern Oregon, the
gold-quartz veins contain mercurial tetrahedrite, as well as secondary
cinnabar formed from that mineral.12 In the placers below the veins of
Susanville, in the same region, are pebbles showing masses of cinnabar
inclosed in massive white vein quartz. In small quantities cinnabar
occurs in the lead and zinc deposits of Monteponi, Sardinia, and at San­
tander, in Spain.
In few of these deposits are the mercurial minerals abundant enough
to constitute an ore, and in the majority of the deposits formed at a
considerable depth the metal is apparently entirely absent. The com­
mercial quicksilver ores are practically confined to a small and well-
defined group of deposits, which are of particular interest because their
genesis can be fairly accurately ascertained.
A scant association of ore minerals characterizes these deposits.
Besides cinnabar and a few secondary minerals, they contain almost
invariably pyrite or marcasite. Stibnite is common. Chalcopyrite and
millerite are rare. Pyrargyrite occurred in a deposit near Calistoga,
California. Among gangue minerals we have predominatingly opal,
chalcedony, and quartz, also calcite and dolomite, more rarely barite
and alunite, very seldom fluorite; zeolites are of exceptional occurrence.
Replacements of adjoining country rock by dolomitic carbonates or by
opal are common, but the cinnabar nearly always occurs in these or in
unaltered rock directly associated with quartz or chalcedonic silica.
Hydrocarbons are frequent. The ores should contain at least 0.5 per
cent Hg. The richest ores are those of Almaden, Spain, said to average
6 to 8 per cent.
As to form and structure, the ores occur in irregular and “chambered”
veins and brecciated zones, often also as “stockworks” of minute seams,
or as disseminations and replacements in more or less porous rocks. The
irregularity and brecciated character of the deposits suggest their develop­
1 H. W. Turner, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 47, 1894, p. 467.
H. D. McCaskey, Min. Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 1, 1910, p. 905.
2 W. Lindgren, Twenty-second Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901, pp. 604,
708.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 465
ment near the surface. Schuette emphasizes the almost universal
presence of impervious roofs which have the tendency to localize the
ore-shoots.
The deposits occur in rocks of any kind and any age, but almost always
in close connection with effusive rocks or in regions of volcanic activity.
Hot springs are frequent in many quicksilver districts, and many springs
in volcanic regions are depositing cinnabar at the present time.
Although most of the quicksilver deposits have been formed at a
relatively late time and in connection with the eruption of Tertiary and
recent lavas, it does not necessarily follow that their development has
been confined to late geological time. Older surface eruptions were
undoubtedly accompanied in places by the formation of quicksilver
deposits, but as these were near the surface, they were quickly eroded.
The quicksilver deposits generally become impoverished at a depth
of less than 1,000 feet. Very few deposits have been profitable to a depth
of 1,500 feet.
Distribution, Production, and Use.—Quicksilver deposits are widely
distributed, although the main production of the metal comes from a
few occurrences. The ores follow the belts of Tertiary and Quaternary
eruptions, especially along the important fracture lines of the globe.
The Coast Range of California, in which the orogenic movements
are largely post-Miocene, contains a belt of quicksilver deposits several
hundred miles in length, from which a large production has been obtained.
Scattered deposits are found in Oregon, Washington, and even in British
Columbia. A second belt, less well defined and certainly less productive,
extends from north to south over a similar length in western Nevada.
There are a few occurrences in Arizona.1
The Mexican area, which in spite of comprising many deposits, yields
only a slight production, begins in western Texas, in the Terlingua district,
and may be considered to end in the State of San Luis Potosi, Mexico.12
Farther south, in Colombia and Peru,3 quicksilver deposits appear
again. The Yauli and Huancavelica districts, Peru, are best known; the
latter at one time was an important producer.
1E. D. Gordon and C. Lausen, Quicksilver resources of Arizona, Bull. 122, Univ.
Arizona, 1927.
2J. D. Villarello, Genesis de los yacimientos mercuriales de Palomas y Huitzuco,
Mem., Soc. Cient. Ant. Alzate, 19, 1903, pp. 95-136.
J. D. Villarello, Descripcidn de los criaderos de mercurio de Chiquilistan, Jalisco,
idem, 20, 1904, pp. 389-397.
P. A. Babb, Dulces Nombres quicksilver deposit, Mexico, Eng. and Min. Jour.,
Oct. 2, 1909.
F. J. H. Merrill, The mercury deposits of Mexico, Mining World, 24, 1906, p. 244.
3A. F. Umlauff, El cinabrio de Huancavelica, Bol. 17, Cuerpo de Ingenieros de
Minas, Lima, 1904, p. 61.
The ores occur in Jurassic beds or in Tertiary volcanic rocks.
466 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In Europe, an extensive region in Italy, Austria, and adjacent countria
contains quicksilver deposits. This area includes the deposits of Tuscany,
Yallalta-Sagron, Idria and vicinity, Avala,1in Serbia, and less important
occurrences in Bosnia.
Isolated yet highly productive deposits occur at Almaden, in Spain.
On the northern slope of the Altai Mountains, Ferghana, Russian
Turkestan,2 a long belt of deposits occurs in limestone and schist. They
contain cinnabar and stibnite with calcite and fluorite, and were exten­
sively worked by the Chinese a thousand years ago.
Some deposits have been found on the western side of the Pacific,
mainly in Japan, China,3 Borneo, Australia, and New Zealand.
In 1930 the world’s production was 107,000 flasks, of 76 pounds, cf
which 56,069 came from Italy (Idria), 46,244 from Spain (Almaden),
and 21,553 from the United States. California produced 11,451 flasks.
The average price was about 1115 per flask.
The principal use of quicksilver is for gold amalgamation, drugs,
paints, and mercurial fulminate (Hg(ONC) 2 ), an explosive used for priming
shells.
The Adriatic Region.—In the Adriatic region of Europe the ores
occur in rocks of many kinds: In Tuscany,4 Mesozoic and Tertiary lime­
stones and sandstones with trachyte are the enclosing rocks; hot springs
are present; at Idria, in the Alpine Triassic; at Avala, in serpentine and
probably Cretaceous limestone cut by trachytic dikes. De Launay1
has shown that these Adriatic ores coincide in their extension with
Tertiary eruptives, and that, in all probability, even where these eruptives
are locally absent, as at Idria, the deposits owe their origin to the after­
effects of this igneous activity in the form of ascending springs.
At Idria,6in territory now annexed by Italy, is located one of the great
quicksilver mines of the world. The ores are contained in Triassic beds
1 H. Fischer, Die Quecksilberlagerstatten am Avala-Berge in Serbien, Zeitschr.
prakt. Geol., 1906, 14, p. 245.
2 T. B. Borowskaja, Zwetnye metally, 12, Moscow, 1930, pp. 1720-1731.
3 W. H. Wong, The mineral resources of China, Mem., ser. B .,.l, China Geol.
Survey, 1919.
F. R. Tegengren, The quicksilver deposits of China, idem, Bull. 2, 1920.
4B. Lotti, II campo cinabrifero dell’ Abbadia, etc., Rass. Min., 7, 1898; Zeitschr.
prakt. Geol., 1898, p. 258. See also Rass. Min., 17, 1902.
A. Rzehak, Die Zinnoberlagerstatte von Vallalta-Sagron, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol,
1905, pp. 325-330.
H. Troegel and F. Ahlfeld, Die Zinnober-vorkommen in der sudlichen Toscana,
Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1920, pp. 21-28; 37-46.
6L. de Launay, La metallogenie de l’ltalie, Tenth Internat. Geol. Congiess,
Mexico, 1906.
6 F. Kossmat, Ueber die geologischen Verhaltnisse des Bergbaugebietes von Idria,
Jahrb. K. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 49, 1899, pp. 259-286.
Geologisch-bergmannische Karten, etc. von Idria. Text by Plaminek. Pub­
lished by the Agricultural Department, Vienna, 1893 (Literature).
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 467
of shale, marl, and dolomite, and are connected with and in part occur
in great overthrusts and faults. The ore-bodies, which apparently
do not extend below a depth of 1,000 feet, in places follow the strati­
fication. The ores are usually designated as “impregnations” in shale or
marls, but small veins and stockworks are also found, especially in the
dolomite. The age of deposition is certainly post-Cretaceous, probably
Tertiary.
Almaden.1—Almaden is the richest and most productive quicksilver
mine in the world. The value of its metallic product during the period
1564 to 1927 is estimated at about $250,000,000. The mine is 1,150 feet

F i g . 1 7 1 . — Rich ore, Almaden, Spain, showing cinnabar between grains of quartzite

and formed by replacem ent in quartz, c, cinnabar; a, sericite; p, pyrite; z, zircon. M agni­
fied 7 0 diameters. (A fter R . Beck.)
deep; the three ore-shoots have a length of about 1,000 feet and an
average width of about 12 feet. The ores occur in three fractured beds
of steeply dipping Silurian quartzite separated by bituminous slates.
Beck has shown that cinnabar replaces the sandstone grains (Fig. 171).
Ransome proved the same, still more convincingly. Sericite, pyrite,
and a zeolite (natrolite?) occur in the ore. Van der Veen showed that
dikes of diabase occur in the mine. He correlates this diabase with the
1 Courtney de Kalb, The Almaden quicksilver mine, Econ. Geol., 16, 1921, pp.
301-312.
F. L. Ransome, idem, pp. 313-321.
R. W. Van der Veen, idem, 19, 1924, pp. 146-156.
Minas de Almaden, Guidebook, Fourteenth Internal. Geol. Congress, Madrid,
1926.
468 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Tertiary diabase intrusions so common in many parts of Spain and sug­
gests that the ores are probably of a similar age.
California.1—The California region offers types of almost all the
various structural developments. In the region north of San Francisco,

F i g . 1 7 2 . — M ap showing the location of the m ercury deposits of the U nited States. {Afler
F. L. Ransome, U. S. M ineral Resources.)

near Clear Lake, serpentine, radiolarian cherts, altered Franciscan sand­

stone (Jurassic?), and Cretaceous sandstones prevail. The rocks are
1 G. F. Becker, The quicksilver resources of the Pacific slope, Mon. 13, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1888.
W. Forstner, The quicksilver resources of California, Bull. 27, California State
Min. Bur., 1903.
H. D. McCaskey, F. L. Ransome, C. P. Ross, and J. W. Furness, Mineral
Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, particularly in issue of pt. 1, 1917, pD. 367-456, with
literature by I. P. Evans; pt. 1, 1918, pp. 143-182.
W. W. Bradley, Quicksilver resources of California, Bull. 78, California State
Min. Bur., 1918, pp. 389.
C. N. Schuette, Occurrence of quicksilver ore-bodies, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Met. Eng., General Volume, 1931, pp. 403-488. An excellent paper.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 469
greatly shattered and late Tertiary to Quaternary andesites and basalts
break through them. The occurrences of cinnabar are numerous, and
some of them have yielded a large production, but the ore-bodies generally
become impoverished at a depth of a few hundred feet. The deposits
form fissure veins largely filled with attrition material, and this is impreg­
nated with cinnabar, pyrite, opaline silica, and calcite. Masses of ore
often extend into the country rock from these fissures. Or again, as in
the Great Eastern mine, the ore forms tabular masses between serpentine
and sandstone, or pipes in opaline or chalcedonic rocks between the same
formations, or finally, it may be developed on the contact of basalt and
sandstone. The Redington mine was operated on a large chambered
deposit at the surface which was continued below by more regular and
narrow veins. Throughout this region hot springs are found in and
around the ore deposits.

F ig . 173.— Generalized section through New Almaden mine, California, along the
Day tunnel. Shaded areas indicate the fractured zone; cross-hatched areas indicate ore;
“ alta” shown in black. (A fter C. N . Schuette.)
The great mine of New Almaden, south of San Francisco, is credited
with a production valued at 175,000,000. It has been in operation for
about 100 years. The ore-bodies lie in vein-like fissure zones underneath
the “alta,” a slicken-sided clay. The footwall is serpentine; above the
“alia” is sandstone and clay of the Franciscan series (Jurassic?) (Fig.
173). On the whole, the ore, then, lies underneath an impervious capping
and practically on the contact with the intrusive serpentine. Continuous
ore-bodies extended to the 1,600-foot level. The greatest depth attained
is 2,100 feet, but no work has been done lately in the lower levels. There
are no hot springs or lava flows near by.
The New Idria mine, in San Benito County, has been in operation since
1850. Similarly to New Almaden, the ore lies along a clayey streak
separating sandstones of the Franciscan series (unconformably covered
by tilted Chico (Cretaceous) and Tejon (Eocene) sandstones) from the
serpentinized rocks of the hanging wall. The ores appear in three forms—
as normal veins, as irregular stockworks, and as impregnations in sand­
stone. The mine is opened by tunnels, the lowest level being at a vertical
depth of 1,400 feet below the surface. There are no effusive rocks in the
immediate vicinity. The ores in places contain much meta-cinnabarite.
470 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
Other Districts.—In the Terlingua district,1Texas, near the Mexican
boundary, the ores are found in the Upper Cretaceous shales and the
Lower Cretaceous limestone over a considerable area. Volcanic rocks
are represented by sheets, dikes, and flows of andesite, rhyolite, and
basalt. In the lower limestones the ores are mainly in nearly vertical
calcite veins, or in lodes of friction breccia (Fig. 174). The other asso­
ciated minerals are chalcedony, gypsum, aragonite, and pyrite; also
many rare oxidation products of cinnabar. In part, the ore-bodies
occur below the impervious shale beds. The Chisos mine is 900 feet deep.

F ig . 174.— Vertical cross-section of California Hill, Terlingua, Texas, showing cinnabar

veins with large ore-bodies below im pervious shale. (A fter H . W . Turner.)

The quicksilver belt of western Nevada has been described by H. D.

McCaskey12 and A. Knopf.3 It is found in Humboldt, Pershing, Esmer­
alda, and Nye counties and has so far yielded no great production. The
ores occur in Paleozoic limestone and in Tertiary rhyolite, and show the
usual association, except that at Beatty, the rhyolites are completely
silicified and alunitized over large areas. Cinnabar with gold and stibnite
also occurs near National, Nevada.
A new cinnabar deposit, said to be of some promise, is found in central
Idaho in the Yellow Pine district.4 The cinnabar occurs here in brec-
ciated zones in a Paleozoic (?) limestone included in an intrusive quartz
1 W. B. Phillips, The quicksilver deposits of Brewster County, Texas, Econ. Geol,
1, 1905, pp. 155-162.
H. W. Turner, The Terlingua quicksilver deposits, idem, 1, 1905, pp. 265-281.
J. A. Udden, The anticlinal theory applied to some quicksilver deposits, Bull.
1822, Texas Univ., 1918, 30 pp.
2 Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911, pt. 1, pp. 906-919.
3 Some cinnabar deposits of western Nevada, Bull. 620, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1916,
pp. 59-110.
4 D. C. Livingston and E. S. Larsen, Bull. 715, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1920, pp. 73-83.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 471
monzonite. Thick beds of Tertiary effusives occur in the vicinity.
Cinnabar deposits have recently been found in Carboniferous sandstone
in central Arkansas.1 Associated minerals are quartz, dickite (kaolinite),
and stibnite.
Many minor occurrences of cinnabar are believed to be secondary
and to result from the decomposition of mercurial tetrahedrite.12
Genesis.—The uniform character of the quicksilver deposits points
to a common genesis for all of them. The earlier belief, that the ores
were products of sublimation, is generally abandoned, for the usual mode
of occurrence, with minerals of aqueous origin, such as calcite, opal,
chalcedony, and often barite, is decidedly opposed to such a view. Becker
has pointed out that, as the character of the enclosing rocks has little
influence on the deposits they are most probably derived from a common,
deep-seated source. Their structure indicates deposition near the sur­
face, as does also the physiographic evidence at many places—for instance,
where the ore appears in the crevices of Quaternary and little-eroded
lava flows.
When it is noted that hot springs and volcanic surface flows are
present in almost all regions of importance (except at Almaden and Idria),
and that cinnabar in considerable quantities is associated with hot spring
deposits, or is actually found deposited by hot springs, the argument
becomes very strong indeed that such solutions have formed the majority
of the deposits. For the few deposits that have no such clear connection
with volcanic rocks the characteristic mineral association still holds good,
and we are forced to the hypothesis that volcanism and hot-spring action
are the causes of these also, though the products of the igneous activity
may have failed to reach the surface and the hot springs may have
subsided.
The evidence relating to cinnabar deposited by hot springs is sum­
marized in the following paragraphs.
At Steamboat Springs, Nevada, near the California boundary,
cinnabar is contained in the hot ascending sodium chloride waters
together with antimony, arsenic, and sulphur, and is actually being
deposited in the sinter.3 Close by, but at a higher level, is a low-grade
quicksilver deposit in decomposed granite, and this in all probability
was also formed by the same springs when issuing at a higher level.
Underneath the sinters of the present springs the gravels contain crystal­
lized stibnite and pyrite.
1J. C. Branner, Cinnabar in southwestern Arkansas, Information Circ. 2, Arkansas
Geol. Survey, 1932, 51 pp.
2 K. Hummel, Zeitschr. -prakt. Geol., 1925, pp. 154-167, describes an interesting
case where cinnabar with chalcocite has been formed by supergene enrichment of
pre-Variscan age.
3 G. F. Becker, Mon. 13, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1888, Chap. XI.
472 MINERAL DEPOSITS
At Sulphur Bank,1 in the California quicksilver belt, Le Conte,
Christy, Rising, Becker, and Posepny have studied the deposition of
cinnabar and sulphur by ascending hot sodium carbonate and borate
waters and have all arrived at the conclusion that such deposition,
together with that of pyrite and opal, is actually taking place. The
Cretaceous sandstones and associated Franciscan metamorphic rocks
are here overlain by flows of basalt and by cinder cones, pointing to very
recent eruption. The hot springs have altered and bleached the basalt.
Sulphur is deposited at the surface. Below the superficial deposit of
sulphur, cinnabar is found in the basalt, as well as in the underlying
shales and sandstones; it occurs mostly in veinlets and joints together
with the pyrite and opal above mentioned (cf. p. 77).
The Rabbit Hole sulphur deposit, in Humboldt County, Nevada,
described by G. I. Adams,123is evidently a product of hot springs, and near
it are considerable areas of rhyolite. The rocks are silicified, and opal,
alunite, gypsum, and some cinnabar are present.
In the Hauraki Peninsula of New Zealand, near Omapere Lake,1
where basalts overlie Mesozoic shales and sandstones, mercury and
cinnabar have been found in the deposits of the hot springs at several
places.
A careful investigation would doubtless disclose the presence of
cinnabar in many other spring deposits.4 If it is found in more than
traces the best way to test such material, as well as ores, is by the miner’s
pan, in which the bright-red grains of cinnabar show conspicuously.
Quicksilver is apparently contained in hot-spring waters carrying
sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, or sodium borate; sometimes all
three salts as well as carbon dioxide and some hydrogen sulphide are
present.
Regarding the mode in which mercury is carried in solution, Becker’s
views,5 based on the laboratory experiments of W. H. Melville, still
appear to furnish the best explanation. While the solubility of mercuric
1 J. LeConte and W. B. Rising, The phenomena of metalliferous vein formation
now in progress at Sulphur Bank, Calif., Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 24, 1882, pp. 23-33.
G. F. Becker, op. dt., Chap. VII.
F. Posepny, The genesis of ore deposits, 2d ed., 1902, pp. 32-36.
2 Bull. 225, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 497-502.
3 J. M. Bell and E. de C. Clarke, Bull. 8, New Zealand Geol. Survey, 1909, p. 87.
J. Park, Trans., N. Z. Inst. Min. Eng., 88, 1904, p. 27.
Andre P. Griffiths, The Ohaeawai quicksilver deposits, Trans., N. Z. Inst. Min.
Eng., 2, 1898, p. 48.
4 Occurrences which merit close examination are those described by T. Warner
from Coso Range, Inyo County, California (Mining in California, 26, January,
1930, pp. 59-63, California Dept. Nat. Research Div. Mines), and that at Opalite,
southeastern Oregon.
5 G. F. Becker, Mon. 13, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1888, Chap. XV.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 473
sulphide in alkaline compounds containing sulphur had long been recog­
nized, the evidence was to some degree conflicting.
Becker showed that mercuric sulphide is freely soluble in solutions of
sodium sulphide, as well as in a mixture of Na2S and NaOH, and also in
warm sodium sulphydrate (NaHS). When neutral sodium carbonate is
treated with hydrogen sulphide, sodium sulphydrate and probably also
sodium sulphide will form; these dissolve mercurial sulphide, and double
salts of the general formula HgS.nNa2S doubtless form. Incidentally it
was found that the same reagents would dissolve metallic gold, pyrite,
sphalerite, and cupric sulphide. The solubility of the sulphides of
arsenic and antimony under similar conditions is well known.
It is, therefore, easy to perceive that a spring water containing sodium
carbonate and hydrogen sulphide would form a suitable solvent for the
compounds mentioned. The precipitation would be easily effected by
oxidation of the water and the development of free acids, by dilution, by
cooling, or by the presence of organic or ammoniacal compounds. That
the latter two agents are active in many cases there is little doubt.
Relation to Other Ore Deposits.—Although the cinnabar deposits
form a well-defined group, they are not to be separated entirely from other
classes of ore deposits. Some of them contain other metallic minerals,
and there are many that show a transition to the stibnite and arsenical
veins. The Nevada belt, especially, furnishes many instances of a close
relationship to gold and silver bearing veins on one hand and to stibnite
veins on the other hand. It is true, however, that no cinnabar deposit
has yet been found to change gradually into ores of different character as
depth is attained. No deposits have been worked below a depth of 2,000
feet vertically beneath the outcrops. There is little doubt that these
ores were formed from the most volatile parts of the magmas, carried in
solution by ascending waters until they came close to the surface. But
the irregular distribution of the deposits and their entire absence from
large areas of volcanism form problems that are yet unsolved.
STIBNITE DEPOSITS
Mineralogy, Production and Uses.—Stibnite (Sb2S3 with 71.4 per
cent Sb) is the principal ore mineral of antimony. Its oxidation near
the surface results in various oxides (p. 876) of yellowish or white color
such as senarmontite (Sb20 3), cervantite (Sb02), and stibiconite
(H2 Sb20 5 ). While stibnite occurs in many deposits in small quantities,
especially in quicksilver ores, it is the characteristic and dominant
mineral in the stibnite veins where it is accompanied by quartz gangue
and a scant amount of other sulphides, such as arsenopyrite, realgar,
pyrite, and sphalerite, more rarely jamesonite and similar sulphanti-
monides. Such ores often also carry gold, and the association of the
stibnite with some gold-quartz veins has often been noted. For the
474 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
purpose of making pure antimony the presence of arsenic and copper u
undesirable.
In past years the production of antimony has not been great owingto
its low price and limited usefulness. During the World War the price
increased to 28 cents per pound for the best grade; in 1929 and 1930
the price had dropped to about 8 cents. The world’s production ol
antimony metal may be estimated at 30,000 short tons. The supply
is mainly obtained from China, but smaller amounts come from central
France, from the State of Queretaro, Mexico, as well as from Italy,
Jugoslavia, Asia Minor, and Algeria. In the United States little pure
antimony is produced. Antimony is used for bearing metals, type alloys,
shrapnel bullets, and its salts find a varied use in the industries. The
sulphide is used in pyrotechnics.
Another source of antimony is in the replacement deposits and veins
containing mainly galena but associated with tetrahedrite and more
rarely with jamesonite, bournonite, boulangerite, and other lead sul-
phantimonides. As a rule these are related to intrusive action; and the
small amount of antimony contained is recovered as “ hard lead” or
antimonial lead in the smelting operations. About 25,000 tons of this
alloy were produced annually in the United States but in 1930 the out­
put had dropped to 13,700 tons. It contains about 27 per cent Sb.
No antimonial mineral is known to occur in magmatic deposits;
they are certainly rare in the contact-metamorphic and other high
temperature deposits though in these jamesonite, tetrahedrite, and
stibnite have been occasionally reported.
Occurrence.—The stibnite veins have wide distribution but are
rarely rich. They are in part formed near the surface (epithermal),
but many deposits are of more deepseated origin and occur in or near
intrusive rocks. To the former type belong the stibnite veins with a
gangue of fine-grained and drusy quartz which intersect flows of rhyolite
and basalt in western Nevada. The antimony sulphide is as a rule
beautifully crystallized in acicular and prismatic forms; it is often accom­
panied by a little pyrite, sphalerite, and arsenopyrite, sometimes also
by tetrahedrite and cinnabar. Such veins carry a little silver and less
gold. The intimate relationship of these veins with the gold and silver
veins proper is, however, shown by the occurrence in one of them, at
National, Nevada,1 of a shoot of remarkably coarse gold of the electrum
variety.
Stibnite veins of uncertain affiliations are found in the Carboniferous
of central Arkansas. Stibnite shows a marked tendency to form replace­
ments in limestone and shale. Such deposits in Eocene shale below a
thick series of andesites have been described from southern Utah.2
1W. Lindgren, Bull. 601, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915.
2 G. B. Richardson, idem, pp. 253-256.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 475
They are undoubtedly hot-spring deposits. Of such nature are also the
deposits at Pereta, in Tuscany, where the mineral is associated with
realgar and cinnabar and occupies veins, seams, and irregular pockets in
Tertiary calcareous and detrital rocks. The country rock is in part
silicified, in part altered to gypsum or alunite, and exhalations of hydrogen
sulphide testify to the recent age of the deposit.
Beck1 describes important deposits of stibnite at Kostainik, in
Serbia, where the mineral occurs in nests and veins in trachyte or in
Triassic clay shales, and also as metasomatic bodies replacing the beds
along the contact of limestone and shale. The gangue is a drusy fine­
grained quartz.
The stibnite veins of Japan, renowned for their beautiful crystals, are
found in Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks near intrusions of quartz porphyry.
From 60 to 90 per cent of the world’s production of antimony metal
comes from China,2 mainly from the Hunan Province. The deposits
appear to be normal epithermal veins; but they occur in part in Paleozoic
rocks.
The deposit of Djebel Hamimat,3in Algeria, containing senarmontite,
and that of Altar,4Sonora, from which stibnite is reported as the principal
ore mineral, appear both to be replacement deposits in limestone.
Stibnite veins affiliated with intrusive rocks differ but little from
the deposits described above. They are known from central France,
where narrow veins intersect granite and surrounding schist. Similar
deposits occur, for instance, in Kern County, California, where the quartz
veins also contain gold, and in the Coeur d’ Alene district, Idaho. The
pre-Cambrian gold-quartz veins of Rhodesia often contain stibnite.
Stibnite is very common in Alaska and generally is found in gold-
quartz veins. A. H. Brooks5 who enumerates 67 occurrences suggests
that the stibnite may have been introduced in older gold-quartz veins
during a later and Tertiary mineralization.
GOLD-QUARTZ VEINS IN ANDESITE
Transylvania.6—In northwestern Hungary and in adjoining parts of
Transylvania gold-bearing veins of Tertiary age have been formed after
eruptions of andesites and dacites. A mining industry, begun centuries
1 R. Beck (after W. von Fircks), Zeilschr. prakl. Geol., 1900, pp. 33-36.
2 F. R. Tegengren, The Hsi-Ku’ang-Shan antimony mining fields, Hsin-Hua
district, Hunan, Bull. 3, China Geol. Survey, 1921, pp. 1-21.
3L. de Launay, Gites mindraux, 1, 1913, p. 772.
4 E. T. Cox, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 20, 1880, pp. 421-423.
5 Antimony deposits of Alaska, Bull. 649, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1916.
6 Bela von Inkey, Nagyag und seine Erzlagerstatten, Buda-Pest, 1885.
Bela von Inkey, De la relation entre l’dtat propylitique des roches anddsitiques
ct leur filons mincraux, 10th Internat. Geol. Congress, Mexico, 1906.
M. v. P&lfv, Das Goldvorkommen im siebenbiirgisehen Erzgebirge, etc., Zeitschr.
476 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
ago, still flourishes in this region. The literature is very extensive, and
only a few deposits can be mentioned here as examples. The annual
production is still about $1,500,000. The mines are now mainly in
Roumanian territory.
The geological formations in the western part of the gold mining region
of Transylvania consist of Mesozoic melaphyres, Cretaceous shales and
sandstones, and Miocene sediments, all penetrated by late Tertiary
eruptions of andesites and dacites. The igneous rocks appear as lava
flows, tuffs, and volcanic necks. The veins near Brdd, at present the
most productive district, fill well-defined, steeply dipping, in places
branching fissures which generally intersect volcanic rocks or Cretaceous
sediments. The simple veins are as much as 1 meter in thickness; the
lodes attain a thickness of 10 to 20 meters. The deposits have been
worked to a depth of about 300 meters. The fissures are tectonic, not
contraction joints. They are of Miocene age.
The surrounding rocks, particularly the andesite, have suffered
extensive propylitization, the femic minerals being extensively decom­
posed, while feldspars remain fresh. Pyrite is not common except near
the veins. Calcite is abundant. Schumacher does not believe that
propylitization is caused by “intensive penetration by gases from the
not yet wholly solidified intrusions,” an opinion expressed by Stelzner
and Bergeat. He nevertheless considers the process distinctly earlier
than the veins and independent of them. The alteration continues to the
greatest depths attained. “ Kaolinization ” near the veins is a wholly
different process, according to Schumacher, and is superimposed upon
propylitization. The alteration of the wall rock in a vein 0.5 meter
thick extends only about 10 centimeters from the vein, but many smaller
veins have proportionately wider zones of alteration.
An older set of veins is composed of clastic material of shale and
igneous rocks (“ Glauch veins”). They are interpreted as having been
filled by ascending liquid muds. Similar veins in the Silverton district,
Colorado, have been described by Ransome.
The gangue of the ore-bearing veins is composed of quartz (rarely
chalcedony), calcite, rhodochrosite, and barite, a frequently recurring
association in veins of this class. The quartz is usually fine-grained,
sometimes drusy, cellular, or honeycombed, but not amethystine.
Pyrite in small crystals is abundant; the concentrates contain 10 grams
of gold and 69 grams of silver per ton, while the pyrite in the country
rock contains 7 to 15 grams of gold and 10 to 15 grams of silver per ton;
prakt. Geol., 1907, pp. 144—148.
C. Semper, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Golderzlagerstatten des siebenbiirgischen
Erzgebirges, Abh. K. Preuss. geol. Landesanstalt, Neue Folge, Ease. 33, 1900.
F. Schumacher, Die Golderzlagerstatten der Rudaer Zwolf-Apostel Gewerk-
schaft zu Brdd in Siebenburgen, ZeiUchr. prakt. Geol., 1912, pp. 1-85.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 477
both kinds are therefore poor in gold. Sphalerite is associated with
pyrite and is poor in gold but contains more silver than the pyrite.
Chalcopyrite and galena, where present, are poor in gold but contain
several hundred grams of silver per ton.
The principal ore mineral is native gold, which occurs commonly in
crushed quartz or in little fissures (Fig. 175), or as sheets or wires between
the quartz combs of veinlets. Some of it is found in coarse quartz and
is apparently older than the quartz or of contemporaneous origin. It
occurs also in sheets along the cleavage planes of calcite and in lumps or
nodules in clay. In part it is therefore of relatively late origin. The
gold contains 28 per cent silver, and the ores average 10 grams of gold
per ton. Tellurides and rich silver minerals are rare.

F ig . 175.— Rich gold-bearing quartz, Brdd, Transylvania, a, granular quartz; b,

gold between grains; c, plates of gold accompanied by crushed quartz. Magnified. (After
F. Schumacher.)

The structure of the veins is irregularly massive, though in places

crusted, banded, and drusy or brecciated. Small prismatic and rectangu­
lar pseudomorphs of quartz are considered as replacements of gypsum,
but strongly resemble the similar casts of celestite at Cripple Creek,
Colorado.
The ore-shoots extend irregularly with steep dip for 100 or 200 feet
vertically. Shoots often occur at junctions and intersections (Fig. 176).
At a junction of two veins with a narrow pyritic seam was found a pocket
from which in one day gold weighing 55 kilograms was extracted. Near
the surface the veins were poor. The richest zone extended from about
100 meters below the surface down to a depth of 320 meters. The
remarkable dependence of the rich ore on narrow seams of pyrite is
478 MINERAL DEPOSITS
evident and recalls analogous conditions in the Thames district, New
Zealand, the “ indicators” of Victorian quartz mines and many other gold
deposits (Fig. 177).
Schumacher believes that the gold was deposited by ascending hot
waters in the vicinity of necks of intrusive rocks. Beyond the intrusive
FiuaUfcft

F ig . 176.— Section of stoped area in vein at Br&d, Transylvania, showing pockets of rich ore;
also rich shoots following intersections with barren veins. (A fter F. Schumacher.)
necks the veins persist but contain only gangue minerals. M. Dittrich
examined fresh and propylitic andesite, using the cyanide process, but
found gold in neither.

F ig . 177.— Pockets of native gold (a) in quartz vein (g) along intersections with pyritic
seams (k ). (A fter F. Schumacher.)
Hauraki Peninsula, New Zealand.1—The Hauraki region, in the
northern island of New Zealand, is richly mineralized in several districts.
1 James Park, Geology of Hauraki gold field, Trans., N. Z. Inst. Min. Eng., 1,
1897, p. 3.
P. G. Morgan, Geology, etc., of Waihi, Bull. 26, New Zealand Geol. Surv. 1924;
Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, p. 203.
J. M. Bell and C. Fraser, The great Waihi gold mine, Bull. 15, New Zealand Geol.
Survey, 1912.
A. M. Finlayson, Econ. Geol., 4, 1909, pp. 632-645 (with literature).
Arthur Jarman, The geology of the Waihi-Grand Junction mine, Trans., Inst.
Min. and Met. (London), 25, 1916, pp. 3-40, with discussion.
E. G. Banks, Mining and metallurgical methods at Waihi, Bull. 250, Inst. Min.
and Met. (London), 1925.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 479
Its rocks consist mainly of andesite and dacite flows of Eocene or Miocene
age covered by Pliocene rhyolites.
A production of about $30,000,000 is recorded from the Thames
district, though but little gold is now obtained there. The veins are
contained in broad belts of soft, propylitic andesite and dip 40° or more.
Great masses of low-grade quartz occur, but the gold is derived mainly
from rich pockets occurring down to a depth of 400 to 600 feet below the
surface. One of these pockets in the Caledonia mine, about 1871, yielded
9 tons of gold in 15 months. The veins have been followed from a height
of 1,500 feet above the sea to 640 feet below it, but owing to intervening
faults the real vertical extent is only 1,200 feet. Park states that the
veins do not continue into the underlying Jurassic shale and that they
are thus limited to the thickness of the lava flows in which they occur.
The rich shoots occur mainly where the veins are intersected by small
stringers or “leaders.” Opinions differ widely as to whether this
concentration in pockets is due to descending waters or not. In all proba­
bility, however, it was one of the latest phases of the primary mineraliza­
tion. The principal ore mineral is gold alloyed with 30 to 40 per cent
silver, but some pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, stibnite, and
pyrargyrite also occur. Arsenopyrite and native arsenic occur at Coro­
mandel. The gangue minerals, besides quartz, are dolomite and, occa­
sionally, rhodonite.
The Karangahake deposits, 40 miles south of the Thames district,
are also in propylitized andesite and dacite, but differ somewhat from the
type described and consist in brief of calcite and quartz with more or less
sulphides. The best known deposits are at Waihi. The Waihi lodes are
conspicuous and were discovered in 1878; in part the outcrops are
covered by rhyolite, and the development of the deposit therefore falls
between the two eruptions. The ore proved difficult to amalgamate and
the mines achieved importance only after the introduction of the cyanide
process. To the end of 1922 the total production amounted to about
$80,000,000. In 1917 the ore averaged $8 in gold and 1 ounce of silver
per ton. An annual output of about $2,000,000 has been maintained
up to 1931 inclusive. The country rock is a green propylitic dacite with
some pyrite, calcite, and seams of quartz and adularia. This rock often
adjoins the veins without further alteration, but transitions to the quartz
filling by silicification are said to exist.
The vein system is complex, and sixteen steeply dipping and inter­
connecting veins are known. Of most importance is the Martha lode
(Fig. 178), a wide fissure vein with brecciated walls; the quartz is formed
largely by filling, in part by silicification. On the 500-foot level the lode
is in some places 80 feet wide; for half of this width it is barren, but the
other half is said to average $15 to $20 per ton. The proportion of gold
to silver by weight is 1:3 or 1:4, and this average was maintained, from the
480 MINERAL DEPOSITS
surface down. The water level stood within 200 or 300 feet of the sur­
face. The lode is said to contain ore for a horizontal distance of 1,70(1
feet. The developments in the deepest levels are said to be disappointing
as to the quantity of ore, but the lode itself maintains its strength. The
deepest shaft reaches 1,788 feet vertically, and 2,000 gallons of water are
handled per minute.
k ijof a

F ig . 178.— Croea-section of Waihi mine, New Zealand, showing lode system in dacite
covered by later volcanic flows. (After P. G. Morgan.)

A lively controversy has lately developed in regard to near-surface

intrusions. Bell and Frazer consider the dacite intrusive in andesite
flows, the inference being that ore may only be expected in that rock.
Jarman believes there are no intrusives but only a series of flows.
A little pyrite was found in the first level in the Martha lode; on the
second level the sulphide ore on the foot-wall was a few feet wide; on the
500-foot level 20 feet of sulphide ore was exposed on the foot-wall, while
the remainder of the vein, at this place 40 feet wide, was thoroughly
oxidized, with much black manganese oxide. This sulphide ore is of
nearly the same value as the oxidized ore, containing perhaps a little more
gold and a little less silver.
The ore consists of quartz and calcite, with 3 per cent of pyrite, sphal­
erite, galena, and argentite. The sulphides are often banded and
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 481
the gold values are mainly in the pyrite but there is no visible gold;
the bullion contains some selenium. Throughout the oxidized zone the
calcite is dissolved, leaving a lamellar quartz ore stained by manganese;
but this change is produced mainly by descending waters. In other
mines of the district there are indications of a pseudomorphic deposition of
silica, similar to that of the De Lamar mine, Idaho (p. 448), by a late
phase of ascending solutions. In at least some mines in the Karangahake
district the ore becomes poor when the zone of the calcite, unchanged by
descending waters, is reached. Much of the quartz shows evidence of
colloidal deposition.
The depth of the oxidation in the Waihi mine below water level is
noteworthy and probably indicates a dry, intervolcanic epoch.
El Oro, Mexico.1—As there are few important gold deposits in
Mexico, the occurrence at El Oro, 70 miles northwest of the federal
capital, is of special interest. The district is situated on the volcanic
high plateau at an elevation of about 10,000 feet. The barren and
unaltered andesites of this plateau overlie the ore-bearing formation
which consists of a thick flat dipping series of well stratified black bitumi­
nous shale with some sandstone; in places these Jurassic sediments are
covered by earlier andesites, which near the vein contain pyrite and
chlorite and in other places they are intruded by sills of similar andesitic
rocks. These earlier andesites are held to be of Miocene age.
The lodes, about ten in number, outcrop only at one or two places
and have been opened by cross cut tunnels and shafts. Almost all of
the important work has been done since 1904. There are two principal
master lodes, the San Rafael and Dos Estrellas striking N.N.W. and
dipping steeply W.S.W. The production from the San Rafael alone since
1904 is approximately $40,000,000 from not less than 5,000,000 metric
tons of ore. The Dos Estrellas lode for many years yielded about
$5,000,000 per annum. The mines are approaching exhaustion.
The lodes occupy fault fissures, which in their upper parts at least
were open and much of the ore has been deposited by filling of open space.
In depth and especially in andesite rock much of the quartz is formed by
replacement. In 1913, the greatest depth attained was 2,000 feet;
200 feet of which was in barren cap andesite. The filling consists of fine­
grained quartz intergrown with much coarse-grained calcite. There is
only a small percentage of pyrite and sphalerite. The gold is never
visible and even close panning often fails to bring a color from rich ore.
In the upper levels some stopes are from 60 to 100 feet wide but in
depth the lode contracts to widths of 3 to 15 feet.
The “branch veins” are an interesting feature of the large lodes at
El Oro. They are steep and persistent stringers caused by the settling
1T. Flores, El Oro y Tlalpujahua, Bull. 37, Inst. Geol. Mexico, 1920, 85 pp.
482 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of the hanging wall (Fig. 179) and are usually rich, containing from
$15 to $35 in gold and from 5 to 20 ounces of silver to the ton. The ore
from the main lode contains only $5 to $15 in gold with 2 or 3 ounces of
silver per ton.
The ore-shoots in the main lodes are of primary origin and extend hori­
zontally, while reaching to a depth of 500 to 700 feet below the capping

F ig . 179.— Cross-section of the San Rafael lode, El Oro, Mexico, showing branch veins.

andesite. The San Rafael has been stoped continuously for one and one-
half miles through three properties. These horizontal shoots are proba­
bly caused by an upper, impermeable barrier, now eroded, of andesite or
clayey rock.
The ore of the branch veins is usually well banded by crustification,
probably indicating colloidal deposition (Fig. 180), and is much richer in
sulphides, mainly sphalerite and pyrite, than the main lode.
Oxidation of the main lode antedates the capping of younger andesite
and is practically complete to a depth of 800 feet. The calcite is dissolved
and the quartz remains as a porous, cellular mass. The gold being in
the quartz there is a considerable apparent enrichment of gold in the
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 483
oxidized zone. Some silver has probably been leached, but no evidence
was found of transportation of gold. There is little manganese in the
ore.
Black Mountains, Arizona.1—Not far east of Needles, on the Colorado
River, rises the Black Range, which is built up of a series of tilted volcanic
flows of andesite-latite rocks with minor intrusive masses of granite-
porphyry and quartz-monzonite porphyry. The flows rest on pre-

F ig . 180.-—Photograph of branch vein on X,000-foot level, El Oro M ining and Railway

Company, showing pronounced crustification by sulphides; vein 3 feet wide contains 9%
ounces gold and 165 ounces silver per ton. Open cavity in middle.
Cambrian rocks and have a great thickness (Fig. 181). The gold-bearing
veins are formed along fault fissures with normal throw, and some of
them have been very productive though the shoots are irregular. Most of
the ore occurs in the Oatman andesite (the chloritic andesite of Schrader).
The Tom Reed and the Gold Road veins have been the most productive.
The United Eastern mine has been working a shoot with an area of
about 800 by 800 feet which did not outcrop and which has yielded
88,000,000. The greatest depth reached is about 1,300 feet. The veins
are stringer lodes often beautifully crustified and “ chalcedonic,” and the
filling consists of calcite, quartz, adularia, and fluorite. The earlier
calcite has been replaced by the latter two minerals. There is also a
later generation of calcite. The gold, generally finely disseminated, is
about the only metallic mineral and occurs chiefly in a peculiar honey-
1 F. C. Schrader, Bull. 397, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909.
F. L. Ransome, Bull. 743, idem, 1923.
484 MINERAL DEPOSITS
yellow quartz layer (Fig. 182). The rock alteration is chloride an
sericitic.

o M ILES

F i g . 1 8 1 . — Section across the Black M ountains, Arizona, showing position of fault veim
(After F. L. Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
G O L D -Q U A R T Z V E IN S IN R H Y O L IT E

The Tertiary rhyolites in the Cordilleran region often contain gold-

bearing veins. These veins are poor in ore minerals other than gold but
usually contain some argentite, pyrargyrite, and pyrite. The gold is
frequently coarse and accompanied by more or less silver. Among the

F i g . 1 8 2 . — Typical banded ore from U nited E astern mine, a, brown quartz; b, white
milky quartz; c, thin layer of honey-yellow quartz; d, clear quartz; e, layer of dark calcite,
quartz and adularia; /, fine-grained quartz, g, honey-yellow quartz; h, lik e /; i, milk-white
quartz; k , honey-yellow quartz; l, clear comb quartz. (After F. L. Ransome, U. S. Geol.
Survey.)
gangue minerals quartz prevails, but in most cases it is associated with
much adularia, probably derived from the surrounding potassic rock.
Calcite and fluorite are also common, but barite is rare. The veins are
almost always characteristically pseudomorphic, with bladed and cellular
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 485
quartz and adularia, which replace calcite and fluorite. Both veins and
sheeted zones occur; in the latter there is little gangue and the gold, as
in the Jumbo mine at Hart, California, may be embedded in apparently
fresh rhyolite.
There is no real propylitic alteration of the country rock but often
extensive silicification and much finely disseminated pyrite. The
silicification is attended by concentration of potassium as adularia or
sericite. The decomposed upper zone of the veins contains clay seams
that may be extremely rich in gold and secondary silver minerals, as at
De Lamar, Idaho, and Rawhide, Nevada.
At the De Lamar mine1a series of parallel, gently dipping veins of the
kind described abut against a fissure filled with tough clay (the “ iron

F ig . 183.— Vertical section of the vein system at De Lam ar, Idaho.

dike”) near which the best ore is found (Fig. 183). Below a vertical
depth of about 800 feet the values are low, although the veins persist.
Free gold is rarely seen. The proportion of gold to silver, by weight, is
1:20. Argentite and naumannite12 (Ag2Se) occur, the latter in large
specimens. The veins are ordinarily 1 to 6 feet thick and distinctly
filled, though transitions by silicification were also noted. The filling is
wholly quartz, pseudomorphic after calcite, and forms a cellular mass of
thin plates covered by minute crystals (Fig. 168). The value of the ore
ordinarily ranges from $10 to $20 per ton. The De Lamar mine has
yielded gold and silver to the value of about $7,000,000, but is now
closed.
The gold veins of Jarbidge3 in northern Nevada are very similar to
those of the Black Mountains, Arizona. Gold-bearing veins intersect an
older rhyolite flow, which is covered by later barren rhyolite. The
fine-grained gold is accompanied by a little pyrite, chalcopyrite, argentite,
and naumannite. The gangue is pseudomorphic quartz, with unusually
1W. Lindgrcn, Twentieth Ann. Repl., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1900, p. 122.
A. M. Piper and F. B. Laney, Bull. 11, Idaho Bur. Mines, 1926.
2E. V. Shannon, The minerals of Idaho, Bull. 131, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1926.
3F. C. Schrader, Bull. 741, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1923.
486 MINERAL DEPOSITS
large amounts of adularia sometimes making up 50 per cent of the
materials. The gold appears to be the latest mineral introduced.
Entirely similar veins are found at Rawhide,1 Gold Circle,2 Round
Mountain,3 Beatty,4 and many other places in Nevada5 and Utah.1
The extremely rich ore of the National7 vein in northwestern Nevada
(Fig. 184) has yielded about $3,000,000 from a narrow shoot of coarse

F ig. 184.—Dendritic gold (black) in extremely fine-grained quartz of probable cohoidal

deposition. White area is coarsely crystalline comb quartz, National, Nevada. Magni­
fied 15 diameters.
gold followed to a depth of 800 feet on the vein. The veins of that district,
except for this occurrence, are of the stibnite type. The native gold
contains 50 per cent silver and is more properly called electrum.
A R G E N T IT E -G O L D -Q U A R T Z V E IN S

Tonopah, Nevada.8—The Tonopah district, discovered in 1900, is

situated in a group of desert hills in western Nevada and was for many
years the most important of the western silver- and gold-producing
1 A. F. Rogers, Econ. Geol., 6, 1911, p. 790.
2 W. H. Emmons, Bull. 408, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910.
3 F. L. Ransome, Bull. 380, idem, 1909, pp. 44-47.
4 F. L. Ransome, W. H. Emmons, and G. H. Garrey, Bull. 407, idem, 1910.
5 S. H. Ball, Bull. 308, idem, 1907, p. 46.
6 B. S. Butler et al., Prof. Paper, 111, idem, 1920, p. 179.
7 W. Lindgren, Bull. 601, idem, 1915.
8 J. E. Spurr, Geology of the Tonopah mining district, Prof. Paper 42, idem, 1905;
also, Min. and Sci. Press, Apr. 22, 1911.
J. A. Burgess, Geology of the producing part of the Tonopah district, Econ. Geol,
4, 1909, pp. 681-712.
A. Locke, The geology of the Tonopah mining district, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 43, 1913, pp. 157-166.
J. E. Spurr, Geology and ore deposition at Tonopah, Nevada, Econ. Geol., 10,
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 487
localities. In 1916, the production amounted to nearly $2,000,000 in
gold and 8,700,000 ounces of silver. In 1930, this had diminished to
$406,000 in gold and 1,900,000 ounces of silver, obtained from
114,500 tons of ore. The ore is treated by concentration and cyaniding.
The total output, to 1930 inclusive, amounted to $35,371,000 in gold
and 161,600,000 ounces of silver. Naturally, the decline in silver prices
has affected the district unfavorably.
The veins of Tonopah are typically epithermal and intersect a complex
Tertiary volcanic series in which the succession has been variously inter­
preted. Opinions also differ as to the proper nomenclature for the rock.
Spurr considers some of the igneous bodies as intrusive, while Burgess
and Locke hold that the various formations originated as surface flows.
The importance of the volcanic succession is readily seen, for, if any
apparently underlying rock is really intrusive and later than the vein
formation, no continuation of the bonanza veins can be expected in it.
Spurr held there were several epochs of vein formation, whereas Burgess,
Locke, and Nolan are inclined to recognize only one epoch.
Much of the later work at Tonopah has been carried on in the
West End of the district and has disclosed valuable information on
succession and mineralization.
Nolan recognizes an early “Tonopah formation” probably of Miocene
age, consisting of rhyolite flows, tuffs, breccias, and well-laminated silts.
Some dark lavas (Sandgrass andesite) are interbedded. The Mizpah
trachyte overlies the Tonopah formation conformably, but in places the
West End rhyolite is intruded between them. Later formations, younger
than the ore, are the Midway andesite and various dikes of the Oddie
rhyolite.
In the West End, the flows and beds dip rather steeply to the west.
There are much fracturing and faulting in detail. In the West End, the
tilted formations are cut by a remarkable compound fault, flat and convex
upward. This has played an important part in the protracted litigations
concerning apex rights. The ore-bodies thus far mined are localized
either in this fault or in others that split from it or radiate from its crest.
The strike of the productive fissures is generally east-west.
The main faulting occurred after the intrusion of the West End
rhyolite, and the mineralization followed soon afterward. The silver
ores are considered as somewhat later than the early barren quartz. The
1915, pp. 713-769.
E. S. Bastin and F. B. Laney, The genesis of the ores at Tonopah, Prof. Paper
104, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1918.
G. J. Young, Eng. and Min. Jour.-Press, 120, 1925, p. 824 (present conditions).
T. B. Nolan, The underground geology of the western part of the Tonopah
district, Bull. 24 (4), Univ. Nevada, 1930, 35 pp.
488 MINERAL DEPOSITS
deepest workings extend to about 2,000 feet. Among the principal mines
are; the Tonopah, the Tonopah Belmont, Tonopah Extension, and the
West End. While the silver content of the ore decreases in depth, it is
held that further search may disclose important ore-bodies.
The mineralization is similar in the Tonopah formation, in the Mizpah
trachyte, and in the West End rhyolite. Quartz, pyrite, sericite, and
adularia, often also rhodochrosite, are the common gangue minerals.
The quartz is of fine, though variable, grain with banded structure and
“chalcedonic” appearance containing narrow bands of finely divided sul­
phides. Argentite and polybasite are the principal ore minerals, with
small amounts of pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. Selenium
is present probably as a silver selenide. The concentrates are very
rich in silver containing up to 25 per cent Ag and 2 per cent Se. Arsenic
and antimony are not abundant. Small amounts of scheelite and hiib-
nerite have been found. The ore worked contains about 25 ounces of
silver and 0.125 ounce of gold per ton. The costs of mining and reduction
are about $15.00 per ton, hence declining silver prices make operations
difficult. The occurrence of the ore-shoots are dependent upon the
permeability and intersections. Many of the fissures have been sealed
by the earlier barren quartz.
For supergene enrichment see Chapter XXXII, page 866.
The Comstock Lode. 1—Discovered in 1859, the celebrated Comstock
Lode has yielded, to the end of 1911, a total production of $381,400,000
in silver and gold, of which the gold amounted to $153,000,000. The
bonanza period fell in the seventies of the last century and the production
since then has declined greatly. Present work is confined to upper levels
and repeated attempts to mine a large tonnage of low grade ore have
been unsuccessful. In 1924, the lode yielded $2,200,000 in gold and
silver from 544,000 tons of ore; in 1930, $60,000 represented the value of
the output. The Comstock Lode, situated near the summit of the Vir­
ginia Range, east of the Sierra Nevada, in Nevada, is a fault fissure of
great throw (Fig. 185), traceable two and one-half miles and in places
several hundred feet wide, the vein matter of the lode spreading into
the hanging wall. Great bonanzas of crushed quartz, in part exceedingly
rich in silver minerals, were found at intervals along the lode, especially
in chambers or vertical fissures probably produced by normal faulting of
the hanging wall. The greatest vertical depth attained below the out­
crop is about 3,000 feet. Mining has been greatly hampered by enormous
quantities of hot water containing mainly calcium sulphate. None of
the great bonanzas was found below a depth of 2,000 feet.
1 G. F. Becker, Mon. 3, U. S. Gcol. Survey, 1882.
J. A. Reid, Bull. 4, California Univ., Dept. Geol., 1905, pp. 177-199.
E. S. Bastin, Bonanza ores of the Comstock lode, Bull. 735, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1923, pp. 41-63.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 489

F ig . 185.—Vertical cross-section through the Comstock lode, showing cham bered

outcrop and bonanza in vertical vein in hanging wall. (After (?. F. Becker, U. S. Geol.
Survey.)

F i g . 1 8 6 . — Bonanza ore from C. & C. mine Com stock lode, E ast vein, between 2,000-
and 2,050-foot levels, carrying abundant prim ary argentite associated w ith galena, sphaler­
ite, chaicopyrite, quartz, and gold. Cam era lucida drawing. (After E. S. Bastin.)
490 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The lode intersects igneous rocks of deep-seated type, showing trams
tions and variously classified as diorite, diabase, and augite andesiM
These are covered by andesite flows of Tertiary age, which are also min-|
eralized. Both classes of rocks have suffered propylitic alteration, and
analyses of the clay gouge near the veins show that sericitic alteration
has set in along the principal channels which the solutions followed.
The ores consist of quartz and some calcite, in places banded with pyrite,
galena, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite. The valuable minerals are mainly
pale gold, argentite, and polybasite. They appear to replace quartz,
sphalerite and galena (Fig. 186).

F ig. 187.—Rich ore, Ophir mine, Comstock lode. Right side, altered country rock
with pyrite and quartz veinlets. Left side, three generations of galena, sphalerite, chalco­
pyrite and argentite (dark), and quartz (white). Natural size.
There are in places two generations of quartz, as shown in Fig. 187,
the older quartz containing principally pyrite. The quartz is fine-grained
and in great part probably replaces crushed rock. There is no lamellar
or hackly quartz. According to Reid, the descending waters, rich in
sulphates, contained notable amounts of gold and silver, and small quan­
tities of these metals were also present in the ascending hot sulphate and
carbonate waters. Bastin recognizes as supergene minerals only silver,
with some argentite and polybasite above the 500-foot level.
A R G E N T IT E V E IN S

The argentite veins have numerous representatives in Mexico, as at

Pachuca, Real del Monte, and Guanajuato. In general they intersect
1 A. Hague and J. P. Iddings, Bull. 17, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1885.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 491
andesitic rocks of supposedly Miocene age but also cut adjacent or under­
lying Mesozoic sediments.
The rich and long-worked veins of Pachuca1 have come into renewed
prominence by the successful application of the cyanide process to their
ores. A complicated vein system intersects andesite flows covering
Cretaceous sediments. The andesite is extensively propylitized; and
this altered rock also adjoins the veins, near which, however, a silicifica­
tion is often superimposed upon the chloritization. The veins, 8 to 14
feet wide, are filled fissures, crustified or brecciated, with quartz, some­
times amethystine, as the principal constituent of the gangue; there are
also rhodochrosite, rhodonite, adularia, and calcite, the last named being
the most recent. The ore-shoots are more or less horizontal.
The ore minerals consist of argentite, stephanite, polybasite, pyrite,
galena, and sphalerite. The veins have been followed to a depth of 2,000
feet where the veins are said to become poor, and here contain argentite,
pyrite, and sphalerite. The ores average about 16 ounces of silver to
the ton with very little gold. The cost of mining and milling is about $6
per ton. With economy the veins can be worked with silver at 30 cents
per ounce. The oxidation is marked by the zones of the “ colorados” and
the “negros, ” the first of which contains limonite with silver haloid salts
and the second much manganese.
The veins of the old and famous silver-mining district of Guanajuato2
are similar to those of Pachuca.
GOLD T E LL UR ID E VEINS

Cripple Creek.3—The veins of Cripple Creek, situated in an otherwise

barren part of Colorado, have since 1891 annually yielded a large amount
of gold, which in 1900 reached a maximum of $18,000,000. In 1916,
the production of gold was valued at $11,800,000; in 1925, at about
$5,000,000; in 1931, at $2,400,000. The silver recovered was about 9,000
ounces in 1930. The total output of the district to the end of 1931 was
nearly $360,000,000. Individual mines have produced from $10,000,000
to $30,000,000 each. The district lies on a granitic plateau a few miles
1J. Aguilera and E. Ord6nez, El mineral de Pachuca, Boletin, Inst. geol. Mexico,
Nos. 7, 8, 9, 1879.
H. V. Winchell, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 66, 1922, pp. 27-36.
M. SantilliLn, Bol. Minero, February, 1931.
2A. Wandke and J. Martinez, Econ. Geol., 23, 1928, pp. 1-44.
3W. Cross and R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., Sixteenth Ann. Report, U. S. Geol. Survey,
pt. 2, 1896, pp. 1-209.
W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, Prof. Paper 54, idem, 1906.
Horace B. Patton, The Cresson Bonanza at Cripple Creek, Min. and Sci. Press,
Sept. 15, 1917.
G. F. Loughlin, Ore at deep levels in the Cripple Creek district, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Met. Eng., 75, 1927, pn. 42-73.
G. F. Loughlin and A. H. Koshmann, Proc., Colo. Sci. Soc. 13, 1935, pp. 217-435.
492 MINERAL DEPOSITS
I southwest of Pikes Peak, at elevations of 9,000 to
> 11,000 feet. Within a few square miles are a large
! number of producing mines; 64 reported in 1916the
> production of 975,270 short tons of ore, averaging
) $12 per ton. In earlier years the average value
j. was $30 to $40 per ton; but during recent years
' an increasing quantity of low-grade ore from
i dumps, etc., has been treated, some of it contain-
1, ing only $3 or $4 per ton. In 1927 the most
! important mines were the Golden Cycle, the
! Portland, and the Cresson. Most of the ore is
! reduced in large mills at Colorado Springs, by
i roasting and cyaniding.
; The mining operations have always suffered
! from a large quantity of mine waters. The great-
> est depth attained is about 3,000 feet in the
i Portland mine. The Roosevelt tunnel, nearly 3
i '2miles long, now drains the mines to an elevation of
;| 8,020 feet. This tunnel, in 1916, discharged about
|^ 10,000 gallons per minute and has now reached the
d Portland mine at an elevation of 8,112 feet and 164
:oj feet below the 1,900 foot level.
C The rocks constituting the plateau are pre-
|Cambrian red granite, with some gneiss and
|fibrolite schist. Breaking through this basement
'(§ is a mass of Tertiary volcanic rocks, the area
having a diameter of 2 or 3 miles. As shown by
the mining operations, the contact surface between
the granite and the volcanic mass is steep, or even
vertical or overhanging; and there is little doubt
that this “ plug” of volcanic material represents the
core of a Tertiary volcano which formerly rose
above the plateau, as tentatively indicated in Fig.
, 188. The bulk of the remaining core is composed
1 of tuffs and breccias of latite-phonolite which
are cut by dikes and intrusive masses of phonolite
and syenite. The latest manifestations of vol-
canism were basic dikes of monchiquite and
vogesite; and the veins were apparently formed
soon after these dikes had been intruded. Many
of the rocks contain a notable amount of combined
water. The deposits are veins, in many places
complex and numerous, which followed a system
of roughly radiating, steep fissures (Fig. 39), believed to have resulted
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 493
from compressive stress developed in a settling volcanic mass. The
physiographic history of the district indicates that the surface at the
time of vein formation was only from a few hundred to 1,000 feet above
the present surface.
In the granite adjoining the contact are also found irregular bodies of
ore, formed by replacement. Most of the veins are closely spaced sheeted
zones (Fig. 48) a few feet wide, though some attain a width of 20 to 40
feet. The ore deposition has generally taken place by filling along the
narrow fissures and only to a smaller extent by replacement of the inter­
vening or adjoining rock. Low-grade ores are formed by mineralization
of narrow seams in the country rock.

F ig . 189.— Vein filling, P o rtlan d F ig . 190.— Filled space of dissolu-

mine, C ripple C reek (purple q uartz), tion in granite, Independence mine,
/, fluorite; q, q u artz of coarser and C ripple C reek (granite ore), o, ortho-
finer grain; p, pyrite. M agnified 50 clase of g ranite; m, bio tite replaced by
diam eters. adu laria and p y rite; v, adularia (sec­
ondary orthoclase), show ing crustifica-
tion; q, q u artz; p, pyrite. M agnified
14 diam eters.

There is little or no native gold, except in the oxidized zone (p. 859).
The principal ore mineral is calaverite (AuTe2, with but little silver),
of yellowish white color and often well crystallized. Associated with
this are small quantities of pyrite, sphalerite tetrahedrite, stibnite,
cinnabar, and molybdenite, rarely hiibnerite. The gangue consists
of quartz and fluorite, with some dolomitic carbonate, in places also
roscoelite, a vanadium mica, which often accompanies rich ore. The
fluorite, quartz, and calaverite are often intergrown, forming a fine­
grained rock which has the purple color of the fluorite (Fig. 189). The
vein structure is drusy, and the calaverite was among the latest minerals
formed. Specimen ore may contain about 60 per cent quartz, 20 per
cent dolomite, 20 per cent fluorite, 0.1 per cent gold, and 0.2 per cent
tellurium, with iron, copper, zinc, and molybdenum present in fractions
494 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of 1 per cent. Extremely rich shoots of calaverite ore are sometimes
found. The Cresson bonanza forms a large pipe or chimney of basaltic
breccia, subsequently fissured and mineralized, with a diameter of many
hundred feet. It is still being mined.1 From 1903 to 1930, inclusive,
the Cresson pipe produced 1,800,000 tons of ore valued at $32,000,000.
The replacement ore consists of the ordinary red granite, often drusy
and partly replaced by adularia, fluorite, and calaverite (Fig. 190).
Loughlin recognizes three stages of mineralization at Cripple Creek, all
three beginning with quartz and
pyrite, the tellurides appearing prin­
cipally in the second stage.
In the upper levels of the mines
there are a great number of short,
veins all of which carry more or less
ore. In the aggregate these veins
contain an enormous amount of ore,
some of which is of exceedingly high
grade. The veins are less abundant
in the lower levels and of lower grade.
A few veins continue, however, to the
lowest levels. The vents from which
the ore solutions rose were located
near the Portland, Vindicator, and
Golden Cycle mines.
As shown in the report cited, the
ore-shoots are to a marked degree
influenced by intersections with other
veins or dikes, but many of the
largest and richest shoots have no
such relation. The greatest horizontal
F ig . 191.—Section through Strat­ extension of a shoot is 1,300 feet.
ton’s Independence mine, Cripple Creek, Many shoots terminate in depth,
showing relation of veins to granite-
breccia contact. (After Lindgren and while others have continued to the
Ransome, XJ. S. Geol, Survey.) greatest depths attained. The rela­
tions at Stratton’s Independence and Portland mines are illustrated in
Figs. 191 and 192 and the latest available data, published by G. F. Lough­
lin, show the whole shoot of the Portland Mine down to the 3,000-fool
level. The lower levels, below the drainage tunnel, were abandoned in
1930.
The tuffs and breccias are generally altered and contain some fine­
grained pyrite, which has little value; the dark silicates alter to carbon­
1 It is illustrated in publication by G. F. Loughlin, op. cit. The contact between
granite and breccia near the Portland mine is also mapped in detail.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 495
ates, fluorite, and pyrite and the feldspars to sericite and adularia. Cross
and Penrose thought this propylitic alteration earlier than the veins,
while Lindgren and Ransome consider it to be caused by the same kinds
of solutions that filled the fissures. Similar differences of opinion have
been expressed in relation to the propylitization at other places
(p. 461).
There is no evidence that there has ever been an active circulation of
surface water in the district. The porous breccias and in general the

Fig. 192.—Longitudinal section showing principal stopes on veins in Portland and Inde­
pendence mines, Cripple Creek. (After G. F. Loughlin.)

whole volcanic plug are filled with stagnant water, while there is little
water in the surrounding granite. The general conclusion of Lindgren
and Ransome is that the vein-forming epoch was brief and that the
remarkable and abundant telluride ores were formed by alkaline solutions
emanating from deeper igneous masses, the last effects of these emana­
tions being the exhalations of carbon dioxide and nitrogen, which have
not yet subsided. The waters ascended rapidly in the deeper parts of
the volcanic plug, but near the surface they spread out in more numerous
fissures and precipitation, followed by cooling or mixture with descending
solutions.
496 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
GOLD SELENIDE VEINS

Occurrence of Selenides.1—In minute quantities selenium is presen

in many deposits, particularly in the pyritic copper deposits and th
ores of the Mansfeld district, Germany; it is recovered during the elec
trolytic refining of copper. As distinct minerals the selenides are foum
occasionally in small veins in pre-Cambrian rocks as at Falun am
Skrikerum in Sweden, and in Paleozoic rocks in The Harz, Germany. Bui
their real home is in the epithermal veins; they are not usually associated
with tellurides. Their presence in some rare quicksilver deposits had
already been mentioned. In the silver veins of Mexico near Guanajuato
selenides of silver and lead have been found; and in some silver-gold veins,
like those at Tonopah and De Lamar, or gold-silver veins, like those at
Waihi, they are important constituents. At both Tonopah and Waihi
other minerals are present in quantities. In larger amounts lead and
copper selenides are present in veins in limestone in Sierra de Umango,'
Argentina, (umangite, Cu3Se2; tiemannite, HgSe) and in “ trachyte”in
Cerro de Cacheuta,3Argentina (naumannite, Ag2PbSe;clausthalite,PbSe;
zorgite, (PbCu)Se). Little is known concerning these occurrences. In
1930, about 278,300 pounds of selenium were produced in the United
States, mainly from the residues of copper refineries. Selenium it
valuable for coloring and decolorization of glass; for electric apparatus on
account of the variation of conductivity, and it could be used to advantage
in the rubber industry if a cheaper supply could be obtained. The price
is about $2 per pound. There is little demand for tellurium, which
commands the same price.
The type of veins described in these paragraphs is remarkably free
from ore minerals other than native gold and selenides, and is rare,
only two examples being known, that of Republic, in Washington, and
that of Radjang Lebong, in Sumatra. In some respects, however, the
Tonopah veins are allied to this type.
In both the places mentioned there is a predominating gangue of very
fine-grained quartz, beautifully banded by crustification, but not mark­
edly drusy; it has a “ chalcedonic” appearance, although there is really
but little chalcedony present, and resembles strongly, both in hand
specimen and in thin section, some kinds of sinter deposited at the orifices
of hot springs. The gold is present in very fine distribution and the gold
selenide has not yet been positively identified. These veins have prob­
ably been deposited close to the surface as colloids, and subsequently
crystallized as fine-grained quartz.1
1 For best description of selenium minerals see Doelter’s Handbuch der Mineral-
chemie, 4 (1), 1926, pp. 804-832.
2 F. Klockmann, Zeitschr. Kryst., 19, 1891, p. 267.
3J. Domeyko, Compt. Rend., 63, 1864, p. 866.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 497
Republic, Washington.—At Republic,' a series of Miocene andesite
and latite flows filling an old valley have been intruded by a mass of latite
porphyry belonging to the same general period of eruption. Over a
considerable area the andesite and porphyry have suffered normal prop-
ylitization, chlorite, earthy carbonates, and pyrite being the principal
minerals formed. A series of parallel fractures dipping from 38° to 80°
have been opened in the volcanic rocks and are occupied by sharply
defined veins averaging 3 or 4 feet in width. Against these the propylitic
rock borders, usually with little further alteration. The banded filling
(Fig. 193) consists of quartz and calcite and also includes dark masses of

F ig. 193.— T ypical ore, R epublic m ine, W ashington. Fine-grained colloform quartz, w ith
narrow streak s of sulphides and selenides (?). O ne-half n atural, size.
jasperoid of uncertain derivation. There is adularia in the filling and in
some places can be seen the beginning of a replacement of calcite by fine­
grained quartz and adularia. In one mine the quartz filling has been
replaced by laumontite containing much silver.
Free gold is rarely visible, but the valuable portions of the veins lie
along narrow dark bands that are parallel to the crustification and are
believed to represent finely divided gold selenide. Local crusts are rich
in free gold, tetrahedrite, and chalcopyrite and this material contains
about 2 per cent of selenium, which, according to experiments by Dr.
Chase Palmer, of the United States Geological Survey, is probably com­
bined with gold.
1Howland Bancroft and W. Lindgren, Bull. 550, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1914.
498 MIN ERAL DEPOSITS
The ores of Republic have proved difficult to treat by the cyanidi
process. Their grade varies greatly, averaging perhaps $11 per ton. Thi
proportion of gold to silver by weight is about 1:3. Oxidation ha
resulted in small changes but has set some silver free. Since 1897 thi
district has yielded about $9,400,000. The greatest depth attained is951)
feet.
Sumatra.—The Radjang-Lebong field,1 in southern Sumatra, haa
yielded much gold in recent years. The annual production is about
50,000 ounces of gold and 300,000 ounces of silver. Andesite is the
country rock and the principal vein, which has a width of 17 feet, is
divided into five well-defined seams separated by silicified andesite.
According to R. Beck, the bluish-gray quartz is beautifully banded in
thin concentric crusts of “ fibrous quartz.” The rich ore, like that of
Republic, is indicated by thin dark dendritic crusts similar in appearance
to the quicksilver selenide from Lerbach, and the silver selenide at Tilke-
rode (both localities in the Harz Mountains).
The ore, of which only a small part is amenable to amalgamation,
contains on an average 41 grams of gold and 318 grams of silver per metric
ton. There are a little pyrite and chalcopyrite. The gold bullion,
according to Truscott,2 contains 4.35 per cent selenium and small
amounts of copper, lead, zinc, and iron.
Closely related to this is the silver vein Gedang Ilir,3 which contains
much argentite and a little chalcopyrite, also scattered grains of magnetite
in a gangue of quartz, adularia, and inesite (2MnSi03.H20). Most of
the rich ore is oxidized and contains large amounts of Mn02which makes
the treatment difficult.
Argentite-gold veins have been described from Omui, Hokkaido,'
Japan in which apparently these minerals have crystallized from a col­
loidal precipitate. The country rock is rhyolite. Possibly they belong
to this class.
T H E B A S E - M E T A L VEINS

Among the deposits formed relatively near the surface by ascending

thermal waters in. genetic connection with igneous rocks, ores rich in the
baser metals and worked principally for these metals are rather excep­
tional. Heavy deposits of pyrite and chalcopyrite ore are very seldom
1 R. Beck, Lehre von den Erzlagerstatten, 1, 1909, p. 488.
N. Wing-Easton, Die wichtigsten Edelmetall Lagerstiitten in Sumatra, Pram
geol. Landesanstalt, Archiv fur Lagerstatt., Forsch. 35, 1926.
2 M. Maclaren, Gold, London, 1909, p. 298.
S. J. Truscott, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met. (London), 10, 1902, p. 53.
3 G. Clevenger and M. H. Caron, The treatment of manganese silver ores, Bull.
226, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1925, p. 61.
4 C. Iwasaki, Koto Commemoration Volume, Tokyo, 1925.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 499
found; one instance is furnished by the Nacozari district, in Mexico,
where, at the Los Pilares mine,1 a large body of low-grade pyrite and
chalcopyrite is worked. The ores occur mainly in the interstices of a
brecciated rhyolite in a series of fractures arranged in almost circular
form. (Fig. 40.) The pyrite is often crystallized; the gangue is quartz;
the ore is poor in gold and silver.
Somewhat similar are the veins of Ashio, Japan, which contain chal­
copyrite and quartz. They cut Tertiary rhyolites.
The veins and stocks of the San Juan region, Colorado, described in
more detail below, are in places rich in lead, zinc, and copper, but yield
principally gold and silver. Both galena and sphalerite occur, but the
copper is derived mainly from tetrahedrite or enargite.
The Schemnitz deposits, in Hungary, consist of a strong vein system
intersecting rhyolite and andesite above Triassic slates and Eocene strata.
The gangue minerals are fine-grained quartz and amethyst, together with
later calcite, ankerite, rhodochrosite, rhodonite, siderite, and barite,
with much pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite. Among the
rarer minerals are adularia, fluorite, and diaspore. The proportion of
gold to silver by weight is 1:23.
The Bull-Domingo and Bassick deposits,2 at Silver Cliff, Colorado,
yielded principally gold and silver. The ore consisted, however, largely
of sulphides and tellurides, which in the Bassick mine occurred in what
is considered a volcanic neck. The Bassick deposit was mined to a depth
of 800 feet and yielded rich ore. The cross-section covered about 25
by 100 feet and the ores encrusted the fragments of volcanic rocks filling
the shoot.
When the solutions depositing veins in volcanic rocks leave the flows
and enter into the surrounding limestones and other sedimentary rocks,
deposition by selective precipitation comes into play and ores rich in
sulphides, particularly galena, may be formed. Examples of this are
found in several deposits of the Ouray district, Colorado, described by
J. D. Irving (Bull. 260, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905). Fine-grained silica
here replaces the limestone showing that the temperature was lower than
that necessary for the development of lime silicates.
THE SA N JU AN REGION, C O L O R A D O 3

General Features.—One of the most interesting metallogenetic prov­

inces is that of the rugged San Juan region, in southwest Colorado,
1S. F. Emmons, Econ. Geol., 1, 1906, pp. 629-643.
2S. F. Emmons, The mines of Custer County, Colorado, Seventeenth Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1896, pp. 430-447.
3W. Cross and C. W. Purington, U. S. Folio 57, Telluride; Cross, Spencer, and
Purington, U. S. Folio 60, La Plata; Cross, Howe, and Ransome, U. S. Folio 120,
Silverton; Cross and Ransome, U. S. Folio 130, Rico; Cross, Howe, Irving, and
500 MINERAL DEPOSITS
including the mining districts of Telluride, Ouray, Silverton, Bonanza,
Lake City, Rico, Needle Mountains, La Plata, and Creede (Fig. 194).
The San Juan Mountains consist chiefly of volcanic rocks, poured
out over a basement of Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments; pre-Cambrian

F ig . 194.— M ap showing approxim ate distribution of the principal mining regions in

Colorado. (After J. E. Spurr, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
rocks are also exposed in places (Fig. 195). The volcanic flows, occupying
over 3,000 square miles, have a total thickness of many thousand feet
W. H. Emmons, U. S. Folio 131, Needle Mountains; Cross and Hole, U. S. Folio 171,
Engineer Mountain; Cross, Howe, and Irving, U. S. Folio 153, Ouray.
T. A. Rickard, Across the San Juan Mountains, New York, 1903.
J. E. Spurr, summary in Prof. Paper 63, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 111-168.
E. S. Bastin, Silver enrichment in the San Juan mountains, Bull. 735, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1922, pp. 65-129.
B. S. Butler, Relation of the ore deposits of the southern Rocky Mountain region
to the Colorado plateau, Proc. Colorado Sci. Soe., 12, 1929, pp. 23-36.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 501
and were erupted at intervals during the whole Tertiary period. The
lowest formation, called the San Juan tuff, consists of about 3,000 feet
of andesitic material. Covering this are andesites, latites, and rhyolites,
called the Silverton series, 4,000 feet thick; this in turn is overlain by the
Potosi series, consisting of rhyolite and latite. The eruptions were
separated by epochs of erosion and were closed by the effusion of the
Hinsdale series of rhyolites, andesites, and basalts.
Deep erosion has laid bare these flows to a depth of several thousand
feet and exposed a number of smaller intrusive stocks and sheets of
dioritic or monzonitic character and granular or porphyritic texture. The
very latest intrusions are represented by dark dikes of lamprophyric
character.
This vast uplifted and eroded dome of volcanic rocks is traversed by
numerous systems of strong fissure veins, many of them continuous for

F ig . 195.— Section a t Telluride, Colorado. Ag, Algonkian quartzite; J d , Dolores

formation (Jurassic); K m c , Mancos shale (C retaceous); Esm , San Miguel conglom erate
(Eocene); Sj, San Juan tuff; Pr, Potosi rhyolite; gd, gabbro-diorite; Sj, Pr, gd, Eocene and
Miocene. (After W hitm an Cross, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
several miles. Their development followed closely after the latest epoch
of volcanic activity and they intersect several of the intrusive masses.
While the vein systems bear the marks of deposition within a moderate
distance of the original surface, there are some features that tend to
connect them with deposits formed at greater depth and in more direct
genetic connection with igneous intrusions.1 Many types are repre­
sented, including normal veins, stocks, replacement deposits in sedimen­
tary formations, and some small contact-metamorphic deposits near the
contacts of the intrusive masses. Some of the veins are exposed over
vertical distances of several thousand feet. The Virginius vein, above
Ouray, for instance, has been mined for a vertical distance of 3,300 feet;
the Revenue tunnel is 2,400 feet below the outcrops.
The predominating values are in gold and silver, but in some districts
much lead, copper, and zinc are also present, mainly as galena, tetra-
hedrite, and sphalerite. The gangue is mainly quartz, but rhodo-
1W. S. Burbank, Revision of geologic structure and stratigraphy in the Ouray
district, Colorado, and its bearing on ore deposition, Proc. Colorado Sci. Soc., 12, 1930,
pp. 152-232.
502 MINERAL DEPOSITS
chrosite, rhodonite, barite, and fluorite are often present. Propylitic
alteration predominates near the veins.
Telluride District.1—In the Telluride district the annual production
was for many years about $1,000,000 in gold and 1,500,000 ounces of
silver, with some copper and lead, but has now declined. Strong veins
have been worked by the Liberty Bell, Smuggler-Union, and Tomboy
mines. All of these are now closed.2 The veins are filled fissures, averag­
ing 3 or 4 feet in width, with crustification-banding and drusy structure.
Sericitization is marked close to the vein; beyond this there is extensive
propylitization. The larger lodes appear often as a number of parallel
plates of filled veins separated by sheets of altered rock. The Smuggler
vein, for instance, cuts through the San Juan tuff, the andesite, and the
rhyolite, a vertical distance of 2,300 feet (Fig. 195). Only in one place

F ig . 196.—Longitudinal section of the Smuggler vein, Colorado. (Courtesy Smuggler

Union M ining Co., R . Livermore, General M anager.)
has a vein been followed into the underlying sedimentary beds. The
vein continued strong but was poor. In the Smuggler mine the ore-shoot
has been mined continuously for 8,000 feet, probably a record length, and
through a vertical distance of 2,300 feet. The ore is contained only
in the San Juan breccia; in the overlying rhyolite the vein is poor
(Fig. 196).
The gangue minerals are quartz, calcite, siderite, rhodochrosite,
adularia, barite, and fluorite, the last being abundant in the Tomboy
1 C. W. Purington, Eighteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, 3, 1897, pp. 745-850.
C. W. Purington, Ore horizons in the San Juan Mts., Econ. Geol., 1, 1905, pp,
129-133.
A. Winslow, The Liberty Bell Mine, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 29, 1900, pp.
285-307.
C. A. Chase, idem, 42, 1911, pp. 694-741.
M. E. Hurst, Rock alteration and ore deposition at Telluride, Econ. Geol., 17,
1922, pp. 675-702.
C. N. Bell, Mining methods of the Telluride district, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met.
Eng., 72, 1925, pp. 550-565.
2 Total productions: Smuggler-Union, $26,000,000; Tomboy, $26,000,000; Liberty
Bell, $16,000,000.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 503
mine (Fig. 197). Native gold, pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
tetrahedrite, and polybasite are the principal metallic minerals. The
ores contain 2 or 3 per cent sulphides and yield about $6 per ton. The
treatment consists of a combination of amalgamation, concentration,
and cyaniding.
Silverton District.1—The Silverton district is rich in veins, which
contain more base metals than those of the Telluride district. The
annual production has varied greatly. In 1929, in San Juan County, the
production had a value of nearly $4,000,000 in lead, zinc, gold, silver,

F ig . 197.— Section showing succession of ore minerals in M endota workings, Smuggler

vein, Telluride, Colorado. 1, country rock; 1', sericitized and im pregnated country rock;
2, sphalerite with calcite; 2', sphalerite with galena; 3, white quartz; 4, rhodochrosite; 5,
blue quartz with finely dissem inated sulphides. (After C. W. Purington, U. S. Geol.
Survey.)
and copper. In large part this came from the Sunnyside mine, which,
since 1912, has been working a low-grade vein in which the paragenesis
is quartz, pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, and rhodochrosite.2 The
deposits are simple veins or lodes averaging about 3 feet in thickness.
The structure is commonly massive but sometimes banded (Fig. 198)
1F. L. Ransome, Economic geology of the Silverton quadrangle, Bull. 182, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1901. C. D. Hulin, Econ. Geol., 24, 1929, p. 32.
C. W. Purington, The Camp Bird mine, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 33, 1904,
pp. 499-528.
J. E. Spurr, The Camp Bird compound vein dike, Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 115-
152. H. C. Boydell, Discussion, Camp Bird mine, idem, 21, 1926, pp. 185-190.
2 High temperature manganese minerals, like tephroite, helvite, and alleghanyite,
are said to appear at a depth of 2,200 feet.
504 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and drusy; on the whole it resembles that of deeper-seated veins. Many!
of the veins are rich in sulphides.

Fig. 198.— Cross-section of banded vein near London shaft, Silverton, Colorado, aj
country rock; b, quartz and chalcopyrite; c, tctrahedritc; d, d', quartz; e, galena. Vein6
inches wide. (A fter F. L. R ansom e, U . S . Geol. Survey.)
The prevailing gangue mineral is quartz and this is of coarser-grained
texture than is common in the veins deposited near the surface (Fig. 199),

F ig . 199.— Thin section of ore from Ridgeway mine, Silverton, Colorado. Large
black areas, pyrite; small black areas, argentite, w ith a little galena and sphalerite; shaded
grains, quartz. Magnified 17 diam eters. {A fter F. L . R ansom e, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
The gangue also includes much calcite, dolomite, rhodochrosite, rhodonite,
barite, and fluorite. The ore minerals are pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite,
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 505
sphalerite, tetrahedrite, enargite, argentite, and native gold, more rarely
hubnerite, molybdenite, and various sulphantimonides and bismuthides.
Tetrahedrite and galena are very abundant. Tellurides are rare. Rock
alteration in this district is discussed in some detail on pages 456 to 457.
The Camp Bird lode probably represents the easterly continuation
of one of the Telluride lodes. The Camp Bird mine yielded $27,000,000
from 1903 to 1916, principally in gold, though some silver, copper and
lead were recovered. The ore contained about $22 in gold per ton.
Since 1916, lessees have been extracting ore from the upper levels. The

F ig . 200.— Rich ore from Cam p Bird mine, Colorado, showing colloform deposition.
At base chalcedony and carbonates surrounded by quartz crystals, in which is contained a
dark curve containing native gold. Above quartz crystals six distinct layers of crypto-
crystalline quartz, calcite, and fluorite. Above this comes conspicuous dark banding con­
taining free gold. Above this colloform deposition of quartz, fluorite, and rhodochrosite.
(After F. L. Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
lode intersects San Juan tuff and andesite and is described as a sheeted
zone 4 or 5 feet thick made up of alternating fissure filling and altered
rock; filling was, however, the predominating process. The gangue is
quartz, often beautifully crustified, with rhodochrosite, calcite, and
fluorite. The metallic minerals are very fine native gold, with a few
per cent of galena, pyrite, and sphalerite, also some finely distributed
tellurides.
Spurr distinguishes justly between an early and poor pyrite-galena-
sphalerite stage, in part with specularite, and a later mineralization when
the rich rhodochrosite ore was introduced. Ransome and Purington
506 MINERAL DEPOSITS
show the crustified and colloform deposition (Fig. 200) of this later ore
for which Spurr’s explanation by an injection of “ ore magma” which

0 ioo « o F-««>
F ig . 201.— Projection of atopes on plane of Camp Bird vein. (A fter J . E . Spurt, “ Eco­
nomic G eology”)
solidified in place would seem entirely untenable. The extent and
dependence of the rich shoot on the enclosing rocks are excellently shown
in Fig. 201.

F ig . 202.— Geological section through p art of the Rico dome, Colorado. (After Cross and
Spencer, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
Rico District.1—The Rico Mountains are a domelike uplift of sedi­
mentary rocks ranging from Algonkian to Jurassic in age, intruded by
stocks, sheets, and sills of monzonite, or monzonite porphyry (Fig. 202).
The ores occupy minor fissures while the structural faults are barren of
1 T. A. Rickard, The Enterprise mine, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng. 26, 1897, pp,
906-980.
F. L. Ransome, Ore deposits of the Rico Mountains, Twenty-second. Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1901, pp. 229-300.
G. E. Collins, Localization of orebodies at Rico and Red Mountains, Colorado,
Proc., Colorado Sci. Soc., 12, 1931, pp. 407-424.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 507
metals. Burbank connects the veins with the Eocene intrusions which
antedate the volcanic flows. The deposits form lodes, bed-veins (blankets),
and replacements. The blankets often lie parallel to the sheets of intruded
rocks or below impervious shales (Fig. 85). The abundant ore minerals
consist of pyrite, galena, sphalerite, silver-bearing tennantite and tetra-
hedrite, with later, but probably hypogene, argentite and pearceite in a
gangue of quartz, rhodochrosite, calcite, and fluorite. The filling is
often beautifully banded (Fig. 203). A very limited vertical range is

F ig . 203.— Banded ore, Rico, Colorado. (After T. A. Rickard.)

characteristic of the deposits. The greater part of the production has
come from the blankets, a short distance below which the veins have
become impoverished in the Hermosa (Pennsylvanian) formation of
sandstone, shale, and limestone. Ascending warm waters of the sodium
carbonate type and exhalations of C02 are common.
Lake City District.1—The deposits in the Lake City district range
from simple veins to more complicated lodes, but filling with banding
was the predominating process in their development. The width ranges
from a few inches to 20 feet. Many of the fissures are short and were
found to pinch out at relatively slight depth. The alteration of the wall
rock is slight but is marked by some silicification and sericitization.
1J. D. Irving and H. Bancroft, Geology and ore deposits near Lake City, Colorado,
Bull. 478, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911.
508 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Pyritization of the surrounding rhyolite or andesite extends to consider­
able distances. The veins intersect all rocks below the Potosi series and
also cut the intrusions of monzonite porphyry. Silver predominates with
quartz, rhodochrosite, and barite as gangue. The following types of
veins are recognized: (1) Tetrahedrite-rhodochrosite veins, (2) quartz-
galena-sphalerite veins, and (3) telluride veins.
Similar telluride veins are found in the La Plata, Durango, and Needle
Mountain quadrangles to the southwest of Lake City.
Creede District.1—The ores appear in a thick volcanic complex mainly
of rhyolites and occupy strong fault fissures with large normal throw.
The veins are markedly banded and contain some pyrite but mostly
argentiferous galena, sphalerite, with a little chalcopyrite, and argentite.
The ores are oxidized and enriched in part. In 1910, they averaged 0.09
ounce of gold and 12.29 ounces of silver per ton, with 6.5 per cent lead
and 1.9 per cent zinc. The gangue minerals are amethystine quartz,
barite, rhodochrosite, also an unusual amount of chlorite (thuringite).
The adjacent rhyolite is somewhat silicified and sericitized; it also con­
tains thuringite. The ore zone is horizontal and did not generally reach
the surface; it apparently does not extend below the tunnel level.
The total output since 1890 includes about 45,000,000 ounces of
silver and 100,000 tons of lead. There is little production at present.
The silver-gold veins of the Mogollon2 district, New Mexico, are
somewhat similar in that they occupy important fault fissures in a com­
plex series of Miocene flows. The ore-shoots are mainly horizontal. The
ore shows fine colloform texture.
Summary.—The deposits of the San Juan region consist of gold-
bearing quartz veins, gold-telluride veins, and base-metal veins generally
carrying galena, tennantite, argentite, and pearceite. The descriptions
show a merging of the types and certain minerals common to most of
them, such as rhodochrosite, and barite. The ores are often banded and
crustified.
The ores are clearly independent of the character of the country rock,
as has been already noted by J. D. Irving. They also intersect the
intrusive monzonites, where these are exposed by erosion. They formed
both in the lavas and in the cool sedimentary rocks (Rico). Colloidal
deposition is indicated in part. Limestone when adjacent was not sili-
cated but silicified.
Spurr believes that fissuring and mineralization were caused by and
followed the dome-like uplifts and that these were due to deep-seated
intrusions, not yet exposed by erosion. The metals in the deposits would
then have been derived from the ascending emanations of these deep-
1 W. H. Emmons and E. S. Larsen, Bull. 718, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1923.
E. S. Larsen, Bull. 811, idem, 1930, pp. 89-112.
2 H. G. Ferguson, Bull. 787, idem, 1927.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 509
seated intrusives. The region shows, as few others do, the relation of
the upper and deeper vein zones.
At Rico, Ouray, and likewise at other places, W. S. Burbank recognizes
two periods of ore deposition, both polymetallic. The earlier was related
to laccolithic intrusions (late Cretaceous or early Tertiary) and yielded
lead-zinc veins and associated replacement deposits with high-grade
silver ores, low-grade lead-zinc replacement deposits and pyritic gold
deposits. The later period yielded gold and silver veins with base metals
and was related to the Tertiary volcanic activity (see footnote, p. 501).
Casapalca, Peru. 1—The epithermal silver veins of Casapalca are
very similar to some of the San Juan deposits. They intersect Tertiary

F ig . 204.— Polished section of crustified ore from Parral, Mexico. D ark gray, sphaler­
ite; white, pyrite and m arcasite. Probably colloform texture. Magnified 2 diam eters.
{After Robert K. Doten.)
sediments and covering andesite flows. The gangue minerals are quartz,
calcite, rhodochrosite, and rhodonite, also barite. The sulphides are,
in order of deposition, pyrite, sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite, and bournon-
ite; there is a still later development of carbonates and quartz, with
realgar and stibnite.
Parral, Mexico. 2—There are many epithermal veins in Mexico which
contain abundant sulphides. One of the best examples is found at Parral
1 H. E. McKinstry and J. A. Noble, Econ. Geol. 27, 1932, pp. 501-522.
J. Orcel, Bull. Soc. mineralog. de France, 51, 1928, pp. 213-255.
2 Harrison Schmitt, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., General Volume, 1931, pp.
268-290.
R. K. Doten, M. S. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1929.
510 MINERAL DEPOSITS
where veins carrying quartz, fluorite, pyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, galena
and argentite intersect Jurassic rocks. Figure 204 shows excellent crusti-
fication with frequent repetition of pyrite, marcasite, and sphalerite,
strongly suggesting colloidal deposition.
GOLD-ALUNITE DEPOSITS
General Features.—In volcanic regions it is not uncommon to find
considerable areas of bleached and altered lavas which contain more or
less alunite ( K O. A l O . S O . H O), an earthy or compact, rarely
2 3 2 3 4 3 6 2

coarsely crystalline mineral of inconspicuous appearance (p. 341).1 Occa­

sionally diaspore or gibbsite is associated with alunite. In most cases
this basic sulphate, which is insoluble in water, is probably formed by
the action of waters containing free sulphuric acid on aluminous rocks.
Pyrite sometimes appears as a primary constituent, its iron being prob­
ably derived from the ferromagnesian silicates of the rock. Less com­
monly alunite is found in altered wall rocks of mesothermal veins. It
is also found in places in the oxidized zones of veins containing pyrite,
here associated with alunogen, jarosite, halotrichite, and other sulphates
of iron and aluminum.
Rich gold and silver ores are rarely associated with areas of alunitiza-
tion. Of such character is, however, the remarkable bonanza of Gold­
field, described by F. L. Ransome.2
Goldfield, Nevada.—The Goldfield district, discovered in 1902, lies
in a low range of desert hills in western Nevada. The total production
to the end of 1917 was $80,700,000 in gold and 1,250,000 ounces of silver.
In 1911, the district yielded gold and silver valued at $10,300,000; in 1917
only $2,000,000; in 1929, $269,018. Since then, the small production
has been derived from leasing operations, and dumps and tailings.
The geological features consist of a succession of volcanic flows, of
which 15 members are recognized, resting on a basement of granite and
Cambrian shale. The age of these lava flows and intercalated lacustrine
beds probably ranges from Eocene to the latest Pliocene. On the base­
ment rest several flows of rhyolite; then come heavy masses of andesite or
latite. In the andesite is intruded a thick sheet of dacite in which most
of the ore-bodies are found. The andesite is overlain by 1,000 feet of
1 Whitman Cross, Geology of Silver Cliff and the Rosita Hills, Seventeenth Ann.
Report, U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1896, pp. 263-403.
E. S. Larsen, Alunite in the San Cristobal quadrangle, Colorado, Bull. 530, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1913, pp. 179-183.
R. T. Hill, Camp Alunite, Nevada, Eng. and Min. Jour., 86, 1908, pp. 1203-1206.
2Prof. Paper 66, TJ. S. Geol. Survey, 1909.
Econ. Geol, 5, 1910, pp. 301-311, 438-470.
Alunitized areas have been described from Vancouver island, in Jurassic and
Triassic lavas. These altered rocks contain a little gold. See C. H. Clapp, Econ.
Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 70-88.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 511
lacustrine beds, and still later than these are thin flows of basalt and
rhyolite. The dacite sheet, almost 700 feet thick, consists of a rock of
intermediate composition with glassy groundmass. Silica amounts to
60 per cent, and the potash about equals the soda. The pre-lacustrine
rocks are considered Eocene. The lacustrine conditions ended by
deformation and a low dome-like uplift resulted.
The principal producing area is small; most of the deposits are in
the dacite, though a few are contained in rhyolite, andesite, or latite.
The deposits are probably younger than the lake beds but older
than the latest rhyolite and basalt; the age is considered late Miocene
or early Pliocene. They were thus formed in intervolcanic time, like
so many others of the ore deposits connected with effusive rocks. The

F ig . 205.— Vertical section of the M ohawk-Jum bo lode, Goldfield, Nevada. (After J . K .

Turner.)
deposits are contained in an area of highly altered rock and are irregular,
silicified and fractured rock masses to which the term “ledges” is applied.
The ore-shoots form irregular bodies in the ledges and have no visible
limits other than those indicated by the assay, but the ore is usually
marked by more distinct brecciation and seaming than the surrounding
ledge rock. During the earlier years little of the ore contained less than
$30 per ton, but in 1916 ores yielding only $8 per ton were treated.
Some shoots are roughly equidimensional masses; others are tabular.
The developments on the lower levels1have shown that at a depth of
1,000 feet the deposits pass into the Cambrian shale, as indeed predicted
by Ransome, and that the general shape of the “lode channel” is flat,
1J. K. Turner, Min. and Sci. Press, June 26, 1915.
512 MINERAL DEPOSITS
with a dip of about 30°, and that it follows, in general, the contact planes
between andesite and dacite, between dacite and latite, and between the
latite and the shale, continuing for a greater distance along the shale
contact (Fig. 205). Ores of varying, generally low, tenor are said to
occur on this contact and contain alunite, much pyrite, chalcopyrite,
and famatinite but with little free gold and tellurides. Explorations
have been continued in the southern part of the district to the shale
contact at 1,750 feet and later to 2,400 feet, but to judge from the
production no important ore-bodies have been found.
The four minerals characteristic of this type of alteration are quartz,
kaolinite, alunite, and pyrite. The altered dacite contains approximately
49 per cent quartz, 24 per cent kaolinite, 16 per cent alunite, and 7 per
cent pyrite; and the replacement has been attended by losses of much
CaO, MgO, and Na20, and of some Si02, A120 3, and K20. Water,
sulphuric acid, and sulphur have been added. Under the assumption
that no change in volume has taken place, the altered rock has lost 5.3
per cent in weight and now has a porosity of 10 per cent.
While the shoots of the upper levels are not large compared to those
of many other mines, the ore has been extremely rich. Much of it has
averaged $419 per ton, containing 20 ounces of gold and 3 ounces of silver
to the ton. One shipment of 14^ tons is said to have brought $45,783.
The unoxidized ore contains fine-grained pyrite and marcasite,
bismuthinite, goldfieldite (5Cu2S.(Sb, Bi, As)2(S, Te)3), an arsenical
famatinite (Cu3SbS4), and native gold, also tellurides,1 all in a dark-gray
flinty quartz gangue. Concentric shells of ore minerals, with much
finely divided yellowish-brown native gold, about greatly altered frag­
ments of rock are rather characteristic of the rich ore. Galena and
sphalerite are rare at Goldfield.
An analysis of rich ore from the Mohawk mine showed 2 per cent gold
(541 ounces per ton), 0.25 silver, 2.42 tellurium, 0.35 bismuth, 2.08 cop­
per, 3.83 iron, trace of zinc, 66.30 silica, 9.09 alumina, and 6.30 sulphur.
While the deposition of pyrite, alunite, and kaolinite proceeded during
the whole epoch of ledge formation, the richest ores were deposited some­
what later in brecciated and shattered parts. The water level stands
100 to 150 feet below the surface; above this the ores are oxidized and
contain some gypsum but do not differ greatly in tenor from the fresh
ores below water level.
These remarkable deposits are believed to have been formed by
ascending alkaline waters, containing hydrogen sulphide, which derived
their load of rare metals from deep-seated magmas. Through oxidation
near the surface sulphuric acid was generated from the hydrogen sulphide
1 F. L. Ransome, op. cit., pp. 115-116.
W. J. Sharwood, Gold tellurides, Min. and Sci. Press, 94, 1907, p. 731.
 EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 513
and this acid attacked the rocks, causing the alunitic alteration.1 The
sulphuric acid, descending mingled with surface waters, acted as a
precipitant for the gold solution; and this combination of ascending
alkaline and descending acid waters has, according to Ransome, probably
resulted in the development of this unusual type.
The surface at the time of ore deposition was probably only a few
hundred feet above the present surface.
1 The facts shown indicate hydrothermal deposition by waters ascending on fis­
sures after the effusion of the lavas. They indicate rapid precipitation of the gold
near the surface and probably a very deep source of the rising solutions. Whether
or not the sulphates were derived from the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide is a
debatable question. See C. F. Tolman and J. W. Ambrose, The rich ores of Goldfield,
Nevada Econ. Geol. 29 (4), 1934, pp. 255-279.
 CHAPTER XXV
DEPOSITS OF NATIVE COPPER
GENERAL STATEMENT
Deposits of native copper, with subordinate chalcocite and bornite,
are often found in flows of basic rocks, particularly in basalts; or in
near-surface intrusives. They are associated with epidote, calcite,
prehnite, datolite, quartz, chlorite, and sometimes adularia. Minerals
of the zeolite group, such as laumontite, analcite, natrolite, stilbite, and
apophyllite are usually present, sometimes in large amounts. These
gangue minerals, together with the copper minerals, fill vacuoles or blow­
holes in the basic rocks or replace the rock. Pyrite and sulphides of
metals other than copper rarely occur.
The deposits have been formed under hydrothermal conditions.
The mineral association indicates that the deposition proceeded at a
temperature lower than 250° C. They should probably be classed with
the epithermal ores although differing markedly from the types described
in the last chapter.
Instances of native copper occurring in this manner are plentiful.
Among the numerous localities the following may be mentioned: The
Faeroer,1 north of Scotland; Stirling,2 in Scotland; Oberstein a. d. Nahe,
Germany; Sao Paulo,3 Brazil; the Kristiania region,4 Norway; the
Triassic “traps” of New Jersey5 and Connecticut; New Guinea;6 the
Transbaikalian provinces7 on the Dochida River; the Bay of Fundy,8
Nova Scotia; Novaja Semlja;9 the Komodor Islands, west of Kamt-
schatka.10 Few of these occurrences are of economic importance.
1 F. Cornu, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 15, 1907, p. 321.
2 Carl Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie, 1898.
3 E. Hussak, Centralblatt f. Min., 1906, p. 333. (No zeolites; copper between the
peripheral covering of the amygdules, consisting of an iron silicate and the filling of
chalcedony.)
4 J. H. L. Vogt, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 7, 1899, p. 12.
6 Volney Lewis, Ann. Rept., Geol. Survey New Jersey, 1907, pp. 157 and 165.
6 R. Beck, Lehre von den Erzlagerstatten, 1, 1909, p. 345.
7 Idem, p. 346; also Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 9, 1901, p. 391. (With opal, chalcedony,
calcite, epidote, and prehnite.)
s R. W. Ells, Mineral Resourcs Canada, Copper in the provinces of Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick, and Quebec, Canada Geol. Survey, 1904, 58 pp.
9 P. W. Voit, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 21, 1913, p. 42.
10 J. Morozevicz, Mem. 72, com. geol., St. Petersburg, 1912; Neues Jahrbuch, 1,
1914, p. 250.
(Frestubasalt contains 0.04 to 0.07 per cent Cu said to be present in solid solution
in magnetite, with calcite and zeolites.)
514
 DEPOSITS OF NATIVE COPPER 515
A pre-Cambrian series of basaltic rocks in the Lake Superior region
contains the most prominent example of this class of deposits in the world,
and will be described in more detail below.
In eastern Oregon,1 about 20 miles east of Baker City, and along the
Snake River canon, opposite the Seven Devils Mountains in Idaho, are
extensive areas covered by a basaltic amygdaloid flow of Permian or
Mesozoic age. This rock contains native copper and chalcocite, sparsely
disseminated or along obscure fracture zones, in association with epidote,
chlorite, calcite, and zeolites. The ores are of low grade and have not
yet been worked with profit.
Another occurrence of interest, in the White River region in Alaska,
has been described by Adolph Knopf.2 The basaltic amygdaloids proba­
bly in part submarine, with tuffs and breccias, are interbedded with sedi­
ments of Carboniferous age. Placer copper is common in the creeks, and
some large masses have been found. The minerals are chalcocite,
chalcopyrite, and native metal in stringers and seams, with prehnite,
laumontite, thomsonite, and calcite; also native copper with zeolites
filling blowholes in reddish, highly amygdaloidal lava.
These statements will serve to show that these deposits in basaltic
rocks represent a type of world-wide distribution.
In some cases ascending hot waters wholly or in part of deep-seated
magmatic origin are the probable agency of deposition, but in other
occurrences of native copper in amygdaloid flows it would seem that the
agencies were local and not necessarily derived from great depths.
The peculiar feature of this group is the constant association with
hydrous calcium or calcium-aluminum silicates or calcium-iron silicates.
The zeolites, that is, the hydrous alkaline silicates, appear in the later
stages of the mineralization. Only in the few deposits which are
found in sandstones or conglomerates are the calcium silicates lacking.
Another curious feature is the practical absence of pyrite and the
great scarcity of other sulphides. The ores are always low in sulphur.
It would seem probable that the calcium is derived from the rocks
themselves for all basalts are rich in that metal.
TH E A S S O C IA T E D M IN E R A L S

Calcite and epidote are among the most common associated minerals.
Prehnite (H2Ca2Al2Si30i2) and datolite [(H2Ca2B2Si20i6) 21.8 per cent
B20 3] likewise commonly occur with the copper; both minerals are gen­
erally foreign to ore deposits; they are considered to be allied to the
zeolites. Their temperature of formation is probably low; datolite has
been synthesized at 400° C.
1 W. Lindgren, The gold belt of the Blue Mountains of Oregon, Twenty-second, Ann.
Repl., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901, pp. 551-776.
2 Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 247-256.
516 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The only magnesium minerals noted are chlorites of several varieties,
in the altered rock or in blow-holes.
The zeolites formed towards the end of the mineralizing process and
probably at low temperatures, perhaps as low as 100°.1 They are mainly
calcium-aluminum silicates with 8 to 15 per cent of water of hydration.
Sodium or potassium may replace part of the calcium. Analcite is a
sodium-aluminum silicate with 8 per cent of water. Other zeolites are
natrolite, stilbite, chabazite, apophyllite (with fluorine), thomsonite, and
laumontite. Besides occurring in amygdaloid lavas, they appear as very
late products in some rare epithermal veins, contact-metamorphic
deposits, and pegmatite dikes. A few have also been found in the orifices
of hot springs. The zeolites seem to require quiet, stagnant conditions.
They are generally absent in veins which seem to have been formed by
rapidly ascending waters.
That zeolitization is far from being simply an effect of the leaching by
surface waters is shown by the absence of the zeolites from large areas of
basic flows, many of them full of vacuoles or blow-holes. There are,
therefore, certain conditions12 not yet fully elucidated—which are neces­
sary for the deposition of zeolites. It is probable that their development
would be greatly furthered if the eruption of the effusive rock took place
under water; the sea water would cool the surface of the flow and a slow
downward movement would be caused in the porous rock. Besides,
these conditions would give rise to a system, cool at one end, hot at the
other, in which circulation competent to effect concentration would be
initiated.
C. N. Fenner finds that the zeolites of certain Triassic basalts of New
Jersey, which cover land sediments and old playas or shallow desert
basins of the same age, were formed mainly where the basalt flows covered
the shallow lakes; he concludes that the circulation originated from the
waters of these lakes. The general process, he says, was that of a slow
cooling of the igneous rock, through which aqueous solutions were perco­
lating. Material for solution was contributed by the basalt and by the
previously evolved sublimates. The character of the minerals changed
during the cooling. Pyrite and chalcopyrite are among the metallic
minerals; native copper is not mentioned, but occurs at many places in
1 They may indeed form at considerable lower temperatures as shown by the occur­
rence of analcite and apophyllite in sedimentary rocks and of phillipsite in deep-sea
deposits. See W. H. Bradley, The occurrence of analcite . . . in the Green River
formation, Prof. Paper 158, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1930, pp. 1-8.
2 J. Volney Lewis, Ann. Rept., State Geologist, New Jersey Geol. Survey, 1907, p.
167.
Alfred Harker, The natural history of igneous rocks, 1909, p. 308.
C. N. Fenner, The Watchung basalt and the paragenesis of its zeolites, Ann., New
York Acad. Sci., 20, pt. 2, 1910, pp. 97-187.
 DEPOSITS OF NATIVE COPPER 517
these Triassic flows. Three periods of crystallization are distinguished.
Beginning with the oldest they are as follows:
1. Boric acid period. ... (a) Albite, quartz, garnet, amphibole, specularite,
sulphides.
(6) Datolite, prehnite, pectolitc, amphibole, specu­
larite, sulphides.
2. Zeolite period.....................Analcite, chabazite, heulandite, stilbite, natro-
lite, laumontite, apophyllite, amphibole,
chlorite, specularite, sulphides.
3. Calcite period.....................Thaumasite, calcite, gypsum, amphibole,
chlorite, specularite, sulphides.
This association shows a peculiar combination of high-temperature
minerals like garnet and amphibole with the zeolitic deposits. Exten­
sive replacements were noted, similar to processes described long ago by
Pumpelly from observations in the Lake Superior copper mines. Min­
erals stable under new conditions replace those formed in older crystal­
lizations. Datolite, prehnite, pectolite, chabazite, stilbite, natrolite,
apophyllite, and calcite—all replace the older albite. Quartz is replaced
by calcite and various zeolites. Datolite is replaced by zeolites.
A similar series of events from the close of the magmatic period to the
deposition of the zeolites was outlined by Earl Shannon,1 who found the
following sequence: albite, chlorite, amphibole, epidote, axinite, quartz,
prehnite, datolite, chabazite, stilbite, laumonite, opal, apophyllite, calcite.
Chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena were noted in diopside, prehnite,
and apophyllite.
SO U RCE OF CO PPER

Basic igneous rocks, such as gabbro, diabase, and basalt, probably

always contain copper, in some cases as much as 0.2 per cent but more
commonly about 0.02 to 0.04 per cent. According to the latest investi­
gations based on polished sections, the copper is mainly present as chal­
copyrite, bornite, or chalcocite. According to L. C. Graton the copper
may also occur in native form. The suggestion that the whole or a part
of the copper in the deposits was extracted by waters from the rock itself
almost forces itself on the observer, and, although a number of investi­
gators uphold the idea of ascending deep-seated waters of magmatic
origin as a carrier of the copper, the suggestion noted above can not as
yet be discarded.
TH E LAKE S U P E R IO R COPPER D E P O S IT S

In the following list of references on the copper deposits of the Lake

Superior region only the more important works of the extensive literature
are mentioned:
1 The mineralogy and petrology of intrusive Triassic diabase at Goose Creek,
Virginia, Proc., U. S. Nat. Mus., 66, Oct. 2, 1924, pp. 1-86.
518 MINERAL DEPOSITS
R. Pumpelly, The metasomatic development of the copper-bearing rocks ot
Lake Superior, Proc., Am. Acad. Arts Sci., 13, 1877-1878, p. 253.
C. Rominger, Geol. Survey Michigan, 5, 1895.
R. D. Irving, The copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior, Mon. 5, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1883.
M. E. Wadsworth, Origin and mode of occurrence of the Lake Superior copper
deposits, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 27, 1898, pp. 669-696.
L. Hubbard, Keweenaw Point, Geol. Survey Michigan, 6, pt. 2, 1898.
A. C. Lane, Geological report on Isle Royale, Geol. Survey Michigan, 6, pt. 1,
1898.
A. C. Lane, The theory of copper deposition, Ann. Rept., Geol. Survey Michigan,
1903.
A. C. Lane, Native copper deposits, Bull. 13, Can. Min. Inst., February, 1911,
pp. 81-87.
A. C. Lane, The Keweenaw series of Michigan, Geol. and Biol. Survey Michigan,
Lansing, 1911.
T. A. Rickard, The copper mines of Lake Superior, 1905, p. 164. (Excellent
brief description of geology and technology.)
L. C. Graton, Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, Annual publication, 1906-
1907.
C. R. Van Hise and C. K. Leith, Mon. 52, idem, 1911, pp. 578-592.
B. S. Butler, W. S. Burbank el al., The copper deposits of Michigan, Prof. Paper
144, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1929.
T. M. Broderick, Zoning in Michigan copper deposits, Econ. Geol., 24, 1929, pp.
149-162, 311-326. Fissure veins and lode relations, idem, 26, 1931, pp. 840-856.
General Occurrence.—The great deposits of native copper in the
Keweenawan volcanic flows and conglomerates of the pre-Cambrian in
Michigan form one of the principal items of the copper wealth of the
United States. These deposits are mainly concentrated in Houghton
County, on the Keweenaw peninsula of northwestern Michigan, on the
southern shore of Lake Superior (Fig. 114). The copper belt continues,
however, in a northeasterly direction to the point of the peninsula and
southward into Ontonagon County and into northern Wisconsin and
eastern Minnesota, having a total length of about 300 miles. The cuprif­
erous formation is found also on Isle Royale and at Michipicoten in
Ontario, Canada, opposite Keweenaw Point. The present productive
belt extends in a northeasterly direction from the Lake mine, 43 miles
southwest of Houghton, the center of the industry, to the Cliff mine,
22 miles northeast of that place.
The so-called Keweenawan series, the uppermost part of the pre-
Cambrian, unconformably covers the Huronian, which in turn rests
discordantly on the Archean greenstones and gneisses.
The Keweenawan series forms a huge synclinorium, bounding and
underlying the western part of Lake Superior. The upper part of the
series consists of 10,000 or 12,000 feet of red arkosic sandstones, shales,
and conglomerates; the lower part consists of a vast accumulation of
basaltic lavas, perhaps 25,000 feet in total thickness. On the Keweenaw
 DEPOSITS OF NATIVE COPPER 519
peninsula the whole series strikes northeast parallel to the direction of the
peninsula, and dips northwest from 30° to
75°. The sandstones follow the northwest
coast. The rapidly alternating series of
compact diabases or basalts (traps) and
amygdaloid beds occupy the central belt.
On the southeast the Keweenawan series is
cut off by a long reverse fault parallel to

A . C. L a n e.)
the strike and dipping northwest. The
southeast coast of the peninsula is underlain
by horizontal non-productive Cambrian
sandstones. Embedded in the volcanic

F ig . 206.— Section across the copper-bearing beds a t H oughton, Michigan. ( A f t e r

flows are a few strata of sandstone, shale,
or conglomerate. Quartzose porphyries
(felsites) erupted in the same epoch enter
conspicuously into the composition of these
conglomerates (Figs. 206 and 207).
Copper in visible grains is widely dis­
tributed through the amygdaloid rocks, but
is of economic importance in only a few
places. The deposits which now yield the
larger part of the production are beds of
amygdaloid rocks of great persistency.
Almost as much copper is also mined from
a felsitic or rhyolitic conglomerate (the
Calumet conglomerate). V eins cutting
across the strike of the beds were mined in
the early years but are now of minor
importance.
The Calumet Conglomerate.—This bed
is worked mainly in the Calumet & Hecla
and Tamarack mines; in the former mine it
is opened for a distance of about 18,000 feet
along the strike, and to a maximum depth
of 9,300 feet down the dip. There are 10
inclined shafts and one vertical shaft, with
an aggregate of about 200 miles of workings.
The Red Jacket vertical shaft reaches to the
fifty-seventh level of the incline. The
Tamarack mine, in which the continuation
of the shoot in depth has been found, reaches
the conglomerate by four vertical shafts from
3,409 to 5,300 feet in depth, the latter being one of the deepest shafts in the
world. The deepest workings, on the ninety-sixth level, are at 5,700 feet.
520 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Only parts of the conglomerate are of profitable grade, the ore-shoot
trending north on the bed. In depth it appears leaner and less
regular in tenor. Along the surface only parts of the bed contain com-

s0

£e

Q,
Qi

AH

O
IH

mercial ore; it is poor both northeast and southwest of the Calumet

shoot. Also, in the upper levels the thickness of the conglomerate is
decidedly less than in depth. The tenor of the ore at present has
decreased from 4 per cent of copper in former years to 1.5 per cent. The
apparent decrease is to some extent due to improvements in mining and
milling that allow the handling of lower grades of ore.
 DEPOSITS OF NATIVE COPPER 521
The conglomerate is 5 to 20 feet thick, dips 36° to 39° northwest, and
forms a compact reddish-brown rock easily breaking across the pebbles.
The copper occurs mainly as small particles in the cement between the
cobbles, which are well rounded and consist of quartz porphyry with some
basic igneous rocks. The hanging wall is a dark, fine-grained diabase,
the footwall a thin layer of sandstone. About one-third of the copper
production of Michigan is obtained from this conglomerate.
The Amygdaloids.—The amygdaloid copper-bearing beds, which
occur at seven principal horizons, are named the Baltic, Kearsarge,
Pewabic, Osceola, Isle Royale, Atlantic, and Winona amygdaloids and
are worked by a dozen large mines. These beds are vesicular basalts,

F ig . 208.— A m ygdaloidal basalt, H oughton, M ichigan. B lack areas, native copper;

larger areas represent fillings of blow holes, w ith cal cite a t rig h t m argin. Sm aller black
areas represent replacem ent of igneous rock by copper. M agnified 15 diam eters.
usually brownish in color, with earthy fracture and filled with amygdules
of calcite, epidote, and zeolites (Fig. 208). The copper occurs in these,
but also replaces the rock itself. Some native silver, bordering copper
with sharp contacts,1 occurs in the amygdaloids; scarcely any is found
in the conglomerate. The flows are naturally more vesicular in the
upper part than in the bottom part. Both width and distribution of
copper are irregular. The Osceola bed is worked by the Calumet &
Hecla, Tamarack, and Osceola mines; in the Osceola it is developed to a
depth of 4,500 feet on the incline. In the Calumet & Hecla mine this
amygdaloid is 30 to 35 feet thick, but the mineralization is mainly con­
1 H. C. N. Carpenter, and M. S. Fisher, Bull. 331, Inst. Min. and Met. (London),
April, 1932. “Sharp boundaries between Cu and Ag would not be expected if the
temperature had exceeded 200° C.”
522 MINERAL DEPOSITS
fined to a strip 8 or 10 feet thick along the hanging wall and also a streak
along the footwall. In the Baltic mine the amygdaloid bed is from 15 to
80 feet in stoping width; this deposit has produced much coarse copper
and contains veinlets of chalcocite, bornite, and copper arsenides. The
Kearsarge amygdaloid is worked continuously for a distance of 12 miles.
The Quincy mine has reached a vertical depth of 5,300 feet.
The amygdaloid ores yield an average recovery of 0.88 per cent cop­
per, actually varying from 0.5 to 2.1 per cent (Champion mine, 1925).
In 1916, the maximum output of silver, 716,640 ounces, was obtained, in
small part as nuggets or “pickings,” but mainly from the electrolytic
refining process, to which a part of the copper produced was subjected.
In the last 10 years the silver output has declined sharply. The largest
lump of silver on record from the district weighed 12 pounds and was found
in the Mass mine, in the southern part of the district.1
The Veins.—A third mode of occurrence of the copper ore is as veins
following fracture zones, in the northern part of the peninsula and in
Ontonagon County to the south. During the early years of the industry
these veins yielded much copper, but are at present of little importance.
Most of the veins cross the bedding and stand at a steep angle, though in
Ontonagon County many strike veins are also found. In places they are
also parallel to the dip of the strata. Some of them could be followed
by the drifts for a distance of 2,000 or 3,000 feet. According to Credner,
Pumpelly, and Irving, many of them were wide, though they averaged
only 3 feet.
In part these veins were formed by filling, but they were chiefly the
result of metasomatic replacement. Much of the native copper was
coarse; some masses of unusual size were found, the most famous being
that encountered in the Minnesota vein in 1880. The mass weighed 500
tons, was 46 feet long, 18.6 feet wide, and 8.5 feet thick.2 At the Cliff
mine many masses which weighed from 40 to 100 tons were discovered.
From the vein the copper seems to have had a tendency to extend into
the various amygdaloid flows. Most of the veins became impoverished
at a depth of a few hundred feet.
The amygdaloid beds are cut by many minor cross fractures and
slip faults, but according to the accounts these contain little or no copper.
Mineral Association.—The minerals occurring in the basaltic flows
are plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, and magnetite; also there is more or
less glass. Immediately after consolidation a certain number of new
(deuteric) minerals were formed by late magmatic processes: They were
hematite (principally in the vesicular tops), serpentine, and chlorite.
The glass was decomposed by magmatic gases, and some feldspar, pyrox­
ene, and hematite were set free. Then began the ore-forming period,
1T. A. Rickard, op. cit., see p. 518.
2 T. A. Rickard, op. at.
 DEPOSITS OF NATIVE COPPER 523
the temperatures decreasing slowly. In the amygdaloid lodes the
paragenesis of the ore-forming minerals was, according to C. Palache and
A. Wandke, as follows: (Most abundant minerals italicized).
Orthoclase, chlorite (delessite), epidote, pumpellyite; later, prehnite,
copper, datolite, silver, ankerite, quartz, sericite, calcite (over long period
in middle of sequence), arsenides, adularia, chlorite, laumontite, analcite
and other zeolites, barite, and anhydrite (the last two are scarce).
Pumpellyite (6 CaO.3 Al2 O3 .7 SiO2 .4 H 2 O) is a bluish green, orthorhom­
bic mineral allied to zoisite, often occurring in needles in the amygdules.
The copper arsenides are whitneyite, algodonite, and domeykite in order
of increasing arsenic. Under the microscope they prove to be complex
intergrowths. Datolite, often enclosing copper, occurs as crystals and as
dense botryoidal or colloform masses. According to Palache, the zeolites
are not closely associated with the copper (although in part they certainly
overlap). Hydrocarbons are found in the Nonsuch sandstone, Onto­
nagon County, associated with native copper, as shown by K. Nishio.1
The stages in alteration and filling were first studied by R. Pumpelly
and later by A. C. Lane. The former distinguished as first stage the
individualization of epidote, prehnite, and datolite and laumontite; then
followed quartz, calcite, and copper, and, finally, came the alkaline sili­
cates. Prehnite replaces other minerals extensively.
The paragenesis of the veins is very similar to that in the lodes. In
the conglomerate the paragenesis is much simpler. Prehnite, datolite,
and zeolites are absent. The succession is orthoclase (early), epidote,
copper, silver, quartz, and calcite.
Discussing the evidence of zoning, Broderick finds that epidote,
quartz, calcite, chlorite, and copper are persistent minerals. In the
stratigraphically deeper parts of the lodes a higher temperature associa­
tion of minerals tends to occur, as ankerite, sericite, occasional sulphides,
and more arsenic; while the upper parts are characterized by prehnite,
datolite, adularia, and zeolites. Only 25 per cent of the copper has
come from the zeolite-prehnite-datolite zone. Broderick also finds that
the ratio between arsenic and copper tends to increase in depth and
thinks it probable that the mineralization will continue to far greater
depths than yet attained. On the whole, the rock alteration is of the
propylitic type. The veins are considered to have been fed by the solu­
tions rising along the lodes.
Origin.—Various views have been expressed to explain the genesis of
the Lake Superior copper deposits. A full account of the older theories
may be found in Professional Paper 144, U. S. Geol. Survey. Whitney,
Pumpelly, and Wadsworth believed that the copper was leached from the
copper beds and carried down by surface waters. H. L. Smyth2 thought
1Econ. Geol., 14, 1919, pp. 324-334.
2Science, 3, 1896, p. 251.
524 MINERAL DEPOSITS
that the deposits were formed by ascending thermal waters, and
Wright, Van Hise, Leith, and Steidtman have since implied or asserted a
similar origin. A. C. Lane1assumed that after the submarine effusion of
the lavas, sea water penetrated the beds decomposing the silicates and
converting a part of the iron and all of the copper to chlorides. The
reduction of the cuprous chloride was effected by calcium carbonate or
silicate (calcite, datolite, or prehnite), with the formation of ferric oxide
and calcium chloride. This reaction was confirmed by experiments of
G. Fernekes.12 That the deposits antedate the Cambrian was shown by
U. S. Grant.3 They were in existence when the Cambrian strata along
the great fault sank to the level of the Keweenawan Series. The upper,
doubtless oxidized, parts of the lodes have been swept away by the
Quaternary ice sheet so that native copper now outcrops almost at the
surface.
The authors of Professional Paper 144, U. S. Geol. Survey, have shown
satisfactorily that the structure is earlier than the ores; the flows and the
sandstones were practically in their present position before ore deposition
began. Also that ascending thermal waters rose along the “ tops” of the
basaltic flows or along the likewise open felsitic conglomerates, and depos­
ited copper underneath the impermeable barrier of the next overlying
flow. They assume—which is not quite so evident—that the waters
were of magmatic origin and reducing character, and that they contained
copper and sulphur, likewise of magmatic origin. Further, that the hema­
tite in the vesicular tops oxidized the sulphur to sulphates which were
carried away as iron, calcium, and barium salts. A little of the latter two
sulphates occur now in the mines. In Professional Paper 144 R. C. Wells
explains this by the following equation, supported by experiments:
CU2 S T Fe 2 0 3 T 5 H 2 SO4 = 2Cu T 6 FeSO.i -1- 5 H 2 O
However, it is to be noted that Wells’s equations necessitate acidic solu­
tions. The red tops are bleached, Fe20 3 being converted to FeO. The
authors also assume that an underlying body of gabbro was the source
of the emanations, this source being located at different depth for the
various lodes.
The peculiar differences in mineralization between the amygdaloids
and the conglomerate indicate definitely (1) that both kinds of lodes were
open ducts, and (2) that the whole suite of calcium silicates (except
epidote) were obtained from the basaltic rock during the ascent of the
solutions.
1 Salt water in the Lake mines, Proc., Lake Superior Min. Inst., 12, 1906; Native
copper deposits, Jour. Can. Min. Inst., 14, 1911, pp. 316-325.
2 Econ. Geol., 2, 1907, pp. 580-584.
3 Bull. 6, Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, 1901.
 DEPOSITS OF NATIVE COPPER 525
The theory outlined above still presents a number of difficulties:
(1) The enormous amount of magmatic water required. It will no doubt
be necessary to assume a very liberal mixture of meteoric water. Basaltic
magmas are not rich in water. Their gases, as far as we know, carry some
chlorine and much sulphur. (2) The chemistry of the process of copper
deposition is not yet in satisfactory shape. (3) No fissure veins with
similar mineralization and oxidation of sulphur are known from other
parts of the world. (4) If strongly active hot waters ascended the lodes,
it is not reasonable to assume that they could traverse distances of 20,000
to 40,000 feet in basaltic rocks containing from 0.01 to 0.03 per cent of
copper without dissolving (and depositing) a large amount of this metal.
The concentration required to produce ore would be only 100 times the
original content of the rock. The presence of chlorides in the depositing
waters can not be denied, and this would (in part) carry us back to the
Lane and Fernekes equation.
Mine Waters.1—The present condition of the underground waters
in the copper region is most interesting. Lane has shown that the water
in the upper levels is soft and potable and has the normal composition of
surface waters. It decreases in quantity as depth is gained and ceases at
a depth of 1,000 to 1,500 feet below the surface. The salinity is about 90
parts per million, carbonates of calcium and magnesium predominating.
As depth is attained, chlorine and calcium increase very materially,
but mine water is less abundant. At a depth of 3,000 to 5,000 feet, the
mine waters are almost entirely absent; they constitute feeble drips and
may collect in small quantities in the sumps. They are strong solutions
of calcium chloride with bromine and other substances.
ANALYSIS OF M INE WATER, QUINCY M INE
From drippings on 55th level north of No. 6 shaft. G. Fernekes, analyst. Depth about
4,000 feet
Grams per liter
Cl................. ............ 176.027 Si02..................... 0 .020
Br................. ............ 2.200 (Fe, A1)20 3......... 0 .010
Ca................ ............ 86.478 Mn...................... . . . 0 .004
Na................ ............ 15.188 Cu........................ 0 .016
K .................. ............ 0.411 N i........................ . . . 0 .006
SO,................ ............ 0.110 Mg....................... .. . 0 .020
280.490
Total solids determined 280.500.
Traces of boron and strontium. No barium, lithium, or carbon dioxide.
Some of these waters contain an appreciable amount of zinc and some
strontium.
1 A. C. Lane, Salt water in the Lake Mines, P t o c ., Lake Superior Min. Inst., 12,
1906, pp. 154-163.
526 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In the most concentrated waters 99 per cent of the salts consist of the
chlorides of calcium and sodium, and three-fourths of the remainder is
sodium bromide.
These waters may possibly be of connate origin, that is, residual water
from ancient seas. Van Hise and Leith believe that the deep mine
water may represent the residuum of the ore-forming solutions but do not
consider it as residual sea water.
Mining and Smelting Operations.—In the copper mines of Lake
Superior mining operations are conducted on a large scale. The total
amount of copper ore (including tailings) treated in Michigan in 1930
was about 6,600,000 tons. This is crushed with steam stamps, each
one having a daily capacity of 500 to 700 tons; wet concentration is
used with jigs, tables, etc., the resulting concentrates (locally called “min­
eral”) amounting, in 1930, to about 129,000 tons, of an average copper
content of 65.7 per cent, making an average yield of 1.27 per cent.
This concentrate of native copper is smelted and refined by a single
operation in reverberatory furnaces, the smelting works being located in
the district and at Buffalo. A part of the copper is electrolytically refined
in order to eliminate the small amount of arsenic contained. The annual
copper production of Michigan increased steadily to 1905 when it reached
230,000,000 pounds. In 1930, the mine output had decreased to 169,400,-
000 pounds. The reserves of amygdaloid copper-bearing rock are of great
extent. The silver production in 1930 was 8,000 ounces, while in 1925
it had reached 140,000 ounces. The total production of the district from
1846 to the close of 1929 was 4,117,171 short tons of copper, of which about
1,800,000 tons have come from the Calumet conglomerate.
THE COPPER DEPOSIT OF M O N T E CATINI

The celebrated copper deposit of Monte Catini on the western coast

of Italy, near Livorno (Leghorn) and the ancient Etruscan city of Vol-
terra, has been described by many authors. A. Bergeat has given an
excellent review of this literature in connection with his own observa­
tions.1 Another detailed description is given by L. de Launay.2 The
mines have been worked to a depth of 850 feet.
Irregular laccolithic stocks of diabase, with some gabbro, break
through Eocene marly limestones and siliceous shales; near the contacts,
the igneous rock is in part glassy, so that the intrusions clearly took place
near the surface. The ore occurs exclusively in the diabase, particularly
in its lower part at or near the contact, but also reaches the surface. In
the ore-body the diabase is crushed to reddish clayey masses seamed with
zeolites and calcite. The ores contain native copper, in crevices and
1 A. W. Stelzner and A. Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstatten, 2, 1906, pp. 835-842.
2 M6tallog6nie de l’ltalie, Compte Rendu, 10th Internat. Geol. Congress, 1, 1907,
pp. 603-621.
 DEPOSITS OF NATIVE COPPER 527
druses, with calcite, prehnite, datolite, anal cite, and laumontite; also
sulphides, especially chalcocite, bornite, and chalcopyrite, sometimes
massive, but partly in large and small, rounded concretions surrounded by
clayey, crushed rock and consisting of the several sulphides in concentric
intergrowth. The tenor and distribution of the ores are very irregular.
The whole aspect of this unique deposit seems to indicate that the
copper was concentrated from the diabase shortly after its consolidation
and the crushing which followed. It is more difficult to point to the
source of the concentrating waters, but it is probably safe to say that
the present ground waters have had nothing to do with the formation of
the ore.
There are remarkable similarities between the mineral association at
Monte Catini and that of the amygdaloid flows of the Lake Superior
region; and the processes of concentration may, in the main, have been
identical.
THE C O P P E R D E P O S I T S O F C O R O - C O R O , BOLIVIA

The well-known and long-worked copper deposits of Coro-Coro,1

in Bolivia, are contained in a series of sandstones of probably Pliocene
age. Exact genesis is still in dispute. There are several cupriferous beds
with disseminated native copper and much gypsum, also some native
silver, domeykite, and chalcocite. The copper-bearing beds are much
lighter in color than the prevailing deep-red sandstones.
The deposits are worked at the present time. One of the mines has
a depth of 1,300 feet with native copper in beds 2 meters thick, the aver­
age being 2 per cent copper.
Ten miles away, diorite porphyry intrudes the beds and the sandstones
contain much tuffaceous material.
N A T I V E C O P P E R W I T H E P I D O T E IN BASIC L A V A S
(CATOCTIN TYPE)

In some copper deposits contained in basic lavas the zeolites are absent
and the mineral association is mainly native copper, epidote, quartz,
and calcite. Such occurrences, which are of slight economic importance,
have been found in the Appalachian region in Virginia and Pennsylvania.2
1 Older literature, see: Stelzner and Bergeat, Die Lagerstatten, 1, 1904, p. 419.
G. Steinmann, Rosenbusch Festschrift, 1906, pp. 335-368.
Miller and SingeWald, Mineral deposits of South America, 1917, pp. 89-94.
J. T. Singewald, Jr. and E. W. Berry, Studies in Geology, 1, John Hopkins
Univ., .1922, pp. 117.
F. A. Sundt, Eng. and Min. Jour.-Press, Mar. 29, 1924.
J. T. Singewald, Jr., A genetic comparison of the Bolivian and Michigan copper
deposits, Econ. Geol., 23, 1928, pp. 55-61. On Coro-Coro, see also F. Ahlfeld, Centr.
Mineral., Abt. A., 1932, pp. 373-382. He considers these deposits of supergene origin.
2 W. H. Weed, Types of copper deposits in the southern United States, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 1900, pp. 449-504.
W. C. Phalen, Copper deposits near Luray, Virginia, Bull. 285, U. S. Geol.
528 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The rocks are basaltic flows of pre-Cambrian age, in part amygdaloid,
in part schistose. They contain, in irregular fractures and along shear
zones, abundant epidote, native copper, calcite, and chlorite; in places
chalcopyrite and bornite occur in the gangue or in the rock itself. Weed
named this group of ores the “ Catoctin type” and suggested that it owed
its origin to infiltration from the present surface. This seems improb­
able; more likely the copper was deposited by hot waters shortly after
the eruption and consolidation of the basalt.
Watson believes that these deposits were concentrated from copper
contained in the rocks; they are not confined in the tops of the flows;
the latter contain no hematite. His argument is directed against the
views recently expressed by Graton, Butler and Broderick in relation to
the Michigan ores.
Survey, 1906, pp. 140-143.
G. W. Stose, Copper deposits of South Mountain, Pennsylvania, Bull. 430,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909, pp. 122-131.
T. L. Watson, Native copper deposits of the south Atlantic states, compared
with those of Michigan, Econ. Geol., 18, 1923, pp. 732-752.
 CHAPTER XXVI
MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS
METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS F O R M E D AT INTERMEDIATE
TEMPERATURES BY ASCENDING T H E R M A L WATERS
A N D IN G E N E T I C C O N N E C T I O N W I T H I N T R U S I V E
ROCKS

GENERAL FEATURES

It is exceedingly common to find metalliferous deposits in or near

bodies of intrusive rocks. These deep-seated rocks have been exposed
by long-continued erosion, and in places it is possible to arrive at a good
estimate of the thickness of rocks removed, especially where the total
thickness of the sedimentary series in which the intrusion occurred is
known. That the deposits are not of recent development, but were
formed a short time after the intrusion, can in most cases be proved con­
clusively, and from this it follows that they were developed under a great
thickness of covering rocks. Their depth below the actual surface at the
time of mineralization may, roughly speaking, be considered as ranging
from 4,000 to 12,000 feet. In most of these deposits the absence of high-
temperature minerals, such as magnetite, garnet, pyroxene, or tourmaline,
shows that a high degree of heat did not prevail at the time of genesis.
The depth below the surface indicates that the normal rock temperatures
would be from 50° to 125° C., but in all cases the vicinity of recently
intruded rocks had forced the temperature curves nearer to the surface.
The heated waters which deposited the ores either emanated from the
intrusive magma or, at least, derived their high temperatures from it. It
is manifestly impossible to give accurate figures, but reasoning from what
is known of the stability of minerals characteristic of this class of deposits,
we may say with some confidence that the actual temperatures may have
ranged from 175° to 300° C. When the high-temperature curves were
near the surface, these deposits may have originated at a depth of only a
few thousand feet; when the intrusions were deeper seated, the depth at
which the deposits were formed may have exceeded 12,000 feet.
The pressure was necessarily strong; as calculated on a hydrostatic
basis it ranged from 140 to 400 atmospheres. Communication with the
surface was probably established in many places; where it was lacking the
water and gases, propelled from the magma, may have been under still
higher pressure.
529
530 MINERAL DEPOSITS
When the temperature exceeded the upper limit stated above, silicate
minerals undoubtedly developed and the resulting deposit is of a different
type. When the temperature fell below the lower limit stated, the gen­
eral type of mineralization must have approached that of the epithermal
deposits.
The structure of the deposits is what might be expected from the
opening of fissures under pressure at considerable depth. The fissures
are fairly regular in strike and dip, having neither the extreme brecciated
structure common to deposits formed close to the surface nor the lenticu­
lar form and irregular openings of the deep-seated deposits. Smooth
walls and slickensides are abundant. As the fissures were opened in the
zone of fracture, open spaces are present in many deposits, though the
walls usually come together within short intervals. In calcareous rocks,
more rarely in igneous rocks or quartzite, replacement deposits were often
developed; they are more common here than in the deposits formed close
to the surface, though the solutions, on the whole, spread much less widely
through the igneous rocks in this group than in the shallow deposits.
The principal metals contained are gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc.
In the deep-seated deposits molybdenum, bismuth, tungsten, and arsenic
are not uncommon associates; we find the same metals here, though they
are much less prominent; in addition there is also much antimony, and in
places tellurium. The ore minerals are sulphides, arsenides, sulphanti-
monides, and sulpharsenides. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, galena,
sphalerite, tetrahedrite, tennantite, and native gold are the most common,
and on the whole there is not much variety and complexity. Oxides
such as magnetite and specularite if present occur in small amounts.
The metallic minerals develop both in the filling and in the altered
country rock, but in the fissure veins proper it is common to find the
valuable ores mainly in the filled spaces. The predominating gangue
mineral is quartz, but carbonates are also common, such as calcite,
dolomite, and ankerite, more rarely siderite; fluorite and barite are
occasionally of importance; adularia is rare; albite occurs in some depos­
its. Evidences of colloidal deposition are found in many places, though
far less common than in the epithermal deposits.
Among the minerals of this type of metallization are found no biotite;
no pyroxenes or amphiboles; no garnet, tourmaline, or topaz; no zeolites
or kaolin.
Frequently these veins follow lamprophyric dikes, which are usually
the last manifestation of igneous activity.
This class yields a large proportion of the gold production of the
world, as well as much of its silver, copper, lead, and zinc. Its deposits
are by far the most abundant in the Cordilleran region, as well as in other
parts of the world where intrusive activity has been followed by deep
erosion.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 531
The gold-quartz veins of California and of Victoria (Australia) and
many of those of the Cordilleran region, the zinc-lead-silver replacement
deposits at Leadville, Park City, and Aspen, the Coeur d’Alene lead veins,
and many other types belong to this class.
The intrusive bodies may be laccoliths, stocks, or batholiths; the last
term being reserved for intrusive cross-cutting masses of large size like
those of the Helena-Butte region in Montana, the great Idaho granite
mass, or the enormous intrusive masses following the Pacific coast from
Lower California to Alaska. It has long been known that the interior
parts of great batholiths are relatively barren and that mineral deposits
rarely occur in laccoliths. The volatile constituents of the magma, from
which the ore deposits have been formed, have a tendency to rise to the
roof of the intrusive or to accumulate in the cupolas of its upper parts.1
B. S. Butler2 points out that in Utah those stocks which are truncated
by erosion near their apices or points nearest to the surface contain ore
deposits of great importance while those which have been truncated by
erosion to deeper levels show relatively few deposits. When the mobile
constituents reached a point where the magma was sufficiently consoli­
dated to fracture they were guided by the fissures and on reaching favor­
able physical and chemical environments began to deposit the metals in
solution.
Billingsley and Grimes3 have applied the same theory to the Boulder
Batholith, Montana, and appear to have shown that the maximum
deposition took place near the roof of that batholith.
Many veins of this class show interesting changes in depth and later­
ally, generally referred to as “ zoning^” In general, the ore is likely to
grow more siliceous and pyritic in depth. Gold, copper, and zinc appear
to have been deposited by relatively hot waters while lead and rich silver
deposits as a rule appear farther away from the intrusive suggesting
deposition at lower temperatures (p. 121).
A great vertical range of up to 5,000 feet, or even more, is character­
istic of many types described under this heading. Their upper limit is
usually an erosion plane of some kind, and they can hardly ever be traced
up to the actual surface at the time of vein formation. Physiographic
investigations sometimes give a clue to their relations to that surface.
Many of them continue to the greatest depth reached in mining.
Regarding the temperature at the time of ore formation there are few
reliable data. Usually the temperature was higher in the initial stage
than in the last phases. When, for instance, rhombic chalcocite of hypo-
1 R. A. Daly, Igneous rocks and the depths of the earth, New York, 1933, pp. 123
and 313.
2 B. S. Butler, Relation of ore deposits to different types of intrusive bodies,
Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 101-122.
3 P. Billingsley and J. A. Grimes, The ore deposits of the Boulder Batholith, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 58, 1918, pp. 284-368.
532 MINERAL DEPOSITE
gene origin is found, it may be concluded that the temperature at this
closing stage was not above 90° C.
On the other hand, the quartz is of the alpha variety which shows that
575° C. was not reached. In limestone no lime-magnesia-iron silicates are
formed; the point at which these begin to be stable is generally held to be
about 400° to 500° C. The minerals common in these deposits have
mostly great persistency; their field of stability is extensive, but all of the
typical high-temperature minerals are lacking.
The epithermal veins seem to have been formed by liquids ascending
from the deep magma basins where active differentiation into flow rocks
took place. The mesothermal deposits are probably largely derived from
differentiation in congealing batholithic masses,1 which were pressed up
from the magma basins into higher levels.
METASOMATIC PROCESSES

General Character.—Sericitization, with or without carbonates but

always with pyrite, is the principal process of alteration in igneous rocks.
In limestones the alteration is usually confined to silicification. The
alteration of the country rock is usually very intense next to the ore, but
seldom yields coarsely crystalline products as in some high-temperature
deposits (p. 645). In feldspathic and ferromagnesian rocks the principal
product is sericite, the fine-grained foliated form of muscovite; in many
deposits carbonates, such as calcite, dolomite, and ankerite, develop in
large amounts. The dark minerals are first altered, their iron being
usually recombined as pyrite. The feldspars are also rather easily
altered; even quartz grains are attacked and partly, at least, converted
to an aggregate of sericite and carbonates.
While the orthoclase and the soda-lime feldspars are conspicuously
absent as vein-forming minerals, albite is not uncommon, especially in
some gold-quartz veins. This mode of alteration is frequently observed
in amphibolitic rocks, which contain much sodium and presumably much
albite developed during previous dynamo-metamorphism. In many
cases the new albite and dolomitic or ankeritic carbonates form together.
Pyrite is a common metasomatic mineral and is often associated with the
ferromagnesian minerals, but may also form in quartz and feldspars.
Other metallic minerals are not common; the apatite and zircon of the
igneous rocks resist alteration; while titanite and ilmenite yield rutile.
In many vein types of the interior Cordilleran province the metasomatic
carbonates are scarce or absent, as in the copper veins of Butte, Montana,
1 W. H. Emmons, Primary downward changes in ore deposits, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Met. Eng., 70, 1924, pp. 964-994; Relations of metalliferous systems to igneous
intrusives, idem, 74, 1926, pp. 29-70; Relations of the disseminated copper ores in
porphyry to igneous intrusives, idem, 75, 1927, pp. 797-815.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 533
and Clifton, Arizona. Serpentine is sometimes altered to magnesite
and dolomite. Hypogene alunite is found in places.
Among sedimentary rocks, quartzite and sandstone are little affected,
except in veins of the Coeur d’Alene type, where the quartz grains are
replaced by siderite. Clay slates always contain metasomatically devel­
oped pyrite in cubes; whether they are otherwise altered or not depends
upon their composition: if they contain feldspathic sediment, sericitic and
carbonatic alteration will ensue; if only kaolin, sericite, and quartz are
present there will be little noticeable alteration, except in some instances
where almost complete silicification takes place.
Limestone and other calcareous rocks are almost always subject to
silicification by the replacement of the carbonates with fine-grained
quartz aggregates; the resulting rocks are usually called “jasperoids”
and look more or less like chert (Figs. 62 and 63). For this alteration the
presence of CO2 appears to be necessary.1 Ore minerals develop abun­
dantly by metasomatic action in such rocks.
Along with or preceding this silicification, dolomitization12 often takes
place; the solutions apparently abstract a part of the cal cite in the lime­
stone and replace it by magnesium carbonate. Limestone is sometimes
converted to magnesite, siderite, manganosiderite, or fluorite.
The alteration is accompanied by strong leaching of sodium and by
concentration of potassium. Where there is little carbonatization much
calcium and magnesium are also leached. Aluminum in most cases
remains about constant.
Alteration of Wall Rocks Adjoining Gold-Quartz Veins.—In veins
characterized by quartz filling with free gold and simple sulphides or
arsenopyrite, the country rock next to the walls is usually rich in carbon­
ates, sericite, and pyrite, but rarely contains much gold. Extensive
alteration zones are not common, and sometimes fresh rock adjoins the
vein. The relative quantity of alteration products may differ consider­
ably, even in the same mine.
Clay slate, with more or less carbonaceous matter, is thought by some
to have a precipitating and enriching influence on the vein; but to what
extent this is true is doubtful. While this influence can apparently be
recognized in some districts, like Gympie, in Queensland, it is not clearly
shown along the Mother Lode of California. The black clay slates near
the veins often contain much pyrite, ankerite, sericite, and albite.3
Metasomatic rocks containing albite result from the alteration of
amphibolites at Angels Camp, Calaveras County, California, where they
1G. H. Cox, R. S. Dean, and V. H. Gottschalk, Bull. 3 (2), Rolla School of Mines,
Missouri, 1916.
2D. F. Hewett, Dolomitization and ore deposition, Econ. Geol., 23, 1928, pp.
827-853.
3A. Knopf, Prof. Paper 157, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1929, p. 42.
 534 MINERAL DEPOSITS
constitute low-grade ores. The Utica, Lightner, and Melones mines
have been working on these deposits.1
These altered rocks consist of sericite with embedded grains of cal­
cium-magnesium-iron carbonates and pyrite. In a very common type,
much of the sodium, abundant in the amphibolite, has been retained as
albite in the altered rock. Large grains of carbonates are separated bya
granular mass of quartz, albite, pyrite, and sericite. Such altered rock
is too poor in gold to pay for working alone, but is often milled for the
sake of the rich stringers which intersect it.

F ig . 209.— Altered granodiorite, Bellefountain mine, N evada City, California, m, fine

aggregate of sericite with some calcite and quartz, replacing orthoclase and andesine; 6,
original biotite altered to sericite; q, original quartz; black, pyrite with included sericite.
Magnified 15 diam eters.
In the ordinary course of alteration the ferromagnesian minerals arc
first converted into larger foils of sericite. A chlorite rich in iron is also
formed, which during a later stage is converted into sericite. The
feldspars are then attacked, along cracks and cleavage planes, and a
finely felted aggregate of sericite and calcite invades the grains until the
replacement is complete. The granular texture may be preserved (Fig.
209). A texture often observed consists of interlacing sericite foils, the
interstices of which are filled with calcite (Fig. 66). Orthoclase is almost
always more resistant than the soda-lime feldspars.
The quartz is also attacked, but with more difficulty, and is in no case
completely replaced. Magnetite appears to be converted to siderite and
titanite to rutile. A part of the ferromagnesian minerals is transformed
into pyrite. Sharp cubes of pyrite develop, however, not only in the
1 F. L. Ransome, Mother Lode Folio, Geol. Atlas 63, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900.
See also W. Lindgren, Econ. Geol., 1, 1905, p. 543.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 535
TABLE I —ANALYSES OF METASOMATIC ROCKS FROM CALIFORNIA GOLD-
QUARTZ VEINS

A A, B C c, D D.

Si02.................... 65.54 46.13 45.56 37.01 66.65 56.25 51.01 45.74

Ti02................... 0.39 0.67 1.11 0.85 0.38 0.25 0.98 0.36
ai2o 3.................. 16.52 15.82 14.15 12.99 16.15 17.65 11.89 5.29
Fe20 3................. 1.40 0.89 1.20 0.43 1.52 0.76 1.57 0.13
FeO.................... 2.49 2.27 9.83 3.57 2.36 2.64 6.08 2.06
FeS2................... 1.61 7.86 7.99 0.02 2.87 ’1.73 0.49
Cu2S................... 0.10
MnO................... 0.06 0.09 0.25 0.24 0.10 none trace 0.26
NiO, ZnO..........
CaO'................... 4.88 10.68 2.30 9.78 4.53 4.46 10.36 23.85
SrO.....................
BaO.................... not det. trace trace trace 0.07 0.03 none trace
MgO................... 2.52 2.13 6.76 5.49 1.74 1.69 8.87 0.94
K20 .................... 1.95 5.30 1.18 4.02 2.65 6.01 0.15 1.29
Na20 .................. 4.09 0.17 1.57 0.13 3.40 0.30 4.17 0.11
Li20 ...................
H.*0— ............... 0.12 0.23 0.13 0.18 0.30 0.24 0.22
H20 + ............... 0.59 2.42 4.84 1.92 0.72 2.36 2.09 1.07
P2Os................... 0.18 0.10 0.14 0.06 0.10 0.21 0.17 0.07
S O ,...................... 0.03 0.04
CO...................... 11.24 3.04 15.04 4.82 18.91
Total.............. 100.61 99.64 100.15j99.69 100.57 100.60 99.31 100.79

1 Probably present as FejSs.

A. Fresh granodiorite, Lincoln, Placer County, California. Though not
adjoining the vein, it indicates closely the actual composition of the fresh
wall rock. W. F. Hillebrand, analyst.
Ai. Altered granodiorite, Plantz vein, Ophir, Placer County. W. F.
Hillebrand, analyst.
B. Amphibolite schist, Conrad vein, Ophir, Placer County. Fairly
fresh, but contains pyrite and calcite. W. F. Hillebrand, analyst.
Bi. Completely altered amphibolite schist, Mina Rica vein, Ophir, Placer
County. W. F. Hillebrand, analyst.
C. Fresh granodiorite, Nevada City, Nevada County. W. F. Hille­
brand, analyst.
Ci. Altered granodiorite, Bellefountain mine, Nevada City. George
Steiger, analyst.
D. Fresh diabase, Grass Valley. H. N. Stokes, analyst.
Di. Altered diabase, North Star mine, Grass Valley. W. F. Hillebrand,
analyst.
sericitic aggregate, but also in the fresh feldspars or even in the quartz.
Arsenopyrite is almost the only other sulphide which is enabled to form
in the altered rock, and it develops in sharp rhombic crystals.
536 MINERAL DEPOSITS
From many analyses the eight given on page 535 are selected.1
From the chemical and microscopical data the following compositions
may be calculated:
TABLE II.— CALCULATED MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF THE
ALTERED ROCKS OF TABLE I

A, B, c, D,

Quartz........................................ 16.00 24.00 25.00 35.00

Sericite (with a little chlorite) 41.76 46.97 61.46 21.20
CaC03......................................... 17.53 18.87 7.23 42.15
MgCOa........................................ 9.67 2.93 2.70 0.71
FeCOj......................................... 5.76 3.67 0.58
MnCOj........................................ 0.42 0.14
Rutile......................................... 0.85 0.67 0.25 0.36
Pyrite......................................... 7.99 1.61 2.87 0.50
Apatite...................................... 0.13 0.22 0.46 0.15
Total...................................... 100.11 99.08 100.55 100.07

As it seems probable that the alumina has remained fairly constant

in the first six analyses in Table I, they may be directly compared for an
approximate review of the chemical changes.
Analysis Di differs from the rest in showing an exceptionally high
percentage of introduced lime and carbon dioxide and a corresponding
loss of magnesia. Moreover, the alumina is so low that it must be sup­
posed to have been removed.
The characteristic features of the process seem to consist in the
decrease of silica, magnesia, and soda and increase of lime, potash, and
carbon dioxide—the calcitic altered rock strongly contrasting with the
quartz-filled veins. There is some evidence of partial leaching of tita­
nium and phosphorus. It seems probable that, in most cases, the added
material has more than balanced the losses. There has been a strong
addition of calcium and potassium; and the vein-filling process probably
began with deposition by solutions extremely rich in these constituents, as
well as in carbon dioxide. The quartz filling sometimes shows imprints
of calcite crystals along its walls, from which it may be concluded that
during the process of filling the nature of the solutions changed to the
later phase, in which almost nothing but quartz was deposited.
1 W. Lindgren, The gold-silver veins of Ophir, Cal., Fourteenth Ann. Rept., U. S.
Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1894, pp. 243-284.
W. Lindgren, Metasomatic processes in fissure veins, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Fng., 30, 1900, p, 666.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 537
A very similar type of alteration has been described from certain gold-
quartz veins from British Columbia,1 though here more sodium remains
in the metasomatic rocks.
TABLE III.— ANALYSES OF FRESH AND ALTERED ROCKS FROM VEINS IN
IDAHO AND UTAH
(Analysts, W. F. Hillcbrand E -F i; E. T. Allen, G-Gi.)

E E, F F, G Gi

Si02...................... 65.23 66.66 57.78 58.01 58.64 56.78

Ti02..................... 0.66 0.49 1.01 1.08 0.83 0.81
A120 3................... 16.94 14.26 16.28 15.72 15.35 16.90
Fe20 3................... 1.60 0.67 1.02 0.64 3.25 6.87
FeO...................... 1.91 1.33 4.92 ' 3.87 2.54 2.34
CoO, NiO........... 0.02 0.12
MnO.................... 0.15 0.17
CaO..................... 3.85 3.37 6.65 2.15 5.37 1.18
SrO ..................... 0.07
0.19 none 0.12 trace? 0.18 0.14
MgO.................... 1.31 0.95 4.60 2.07 3.84 0.03
K20 ...................... 3.02 4.19 2.22 4.79 4.23 7.02
Na20 ................ 3.57 none 3.25 0.10 3.60 0.37
h 2o - .................. 0.18 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.86 1.32
h 2o + .................. 0.88 2.16 0.92 2.71 1.50 2.23
p 2o 6..................... 0.19 0.17 0.30 0.31 0.02 0.04
c o 2...................... 0.25 3.67 0.15 2.86 none 0.26
s .................................................. none 0.95 0.02 1.25 0.05 5.93
Fe......................... 0.84 1.52
Pb........................ 0.86
Cu........................ 0.05
1.65
99.78 100.07 99.82 100.24 100.26 102.22
0.02 2.22
100.24 100.00
E. Fresh granitic rock immediately adjoining the Silver Wreath quartz
vein, Willow Creek, Idaho.
Ei. Altered rock adjoining the same vein.
F. Fresh quartz-pyroxene diorite adjoining the Croesus vein, Hailey,
Idaho.
Fi. Altered rock adjoining the same vein.
G. Fresh monzonite, British tunnel, Last Chance mine, Bingham, Utah.
Gi. Altered monzonite, same locality, at wall of lode.
In the veins of Idaho, Utah, and Colorado genetically connected with
Cretaceous or early Tertiary intrusions of quartz monzonite or similar
1 W. S. McCann, The gold quartz veins of the Bridge River district, B. C., Econ.
Geol., 17, 1922, pp. 350-369.
538 MINERAL DEPOSITS
porphyries, the carbonatization is far less marked and both calcium and
magnesium are leached. The accompanying analyses, Table III,
illustrate the chemical changes in two prominent types.
E and Ej represent the fresh and altered rock from the Willow Creek
district, Boise County, Idaho, where the narrow quartz veins carry
scarcely any free gold, but much auriferous galena, pyrite, arsenopyrite,
and sphalerite. F and Fi represent the fresh and altered rock from the
Croesus mine, Wood River district, Blaine County, Idaho, where the
narrow streaks of filling consist of quartz, siderite, pyrrhotite, and chalco-
pyrite, with a little galena, arsenopyrite, and sphalerite. Here again
only a fraction of the gold is in the free state. The ore contains very
little silver.1
The specific gravity of E is 2.714. From the mineralogical composi­
tion given in the report quoted the specific gravity is calculated to 2.720,
which is a close agreement, the difference possibly indicating a very slight
porosity.*12
TABLE IV.—MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF E, AND Fi. IN TABLE III

E. F,
Quartz. 42.00 36.18
Sericite 46.84 38.18
Chlorite 11.76
CaC03. . 4.80 3.11
MgC03. 1.96 1.26
FeC03. . 1.45 2.19
Rutile.. 0.49 1.08
Apatite... 0.72
Pyrite___ 1.78 0.58
Pyrrhotite 0.15
Sphalerite trace
Galena.......... 0.99
Chalcopyrite. 0.15
Arsenopyrite 3.58

Total 99.32 99.93

The measured specific gravity of Ei is 2.774, indicating that the rock

alters to denser minerals. The calculation of the same specific gravity
1 For full calculations and description of E and E, see W. Lindgren, Eighteenth
Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1898, p. 640; for F and F, see W. Lindgren,
Twentieth Ann. Rept., idem, pt. 3, 1900, pp. 211-232.
2 In this calculation the following figures for specific gravity are used: quartz, 2.65;
sericite, 2.83; biotite, 3.00; oligoclase, 2.65; orthoclase, 2.56.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 539
from Table IV gives 2.796, which shows a decided porosity of the altered
rock. Under these circumstances, no evidence of pressure being noted,
it may be assumed that not much change in volume has taken place. By
multiplying the percentages of E and Ei by 2.714 and 2.774, respectively,
and comparing the results, the absolute gains and losses per cubic meter
may be obtained.
In the same manner the measured specific gravities of F and Fi are
compared with the calculated specific gravities.1
By multiplying the percentages of F and F i by the measured specific
gravities, and comparing these data, the absolute gains and losses are
again obtained.
The calculation shows that during the alteration of E to Ei 291
kilograms were added and 229 lost per cubic meter, the net gain being
62 kilograms. During the alteration of F to Fi 416 kilograms were added
and 333 lost per cubic meter, the net gain being 83 kilograms.
Similar changes resulted in the two rocks: a moderate addition of
silica and a strong gain of potash; nearly complete loss of sodium, barium,
and strontium; partial loss of alumina, magnesia, and lime, F, however,
losing much more lime than E. In Ei the amounts lost of Fe20 3and FeO
are almost completely converted into Fe (in FeS2). In F ] these losses are
less and not sufficient to account for the gain of Fe; consequently iron
must have been added. Phosphoric acid is constant, consistent with
the fresh state of the apatite.
These figures give some idea of the intensity of the transfer of mate­
rial; the net change of material is comparatively small.
Similar alteration in the veins of Bingham, Utah, has been described
by Boutwell.2 The Last Chance lode is from 1 to 14 feet wide and con­
tains galena, sphalerite, pyrite, and some calcite. The alteration and
bleaching extend about 1 or 2 feet into the country rock, which is a mon-
zonite, consisting of orthoclase, plagioclase, augite, biotite, and horn­
blende. The alteration begins by chloritization and dissemination of
pyrite, but the end product consists largely of sericite and pyrite. The
analysis indicates an unusual and almost complete removal of magnesia
and extensive leaching of sodium and calcium. There has evidently been
an addition of potassium, as there is considerably more than is called for
in the ordinary composition of sericite. As usual, Ti02remains constant,
and the altered rock contains practically no carbonates.
One of the great mineral belts of Colorado extends in a northeasterly
direction from Leadville to Boulder by way of Park, Clear Creek, and
Gilpin counties (p. 593). It is characterized, as a whole, by an abundance
of heavy sulphide ores, principally pyrite, sphalerite, and galena, with
1 Twentieth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1900, pp. 221-232.
2J. M. Boutwell, Bingham mining district, Prof. Paper 38, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1905, p. 178.
540 MINERAL DEPOSITS
subordinate chalcopyrite and a notable content of gold and silver. The
gangue is subordinate and consists of a little quartz and more or less
sideritic carbonate. The ores appear in replacement deposits and veins.
At Leadville, where the ores replace limestone at the contacts with intru­
sive porphyry, the alteration of the carbonate rock is remarkably slight.
There may be locally a little pyrite in the limestone near the ore; at other
places the limestone is recrystallized and contains much manganosiderite,
or is silicified. The contact between ore and limestone is usually very
sharp—indeed, in spite of the completeness of the replacement, practically
unaltered limestone may lie next to the ore.
At Georgetown and Central City, studied by Spurr, the deposits are
fissure veins, generally filled with massive sulphides; and, in feldspathic
rocks, they are adjoined by an altered zone from a few inches to 20 feet
or more in width. The alteration products are quartz, sericite, and a
sideritic carbonate, with more or less pyrite. The siderite is derived from
biotite and magnetite, and the gangue minerals from the adjoining rocks.
Kaolin is considered to have resulted from alteration by descending
waters during the processes of weathering and sulphide enrichment.
At Breckenridge, Colorado, the alteration has been studied in detail
by Ransome1at the Wellington lode, 350 feet below the surface and below
the zone of oxidation. The vein is here 5 feet wide with good walls and
contains sphalerite and galena in a little gangue of siderite and barite
with more or less included country rock. The alteration spreads 20 feet
from the vein. The fresh rock is a dark-gray monzonite porphyry, the
ground-mass of which consists of labradorite, orthoclase, biotite, and
diopside. The altered rock is light gray, with disseminated particles of
sulphides. The rock, while retaining a faint trace of its structure, is
changed to a mass of carbonate, sericite, and quartz. Probably no
change of volume accompanied the alteration.
By multiplying the figures of the percentage compositions by the
specific gravities of the rock mass, the constituents per 100 cubic centi­
meters of fresh and altered rock are obtained. These figures compared
give the gains and losses for each constituent during the alteration of
100 cubic centimeters of fresh rock, and from these may be calcu­
lated the gains and losses in percentage of the original mass of fresh rock,
276.3 grams in column I. These gains or losses in percentages may be
applied d'rectly by addition or subtraction to the figures of the chemical
analysis of fresh rock, and this, as shown in column III, will express the
nature of the change more clearly. There has been a notable loss of silica,
calcium, and sodium; to a less degree potassium. The additions comprise
carbon dioxide, sulphides, ferrous iron, and magnesium, which would
hardly bear out Spurr’s assertion that the siderite in the vein is derived
1 F. L. Ransome, The Breckenridge district,, Prof. Paper 75, U. S. Geol. Survey>
1911, pp. 95-101.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 541
from the adjoining country rock. As usual apatite remains unaltered,
and ilmenite is converted to rutile. Some paragonite has probably
developed besides the sericite, if indeed the rock does not contain albite.
TABLE SHOWING ALTERATION OF DIORITE PORPHYRY AT
BRECKENRIDGE, COLORADO

I II III

SiOj............................................ 57.35 46.62 49.48

Ti02........................................... 1.07 1.01 1.07
A120 3.......................................... 16.29 12.66 13.44
*'-'A ......................................... 3.15 trace 0.02
FeO............................................ 4.36 11.15 11.78
MnO........................................... 0.12 0.92 0.97
CaO............................................ 5.66 1.55 1.66
0.10
SrO......................................... 0.05
MgO........................................... 2.41 4.02 4.25
k 2o ............................................ 3.39 1.68 1.79
Na20 .......................................... 4.50 1.35 1.45
H20 - ........................................ 0.15 0.31 0.33
H20 + ........................................ 0.70 3.41 3.60
C02............................................. 0.46 11.48 12.11
P A ........................................... 0.70 0.50 0.53
FeS2............................................ 0.09 1.99 2.10
ZnS............................................. none 0.97 1.02
PbS...................................... . 0.52 0.55
Total.................................. 100.55 100.14 106.15
Specific gravity:
Mass....................................... 2.763 2.930
Powder.................................. 2.799 2.940

I. Diorite porphyry, 25 feet from vein, Wellington mine.

II. Altered porphyry, close to vein, Wellington mine.
III. Composition of same volume of altered rock in percentage of original
rock mass.
An approximate calculation shows the altered rock to be composed
as follows:
APPROXIMATE MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ALTERED DIORITE
PORPHYRY AT BRECKENRIDGE, COLORADO
Sericite......... ............. 30.5 Apatite.............. ......... 1.3
Quartz.......... ............. 31.6 Pyrite................ ........ 2.0
Kaolinite.... ............. 2.8 Sphalerite......... ........ 1.0
Carbonate. . . ............. 29.3 Galena............... ........ 0.5
Rutile........... ............. 1.0 Total......... ........ 100.0
542 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The carbonate consists of 63.9 per cent FeC03, 29.6 per cent MgCOj,
5.2 per cent MnC03, and 1.3 per cent CaC03, all in isomorphous mixture
(Fig. 210).
The majority of the large copper desposits of the West are genetically
connected with intrusives and have been formed at intermediate depths.
Butte, Clifton, and Ely may serve as examples. The hydrothermal

F ig . 210.— Diagram showing alteration of diorite porphyry by vein-forming solutions at

Breckenridge, Colorado. (A fter F. L. Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
alteration of the feldspathic rocks results universally in sericite, quartz,
and pyrite with practically no carbonates. Omitting minor constituents,
the composition of the altered rocks would average, in per cent, about
65.0, Si02; 16.0, A120 3; 2.0, FeO; 0.5, Fe20 3; 1.0, MgO; 0.25, CaO;0.5,
Na20; 5.0, K20; and 5.0, FeS2.1
From all this it follows that the mineralization in mineral deposits of
this class has been effected by solutions of relatively uniform character
1 Clifton-Morenci, W. Lindgren, Prof. Paper 43, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905; Butte,
W. H. Weed, idem, 74, 1912; Breckenridge, Colorado, F. L. Ransome, idem, 75,
1911; San Francisco district, Utah, B. S. Butler, idem, 80, 1913; Ely, Nevada, A. C.
Spencer, idem, 96, 1917; Ray and Miami, Arizona, F. L. Ransome, idem, 115, 1919.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 543
often capable of substituting K20 for Na20. In some deposits, particu­
larly those carrying gold, silver, and lead, the alkaline earths have been
fixed as carbonates, while in copper deposits there are usually no metaso-
matic carbonates.
The results indicate hot ascending solutions having a variable amount
of alkaline carbonates and free carbon dioxide.
PARAGENESIS
It has long been observed that the minerals are formed, in the main,
in an orderly succession, which sometimes is repeated. This was first

F ig . 211.— Drawing of polished surface of ore from Gilpin County, Colorado, showing
earlier pyrite traversed by later veins of chalcopyrite, sphalerite (s), and quartz. ( A fter
E. S. Bastin.)
emphasized by Breithaupt, who recorded the series for different mineral
deposits in his book on the paragenesis of minerals. The succession has
an evident bearing on scientific and economic problems, and much work
has been done lately on this subject in connection with the examination
of ores in polished sections by metallographic methods. These have
disclosed the wonderful extent to which metallic minerals are replaced by
others during the process of metallization.
When both filling and replacement have been in action, it is natural
that the country rock would first be attacked by the waters. There was
first a process of dialysis by means of which the solutions were filtered
through a porous rock which many elements found it difficult to pene­
trate. Thus we find that the composition of the metasomatic rocks near
the fissure differs considerably from that of the filling. In gold-quartz
544 MINERAL DEPOSITS
veins, for instance, there is as a rule little gold in the metasomatic rocks
while the filling may be rich. The carbonates, pyrite, and sericite in the
rock seem to have developed about contemporaneously.
Quartz appears early in the vein filling and its deposition may continue
long. Calcite, dolomite, and siderite are usually the latest gangue min­
erals, but may also be early. The sulphides usually form in the following
order, exceptions from this sequence being rare.1 Beginning with the old­
est we have pyrite, arsenopyrite, cobalt and nickel arsenides, pyrrhotite,
sphalerite, enargite, tennantite, tetrahedrite, bornite, chalcopyrite,
galena; the latest minerals are argentite, gold, sulphantimonides, and
sulpharsenides of silver and lead. Each mineral may replace any of the
preceding ones (Fig. 211). Sulphides freely replace gangue minerals
while the latter rarely replace the sulphides. Some disseminated min­
erals, e.g., argentite in galena or chalcopyrite in bornite and sphalerite,
are believed to originate by the “ unmixing” at lower temperature of a
solid solution deposited at a higher temperature.2
The general features and paragenesis of the gold-quartz veins have
been summarized by F. Buschendorf.3
GOLD-QUARTZ VEINS OF THE CALIFORNIA AND VICTORIA TYPE
Principal Characteristics.—As quartz and gold may be deposited
together within a considerable range of temperature, there are several
types of gold-quartz deposits. The deposits formed at higher tempera­
tures, distinguished by such gangue minerals as tourmaline, apatite,
garnet, biotite, and amphibole, will be described in subsequent pages.
Those formed near the surface at temperatures not much above 150° C.
have been discussed in the preceding chapter. Between the two kinds
stands the large group of important deposits whose geological relations
point to development at considerable depth and whose mineral associa­
tion points to moderate temperatures—perhaps 200° to 300° C.
The first type is represented by certain Appalachian, Canadian, and
Brazilian gold-quartz veins; the second by veins like those of the Com­
stock, Bodie, and Tonopah, usually appearing in Tertiary lavas. Be­
tween the two stand the gold-quartz veins of California, eastern Australia,
and many localities in the interior Cordilleran region of North America.
The general characteristic of these intermediate deposits is the associa­
tion of a preponderant gangue of milky, coarsely crystalline quartz, some­
times drusy, though rarely showing comb structure, with free gold and
auriferous simple sulphide minerals. Where the country rock is suitable
1W. Lindgren, Magmas, dikes and veins, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 74,
1926, p. 88.
2 H. Schneiderhohn, Entmischungserscheinungen, etc., Metall und Erz, 19, 1922,
pp. 501-526.
3 Zeitschr. prakt. Genl., 1926, pp. 1-11.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 545
for replacement, carbonates and sericite appear with pyrite in the altered
rocks.
The veins occur in deeply eroded regions and in or surrounding intru-
sives of quartz monzonitic or dioritic or gabbroitic kind. The only
silicates present are albite and chlorite, and these only locally. The
destruction of the outcrops by erosion usually results in rich placers, in
which large nuggets of gold are often found.
The free gold always contains a little silver, the average fineness being
800; the sulphides are likely to carry more silver in proportion than the
native gold. Some types of these veins carry a notable amount of silver,
but scarcely ever such amounts as are common in the Tertiary veins
deposited near the surface in Tertiary lavas.
Gold-quartz Veins of the Sierra Nevada.1—The greatest development
of the gold-quartz veins is found in California; they begin in the southern
end of the state in San Diego County and continue, with interruptions, to
the northern end, where, in Trinity and Siskiyou counties, there is a pro­
ductive area of no small value. The gold belt also continues into south­
western Oregon, but farther north disappears under the Tertiary lavas
and Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments.
Most typically, the veins are developed in the Sierra Nevada, which,
with its gentle western slope and abrupt eastern escarpments, separates
the deserts of the Great Basin from the central valleys of California
(Fig. 212).
The crest and main mass of this range form parts of an enormous
batholith of massive granodiorite and allied rocks, intruded into Mesozoic
and Paleozoic metamorphosed sediments. These sedimentary rocks are
1 H. W. Fairbanks, Geology of the Mother Lode region, Tenth Rept., California
State Min. Bur., 1890, pp. 23-90.
W. Lindgren, Characteristic features of the California gold-quartz veins, Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., 6, 1896, pp. 221-240.
W. Lindgren, Gold-silver veins of Ophir, Fourteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Sur­
vey, pt. 2, 1893, pp. 243-284.
W. Lindgren, The gold-quartz veins of Nevada City and Grass Valley, Seventeenth
Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1896, pp. 1-262.
Ernest Howe, The gold ores of Grass Valley, California, Econ. Geol., 19, 1924,
pp. 595-622.
F. L. Ransome, The Mother Lode district, Folio 63, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900.
W. H. Storms, The Mother Lode region of California, Bull. 18, California State
Min. Bur., 1900.
W. H. Storms, Possibilities of the Mother Lode in depth, Min. and Sci. Press,
Nov. 18, 1911.
W. H. Storms, The occurrence of gold at intersections, Min. and Eng. World,
Nov. 25, and Dec. 2, 1911.
H. W. Turner and F. L. Ransome, Sonora folio, Geol. Atlas 41, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1897, and other folios of the same region by Lindgren and Turner.
A. Knopf, The Mother Lode system of California, Prof. Paper 157, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1929.
546 MINERAL DEPOSITS
closely folded and compressed and occupy a belt on the western slope,
which gradually widens and, in Plumas County, spreads over a width of
60 miles. The great batholith itself contains extremely few quartz
veins; mineralization is confined to the belt of metamorphic rocks on the
western slope and often begins abruptly at the contact; this is shown, for
instance, by the river gravel, which becomes auriferous where the streams
enter the metamorphic areas. The highly productive part of the belt
does not, usually, adjoin the granitic rocks, but appears lower down in the
foothill region near smaller intrusive areas.

districts.
The metamorphic rocks are a complex body, for besides the prevailing
Paleozoic slates with occasional lenses of limestone and, in the lower foot­
hills, a narrow belt of late Jurassic Mariposa slate, they contain Paleozoic
lava flows and a vast quantity of tuffs, diabases, and old andesites erupted
by volcanoes of Jurassic age.
Later than these rocks, and probably dating from earliest Cretaceous
time, are numerous smaller intrusions of gabbro, diorite, and granodiorite,
which are massive and, in a general way, contemporaneous with the main
batholith of the range. The basic intrusions appear to be somewhat
older than those containing more silica.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 547
In and around these smaller intrusions, as, for instance, at Grass
Valley, Nevada City (Fig. 215), Ophir (Fig. 213), and West Point, the
gold-bearing veins often cluster and may occur in any kind of rocks.
There are also several long lines along which fracturing and subsequent
mineralization have taken place. One of these follows the so-called
“serpentine belt,” a dike-like intrusive mass 70 miles long; another
extends from the Forest Hill divide, in Placer County, up into Sierra
County, passing the town of Washington. The most important line is
that followed by the Mother Lode, in the foothills of Mariposa, Tuo­
lumne, Calaveras, Amador, and Eldorado counties, for a distance of
130 miles. The Mother Lode is by no means a single vein but, rather,
a system of linked veins, placed, however, within a narrow belt about a

F ig . 213.— M ap of principal vein system s near Ophir and Auburn, California. A , small
area of amphibole. Scale 1 inch = 2.7 miles.
mile wide and maintaining a remarkably straight course; it cuts Paleozoic
slates and greenstones, but on the whole follows fairly closely a narrow
belt of the Jurassic Mariposa slate and in places lies between this slate
and the greenstone. The Mother Lode fissures usually show a reverse
fault in which the maximum displacement in the line of dip is 375 feet
(Fig. 214).
The strike of the veins is predominantly north-northwest, parallel
to the range and to the strike of the steeply inclined strata; but the dip
usually intersects that of the beds and, in the Mother Lode, is about 60°
east. In many districts other directions of strike and dip prevail. The
veins are easily traceable by prominent quartz outcrops, and many of them
are remarkably straight and continuous in strike and dip. It is not
uncommon to find veins continuous along the strike for 1 or 2 miles.
Many of the veins have been successfully worked to a vertical depth of
2,000 feet. In the Kennedy mine, on the Mother Lode belt, a vertical
depth of 4,950 feet has been attained, good ore appearing in the lower
levels. The Argonaut now has reached 6,200 feet in vertical depth with
548 MINERAL DEPOSITS
good ore in the lowest levels. At the Central Eureka mine, near the Ken­
nedy, new rich ore-bodies were found below the 1,000-foot level, though
there was very little ore above that horizon. Again, new ore-shoots were

F ig . 214.— Vertical cross-section of the M other Lode near the A rgonaut shaft, showing
reverse fault along vein fissure. “ S chist” is am phibolite, white area, M ariposa clay slate
(Jurassic).
opened from the 3,500- to the 4,400-foot levels. The North Star vein, at
Grass Valley, has been followed along its flat dip for about 9,000 feet to

F ig . 215.— Geological section a t N evada C ity, California. Cc, Carboniferous slate:

Jm , Jurassic slate; pt, porphyrite; gb, gabbro; pta, am phibolite; s, serpentine; grd, granodio-
rite. Scale 1 inch = 2,400 feet.
about 4,000 feet vertically. Mainly from the deepest levels, 94,600 tons
of ore was produced in 1925, averaging $8.19 per ton.
There are many structural types; the most common is the simple filled
vein (Fig. 216), which may range from a mere film of quartz to a thickness
 MESO'VHERMAL DEPOSITS 549

F ig . 216.— A rgonaut vein in slate country rock, Am ador C ounty, California, at 650-foot
level. (Photograph by 0 . H . Packer.)

F ig . 217.— B unker Hill vein, Am ador C ounty, California, showing folded vein in crushed
clay slate.
550 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of 10 or 20 feet. Many of the outcrops appear to be much thicker than
the figures just given, but these large masses are poor in gold. Again,
there are composite veins or lodes in which certain belts of country rock
are filled by branching veinlets of quartz or which may contain altered
slabs of country rock (Fig. 218). In crushed clay slates the veins are
sometimes broken and folded (Fig. 217). Large bodies of rock changed
by replacement to gold ores are comparatively rare; such ores are mined
in several places at Angels Camp, Calaveras County, but even here the
gold is mainly contained in thin quartz seams in the altered rock. Again,
gold-bearing quartz seams may follow joints of certain direction in large

F ig. 218.— N orth Star vein, Grass Valley, California, near 1,800-foot level, showing quartz
vein in brecciated and altered diabase.

masses of rock; many such masses have been worked by the simple process
of hydraulic washing of the upper, weathered part. Such deposits are
called seam diggings.
More rarely the veins follow narrow dikes of albite aplite; or they are
developed on joint planes across the strike of thicker dikes in the manner
of ladder veins.
The association of gold with dikes consisting mainly of albite rock has
been described by Turner1 and Reid.12 Turner describes such dikes on
1 H. W. Turner, Notes on the gold ores of California, Am. Jour. Sri., 3d ser., 47,
1894; idem, 3d ser., 49, 1905; Replacement deposits in the Sierra Nevada, Jour.
Geol., 7, 1899, pp. 389-400.
2 John A. Reid, The east country of the Mother Lode, Min. and Sri. Press, March 2,
1907.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 551
Moccasin Creek, in Tuolumne County,1 at the Shaw mine, in Eldorado
County, and at other places; but the associated ores are generally of low
grade and the mineralization is everywhere later than the dike.
Reid observed numerous thin dikes in Calaveras slate near Blue
Canyon, Placer County, consisting largely of albite, which are cut or
followed by seams or veins containing quartz, albite, pyrite, arsenopyrite,
and native gold.
In feldspathic and femic rocks there is more or less replacement
extending a few inches or a few feet from the vein, with dissemination of
pyrite, calcium-magnesium-iron carbonates, and much sericite (p. 532).
Occasionally, in sodic amphibolites, much albite develops; and, in the
vicinity of Angels Camp, on the Mother Lode, such replacements may
contain enough gold to be called ore. In serpentine the alteration to a
coarse aggregate of ankerite and bright-green chromium mica (maripo-
site) is characteristic; this product of replacement constitutes ore in only
a few places, such as the Rawhide mine, southeast of Angels Camp, where
it was penetrated by gold-bearing quartz stringers.
The ore-shoots are irregularly distributed; many veins are of pockety
character, containing rich bonanzas at certain points, which may be deter­
mined by intersections or by the crossing of certain beds of the schist
series. Other veins have large and regular shoots generally with a steep
pitch, and sometimes with a pitch length of many thousand feet. In
isolated cases, such as the Idaho-Maryland vein at Grass Valley, the pitch
of the rich pay-shoot was flat on the plane of the vein (p. 194). In many
districts, especially at Grass Valley, the rule is that the shoot pitches to
the left of an observer looking down the dip.
A. Knopf,2 writing of the Mother Lode, believes that the larger shoots
represent the easy passage ways of the ascending solution, and that the
poor or barren bodies of quartz indicate more stagnant solutions which
were constantly enriched in silica derived from the alteration of the coun­
try rock. The evidence as to the supposedly favorable influence of the
carbonaceous Mariposa slates is contradictory.
Including the placer gold yielded by the outcrops disintegrated during
Tertiary and Quaternary time, the production of the California gold-
quartz deposits is exceedingly large, being $1,852,000,000 to 1931
inclusive. The actual mining of the quartz veins has yielded about
32 per cent of this amount.3 In 1930 the lode mines produced 60 per
cent and the placer mines 40 per cent of the gold. A long list of celebrated
mines could be cited, each one having yielded from $5,000,000 to $30,000,-
000. Among them are the North Star, Empire, and Idaho-Maryland,
of Grass Valley, and the Plymouth Consolidated, Kennedy, Keystone,
1 H. W. Turner, Seventeenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 1, 1896, p. 664.
2 Op. cit., p. 32.
2 J. M. Hill, Econ. Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 172-179.
552 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Eureka Consolidated, Gover, and Zeile on the Mother Lode.1 The
annual production from lode mines in California has decreased since
the World War to about $7,200,000 in 1925 and $5,700,000 in 1930.
The principal and almost exclusive gangue mineral is milk-white
quartz with coarse massive texture, occasionally drusy. In thin section
the quartz shows partly idiomorphic forms (Fig. 54), and some individuals
include earlier slender prisms. Comb structure is sometimes seen, but
never the delicate banding of the veins formed near the surface. In
places sulphides encrust rock fragments enclosed in quartz. A rough
banding may result from irregular distribution of the sulphides, from the
inclusion of narrow strips of black slate, or from subsequent shearing of
the vein (Fig. 55); the last is not uncommon and is indicated in thin sec­
tion by the crushing of the primary individual crystals (Fig. 56). Fluid
inclusions are plentiful, and seem to consist of an aqueous solution.
Calcite, dolomite, and ankerite are formed in subordinate quantities,
though they may be present abundantly in the replaced country rock
adjoining the vein. Barite, fluorite, and tourmaline are absent, as are
biotite, garnet, amphibole, epidote, zeolites, rhodonite, and rhodochrosite
No bituminous material has been reported. Mariposite, a chromium
mica, is common near serpentine in the altered rock; roscoelite, a vana­
dium mica, is sometimes associated with native gold. Rutile is generally
confined to the altered rock. Specularite, cinnabar, and magnetite are
absent, except in isolated cases. Scheelite is known to occur at several
places.2
The native gold is the principal ore mineral and occurs in all ores and
at all depths. Sometimes large masses are found. A mass of solid gold
valued at $40,000 was taken out from the Bonanza mine, near Sonora,
in a pocket which yielded $360,000. This mine produced more than
$2,000,000 in gold, the greater part of which was pounded out of the
quartz in hand mortars. Still heavier masses of gold were found in the
Monumental mine, Sierra County, and below the outcrops of the Carson
Hill veins on the Mother Lode. In some veins the gold is distributed in
microscopic particles; in others it is visible (Fig. 219) and occurs in
threads and plates. Coarse gold, replacing quartz and arsenopyrite, is
described by Ferguson and Gannett3from the pocket mines of Alleghany,
in Sierra County (Fig. 219). Very rarely, in some pocket mines, gold of a
fineness exceeding 9004 is encountered, but the average fineness is 800
1 The Kennedy mine to the close of 1915 yielded $6,378,000 from 729,000 tons of
ore; later yields are not disclosed. The North Star mine from 1884 to 1926 inclusive
yielded $28,924,488 from 2,704,810 tons of ore.
2 C. D. Hulin describes fluor-apatite with gold and quartz from the lower levels of
the Kennedy mine, Econ. Geol., 25, 1930, p. 348.
3 H. G. Ferguson and R. W. Gannett, Gold-quartz veins of the Alleghany district,
Prof. Paper 172, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1932, 139 pp.
4 Gold from the San Giuseppe mine, near Sonora, was 990 fine.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 553
to 830, and it is rarely as low as 700, the remainder being principally
silver.
Variable, but always comparatively small, quantities of metallic
minerals accompany the gold, ordinarily making up 2 to 3 per cent of the

c
F ig . 219. — A . Thin section of gold-bearing quartz, K eltz mine, Tuolum ne County,
California. Q, quartz; P, pyrite; black, gold, deposited later than pyrite. Magnified 70
diameters. (After W . J. Sharwood.)
B. Drawing showing succession arsenopyrite (.A), tclluride (B ), and gold (black) in
quartz from Bridge R iver district, B ritish Columbia. M agnification 12 diam eters. (After
W. S. M cCann.)
C. Gold replacing arsenopyrite and quartz, Alleghany district, California. (A fter H.
G. Ferguson.)
mass. Pyrite is universally present; pyrrhotite rarely, and then only in
veins in granite rocks. Chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena are most
554 MINERAL DEPOSITS
abundant next to pyrite; arsenopyrite is also common. Tetrahedrite is
frequently found, while stibnite and molybdenite are rare. The gold
is, as a rule, later than the sulphides. Compounds of tin, uranium, boron,
phosphorus, and fluorine are lacking. Tellurides like altaite, hessite,
calaverite, petzite, and melonite are sometimes associated with native
gold, as at Nevada City and Carson Hill.
The sulphides obtained by concentration from the ore are usually
rich, often having a value of $100 to $300 per ton, but their value is only a
small part of the value of the ore. J. M. Hill1gives the following figures
for the Mother Lode mines. In the five Mother Lode counties 437,409
tons of ore were mined in 1925, with a total recovery of $3,137,150.
The gold recovery on the amalgamating plates averaged $5.63 per ton,
while 9,465 tons of concentrates (mainly pyrite) obtained from the ore
averaged in value $57 per ton; the total value recovered in gold (with a
very small quantity of silver) averaged $7.17 per ton.
The gold-quartz veins of the Sierra Nevada were formed shortly after
the intrusion of the granodiorite batholith in latest Jurassic or earliest
Cretaceous time. They have, with the surrounding rocks, been subjected
to an intense erosion, the vertical measure of which amounts to several
thousand feet. The exposures by unequal erosion or by mining opera­
tions show, in many districts, that the vertical range of gold deposition
without notable change in richness of shoots was over 4,000 feet; the
relations in some districts lead to the conclusion that the deepest parts
now mined were formed 7,000 feet or more below the surface.
By metasomatic processes, the wall rocks absorbed carbon dioxide,
potassium, sulphur, and lime from the solutions. On the other hand,
sodium has been leached, and undoubtedly much silica has been extracted
from the walls. The result of this would probably be a concentration of
the ascending solution and a progressive accumulation of silica,12available
for deposition in the open spaces. A. Knopf3believes, indeed, that prac­
tically all of the quartz filling was derived from this source. This is prob­
ably going too far. The solutions ascending from the magmatic source
were most likely siliceous in the first place. The mode of deposition was
predominantly by filling during successive re-openings of the fissures.
The gold and other metals were undoubtedly derived from magmatic
emanations from the congealing granodioritic masses, which probably
underlie the region at no excessive depths. In places the evidence points
to more basic rocks or to differentiated albite dikes as the source of at
least a part of the gold.
1 Mineral Resources, U. S. Bur. Mines, pt. 1, 1925, p. 301.
2 W. Lindgren, The gold-quartz veins of Nevada City and Grass Valley, Seventeenth
Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1896, p. 184.
3 Prof. Paper 157, idem, 1929, p. 45.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 555

As to the state in which gold was carried by the solutions, no definite

answer can be given. Hot waters containing carbon dioxide, alkaline
carbonates, and hydrogen sulphide would be competent to effect the
changes noted in the rocks. Gold is soluble to some extent in a solution
containing sodium carbonate, sodium silicate, and carbon dioxide. It is
relatively easily soluble in sodium sulphide, which may well have been
present. Further, it is easily dispersed in silica gels and sols and can be
easily precipitated from these dispersions. On the whole, it is most
probable that the gold was carried in such colloidal form. The presence
in the solution of any gold salt, such as the chloride, is extremely
improbable.
The Gold-quartz Veins of the Interior Cordilleran Region. 1—A great
number of intrusive masses of quartz monzonitic or granodioritic type are
found in the interior Cordilleran region of the United States. They are,

F ig . 220.— Section of H idden Treasure vein, Neal district, Idaho.

as a rule, of more recent age than the great coast batholith, their epoch of
intrusion falling at the end of the Cretaceous or the beginning of the
Tertiary. In or around these intrusives gold-quartz veins are often found,
clearly related to the California type, but differing from it in some
respects. Many of them occur with east-west strike in the central parts
of the Idaho batholith—a rather unusual position; the majority are,
however, located near contacts or roof pendants. Frequently they follow
lamprophyric dikes (Fig. 220). They contain more sulphides, though
of the same kinds, and they carry, as a rule, more silver in the sulphides
than the veins of the California type; there is less free gold, and, in some
instances, only a small proportion of the total gold is amenable to direct
amalgamation. The gold contains silver and rarely has a fineness above
700. Rich silver minerals often form in the oxidized zones. The
1 W. Lindgren, The mining districts of Idaho Basin, etc., Eighteenth Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1897, pp. 617-744.
W. Lindgren, The gold belt of the Blue Mountains of Oregon, Twenty-second
Ann. Rept., idem, pt. 2, 1901, pp. 551-776.
C. E. Weaver, The Blewett mining district, Bull. 6, Washington Geol. Survey,
1911.
556 MINERAL DEPOSITS
precious metals are contained chiefly in the quartz filling; but the altered
rock adjoining the veins sometimes carries gold and silver, which means
that it is in part replaced by gold- and silver-bearing sulphides. In
feldspathic and ferromagnesian rocks sericitic and pyritic alteration
(Fig. 221) affects the wall rocks; carbonatization is rarely as intense as in
the veins of the Sierra Nevada. Pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite,
galena, and sphalerite are the common ore minerals, but tetrahedrite is
also plentiful and cinnabar is known to occur. Tellurides are sometimes
present and are almost always intergrown with native gold. Quartz is
the prevailing and usually the only gangue mineral. Quartz with coarse
native gold has been observed to replace an earlier calcite gangue
(Fig. 222). Tourmaline, magnetite, and pyrrhotite are not known. The
grade of the ore is from $5 to $15 per ton.

F ig . 221. F ig . 222.
F ig . 221.— P yrite (p), form ing by replacem ent along calcite veinlets (black); calcite
form s lining around p y rite crystals. In chloritic diabase G re at N orth ern mine, Canyon,
Oregon. M agnified 10 diam eters.
F ig . 222.— Q uartz (q) w ith native gold (black), replacing vein of calcite (c); Great
N orth ern m ine, C anyon, Oregon. M agnified 10 diam eters.

Victoria, Australia.1—The principal gold-bearing region of Victoria,

though of much smaller extent than the California gold belt, is believed
1 E. J. Dunn, Report on the Bendigo gold field, Dept, of Mines, Melbourne, 1896.
T. A. Rickard, The Bendigo gold field, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 20, 1891,
pp. 463-545.
J. W. Gregory, The Ballarat East gold field, Mem. 4, Victoria Geol. Survey, 1907.
W. Baragwanath, The Castlemaine gold field, Mem. 2, idem, 1903.
O. A. L. Whitelaw, The Wedderburn gold field, Mem. 10, idem, 1911.
W. Lindgren, Characteristics of gold-quartz veins in Victoria, Eng. and Min.
Jour., March 9, 1905.
F. L. Stillwell, Replacement in the Bendigo quartz veins, etc., Econ. Geol., 13,
1918, pp. 100-111.
N. R. Junner, The geology of the gold occurrences of Victoria, Australia, idem,
16, 1921, pp. 79-123. The analyses given indicate that the altered wall rocks (unusu­
ally) contain much sodium, suggesting the presence of albite.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 557
to have produced about the same amount, namely, 11,500,000,000 in
gold. Here, too, the placers have yielded by far the greater production.
Both gravel deposits and quartz veins still yield a sharply diminishing
output. In 1915 the production of gold from quartz mines was only
about 218,660 ounces, and in 1930 had declined to 25,119 ounces. The
ores averaged $7.50 per ton.

This most productive region includes the celebrated districts of

Ballarat and Bendigo and is situated in the low ranges of the mountains
rising between the basaltic and Tertiary terranes on the south and the
Murray Plains on the north (Fig. 223).
Little altered Ordovician slates and sandstones prevail and form
sharply compressed folds. Intruded in them are two batholiths of
granitic rock, probably quartz monzonite, the largest being that between
Bendigo and Castlemaine; there are also many smaller bodies of the same
558 MINERAL DEPOSITS

F ig . 224.— Saddle reef in slate and sandstone, Bendigo, V ictoria. ( A fte r E J. Dunn.)

F ig . 225.-—T rough reef, in slate and sandstone, Bendigo, V ictoria. (After E. J. Dunn.)
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 559
kind. The intrusions are probably of Devonian age, and erosion of at
least 3,000 feet has planed the region to an undulating surface.
Within the folded Ordovician rocks quartz veins are abundant and
generally follow the strike of the strata, being massed along certain
productive “ reef lines.” Frequently they are conformable between
shale and sandstone, but some of them cut across the strike. A common
type has one well-defined wall from which flat and irregular bodies of

Fro. 226.— Spur reef in slate and sandstone, Bendigo, V ictoria. (After E. J. Dunn.)
quartz project into the hanging or footwall. These flat “ makes” are
particularly characteristic and usually contain the best ore at Ballarat
East and other places. The saddle reefs constitute an interesting divi­
sion, in which masses of quartz fill cavities produced at anticlines (Fig.
224) or less commonly at synclines (Fig. 225) by stresses subsequent to
the principal folding; they are often connected with irregular “ makes”
and spurs (Fig. 226) of quartz. These open cavities, subsequently filled
by quartz, are the necessary result of stresses applied to folded masses
of little altered sediments, the strata of which vary considerably in
hardness.
The best instances of saddle reefs, many of them superimposed upon
and following three or four distinct lines of anticlines, are found at
Bendigo (Fig. 38) and Castlemaine. The Bendigo veins have been
560 MINERAL DEPOSITS
worked to a depth of 4,600 feet in the Victoria reef, situated on the New
Chum reef line, but sinking has been suspended. A body of quartz,
containing at best $17 per ton, was mined at a depth of about 4,200
feet, but it is said that on the whole little profitable mining has been
done at Bendigo below a depth of 2,500 feet. The granitic rocks rarely
contain quartz veins. The vein-filling is a massive milk-white, sometimes
glassy, quartz of coarse, crystalline texture. It contains native gold,
often coarse, and also a little pyrite and arsenopyrite; sometimes also a
little galena, sphalerite, molybdenite, stibnite, and bournonite. No
tellurides are reported. The gold is later than the sulphides and about
900 fine. There is neither barite nor fluorite. Ankerite or calcite with
some magnesium and iron is common but subordinate, usually appearing
near the walls. Albite and a vermicular chlorite are present in places,
the former in vugs, the latter enclosed in massive quartz. There is
little evidence of banded structure, except that near the walls of the veins
thin lamellae of slate may be interlaminated with quartz.
At Ballarat, rich ore-bodies occur at the intersection of flat bodies of
quartz with certain thin pyritic and carbonaceous seams of slate, the
so-called “indicators.” It has been held that the gold has been precipi­
tated by the carbon in the indicator. A more plausible view is that the
indicators are narrow fissures, later than the flat “ makes” and enriching
them at the intersection. Similar features have been noted at other
points in Victoria and seem to point to a process of enrichment, although
probably not caused by surface waters. At Ballarat, the developments
at depths below 1,500 feet have not been encouraging, and the mines are
now closed.
The granitic intrusions and the formation of the quartz veins were
closely associated events. The fact that so few lodes occur in the granitic
rocks is probably explained by the great resistance of the hard intrusive
bosses to compressive stresses, compared with the yielding nature of the
soft sedimentary rocks.
J. R. Don (p. 7) has shown that the sediments away from the veins
contain no gold, and that the increasing traces of gold found as the veins
are approached are dependent upon the amount of pyrite introduced
from the veins.
The metasomatic processes have been studied by Junner in the
Walhalla-Woods Point belt where diorite porphyries are found close to
the veins. Numerous analyses indicate that the changes consist, in
addition of potash and carbon dioxide, in the reduction of soda, and in
small but constant losses of silica, alumina, and ferrous oxide. The
quartz is mainly formed by filling, but Stillwell has advanced the view
that the laminated “ribbon quartz” is a product of replacement.
New South Wales and Queensland.—A large number of well-known
and productive districts are found in New South Wales and Queensland,
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 561
in which the gold occurs in quartz veins associated with intrusive rocks.
Some of these veins carry quantities of sulphides besides free gold;
occasionally fluorite and barite are reported. The almost universal
conditions are a deeply eroded region with diorite or granodiorite or their
basic dikes intruded into Paleozoic sediments, which are usually more
highly altered than in Victoria; the veins occur either in intrusive or
sedimentary rocks or in both. Placers are usually present.
At Hill End,1north of Bathurst in New South Wales, folded Silurian
slates and tuffs are intruded by dikes and sills of quartz porphyry. The
lenticular quartz veins lie in slate or at the contact with the intrusive
rocks. Coarse gold prevails; one mass, extracted in 1872, consisting of
solid gold mixed with some quartz weighed 630 pounds and was valued
at $60,000. Five and one-half tons of solid gold were recovered at this
place from 10 tons of quartz, the value of the gold being $3,300,000.
Similar geological conditions exist at Hargraves, but the quartz here
occurs as saddle reefs. Here, as at Ballarat, flat “ makes” are present
and are enriched where they are crossed by “indicators” or narrow bands
of dark-greenish slate.
At Hill Grove,2 in the New England district, in the northeastern part
of New South Wales, near the wolframite deposits mentioned elsewhere
(p. 760), slates and quartzites are intruded by quartz-mica diorite; and
the veins occur in the sedimentary rocks, often near lamprophyric dikes.
The veins, which average 6 feet in width, contain, besides quartz and
free gold, scheelite, arsenopyrite, and much stibnite. Andrews regards
them as due to the last emanations from the same granitic magma, the
earlier high-temperature emanations having produced the cassiterite-
molybdenite-wolframite deposits.
At Charters Towers,3 in Queensland, the veins intersect granitic
rocks ranging from granites to quartz-mica diorites. The veins have
been highly productive and have been worked to a depth of 3,000 feet
along the dip. They contain about 7 per cent of sulphides (pyrite, galena,
sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite). As usual in granitic rocks,
a considerable part of the gold of the ore is contained in the sulphides.
The veins are regular but narrow, averaging about 3 feet in thickness.
The average value of the ore is probably less than $15 per ton.
Nova Scotia.—The gold-quartz veins of Nova Scotia,4 from which
during the last 50 years a moderate production has been derived, are, in
many respects, of special interest. The veins are contained in folded
1 E. F. Pittman, Mineral resources of New South Wales, Geol. Survey N. S. W.,
1901, p. 31. Comprehensive summary in Maclarcn, Gold, 1908, pp. 341-358.
2 E. C. Andrews, Records, Geol. Survey N. S. W., 8, 1909, p. 143.
3 Jack, Rands, and Maitland, Ann. Rept., Geol. Survey Queensland, 1892.
W. E. Cameron, Publ. 224, Geol. Survey Queensland, 1909.
4 E. R. Faribault, The gold measures of Nova Scotia and deep mining, Jour.
562 MINERAL DEPOSITS
sedimentary rocks—slate and quartzite—probably of Cambrian age,
which are intruded by granitic rocks of Silurian age. The gold belt
extends for a distance of 280 miles along the south coast, and its average
width is about 30 miles. The numerous quartz veins, many of which

F ig . 227.— Folded quartz vein in slates, Mexican mine, Goldenville, N ova Scotia. {After
T . A . R ickard.)

can be traced for long distances, often occur in the manner of saddle
reefs along the anticlines. The anticlinal axes are in places marked by
structural elliptical domes in which the strata pitch both ways on the
strike, and gold-bearing quartz veins are usually found in such domes.
The veins are ordinarily parallel to the stratification, but some of them,
while parallel in strike, cut across the dip. Corrugated and crenulated
veins are common (Fig. 227) and the term “ barrel quartz” is used to
describe the material in them; the corrugation is believed to have been
caused by deformation subsequent to the deposition. The gangue is
always quartz; arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite
are fairly common, but the principal valuable mineral is native gold.
Can. Min. Inst., 2, 1899, pp. 119-161.
J. E. Woodman, Geology of Moose River gold district, N. S., Nova Scotia Inst.
Nat. Sci., 11, 1903, pp. 18-88.
W. Malcolm, Goldfields of Nova Scotia, Mem. 20-E, Canada Dept. Mines, Geol.
Survey Branch, 1912.
T. A. Rickard, The domes of Nova Scotia, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met. (London),
21, 1912, pp. 506-560.
 MESOTIIERMAL DEPOSITS 563
Veins with stibnite occur in the auriferous belt, and scheelite is rather
frequently present.1 The gold-bearing veins were probably formed soon
after the granitic intrusion.
Under the microscope the glassy quartz shows intense deformation,
and the corrugated veins are probably simply the result of the crumpling
of harder beds in a plastic medium (cf. Fig. 19). Two epochs of folding
are indicated, one preceding and the other following the deposition of
quartz.
G O L D -B E A R IN G REPLACEM ENT D E P O S IT S IN L IM E S T O N E

Deposits in which limestone is replaced by jasperoid or fine-grained

silica and which carry gold or silver or both are sometimes found in the
Cordilleran States where intrusive porphyries invade calcareous sedi­
ments. Few examples are known elsewhere. These ores, which are
usually very poor in sulphides, are at several places of economic
importance.
In the Mercur district,2 situated in the Oquirrh Range in Utah,
siliceous silver ores are found at the lower contact of a thin sheet of
granite porphyry with Carboniferous limestone. The jasperoid rock, in
places 55 feet thick, contains more or less silver throughout but has not
been extensively worked. It carries barite and calcite in places.
In the same district, below an upper sheet of porphyry which like the
lower is greatly decomposed by processes of weathering, is found a sheet
of jasperoid rock, locally 25 feet thick, which contains minutely divided,
generally invisible gold with some fine-grained pyrite, a little barite, and
some realgar and cinnabar. In part the porphyry itself constitutes ore,
and the ore may extend into the limestone above the porphyry. Spurr
suggests that the ores gained access to the sheet through vertical fissures,
now filled with calcite.
From 1890 to the end of 1913 about 4,900,000 tons of this gold ore
averaging about S3.58 per ton in gold have been mined in the Mercur
district. The total yield had a value of 119,000,000. The mines are
now closed and dismantled.
W. H. Weed3 described similar deposits in the Moccasin district, in
Montana, where rhyolite porphyry and phonolitic dikes intrude Car­
boniferous limestone. Near these intrusives the limestone is replaced by
fluorite (Fig. 69) and by jasperoid; the replaced rock contains gold and
has been mined successfully for a number of years. Some of the ore
deposits here, too, lie at the lower contacts of intrusive sheets.
1V. G. Hills, Tungsten mining in Nova Scotia, Proc., Colorado Sci. Soc., 10, 1912,
pp. 203-210.
2 J. E. Spurr, Sixteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1895, pp. 349-455.
3 W. H. Weed and L. V. Pirsson, Geology and mineral resources of the Judith
Mountains of Montana, Eighteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1898, pp.
437-016.
564 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The so-called refractory siliceous ores of the Black Hills of South
Dakota, described by J. D. Irving,1 constitute the best examples of this
type of replacement ores. For many years these ores yielded annually
about $2,000,000 in gold and 100,000 ounces of silver, from about 600,000
short tons of ore. At present the production is very small. The ores are
treated by the cyanide process. The deposits form replacements of
dolomite at two horizons in the Cambrian section of the Black Hills, in a
region which is intruded on a large scale by dikes, sheets, and laccoliths
of rhyolite porphyry, syenite porphyry, and phonolite of probable
Eocene age.2 The more important lower horizon is 15 to 25 feet above
the basement of pre-Cambrian schists.
--------------------------3O'-----------------------5-

F ig . 228.— Cross-section of shoot of siliceous ore (black) replacing Cam brian dolomite,
Black Hills, South D akota. Spread of ascending solutions on under side of impervious
shale makes shoot wider at top. (After J. D. Irving.)
The ores occur immediately below more or less impervious beds of
shale or below sills of intrusive rocks. While the richest ore replaces
the dolomite, ores of lower grade may also replace the underlying basal
Cambrian quartzite and the overlying shale; the replaced bodies are at
most 18 feet thick, averaging 6 feet. These channel-like ore-bodies have
a width attaining 300 feet but averaging much less. Their length is
considerable, one shoot having been followed for three-fourths of a mile.
Many parallel shoots may be found in one locality, each shoot corre­
sponding to a fissure or series of fissures (“ verticals”) which intersect
the basal beds but which do not carry the ore below the quartzite and
rarely above the shale (Fig. 228).
The ore is a hard, brittle fine-grained siliceous rock, often reproducing
the dolomite texture with great fidelity (Fig. 61). The fresh ore is locally
bluish and contains finely divided pyrite; much of it contains solution
cavities lined with quartz crystals. Fluorite is always present, frequently
1Prof. Paper 26, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.
2 T. A. Jaggar, Prof. Paper 26, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 24-26.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 565

also barite. Other associated minerals are stibnite, occasionally wolfram­

ite, and probably arsenopyrite and tellurides in fine distribution.
Much of the ore is mined at shallow depths and is largely oxidized.
Interesting data as to the form and distribution of the ore-shoots are also
given by J. D. Irving in a later paper.1
GOLD-BEARING REPLACEMENT DEPOSITS IN PORPHYRY
Larger bodies of aluminous rock are more rarely replaced. W. H.
Emmons2has described an example of this in the Little Rocky Mountains
of northeast Montana, a small outlier on the Great Plains. Stocks and
sheets of syenite porphyry are intruded in a Paleozoic sedimentary com­
plex. Broad zones in this porphyry are replaced and cemented by
quartz, pyrite, secondary orthoclase, and fluorite. The deposits are
really wide replacement lodes, some of them traceable for 1,200 feet and
varying from a few feet to 100 feet in width. The gold is finely dis­
tributed and probably occurs as a telluride, the ores averaging about $3
per ton in gold and one ounce of silver. The operations have thus far
been confined to the oxidized zone, which has a depth of 200 feet. The
relationship to the epithermal Cripple Creek ores is evident.
THE SILVER-LEAD VEINS
General Features.—The mesothermal silver deposits include many
types between which so many transitions exist that a classification is
difficult. Certain forms occurring as fissure veins parallel closely the
gold-bearing quartz veins; but many contrast with them in being usually
associated with carbonate gangue, more frequently ankerite or other
magnesium-calcium-iron carbonates than calcite or siderite.
The replacement deposits in limestone very often contain rich silver
ores, the three most common minerals being galena, tetrahedrite, and
sphalerite. Galena and sphalerite may so predominate that the base
metals yield the principal value of the deposits. Chalcopyrite, pyrite,
and arsenopyrite play subordinate parts. Native silver is here probably
never a primary mineral, although abundantly formed by secondary
reactions effected by descending waters; and rich sulphantimonides like
proustite, pyrargyrite, and polybasite are also partly though not wholly,
of similar secondary origin.
The following types merely serve as centers around which the descrip­
tions may be grouped.
Quartz -Tetrahedrite-Galena Veins.—Prominent veins carrying milky
quartz and sparsely disseminated tetrahedrite, galena, and sphalerite,
with subordinate pyrite, are common in the Cordilleran region in or near
1 Replacement, ore-bodies, Econ. Geol., 6, 1911, pp. 527-561.
2 Bull. 340, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 96-116. See also W. II. Weed and L. V.
Pirsson, Jour. Geol., 4, 1896, pp. 399-428.
566 MINERAL DEPOSITS
intrusive bodies of granitic texture. Many such veins are found in the
great batholiths of Idaho and Montana. The deposits are on the whole
poor and rarely worked, although from 1870 to 1890 the enriched surface
zones in many places yielded much silver chloride, native silver, and
ruby silver. The Granite-Bimetallic vein in Montana is a famous
representative (p. 864).
The Premier mine,1 at the head of Portland Canal, British Columbia,
is located in a country of high relief and strong mineralization near the
eastern contact of the great batholith which follows the coast for several
hundred miles.
Since 1918, it has produced 1,870,411 tons of ore, yielding 1,100,000
ounces of gold and 27,000,000 ounces of silver. In 1930 the mine still
produced 2,500,000 ounces of silver.
The veins are mainly formed by replacement along a strong fracture
zone and occur in tuffaceous Jurassic rocks intruded by dikes of granodio-
rite porphyry. The depth reached is only about 800 feet but the upper
part of the deposit is evidently the richer. Sericitic alteration of the
country rock is marked. The gangue minerals comprise adularia, quartz,
chlorite, and sericite. The ore minerals in their order of succession are as
follows: Pyrite, sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite, electrum,
argentite, polybasite, and pyragyrite. The supergene minerals are
polybasite, chalcopyrite, covellite, and native silver; but undoubtedly
hypogene silver minerals have yielded the large part of the production.
Burton estimates that the deposit was formed at a minimum depth of
4,500 feet. In many ways this deposit recalls features of the epigenetic
veins.
Tetrahedrite-Galena-Siderite Veins (Wood River Type).—The asso­
ciation of siderite gangue with galena and sphalerite and with a smaller
quantity of tetrahedrite rich in silver (freibergite) is not uncommon in
veins associated with intrusions of quartz monzonite, granodiorite,
diorite, or lamprophyric dikes. The last dikes are the latest igneous
rocks, and the ores appear to have been introduced shortly after their
intrusion.
The deposits are usually veins in which the ores appear in part as
filling, but largely as replacements of the country rock. Siderite is the
characteristic gangue mineral, but calcite and intermediate carbonates of
calcium, magnesium, and iron are often present; quartz enters into the
gangue when the veins intersect the granitic rocks. Among the ore
minerals tetrahedrite is the principal carrier of silver and is often inti­
mately intergrown with galena. The galena is mostly coarse grained and
also carries silver, while the sphalerite, with 4 or 5 per cent of iron, is
1 W. D. Burton, Ore deposition at the Premier Mine, B. C., Econ. Geol., 21, 1926,
pp. 586-604.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 567

relatively poor in silver, but is sometimes recovered as a by-product in

concentration.
Chalcopyrite is less abundant than tetrahedrite; pyrite is not con­
spicuous; while arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite occasionally appear, particu­
larly in granitic country rock.
The ore-bodies often replace calcareous shales along the vein; but
these shales appear to have been little altered, except for the introduction
of metallic minerals and some siderite. In granular, feldspathic rocks
close to the vein, sericite, carbonates, and a chlorite rich in iron develop
in large amounts and sulphides are introduced. A complete replacement
by sulphides is unusual. Sodium is almost wholly removed, but potassium
fixed as sericite and calcium fixed as carbonate remain.
The structure of the ore is generally massive, and large bodies of
galena are common. Smaller veins may show banded structure, but
rarely comb structure. Sometimes a thin layer of quartz may be found
along the wall, then a narrow comb of calcite, while the mass of the vein
consists of massive galena, alternating with bands of sphalerite and
containing intergrown tetrahedrite. The galena frequently shows phe­
nomena of pressing, gliding, and recrystallization.
The width of the veins rarely exceeds a few feet, and part of this is
usually crushed country rock. Their outcrops are inconspicuous.
The ore-shoots are markedly irregular and the cost of mining is there­
fore high. A marked deterioration may often be observed in depth;
the large bodies of rich silver ore—aside from those affected by the sur­
face enrichment—are found comparatively near the surface and the
lower levels commonly show pinched veins or a predominance of
sphalerite, pyrite, and quartz.
The upper, oxidized parts of the veins are usually enriched by second­
ary silver chloride, native silver, and pyrargyrite.
Wood River, Idaho.1—The silver-lead veins near Hailey, Idaho, on
the Wood River, north of the Snake River lava plains, discovered in
1864, yielded a production of more than $25,000,000, most of it from 1880
to 1896. A small output is still maintained.
The district lies a few miles east of the eastern contact of the great
granitic batholith of central Idaho, and the prevailing rocks are calcareous
shale, quartzite, and limestone of Carboniferous age, compressed in north-
westward-striking folds (Fig. 230). These sedimentary rocks are intruded
by a minor batholith of diorite and quartz monzonite, following the
general direction of the strata and from 2 to 3 miles wide. The deposits
are fissure veins arranged in two parallel linked systems (Fig. 229) along
1 W. Lindgren, Wood River mining district, Twentieth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol.
Survey, pt. 3, 1900, pp. 218-231.
J. B. Umpleby, L. G. Westgate, C. P. Ross, and D. F. Hewett, Bull. 814, idem,
1930.
568 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the contacts of the batholith and in places cutting across the contacts
into the granitic rock. Some of the veins follow lamprophyric dikes.
Their strike generally cuts the stratification at an acute angle and their
dip is prevailing 50° southwest. The outcrops are inconspicuous.
Most of the veins are in calcareous shale.
The ore consists of galena, sphalerite, and tetrahedrite, with but
little pyrite and chalcopyrite; the gangue is siderite, or intermediate

Fio. 229.— Vein system near contact of intrusive mass in Carboniferous sediments, Wood
R iver district, Idaho.
calcium, iron, and magnesium carbonates, with a little quartz. The
ore minerals have massive structure, sometimes roughly banded.
Second-class ore consists of seams of carbonate gangue with small grains
of galena. As there are no smelting works in the district, the ores and
concentrates must be shipped; the shipments consist of high-grade ore
containing 40 to 50 per cent of lead and 50 ounces of silver per ton; a
little gold is usually present.
Most of the veins are narrow, although they may in places widen
out into bodies of galena many feet wide.
The ore-bodies are irregularly scattered along the veins and are for
the most part replacements of calcareous shale by galena. Some of these
replacement bodies lie obliquely across the strike of the vein and may be
several hundred feet long and 10 to 30 feet wide. In a few places the
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 569

developments have been carried far below the adit levels, but on the
whole, the levels below a depth of 600 to 800 feet have shown fewer
and poorer ore-bodies than the upper parts of the veins. There is little
indication of sulphide enrichment, and the oxidized zone is shallow.
The post-mineral erosion has been very deep; the ore-bodies have no
relation to the present surface. Deeper exploration might well encounter
new ore. The Minnie Moore, one of the most productive veins, was cut
off by intense post-mineral faulting (Fig. 230).
While some of the veins in the granitic rocks have the same character
as those in the shales, others carry gold as the principal metal; they

F ig . 230. — Geologic cross-section of the M innie Moore mine, Wood River district, Idaho.
Black represents vein zone. (A fter D. F. Hewett, V . S. Geol. Survey.)
contain quartz, calcite, siderite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopy-
rite. The metasomatic alteration results in sericitization and
carbonatization.
Slocan, British Columbia.1—The veins of the Slocan district have
yielded lead and silver to a value of about $45,000,000. They are
mainly contained in the clay slates of the Slocan series, the age of which is
possibly Carboniferous. The sedimentary rocks are intruded by granite
(the Nelson batholith), quartz porphyry, and lamprophyric dikes. The
fissure veins have a general northeast direction and high southeast or
northwest dip. Where the veins intersect the igneous rocks quartz is
the prevailing gangue mineral. In the sedimentary rocks the gangue is
mainly siderite or manganosiderite. A specimen gave, for instance, 59
per cent FeC03, 27 per cent MnC03, 12 per cent MgC03, and 2 per cent
CaC03. The ore minerals are sphalerite, galena, and tetrahedrite, rich
in silver. Pyrite and chalcopyrite are fairly common; pyrrhotite is less
1 W. L. Uglow, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917, pp. 643-662.
A. M. Bateman, (Slocan), idem,, 20, 1925, pp. 554-572.
M. E. Bancroft, Geol. Survey Canada, Summ. Rept., 1919, pt. B, pp. 41-46;
idem, 1917, pp. 28-41.
C. W. Drysdale, idem, 1916, pp. 56-57, with map.
570 MINERAL DEPOSITS
abundant and is confined mainly to the vicinity of intrusive rocks.
Native silver, of secondary origin, is present in the zone of oxidation.
Some gold-bearing veins occur together with the silver-lead veins and
are apparently of the same age.
Many of the Slocan veins have proved less rich in depth than near
the surface and in depth contain more siderite, quartz, and pyrite. The
succession of minerals is siderite, sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite.
Bateman finds that ore-bodies occur at very different elevations and
have no definite relations to the original surface. Therefore, the local
impoverishment in an ore-shoot is no proof of a zoning with reference to
that surface.
Galena-Siderite Veins.—The galena-siderite veins form a small but
important type, represented in the United States in the Coeur d’Alene
district,1 Idaho. In contrast to the Wood River type, these veins
contain little tetrahedrite and are poor in silver; they yield about one-
third to one-fifth of the lead production of the United States and in the
aggregate also much silver. In 1930, the ore production was about
1.800.000 tons yielding 142,000 tons of lead, 33,000 tons of zinc, and
8.800.000 ounces of silver. Among the principal mines are the Bunker
Hill and Sullivan, the Hecla, and the Morning. Two of the mines have
been worked to a depth of 4,500 feet below the outcrops. The total
production of the district since 1884 reaches the enormous value of
over $700,000,000. As in other districts the production decreased
materially after 1930.
The prevailing country rock is a fine-grained sericitic quartzite,
referred to the Burke and Revett formations of the thick, folded and
faulted pre-Cambrian Belt series of northern Idaho. The large faults12
are not mineralized; the veins follow subordinate fissures of small throw.
Two masses of monzonite of probable Cretaceous age, the larger not
more than 3 miles in length, intrude the Belt series and cause some con­
tact metamorphism by the development of biotite, garnet, and pyroxene
in the quartzites. The last phase of the intrusion is represented by a
few lamprophyric dikes. These are later than the mineralization and
intersect the ore.
It is held probable that the intrusions of monzonite connect and widen
below the surface. The ore deposits are composite veins or lodes, often
of considerable thickness, formed partly by filling, but largely by replace­
ment of the country rock along vertical shear zones with northwesterly
1 F. L. Ransome and F. C. Calkins, The geology and ore deposits of the Coeur
d’Alene district, Idaho, Prof. Paper 62, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
J. B. Umpleby and E. L. Jones, Jr., Geology and ore deposits of Shoshone County,
Idaho, Bull. 732, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1923.
2 One of these, the Osborne fault, has, according to Hershey, a horizontal throw
of 12 miles.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 571
trend. The longest of the veins is the Bunker Hill, which is traceable
for 7,000 feet.
The ore-shoots are large, and many of them are roughly vertical;
some have been followed to a depth of over 4,500 feet. At the Bunker
Hill and Sullivan mine1(Fig. 231), the ore-bodies do not always follow the
main wall, which dips 38° SSW., but may lie in the shattered country
rock within 250 feet above it. The width of the ore is in places as much
as 40 feet, 9 feet being the average in some of the larger mines.

F i g . 2 3 1 . — Vertical cross-section of p art of Bunker Hill and Sullivan vein, showing

relation of ore-bodies (black) to structure. L .R ., Lower R evett form ation; U .B ., Upper
Burke formation. Lines between faults indicate intersection of stratification planes w ith
vertical plane. (A fter Oscar H. Hershey.)
Galena, with some pyrite and sphalerite, and in places a little
tetrahedrite rich in silver are the principal ore minerals. Chalcopyrite
and probably secondary boulangerite are present in small amounts; in
some mines pyrrhotite takes the place of pyrite. Siderite and quartz
are the predominant gangue minerals; barite, calcite,’and dolomite are
rare. Some of the siderite contains several per cent of manganese.
The ores are in large part formed by replacement of sericitic quartzite
along the tight shear planes of the lodes. The siderite develops first,
replacing both sericitic cement and quartz grains in the quartzite.
Rhombohedrons of siderite may often be seen cutting across the clastic
grains. The galena is later than the siderite and replaces that mineral.
Replacement of quartzite by galena is shown in Fig. 65. Some ore-
bodies consist of almost massive galena, but the ordinary ore is an
1 Mining methods at the Bunker Hill and Sullivan mine, Information Circ. 6407,
U. S. Bur. Mines, 1931.
572 MINERAL DEPOSITS
aggregate of siderite and galena, which must be concentrated. The
bulk of the ores range from 3 to 14 per cent lead and from 2.5 to 6 ounces

232. L ongitudinal section show ing ore-shoot in the M orning m ine, Idaho.
.
F ig

of silver to the ton. These are concentrated to a product containing

about 50 per cent lead. The lowest grade which can be worked at present
carries 5 per cent lead and 3 ounces of silver to the ton. A few of the
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 573

mines, like the Bunker Hill, the Interstate-Callahan, and the Morning,
yield much sphalerite.
The metasomatic action, indicated by the presence of siderite in the
quartzite, often spreads for 100 feet or more beyond the ore. There are
some indications of change of ores in depth; Ransome finds that in the
lower levels of many mines pyrite, pyrrhotite, and sphalerite become
more abundant.
The great shoot of the Morning mine is about 1,800 feet long and has
been followed to a depth of 5,100 feet below the outcrops with undi­
minished width and tenor (Fig. 232). In 1925, the ore averaged 9.5
per cent lead and 5.3 per cent zinc with 4.3 ounces of silver per ton.
Where exposed on the 3,050 level the ore shows little or no difference
from that of the upper levels. The ore was evidently deposited in the cool
country rock several miles from the intrusive rock. As the outcrop only
represents the Eocene erosion surface, it is evident that the total depth
of the ore-shoot must considerably exceed the figure of 5,100 feet, just
mentioned. Actually the shoot is considerably longer than shown in
Fig. 232, for it extends westward into the adjoining ground owned by the
Hecla Company. Another Hecla shoot and the Bunker Hill and Sullivan
ore-body are of similar dimensions and show no deterioration of the ore.
The latter mine has now developed its shoot on the seventeenth level
below the tunnel, a total vertical depth of 4,500 feet below the outcrop.
On the other hand, several mines—The Hercules, Mace, Tiger-Poor-
man, and Helena-Frisco—have been impoverished at considerably higher
elevations, probably in part because the deposits entered the unfavorable
slates of the Pritchard formation.
The zone of oxidation is irregular and shallow.
Ransome, Umpleby, and Jones trace a genetic connection between
the ore deposits and the intrusive monzonite. Contact-metamorphic ores
in irregular bodies are found in two mines close to the monzonite, in the
contact zone. These ores contain galena, sphalerite, pyrite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, and magnetite, with a gangue of garnet, biotite, and
diopside. In veins near the intrusive mass, pyrrhotite and magnetite,
as well as garnet, biotite, and tourmaline are found. Siderite occurs
only outside of the contact zone. In the Wardner mines, which are
several miles from the contact, siderite is most plentiful. The deposits
were formed within the epoch of granitic intrusions, as showm by the
occasional intersection of ore-bodies by lamprophyric dikes; and since the
time of ore formation, erosion has probably removed several thousand
feet of rock.
The facts briefly set forth are of highest importance and serve to
connect the high-temperature deposits with those of intermediate
conditions.
574 MINERAL DEPOSITS
0. H. Hershey believes that the metals were originally disseminated in
the Belt sediments and later concentrated into ore-bodies by hot waters
ascending on thrust faults. He also holds that the contact-metamorphic
deposit of the Success mine has been formed prior to the monzonite
intrusion and was invaded and metamorphosed by it.1
Lead-Silver Veins with Calcite, Siderite, and Barite.—Veins contain­
ing galena and sphalerite with a gangue of calcite, siderite, or barite are
abundant in many mining regions and are frequently connected with
replacement deposits in limestone. In many places they have a distinct
connection with intrusive rocks and were formed shortly after the
irruption.
Lead-Silver Veins of Clausthal.12—The mines of Clausthal, in the
Harz Mountains of Germany, which have been in operation since the
thirteenth century and still maintain a moderate production, are working
on a vein system which intersects a folded complex of Devonian and
Carboniferous sedimentary beds, the prevailing rocks being clay slate
and graywacke. The general strike of the veins is east-west, and the dip
is steep. The numerous veins extend over an area 15 miles in length and
5 miles in width; they are in general composite veins, or lodes, and the
important fissures are also faults of considerable throw. Mining opera­
tions in this district have attained a depth of 3,000 feet.
The ores contain chiefly galena and sphalerite, with some marcasite,
pyrite, chalcopyrite, and tetrahedrite. Arsenical minerals are generally
absent. In one group of veins calcite and quartz predominate; in another
barite and siderite. Most of the galena contains about 0.05 per cent
silver. Symmetrical banding is exceptional, the normal ore having an
irregularly massive structure. The tendency appears to be toward an
increase in the percentage of zinc in depth. Within the lodes the clay
slates are altered by mechanical and chemical processes. The change in
composition is slight3 and appears to consist largely of an increase in
sericite at the expense of an original chloritic mineral in the clay slate.
There are no intrusive rocks in the immediate vicinity aside from a
dike of kersantite, which is faulted by the vein fissures, and the mass of
“ Brocken” granite in the eastern part of the district. A genetic connec­
tion of these intrusives with the veins seem probable, but cannot be
regarded as proved. The age appears to be late Paleozoic. The mineral
1 J. B. Umpleby, Genesis of the Success zinc-lead deposits, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917,
pp. 138-153; O. H. Hershey, idem, pp. 348-558.
2 A. von Groddeck, Ueber die Erzgange des Obqrharzes, Zeilschr. deutsch. geol.
Gesell., 1866, pp. 693-776.
B. Baumgtirtel, Oberharzer Gangbilder, Leipzig, 1907, pp. 23.
F. Dahlgriin, Zur Klassification der Jung-Palaeozoischen Erzgange des Harzes,
Neues Jahrbuch, Ref. I ll (1), 1930, pp. 1-2.
°A. von Groddeck, Jahrb. Preuss. geol. Landcsanstalt, 1885, pp. 1-52.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 575
association would indicate deposition at less depth or at lower tempera­
ture than the veins of the Coeur d’Alene district, for instance.
Lead-Silver Veins of Przibram, Bohemia.'—The mines of Przibram,
which have been worked for several hundred years and still maintain a
small output, are situated 40 miles south-southwest of Prague, in the
“Silurian syncline,” well known in the early history of geology. The
predominating rocks are Cambrian (?) graywacke, and clay slate, a
folded and faulted complex intruded by a stock of diorite. Dikes of
diabase are numerous and are followed by the veins; dikes of diorite and

F i g . 2 3 3 . — Section
of the A dalbert vein a t Przibram , Bohemia. <7, graywacke; D, diorite;
q, quartz; c, calcite; o, galena; b, sphalerite. (A fter J . Zadrazil and J . Schmidt.)
kersantite are also present. The intrusive diorite produced a decided
contact metamorphism in the Paleozoic sediments.
The veins have a steep dip and have been followed down to a depth
of 3,773 feet; about forty of these veins have been worked, and are
contained within a narrow area 4 or 5 miles in length. The width of the
veins attains 25 feet, but averages much less. Figure 233 gives an idea of
their structure. The ore minerals consist of galena and sphalerite with
some pyrite and chalcopyrite and occasionally many other minerals,
like arsenopyrite, stibnite, uraninite, cobalt and nickel minerals, wurtzite,
and millerite. Rich silver minerals, like argentite and pyrargyrite, as1
1J. Schmidt, Bilder von den Erzlagerstatten von Przibram. Published by
Austrian Agricult. Dept., Vienna, 1887.
P. Posepny, Archiv fur prakt. Geol., 2, Freiberg, 1895, pp. 609-745.
A. Hofman and F. Slavik, Ueber Durrerze von Przibram, Bull, inlernat. 15,
Acad. Sci. de Boheme, 1910.
576 MINERAL DEPOSITS
well as native silver were plentiful in the oxidized zone. The galena is
the carrier of silver and contains about 0.5 per cent of this metal. Among
gangue minerals calcite, siderite, and quartz predominate, but barite
and ankerite are also known. The structure is in part banded and
drusy.
The quartz and sphalerite appear to increase in depth and the ores
become “ dry.” These dry ores contain about 50 per cent quartz, 17
per cent siderite, 17 per cent galena, 0.26 per cent silver, also primary
boulangerite, tetrahedrite, pyrargyrite, diaphorite, specularite, chlorite,
and cassiterite.
The deep workings are practically dry, but there existed formerly a
rich zone of oxidation descending, in spite of a high present water level,
to depths of 200 to 900 feet.
The genetic connection of the veins with the intrusive diorite and its
satellites of diabasic and lamprophyric dikes appears to be clearly
indicated.
Other Regions.—The Bawd win mine,1 long worked by the Chinese, is
situated in northern Burma near the Chinese frontier. During the last
20 years it has yielded a great production in silver, lead, and zinc. It
is a replacement deposit along a strong shear zone in rhyolite tuffs, which
are covered and underlain by sediments. The ore consists of argentifer­
ous galena, and sphalerite in extremely fine intergrowth, with silicifica-
tion and gangue of calcite and siderite.
The Buchans deposit in Newfoundland12 was discovered by electrical
methods of prospecting and has developed into a very important mine.
The ores occur in a thick early Paleozoic series of andesite, rhyolite, and
basalt with large amounts of rhyolite tuff. It is intruded by rhyolite
porphyry and probably by granite. The ore replaces the tuff and
consists of a fine-grained mass of early barite followed by sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, and galena. The largest body, irregular in shape but
following stratification to some extent, is estimated to contain 5,750,000
tons of ore with the following tenor: Gold 0.033 ounce per ton, silver 3.75
ounces per ton, copper 1.4 per cent, lead 7.65 per cent, zinc 17.85 per cent.
The ore-bodies lie on the flank of an anticline. In part the ore shows
colloform texture, and the deposit suggests epithermal affinities.
In the eastern Alps of Austria,3there is a widespread but rarely impor­
tant lead-zinc type with galena, sphalerite, carbonates, fluorite, and
barite, best known from the Bleiberg and Raibl occurrences. Their
age ranges from Cretaceous to Pliocene, and they are connected with
deep-seated intrusions. They are generally metasomatic, because the
1 M. H. Loveman, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 55, 1917, pp. 170-194.
2 W. H. Newhouse, Econ. Geol., 26, 1931, pp. 399-414.
3 A. Tornquist, Jahrbuch, Austria geol. Bundesanstalt, 81, 1931, pp. 143-175.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 577

constant northward pressure prevented open cavities. The localization

depends on impermeable covers.
In the Pennine region (north of England) lead mining was formerly
important. The deposits, containing galena, barite, fluorite, and carbon­
ates, are of immediate post-Carboniferous age and are connected with
diabase intrusions (Whin Sill) in Carboniferous sediments.
Pyritic Galena-Quartz Veins.—In the vicinity of granitic and
dioritic intrusions a certain type of lead-bearing veins is especially
common, distinguished by pyrite, galena, dark sphalerite, and some
chalcopyrite, with subordinate arsenopyrite, in a gangue of quartz, with
a small amount of calcite or dolomite.
Freiberg, Saxony.—The type just mentioned corresponds closely to
the “ Kiesige Bleiformation” of Freiberg,1there represented by numerous
veins of considerable persistency contained in a flat dome of biotite
gneiss. K. Dalmer and other geologists have pointed out their probable
genetic connection with the intrusive (Carboniferous) granites of the
Erzgebirge and their well-established relationship to the tin veins which
are situated closer to or within the intrusives. The Freiberg veins of this
type are narrow, being seldom 3 feet wide, and have been mined to a
depth of 2,100 feet. The pyrite, arsenopyrite, and sphalerite are poor
in silver, but the galena contains 0.1 to 0.2 per cent of this metal.
The vein structure is irregularly massive, without marked banding or
crustification.
The ores are of low grade, and after a period of activity extending
over nearly 750 years the mines are now practically closed.
The silver-lead deposits of Freiberg comprise a complicated system of
fissure veins of different types and ages, which have been carefully
studied by such men as A. G. Werner (1791), A. von Weissenbach (1836),
J. C. Freiesleben (1843), F. C. von Beust (1840), B. von Cotta (1861),
and H. Muller (1849-1901).
The veins are classified as follows:
(1) Older Veins.—Pyritic lead formation: Comprises an early high-
temperature pyrite, arsenopyrite, cassiterite stage, followed by a quartz,
pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite (magnetite, hematite), galena, chalcocite
stage. After fracturing, a third stage followed with marcasite, pyrite,
tetrahedrite, ruby silver, argentite, and ankerite. After renewed fractur­
ing, came the last stage with galena and rhodochrosite. Late iron oxides
indicate temporary increase in temperature. Noble2 quartz formation:
Fine-grained quartz with argentite, pyrargyrite, native silver, pyrite, and
arsenopyrite.
1 Herman Muller, Die Erzgange des Freiberger Bergrevieres, Erlauterungen zur
geol. Spedal-Karle Sachsens, Leipzig, 1901, p. 350.
O. Oelsner, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der kiesigen Bleierzformation Freibergs,
Jahrbuch. Berg-u. Hiittenw. Sachsen, 104, 1930, pp. .43-50.
2 The word “edel,” or noble, refers to the high-grade silver ores.
578 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Noble lead formation: Quartz, ankerite, rhodochrosite, sphalerite,
galena, pyrite, tetrahedrite, ruby silver, and polybasite.
(2) Younger Veins.—Barytic lead formation: Barite, fluorite, quartz,
calcite, galena (poor in silver), chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, sphalerite.
These veins are often of considerable width.
The barite veins are distinctly later and show beautifully banded and
drusy structure. Their age is probably Tertiary, and they are possibly
connected with basaltic eruptions. They sometimes carry nickel and
cobalt and may perhaps be correlated with the veins of Annaberg.
The older group appears to be genetically connected with the granitic
intrusions of Carboniferous age, or perhaps also with the Permian and
Carboniferous porphyries (intrusive and effusive) of the same region.
The “noble quartz formation” alone is intersected by dikes of quartz
porphyry, while the other veins appear to be later than the porphyry.
The granite stocks of the region are intersected by veins similar to those
of Freiberg; but no granite occurs in the Freiberg district. In parts of
the district dikes of kersantite and minette are plentiful, and the veins are
later than these dikes.
Between the various members of the older group many transitions
exist, and it seems justifiable to regard them as genetically connected with
the granitic eruptions of Carboniferous age and as formed shortly after
the last lamprophyric dikes of that parent magma had been intruded.
The mineral association of the “ noble quartz formation” and the “noble
lead formation,” with apparently primary argentite and pyrargyrite
continuing to the greatest depth reached, far beyond the zone of oxidation,
seems to suggest that these veins have been formed at relatively low
temperature. They do not correspond to the types usually associated
with intrusive masses.
The ore-shoots of the Freiberg veins are irregular; the richest parts
were often at intersections of fissures (Fig. 86). The oxidized ores worked
in the early history of the mines were rich in argentite and native silver.
Pyritic Galena-Quartz Veins in the United States.—Near intrusive
areas in the central and eastern Cordilleran states are many veins of the
Freiberg type, just described, although they ordinarily also carry gold
together with silver. Few of them are, however, of the first importance.
More common, perhaps, are veins which carry mainly massive galena and
sphalerite associated with but little pyrite, or veins in which the pyrite
entirely predominates. Examples of this kind are given in the descrip­
tion of the Leadville region (p. 590).
Excellent examples of the type, described by F. C. Schrader, occur
near Kingman,1in northwestern Arizona, in the Wallapai mining district.
The upper levels yielded rich silver ores, but of late years the silver
1 F. C. Schrader, Mineral deposits of the Cerbat Range, Black Mountains, etc.,
Bull. 397, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909.
E. S. Bastin, Studies of polished sections, Bull. 750, idem, 1924, pp. 17-39.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 579
production has declined as the leaner primary sulphides were encountered,
and in the ores now extracted sphalerite is the most valuable constituent.
The greatest depth attained is about 1,400 feet. The rocks are pre-
Cambrian granite, gneiss, and schist intruded by granite porphyry,
probably of Mesozoic age, and by a great number of lamprophyric dikes
of minette and vogesite, which in part are followed by the veins.
The deposits are well-defined fissure veins with steep dip, forming
conjugated systems with northwesterly strike; they are straight and have
well-defined walls, and some of them are traceable for considerable
distances. The gangue is quartz, in places shattered and cemented by a
later generation of calcite, occasionally also siderite. Among the primary
sulphides are pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
tennantite, proustite, and pearceite. The ore may contain $10 in gold
and silver, 8 per cent lead, and 5 to 16 per cent zinc. It is in part shipped
crude, in part concentrated.
The structure is irregularly massive, in places with rough banding by
arrangement of the sulphides. The veins are narrow, though in some
places ore-bodies 20 feet wide have been worked. The pay-shoots are
irregular, but often coincide with intersections of veins. The water
level is from 100 to 400 feet below the surface, and above it were rich
oxidized lead ores, horn silver, native silver, argentite, and ruby silver.
The decrease of galena and increase of chalcopyrite noted in the lower
levels suggest a gradual change in the primary filling.
The ore is mainly deposited by filling of cavities; the wall rocks con­
tain little ore but are sericitized and filled with pyrite close to the veins.
THE SILVER TIN VEINS OF BOLIVIA1
This important and peculiar type is confined to the southern part of
the Bolivian tin belt, which traverses the state along the eastern range of
1A. W. Stelzner, Die Silber-Zinnlagerstatten Bolivias, Zeitschr. dcutsch. geol.
Gesell., 49, 1897, pp. 51-142.
W. Myron Davy, Ore deposition in the Bolivian tin-silver veins, Econ. Geol.,
15, 1920, pp. 463-496.
B. L. Miller and J. T. Singewald, Jr., Mineral deposits of South America, New
York, 1919.
M. J. Buerger and J. L. Maury, Tin ores of Chocaya, Bolivia, Econ. Geol., 22,
1927, pp. 1-13.
W. Lindgren and J. G. Creveling, The ores of Potosi, idem, 23, 1928, pp.
233-262
W. Lindgren and A. C. Abbott, The silver-tin deposits of Oruro, idem, 26, 1931,
pp. 453-479.
F. Ahlfeld, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 37, 1929, pp. 216-219 (Carguaicollo); idem,
39,1931, pp. 33-38 (Vila Apacheta).
For abstracts of later papers on Potosi, Oruro, and Chocaya by S. Jaskolski and
R. Kazlowski, see Annot. Bibliogr., Econ. Geol., 5 (2), no. 412, 1932; 6 (2), no. 388,
1933; 8 (1), no. 423, 1935.
580 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the Andes, known as the Cordillera Real. Genetically it is intimately
connected with the hypothermal tin veins of the same country (p. 655).
Broadly speaking the veins are found on a late Tertiary peneplain of
Paleozoic slates, in or near small intrusions of rocks allied to quartz-
monzonite porphyry. More rarely (Chocaya) they occur in Tertiary
acidic flow rocks. They are well-defined replacement veins, with more or
less filling and are usually frozen to the walls. The country rock is
pyritized and sericitized near the veins. Pyrite greatly predominates in
the ores. At Potosi, many veins have been worked over a vertical
interval of nearly 2,000 feet. The ores appear to be poorer in depth.
The present hypogene ores contain about 3 per cent tin and 12 ounces of
silver per ton. The gangue is quartz with some alunite and the succes­
sion is pyrite (oldest), arsenopyrite, cassiterite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite
and stannite, tetrahedrite, andorite, ruby silver, and jamesonite. The
oxidized zone was extremely rich; and the district is reported to have
produced 30,000 tons of silver since 1545, more than any other district
in the world.
At Oruro similar veins have been worked. They have a steep dip
and average 70 centimeters in width. The veins in the Socavon de la
Virgen have been followed to a depth of 300 meters below the tunnei
level. They still contain rich silver minerals as later streaks in prevailing
pyrite. The average content is about 1 per cent tin and 12 ounces of
silver to the ton. The Itos vein, belonging to the same vein system,
has been worked over a vertical range of 580 meters. Below the oxidized
zone a strong silver enrichment is reported. The veins carry, in approxi­
mate order of deposition, quartz, pyrite and cassiterite, stannite, tetra­
hedrite, andorite, zinkenite, and jamesonite.
Another type, represented by mines at Huanuni, contains primary
arsenopyrite, sphalerite, and galena, with some tin mineral, probably
cylindrite. This poor protore is strongly enriched by franckeite and a
silver-bearing jamesonite (owyheeite), whether by supergene or hypogene
concentration is not quite certain.
At Carguaicollo are many crustified veins, which in their upper levels
were rich in franckeite, cylindrite, teallite, and zinc teallite.
Still another type, represented by the veins at Chocaya, is of an
epithermal type. Contained in acidic flow rocks, they are largely formed
by filling and are rich in silver. The succession is pyrite (earliest);
arsenopyrite; cassiterite; chalcopyrite; stannite; sphalerite; galena;
tetrahedrite; matildite;1 jamesonite.
At Vila Apacheta, in Cretaceous Puca sandstone, the veins contain
cassiterite and tetrahedrite and have pronounced colloform structure.
They must likewise be classed as epithermal.
Perhaps rather aramayoite (Ag2S.(Sb,Bi)2S3). L. J. Spencer, Mineralog. Mag.,
21, 1926, pp. 156-162.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 581
THE SILVER-LEAD REPLACEMENT DEPOSITS IN LIMESTONE
General Features.—Limestones, dolomites, and calcareous shales
are easily soluble. Waters circulating above the water level along strati­
fication planes, joints, fissures, or zones of brecciation will produce caves
and open passages. Below the water level more slowly moving solutions
often replace limestone by dolomite or cherty or jasperoid silica. If the
solutions carry metallic sulphides these may be precipitated, and by a
simultaneous operation the carbonate goes into solution while a corre­
sponding volume of sulphides takes its place (Fig. 236). Some of these
replacement deposits that have no certain genetic connection with igneous
rocks have been described above (p. 423).
In districts where metallization is caused by igneous activity, the
limestone is often replaced close to the contact by sulphides, particularly
copper sulphides, associated with high-temperature minerals; these
deposits are described in Chapter XXVII. Frequently, however, replace­
ment by sulphides, is also found at greater distances from the igneous
rock; but the solutions which caused the replacement, while probably
derived in part from the magma, had a lower temperature and therefore
no high-temperature minerals could form. Such deposits, which contain
mainly lead, zinc, and silver, may form relatively close to the surface, but
are more common in the vicinity of intrusive rocks now exposed by
erosion. The process is, therefore, favored by higher temperature and
pressure.
For the development of replacement deposits, pathways that can be
followed by the solutions are necessary. Joints and seams may provide
them, but more commonly the fissures which were formed during or
after the intrusion guide the solutions to the limestone. When the
waters have entered a fissure the processes of replacement begin immedi­
ately, but the products of interchange are not confined to this fracture.
On the contrary, they spread in all directions, guided by minor structural
planes, and replacement deposits in limestone are therefore characteris­
tically irregular. It often happens that the original fissure may be difficult
to discover, though genetically it is the key to the extent and the con­
tinuation of the deposit. The mining of such deposits demands thorough
knowledge of the geological structure.
There are a great number of such deposits in the Cordilleran
region of the Americas. Many of them are small and are soon exhausted,
while others are among the great ore deposits of the world. The districts
of Aspen and Leadville, Colorado; Eureka, Nevada; Lake Valley, New
Mexico; Elkhorn, Montana; Park City and Tintic, Utah; and Santa
Eulalia, Mexico, may serve as examples.
At some places these silver-lead deposits follow dikes or intrusive
sheets. At other places they are dependent upon impervious overlying
582 MINERAL DEPOSITS
beds, like shale. The latter condition is exceedingly common (Fig. 84)
and indicates that the solutions were ascending and that deposition
followed the ponding or stagnation of the solution or at least was favored
by less rapid movement. Long pipes and chimneys are common forms
and may result from replacement along intersections of fissures or along
intersections of fissures with favorable beds. Sometimes their location
is difficult to account for, and the solutions appear to have bored their
way through the limestone for long distances. The replacements are
generally wider than the stope maps indicate, by reason of more or less
extensive silicification. Sections of two smaller replacement deposits
are shown in Figs. 234 and 235.

F ig . 234. — Irregular replacem ent deposit in the Garrison mine, Cortez, Nevada.
Ore consists of galena, sphalerite, pyrite, strom eyerite, etc., and their oxidation products.
(A fter W . H . E m m ons , U. S. Geol. Survey .)

The primary minerals of these replacement deposits are comparatively

few and simple. Deep oxidation is, however, common in limestone, and
descending waters may effect many changes and develop a great number
of rare oxidized minerals in the oxidized zone, while complex secondary
sulphides may form in the lower parts of the deposit. The gangue min­
erals are few: Dolomite is often present as a coarse aggregate, and at
many places the process of replacement was begun by a dolomitization
of the limestone. Dense, cherty quartz, in part formed by colloidal
replacement, is exceedingly common, much more so than coarser crystal­
line quartz. In accordance with the suggestion of Spurr, this siliceous
gangue is called jasperoid, though this term is really a misnomer, for the
rocks are gray rather than red or brown. Other gangue minerals are
calcite, barite, sometimes fluorite, various carbonates allied to ankerite,
and more rarely rhodochrosite. The common primary ore minerals are
pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and more rarely arsenopyrite.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 583
Tetrahedrite, tennantite, enargite, bornite, bismuthinite, and stibnite
are of local importance. Argentite, ruby silver, stephanite, polybasite,
and native silver as well as various sulphantimonides of lead may be
hypogene or supergene. Gold is sometimes present as a primary mineral,
but the ores carry ordinarily much more silver than gold. Galena is most
common and is often rich in silver. The silver content of galena is usually
caused by small disseminated grains of argentite which may result from
unmixing of a solid solution of Ag2S in PbS. In many so-called lead
deposits the lead really predominates only in the oxidized zone, while the
primary (hypogene) ore carries far more pyrite and sphalerite than
galena. Such arc the relations at Leadville, for instance.
/A l p h a v e i n

F ig . 235.— Section of R yepatch mine, Unionville, Nevada. Ore-body between faults

250 feet wide; consists of calcite, quartz, pyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, etc.
(After F. L. Ransome, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
The ore minerals replacing limestone are usually coarse grained, while
the replacement of limestone by silica yields rocks with fine grain.
Crustified or drusy structures are common only in the oxidized parts of
these deposits. Before the importance of replacement as a geological
process was recognized, many of these ores were considered as fillings of
limestone caves. Some of the deposits consist of massive sulphides, while
in others, presumably formed at lower temperature, the gangue may
prevail.
Replacement deposits are not confined to calcareous rocks. They
occur also in quartzite, shale, and igneous rocks, but they are certainly
more common in carbonate rocks. Very hot solutions may replace any
rock, but most of the deposits described in this chapter were probably
laid down by solutions having a temperature of less than 250° C.; and
under such circumstances limestone would be replaced while other rocks
would be little affected. Siliceous rocks are more easily replaced than
aluminous material; it is evidently difficult to carry away large amounts
of alumina even at high temperatures and ores in aluminous rocks
contain much residual material.
584 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Park City, Utah. 1—The Park City district lies near the summit of
the Wasatch Range. Since 1870, it has yielded 195,189,175 ounces of
silver and 948,410 tons of lead; lately, also much copper and zinc, and it
still remains one of the most important districts of the United States. Its
ores are in part shipped as mined, but much is also concentrated, the total
output of ore for 1929 being 526,681 tons. The concentrating ore con­
tains from 6 to 8 per cent lead, 6 to 8 per cent zinc, 6 to 10 per cent iron,
and 9 ounces of silver per ton; also some gold and copper. The deepest
shafts attain 1,500 and 2,000 feet.

F ig . 236.— Vertical section of rich lead ore occurring in veins and in replacement
deposits, K earns-K eith mine, P ark City, U tah, a, tunnel; 2>, diorite porphyry, sheeted
and pyritic; c, hanging-wall fissure; d, lead ore in siliceous gangue; e, breccia zone with ore
fragm ents; /, marm orized lim estone. Thaynes form ation; g, h, banded replacement ore, in
p art oxidized. (A fter J. M . Boutwell, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
A huge anticline of late Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic sedi­
ments, mainly limestone, quartzite, and shale, the total thickness of beds
exceeding 8,000 feet, is intruded by laccolithic stocks of diorite porphyry,
probably of late Cretaceous age, which have caused contact metamor­
phism in the adjoining limestone and shales.
The ores occur as lode deposits in wide and strong master zones, and
closely associated bedded deposits; they lie in two parallel zones extending
northeastward. The bedded deposits, mainly in limestone, have been
mined to a depth of 900 feet; the lode deposits continue to the greatest
depths attained and are here poorer but wider. The lode deposits inter-
1 J. M. Boutwell, Prof. Pa-per 77, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1912.
B. S. Butler, Prof. Paper 111, idem, 1920, pp. 294-318.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 585

sect the sediments and the porphyry as well, have a steep dip, and often
lie in quartzite or between limestone and quartzite. The ores are in part
deposited by filling of seams in shattered ground, in part by replacement.
The stopes are as much as 30 feet in width.
The bedded deposits are massive sulphides replacing limestone strata
in two of the calcareous formations and are from a few inches to 10 feet
thick, 500 to 800 feet in the direction of the strike and, at most, 200 feet
along the dip. The relation between the two types is shown in Fig. 236.
The layers of the bedded ore are made up of ore and gangue minerals in
granular texture exactly like that of the original limestone. There is
evidence of two epochs of deposition, for some of the bedded areas near
the porphyry contacts contain garnet with calcite as gangue, while the
lode deposits and the bedded ores associated with them are free from
garnet and were formed after the cooling of the porphyry.
The bedded ores often show a granular intergrowth of sulphides with
the carbonates of the limestone, while the walls are strongly silicified.
The ore minerals are galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, and a little chal-
copyrite. Jamesonite and bournonite have been noted. The gangue
is mainly quartz and jasperoid; fluorite, calcite, and rhodonite occur
locally. Sericitization is noted where the lodes intersect porphyry. The
richest ore was formed in the bedded deposits; the ore in depth is of
leaner grade, but carries more copper and zinc.
The Park City mines are very wet and the water level is high. The
oxidation is deep and partial oxidation has been noted to a depth of
1,200 feet suggesting changes in the water level. The oxidized zone
contained apparently but little native silver and cerargyrite.
Tintic, Utah. 1—The replacement deposits of the Tintic district, situ­
ated in a desert range 70 miles south of Salt Lake City, exemplify another
type, which has been so modified by oxidation that the original character
of the ore is sometimes difficult to interpret. Folded Paleozoic limestones
are intruded by a small monzonite stock that formed the core of a volcano
of early Tertiary age, the surface flows of which are largely eroded. Possi­
bly these deposits should rather be referred to the epithermal group. A
number of narrow fissures traverse both monzonite and limestone; in the
former the deposits are pyritic veins with sericitized walls, while in the
limestone the inconspicuous fractures widen locally into large or small ore-
1G. W. Tower, Jr., and G. O. Smith, Geology and mining industry of the Tintic
district, Utah, Nineteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1898, pp. 603-785.
W. Lindgren, G. F. Loughlin, and V. C. Heikes, Prof. Paper 107, idem, 1919.
W. Lindgren, Processes of mineralization and enrichment in the Tintic district,
Earn. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 225-240.
G. W. Crane, Geology of the ore deposits of the Tintic district, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 54, 1917, pp. 342-355.
C. A. Dobbel, Deep-hole prospecting at the Chief Consolidated mines, Trans.
Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 72, 1925, pp. 677-689,
586 MINERAL DEPOSITS
bodies characterized as chambers, chimneys, pipes, pockets, or pods, which
in large part replace the adjacent rock or follow, for a distance, stratifica-

F ig . 237.— Vertical section showing Silveropolis column, M am m oth mine, Tintic, Utah.
tion planes, fissures, or joints (Fig. 237). In the Iron Blossom mines the
galena ore forms a horizontal pipe-like ore-shoot with a greatest width of

F ig . 238.— Section of western ore channel through the T intic district, looking west. (After
Charles A. Dobbel.)
150 feet (Fig. 239). This has been mined for nearly 8,000 feet, and there
seems to be no well-defined fissure underneath it. Towards the southern
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 587

end, after crossing the Sioux fault, it assumes the form of a well-defined
fissure which has been followed to a depth of 1,000 feet; the ore in depth
is poorer and contains copper and lead, while lead predominates in the
upper part.. North of the fault the horizontal pipe follows a bed of pure
limestone in the Pine Canyon formation, until, near the Beck tunnel shaft
No. 2 its northward course ceases and the ore turns laterally towards the
Godiva channel (Fig. 239). A more westerly ore zone of less regularity
is shown in Fig. 238. It is contained in steeply dipping limestones and
gradually descends towards the north. Its beginning is in the steep
chimney of the Mammoth mine.
fr o n B /o s s v m

Fig. 239.—Longitudinal section along the fourth ore zone from Beck tunnel to Iron Blossom
No. 1. Ore-bodies shown in black. (A fter Lindgren and Loughlin, TJ. S. Geol. Survey.)

The primary ore minerals are galena and sphalerite with very little
pyrite. The gangue minerals are fine-grained quartz or jasperoid and
barite. The galena is rich in silver (20 to 50 ounces per ton). Other
large replacement bodies consist mainly of quartz and jasperoid and carry
gold and silver with a little lead. Near the intrusive mass the ore con­
tains mainly enargite (Cu3AsS4) with a little gold.
The jasperoids along the deposits result from the replacement of
limestone and dolomite by colloidal silica, which later crystallized to
chalcedony and quartz. The crushing of this silica resulted in brecciation,
and silica of a second phase was deposited in open spaces as colloidal mate­
rial which later crystallized to quartz. The development of crystalline
barite, galena and other sulphides accompanied both phases.
Complete or partial oxidation continues to a depth of about 2,000 feet,
which coincides with the water level. In the mines in monzonite the
water level stands much higher.
During the deep oxidation cerussite and anglesite formed in the lead
deposits. Secondary zinc minerals, mainly smithsonite, usually develop
in the limestone outside of the primary lead shoots.1 Complex copper
and copper-lime arsenates are found in the copper-bearing deposits and
are usually accompanied by more or less chalcocite and covellite.
1G. F. Loughlin, The oxidized zinc ores of the Tintic district, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914,
pp. 1-19.
588 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The mines of Tintic yield annually $7,000,000 to $14,000,000; their
complex smelting ores contain gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc.
The annual ore production is about 400,000 tons. The total value of the
gold, silver, lead, copper, and zinc produced from 1869 to 1929, inclusive,
was approximately $325,000,000, the silver making a total of about 217,-
000,000 ounces. Since 1929 the output has decreased, as in most other dis­
tricts. In recent years the Tintic Standard1 was the most productive

F ig . 240. —Vertical section of Tintic Standard mine. (After G. W. Crane.)

silver mine in the country if not in the world. In 1925, it yielded ore
valued at $7,117,000, including 4,000,000 ounces of silver and 24,000 tons
of lead. (Fig. 240.) In 1930, silver production had decreased to
2,500,000 ounces.
1 A. B. Parsons, The Tintic Standard Mine, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, Aug. 8, 1925.
G. W. Crane, Notes on the Geology of East Tintic, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met.
Eng., 74, 1926, pp. 147-162.
J. W. Wade, Mining Methods and Costs at the Tintic Standard, Information
Circ. 6300, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930.
 MESOTHEllMAI, DEPOSITS 589

Tsumeb, Southwest Africa. 1—Schneiderhohn’s efficient description

of the Tsumeb mine discloses an interesting similarity to the Tintic
deposits. It is contained in folded limestones and dolomites of Paleozoic
or pre-Cambrian age, and the ores form replacements. The dolomite
is silicified but not contact metamorphosed. The ore minerals are, in
order of deposition, pyrite, bornite, sphalerite, enargite, tetrahedrite,
galena, and hypogene chalcocite. Some barite is present, also much
supergene chalcocite. The mine is well known for the beauty of its
oxidized minerals.
Aspen, Colorado. 2—The ore deposits at Aspen, in the central part of
Colorado (Fig. 194), for many years yielded a large amount of lead and
silver, but the annual output is now small. The ores average 5 ounces
of silver per ton and 6)4 per cent lead. The geological column at Aspen
includes 200 to 400 feet of Cambrian quartzite; 250 to 400 feet of Silurian
dolomite; 60 feet of Devonian quartzite and shale (“ parting quartzite”);
250 feet of Lower Carboniferous dolomite and 150 feet of limestone of the
same age; 1,000 feet or more of thin-bedded Carboniferous limestones and
shales called the Weber formation; and a great thickness of Carboniferous,
Triassic, and Cretaceous sandy and calcareous sediments. The entire
series is sharply upturned. A sheet of diorite porphyry intrudes the
lower Paleozoic formations and a sheet of rhyolite porphyry, with aplite,
lies at the base of the Weber formation. Granodiorite porphyry appears
to the south. The intrusives are of early Tertiary age. Complicated
faulting and local doming accompanied the intrusion. During the short
epoch of ore deposition sulphides were deposited along the Silver fault
and the Contact fault, the most important horizon of mineralization
being at the base of the Weber shales, where the depositing waters were
dammed by the relatively impervious shale, which may also have acted
as a precipitant.
The ore minerals occur in disseminated form replacing limestone,
either without gangue or with a little jasperoid and dolomite. The
only other gangue mineral is barite, which in places is quite abundant
and generally older than the ore minerals. There is little pyrite. In
order of deposition we have silver-bearing tennantite cut by later bornite,
chalcopyrite, galena, and lastly, pearceite (Fig. 241). There is also much
native silver, which is held to be of supergene origin though it is found at
depths of 1,000 to 1,500 feet, as nests in shale or as “teeth” in pearceite;
sometimes minute crystals of barite are suspended by silver wires.
1H. Schneiderhohn, Das Otavibergland und seine Erzlagerstatten, Zeilschr.
prakt. Geol., 37, 1929, pp. 85-116.
Mineralische Bodenschatze im siidlichen Afrika, Berlin, 1931.
2 J. E. Spurr, Mon. 31, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898.
J. E. Spurr, Ore deposition at Aspen, Colo, Econ. Geol., 4, 1909, pp. 301-320.
E. S. Bastin, Bull. 750, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp. 41-62.
Adolph Knopf, Bull. 785, idem, 1926, pp. 1-28.
590 MINERAL DEPOSITS
A remarkable shoot of “ polybasite” ore yielding many million dollars
was mined in the Mollie Gibson mine at a depth of a few hundred feet
below the surface. It was ascertained later that this ore was really a
complex mixture of tennantite and pearceite, with more or less native
silver.
The mine water is abundant and the water level stood originally
about 300 feet below the surface. The total production of the Aspen
district, since 1880, has a value of about $100,000,000, almost wholly in
silver and lead.

F ig . 241.— T ennantite traversed by late prim ary replacem ent veinlets of pearceite,
base-m etal sulphides, and calcite. Smuggler Hill workings, thirteenth level, Aspen,
Colorado. Cam era lucida drawing from polished specimen. ( After E. S. Bastin, U. 5.
Geol. Survey.)
Leadville, Colorado. 1—Since the discovery of the ore deposits of
Leadville, Colorado, in 1875, this district has yielded an enormous pro­
duction of lead and silver, also much gold, copper, and zinc. .Previous
to that date placers were worked in the district and gold to the value of
several million dollars was washed from the gravel of the gulches. For a
long time after 1875 the oxidized lead ores, containing much iron and
1 S. F. Emmons and J. D. Irving, The Downtown district, Bull. 320, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1907.
G. F. Loughlin, Guides to ore in the Leadville district, Bull. 779. idem, 1926.
C. W. Henderson, Mining in Colorado, Prof. Paper 138, idem, 1926.
S. F. Emmons, J. D. Irving, and G. F. Loughlin, Geology and ore deposits of the
Leadville district, Prof. Paper 148, idem, 1927.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 591
manganese, were worked. At the present time the main product is heavy
sulphide ore containing pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite.
Bodies of oxidized zinc minerals such as calamine and smithsonite were dis­
covered about 1910. The total value of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc
recovered from 1859 to 1926 in the Leadville district was $431,000,000.
Out of a total of 477,000 tons mined in 1916, 310,000 tons were sul­
phide ores, and 18,000 tons iron-manganese ores of the oxidized type
containing a little silver and used for flux. The heavy sulphide ores are
in part smelted directly and in part concentrated; they vary considerably
but consist mainly of pyrite and sphalerite, with less than 1 per cent of
copper, 1 to 4 per cent of lead, and 2 to 9 ounces of silver per ton. The
silver is mostly contained in the galena. The crude zinc ore shipped
averaged 30 per cent of that metal. In 1930, the production had declined
considerably. The yield was 5,035 ounces of gold, 616,800 ounces of silver,
252,000 pounds of copper, 6,800 tons of lead, and 11,500 tons of zinc—
a total value of $2,502,400.
The geological section consists, according to S. F. Emmons, of Pale­
ozoic rocks resting on granite and gneiss. The following formations are
important in the study of the ore deposits:
Weber shales and grits, Upper Carboniferous.......... 2,500 feet
Blue limestone, Lower Carboniferous....................... 200 feet
Parting quartzite, Ordovician..................................... 40 feet
White limestone, Ordovician....................................... 160 feet
Lower quartzite, Cambrian................................ 150 to 200 feet
These formations are intruded by numerous sheets of porphyry, which
in the main lie parallel to the bedding, but in places cut diagonally across
it. Some sheets are thin, and others are nearly 1,000 feet in thickness.
The earlier “ white porphyry” is a siliceous granite porphyry, forming a
thick sheet. The “gray porphyry” is similar but a little lower in silica.
The white porphyry is normally intruded in the blue, or Leadville lime­
stone; the gray porphyry forms thinner sheets at various horizons.
The intrusions and the ore deposition were followed by a gentle folding
and reverse faulting, and this again by Assuring, in part radially arranged
about the Breece Hill intrusive stock. Then came the main epoch of ore
deposition. After this followed much more extensive normal faulting,
so that the district now consists of numerous blocks successively dropping
off toward the Arkansas Valley (Fig. 242). The ore deposits are found
mainly in the blue limestone at or near the contact with the overlying
white porphyry (Fig. 243). The upper surface of the ore is often remark­
ably regular and sharp, being formed by the porphyry contact, while the
lower surface is irregular. Although this is the normal development,
replacement ores are also found in other positions, along fissures in lime­
stone, along fault planes or below the gray porphyry, or in fissure veins
592 MINERAL DEPOSITS
extending below the sedimentary beds. The fissure veins and stock-
works are confined to the part of the district near the Ibex mine.
Some of the ore-bodies are of large size, especially in a horizontal
direction. Owing to their mode of occurrence and to the great quantity
of mine water, a depth of only 1,500 feet has been attained; it was con­
sidered useless to go below the basement of the Paleozoic formations.
The usual ore is a massive, granular mixture of sulphides, among which
pyrite and sphalerite prevail. Banded textures of pyrite and sphalerite,
suggesting diffusion, occur in places. There is a scant gangue of quartz,
jasperoid, and little barite. The limestone near the deposits often con-

F ig . 242.— Vertical section showing geological structure and occurrence of ore-bodies

at Leadville, Colorado. 1, wash; 2, lake beds; 3, Leadville blue lim estone (Carboniferous);
4, parting quartzite (Ordovician); 5, white lim estone (Ordovician); 6, lower quartzite
(C am brian); 7, G ray porphyry (early T ertiary); 8, white porphyry (early Tertiary); 9,
granite (pre-C am brian); ore-bodies in black. (After Emmons and Irving, U. S. Geol.
Survey.)

tains much manganosiderite spreading from the ore-bodies. The contact

between ore and limestone is usually surprisingly sharp, though irregular.
Among the rarer minerals are native gold, molybdenite, wolframite, and
scheelite; the ores contain a little antimony, arsenic, and bismuth. Along
the Tucson overthrust fault ore rich in gold was found containing bis-
muthinite and argentite. Ores containing magnetite, specularite, and
epidote, besides sulphides, occur in the Breece Hill area. The oxidized
ores of the upper levels contain limonite, manganese oxide, cerussite, and
zinc carbonates. They were frequently rich in silver chloride.
The genesis of the Leadville ores has been discussed extensively.
Emmons held in 1886 that they were formed by aqueous solutions coming
from above and that they derived their mineral content mainly from the
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 593
igneous rocks. He also fully recognized that at the time of ore formation
the present deposits were covered by about 10,000 feet of overlying rocks.
In 1907, Emmons recognized the possible deep-seated origin of the
ore. A. A. Blow, Philip Argali, and other writers have insisted that the
deposits were formed by ascending solutions, and in Professional Paper
148 (U. S. Geol. Survey) the same view is expressed. The solutions came
up along fissures, such as the reverse faults of Tucson and Ibex (Fig.
243), and then spread into the flat limestone to produce blanket deposits.
The earlier deposits were of the high-temperature type with magnetite and
specularite, but as the temperature dropped the main ore-bodies assumed

Gray porphyj Whifa pcrjJ^r^ Oxidized ores Sulphide ores

Fits. 243.— Section through Tucson fault at Leadville, Colorado, looking northwest. (After
Loughlin and Aicher, U. S. Geol. Survey.)

the normal mesothermal type. The intrusive stock of Breece Hill is

believed to represent the center of the metallization.
The Leadville-Boulder County Belt.—The Leadville deposits form
only a single unit in a belt of deposits which extends for 80 miles in a
northeasterly direction and comprises a great many districts, including
the Kokomo, Alma, Fairplay, Breckenridge, Montezuma, and Argentine,
and continuing through Clear Creek, Gilpin, and Boulder counties (Fig.
194). The deposits include replacement bodies and veins and are found
in rocks of the most diverse kinds. A common feature of the whole belt
is a series of intrusives, appearing as sheets in the sedimentary formations
and dikes or smaller stocks in the pre-Cambrian granite and schists. The
inference that these intrusives are genetically connected with the deposits
seems well founded. S. F. Emmons and Whitman Cross first called
594 MINERAL DEPOSITS
attention to this belt of intrusives; S. H. Ball,1F. L. Ransome,2and A. D,
Crawford3have discussed the petrography of the porphyries and Ransome
has presented a diagram showing the composition of all analyzed varieties.
Ball has indicated on a map all the occurrences of porphyry within this
belt. The most abundant intrusives are alaskite porphyry, granite
porphyry, bostonite porphyry, monzonite porphyry, and quartz monzon-
ite porphyry. The dikes commonly extend in a northerly direction,
but show no great individual continuity. Emmons held that the intru­
sions were probably of Jurassic age, but later evidence discovered by
Cross and others has shown that they are late Cretaceous or early Ter­
tiary. The ore deposits are later than the porphyries but were formed
shortly after their consolidation.
The prevailing type is a sulphide ore with abundant pyrite and
sphalerite and lesser amounts of galena and tetrahedrite. Chalcopyrite is
subordinate, arsenopyrite rare. Telluride ores occur occasionally in the
eastern end of the belt. Silver prevails in the southeastern part and gold
is the important metal in Gilpin and Boulder counties. The gangue is
made up of quartz, siderite, manganosiderite, and other carbonates, but
not much rhodochrosite is present. In places there is considerable
barite.
The replacement deposits of Leadville, in Carboniferous limestone
below porphyry sheets, have already been mentioned. In the Tenmile
district4 replacement deposits and fissure veins appear in the Upper
Carboniferous formations, with pyrite, sphalerite, and galena in a gangue
of quartz, calcite, rhodochrosite, and barite. At Alma, there are base-
metal blankets in the Leadville limestone and also gold-quartz veins in the
“ white porphyry” close to the London fault. The Red Cliff district5
has ores similar to those of Leadville, also replacement deposits carrying
gold in Cambrian quartzite. The Breckenridge district6 contains fissure
veins intersecting Cretaceous shale and monzonite sheets, with pyrite,
sphalerite, and galena as the principal ore minerals. Remarkable
pockets of crystallized gold are thought to be deposited by descend­
ing waters. Northeast of Breckenridge is the Montezuma district,7
in pre-Cambrian rocks with northeasterly trending veins carrying
pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite, with later ruby silver or
similar rich silver minerals. The gangue consists of quartz, siderite,
and barite.
1Prof. Paper 63, U. S. Geol. Surrey, 1908, pp. 67-70; see PI. XI.
2 Prof. Paper 75, idem, 1911, pp. 60-62.
3 Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 7, 1924, pp. 365-388.
4 S. F. Emmons, Tenmile district folio, Geol. Atlas 48, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898.
5 A. H. Means, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 1-27.
R. D. Crawford and R. Gibson, Bull. 30, Colorado Geol. Survey, 1925.
6 F. L. Ransome, Prof. Paper 75, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911.
7 H. B. Patton, First Rept., Colorado Geol. Survey, 1909, pp. 112-144.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 595

F ig . 244.— Section of Pelican vein, Georgetown, Colorado, a , main vein; b, ore, mainly
sphalerite; c, ore zone of brecciated and silicified alaskite porphyry; d, fractured and
silicified porphyry; e, sheeted p o rp h y ry ;/, altered gneiss. (A fter J . E . S p u rr, U. S. Geol.
Survey.)

F ig . 245.— Drawing of specimen, Griffith mine, Georgetown, Colorado, showing sul­

phide vein split open, and the new fissure filled with manganese-iron carbonate and pyrite.
gn, gneiss; q, quartz (comb structure); b, sphalerite; p, pyrite; g, galena; r, manganese-iron
carbonate with pyrite. N atural size. (A fter S p u rr and Garrey.)
596 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The rocks in the Clear Creek district1 comprise the pre-Cambrian
Idaho Springs formation, intruded by granite, diorite, and pegmatite. A
complex system of dikes of the kinds mentioned above is followed by the
veins, which are principally silver deposits containing galena, sphalerite,
pyrite, tetrahedrite, and chalcopyrite, in a more or less scant
gangue of earlier quartz, and later siderite, ankerite, and calcite (Figs.
244 and 245). Silver, gold, copper, lead, and zinc are produced.
In Gilpin County,12 gold-bearing veins prevail; they carry abundant
pyrite, with some chalcopyrite, tennantite, and enargite, rarely pitch­
blende, in a scant quartz and siderite gangue. The ores average about
$8 in gold to the ton and contain a small amount of silver. A later vein
formation carries galena and sphalerite, with silver, in a quartz, siderite,
and calcite gangue. Quartz-telluride ores are also known (Fig. 47).
In all the districts the alteration of the feldspathic country rock
adjacent to the vein is of the sericitic type. The lowest workings in
Clear Creek and Gilpin counties are 2,000 feet below the outcrops. In
depth the veins are generally poor.
In Boulder County,3 the present production of which is small, there
are some gold-bearing veins similar to those of Gilpin County, and also
some veins which have produced rich silver ores; but the most interesting
types are the telluride veins, which are rare in the other districts men­
tioned, and the tungsten veins, which are absent elsewhere.
The Enterprise vein,4 which is typical of the telluride deposits, con­
sists of several narrow seams, forming a sheeted zone along which filling
and replacement have occurred. The width of this zone is from 1 to
3 feet and the filling is often beautifully banded with abundant druses.
The country rock is pre-Cambrian granite. The minerals are crystallized
quartz and dense jasperoids with barite, adularia, and roscoelite (vana­
dium mica); there are a little pyrite and much molybdenite; the telluride
is probably sylvanite.
The Tungsten Deposits of Boulder County.—Some wolframite occurs
in the gold-bearing veins of Boulder County, but there is a fairly well-
defined area near Nederland5 which is characterized by tungsten ores.
In 1918, 5,020 tons of tungsten concentrate were produced in the United
1 J. E. Spurr, G. H. Garrey, and S. H. Ball, Economic geology of the Georgetown
quadrangle, Prof. Paper 63, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
2 E. S. Bastin and J. M. Hill, Economic geology of Gilpin County, etc., Prof. Paper
94, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917.
3T. S. Lovering, Proc., Colorado Sci. Soc., 13 (3), 1932, pp. 77-88.
4 W. Lindgren, Econ. Geol., 2, 1907, pp. 453-463.
T. A. Rickard, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 33, 1903, pp. 567-577.
5 W. Lindgren, op. cit.
R. D. George, The main tungsten area of Boulder County, First Ann. Rept.,
Colorado Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 9-103.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 597
States of which the larger part came from the deposits of Boulder County.
The present production is small. The domestic production comes from
Atolia, Kern County, California, where scheelite (CaW04) occurs in
gold-bearing quartz veins of the mesothermal type; in part, also, from
contact-metamorphic deposits in Nevada and California (p. 728).
The veins of Boulder County are narrow, often brecciated fissures in
granite, some of them following porphyry dikes. The gangue is made up
of quartz and fine-grained silica. Kaolinite is abundant as a secondary
mineral. There is a little pyrite, but the principal mineral is the iron
tungstate, ferberite, which occurs in a fine-grained mixture with quartz
or as beautiful crystals coating druses, associated with quartz
crystals. The concentrates contain a trace of gold and a little silver.
Apparently the present ore-shoots have been bottomed at a depth less
than 1,000 feet.
Summary.—The mineral belt described in the preceding paragraphs
illustrates well the intimate connection between veins and replacement
deposits. With all their differences the deposits are evidently of approxi­
mately contemporaneous origin. The southwest end, at Leadville,
represents the deposits formed at considerable depth, probably not less
than 10,000 feet. Toward the northeast end the sedimentary series is
absent and may not have covered the Front Range of Colorado. There is
evidence in this range of a Tertiary surface higher than the present but
of less relief; and Spurr believes that effusive rocks once rested on this
surface. S. H. Ball1 estimates that in Clear Creek County the total
erosion since the intrusion of the porphyries has been about 5,000 feet,
and it is probable that it was less in Boulder County. Corresponding to
this difference in geologic conditions is a difference in structure and com­
position of the ore deposits. At the southwestern end of the belt heavy
sulphide ores prevail, mostly as replacements. In Clear Creek and
Gilpin counties the banded and drusy structure of the veins begins to be
apparent, and in Boulder County we find the telluride and the tungsten
veins, which distinctly resemble the deposits formed at slight depth
below the surface (epithermal veins), having drusy, banded structure
and containing fine-grained quartz and tellurides. These relations are, to
say the least, very suggestive of progressive change in original depth of
deposition from the western to the eastern end of the belt.
The rich silver minerals, which are found in some of the districts, are
regarded by Spurr and also by E. S. Bastin2 as products of deposition by
descending surface waters. Spurr believed that the metals in the Clear
Creek deposits were derived from deep-seated magmatic sources and,
dissolved in magmatic waters, ascended the fissures after intrusion of
porphyry. He also thought that most of the gangue minerals—quartz,
1Prof. Paper 63, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, p. 145.
1Econ. Geol., 8, 1913, p. 51.
598 MINERAL DEPOSITS
carbonates, and barite—were derived from the leaching of the country
rock by the ascending waters.
Ransome points out that many of the fissures at Breckenridge are
short and die out before reaching great depth, so that there was probably
considerable lateral movement during which the solutions had oppor­
tunity to search the surrounding rocks more or less thoroughly. The
gangue minerals are regarded by him as derived from the country rock,
while he considers a magmatic origin possible for the metals and elements
like sulphur and fluorine. In view of the faint contact-metamorphic
effects shown at the western end of the belt in the limestones, it is indeed
improbable that the mineral-bearing solution was derived from the small
bodies of intruding porphyries; the metals must have been derived from
deep-seated magma basins.
The Lead-Silver Replacement Deposits of Mexico.1— Lead-silver
replacement deposits are very numerous in Mexico and are generally
found in the thick Mesozoic limestone which covers a large part of the
Mexican plateau. The geologic column at Santa Eulalia is as follows,
according to Prescott:
Shales......................................................... 3,000 feet Upper Cretaceous (?)
Upper Bufa limestone............................ 3,000 feet Cretaceous
Intermediate beds................ 500 feet Cretaceous
Lower fossil limestone................... 100 to 400 feet Lower Cretaceous
(Comanchean)
Blue limestone......................................... 1,500 feet
Sandstone and shale............................... 5,000 feet Jurassic ?
The deposits stand in genetic connection with intrusive masses of smaller
extent, usually of diorite, granodiorite, and various porphyries, and
frequently are developed in the form of long, continuous pipes. They
are mined in many states. Excellent examples were studied, for instance,
near Zimapan, Hidalgo. There are here two old and productive mines,
the Lomo del Toro and the Balcones. The latter deposit trends north­
west and follows a dike system of quartz monzonite porphyry, which
extends out from the main mass of intrusive rock in the Toliman canyon.
These ores carry lead, zinc, and silver and contain, in part, lime silicates,
and are thus allied to the hypothermal deposits. Most of the ores are
oxidized. The Lomo del Toro deposit follows a wide zone of fracturing
in the horizontal limestones and contains few dikes. In the lower part
1 Basil Prescott, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 51, 1916, pp. 57-99. The
underlying principles of the limestone replacement deposits of the Mexican province,
Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, Aug. 14 and 21, 1926.
A. R. Fletcher, Mexico’s lead-silver manto deposits and their origin, idem, Mar. 30,
1929, pp. 509-513.
M. W. Hayward and W. H. Triplett, Occurrence of lead-zinc ores in dolomitic
limestones in northern Mexico, Tech. Publ. 442, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1931, 31 pp.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 599
of the mine, but still above the Toliman canyon, are flat bodies of sul­
phide ore containing $1 in gold, 24 ounces silver, 8 per cent lead, and 18
per cent zinc. No lime silicates are present. Across the Toliman
canyon, farther away from the intrusive, are many small, more or less
horizontal pipes of oxidized lead ores accompanied by silicification. In
cross-section they range up to 30 feet in diameter, and some of them are
1,300 feet in length, usually with a winding course.
Preeminent localities are Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua, Mapimi,
Durango, and Sierra Mojada, Coahuila. The Santa Eulalia has

F ig . 246.— Plan and longitudinal section showing chimneys and pipes in flat lim estone in
the S anta Eulalia district, Mexico. (A fter Basil Prescott.)
yielded lead and silver, valued at from $300,000,000 to $500,000,000.
The deposits, described by Prescott, carry mainly oxidized ores and
form flat, tabular (mantos), or irregular bodies and pipes in Creta­
ceous limestone and have been worked to a depth of 2,000 feet. The
favorable limestones are the Lower Fossil Horizon and the Upper
Bufa. The course of the pipes is only in minor degree deter­
mined by fissures. According to Prescott, there are no vertical fissures
feeding the pipes though the solutions seem to have ascended through
the chimneys and worked their way outward (Fig. 246). It is
interesting to compare these pipes with the somewhat longer pipes of
the Iron Blossom mines at Tintic. Naturally, there are many difficult
problems in ascertaining how the solutions could have managed these
long penetrations. The ores are apparently similar throughout the
length of a pipe. The average composition of the Santo Domingo pipes
600 MINERAL DEPOSITS
is, in per cent, 13 lead, 2 to 6 zinc, 25 iron, and 8 lime. The silver averages
about 300 grams per ton. In Tintic there is a great deal of silicification
surrounding these pipes. At Santa Eulalia the silicification appears less
well marked. Two main types of ore are found: (1) an older, com­
plex silicate gangue (ilvaite, hedenbergite, fayalite, and chlorite), with
argentiferous pyrite and little lead and zinc; (2) the predominating Santa
Eulalia ore containing pyrite, galena, and sphalerite, with lime silicates
in minor amount or absent. At Sierra Mojada the “mantos” occur in
sedimentary dolomite.
DEPOSITS WITH NATIVE SILVER
Native silver is not, as a rule, a primary mineral in the deposits which
contain it, nor is it restricted to any particular class of deposits. As a
secondary (supergene) product due to reactions within the oxidized zone,
it is common in many kinds of deposits—for instance, in argentiferous
galena ores, in tetrahedrite ores, and in the argentite veins. It is ordi­
narily found some distance below the surface; cerargyrite (AgCl) is more
abundant in the outcrops. The native silver often occurs at depths far
below the zone of oxidation, properly speaking. At Aspen, Colorado, it is
abundant in fissures and vugs of limestone and shale 900 feet below the
surface and is distinctly later than the primary lean galena-sphalerite
ores.
In certain deposits the native silver is, however, the predominating
ore mineral and is evidently of primary (hypogene) origin. These
occurrences may be divided into two groups:
1. The silver-bearing deposits with zeolites.
2. The silver-bearing cobalt-nickel deposits.
The Zeolitic Deposits.—Zeolites are ordinarily foreign to ore deposits
connected with igneous rocks. Their occurrence in some contact-
metamorphic deposits and in certain fissure veins is mentioned on page
516. Zeolites are found in the veins of Kongsberg, Norway; Andreas-
berg, Germany; Arqueros and Rodaito, Chile; and Guanajuato, Mexico,
all of which are worked for silver. They are rarely noted in the western
part of the United States. In general, it seems certain that the zeolites
were deposited later than the other minerals. A concentration of silver
ores often accompanied their development. Calcite, quartz, barite, and
fluorite are the principal gangue minerals in the typical localities; the
presence of antimony and quicksilver is often mentioned.
The renowned silver mines of Kongsberg, in southern Norway, which
have been worked for several hundred years and still remain productive,
have been described by Vogt.1 The deposits are narrow east-west veins
1 J. H. L. Vogt, Zeitschr. prakl. Geol., 1899, pp. 113-123; 177-181.
A. Bugge, Norsk. Geol. Tidsskr., 12, 1931, pp. 123-147; Norges Geol. Undersok.,
133, 1929, pp. 100-108.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 601
in gneiss and mica schist, often breaking up when entering amphibolite.
Along certain lines following the schistosity the rocks contain dissemi­
nated sulphides, mainly pyrite and pyrrhotite, and the veins become
enriched where crossing these “fahlbands,” probably on account of their
precipitating influence. Sections indicate a steeply dipping, conjugated
vein system, the pay-shoots pitching northward and the veins becoming
closely spaced in depth. The greatest depth attained is 3,000 feet. The
veins are held to be of Late Paleozoic age and genetically connected with
the Kristiania igneous rocks. The erosion surface below the Cambrian
was probably not far above the present land surface. Possibly
the Paleozoic slates formed an impervious cover below which the ore was
deposited. Quartz, chlorite, and axinite crystallize next to the walls,
but the prevailing gangue is calcite with some barite and fluorite, rarely
adularia and albite. Zeolites also occur and are among the latest gangue
minerals, prehnite, stilbite, harmotome, and laumontite being among
those identified. The principal ore mineral is native silver, mostly in
wire form; this is believed to be derived from the more scarce argentite.
Less prominent are ruby silver, stephanite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arseno-
pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena, the last poor in silver. A
certain part of the silver is believed by Vogt to result from primary
deposition. The native silver contains quicksilver. Anthracite with
95.5% carbon is also one of the gangue minerals deposited during the
early stages.
Vogt supposes the native silver to be derived from argentite and
proustite by action of water according to Bischof’s reactions which as
shown by Moesta can take place at 100° C.
Ag2S + H20 = 2Ag + H2S -T 0.
Ag3AsS3 T 3H20 = 3Ag T As T 3H2S -|- 30.
The list of minerals given shows clearly that the veins have had a
complicated history, beginning with the deposition of high-temperature
minerals like axinite and ending with that of minerals like zeolites, prob­
ably formed at about 100° C. This history has evidently not yet been
followed in detail; it is stated by Vogt that axinite crystallized together
with the zeolites, but this seems a curious association.
The other notable occurrence is at Andreasberg, in the Harz Moun­
tains, best described by A. Bergeat.1 The veins at Andreasberg are
simple filled fissures, at most 0.5 meter thick, chiefly in Silurian clay
slates and quartzites. They appear not far from the intrusive mass of
the “Brocken” granite. The veins are included between two great
divergent dislocations, forming impermeable walls, against which the
silver veins split and cease. The mines, which attained a depth of 2,700
feet, are now closed.
1 Stelzner and Bergeat, Die Itrzlagerstatten, 2, 1906, pp. 718-720.
602 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In general, the veins carry argentiferous galena and tetrahedrite;
sometimes they yield large druses full of rich silver ores, calcite, and
zeolites. Bergeat distinguishes five phases:
1. In crevices near the veins, in part also in the fissures themselves,
are garnet, epidote, axinite, and albite.
2. Earliest bituminous calcite with simple antimonides, arsenides,
and sulphides: Niccolite, smaltite, lollingite, breithauptite (NiSb),
sphalerite, galena, pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite. There are also
narrow veins of quartz, cobaltite, and selenides in sericitized greywacke.
3. Tetrahedrite with quartz (replacing calcite) and fluorite, chal­
copyrite, galena, sphalerite; native silver and millerite, encrusting
tetrahedrite.
4. Sulphantimonides and sulpharsenides: Pyrargyrite, proustite, miar-
gyrite, polybasite, stibnite, argentite (in part from pyrargyrite), fluorite.
5. Native silver, realgar, calcite, apophyllite, analcite, chabazite,
heulandite, brewsterite, harmotome, stilbite, natrolite; also fluorite and
chalcopyrite.
This clear exposition of paragenesis indicates a long epoch of deposi­
tion with gradually diminishing temperature and emphasizes the con­
nection of the native silver with zeolitization.
Zeolites occur in a number of Chilean silver veins, particularly at
Arqueros and Rodaito, in association with native silver, calcite, barite,
and silver amalgam. At the South Republic mine, Republic, Washing­
ton, where the gold selenide veins in andesite are filled by closely banded,
chalcedonic quartz (p. 497), the vein has in part been replaced by a loose
aggregate of calcite and laumontite much richer in silver than the original
quartz.
The occurrence of native silver in the zeolitic copper and silver deposits
of the Lake Superior region is described on page 521. In short, zeolitiza­
tion, probably effected by warm or tepid waters, seems particularly
adapted to the concentration of silver and the deposition of both native
silver and rich silver minerals.
The Silver-bearing Cobalt-nickel Veins of Saxony.—In different parts
of the world occur narrow veins with calcite, or barite gangue and arse­
nides or sulphides of cobalt and nickel; the cobalt and nickel minerals
contain silver, and this metal is often separated as seams of native silver
enclosed in the older metallic minerals. Here, the silver is evidently
primary and deposited by similar solutions from which the earlier
arsenides were formed.
The cobalt veins of Annaberg,1 in Saxony, appear in gneiss intruded
by dikes of granitic and lamprophyric character; they are younger than
1 H. Muller, Die Erzgange des Annaberger Bergrevieres, Geol. Landesanstalt,
Leipzig, 1894.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 603
the veins in the same region carrying cassiterite and those yielding pyritic
ores with galena. The gangue minerals are barite, calcite, fluorite,
quartz, and dolomitic carbonates. The principal ore minerals are chloan-
thite, smaltite, bismuthinite, also rich silver minerals such as argentite,
pyrargyrite, and native silver; the latter are distinctly later than the
primary nickel-cobalt-bismuth ores.
Most of the rich silver ores appear where the veins intersect certain
flat crushed zones in the gneiss, which contain carbonaceous material
and finely divided sulphides, like pyrite and chalcopyrite. The greatest
depth attained was 1,400 feet.
The veins of Schneeberg, in Saxony,1 are contained in contact-
metamorphic clay slates and tend to impoverishment in the underlying
granite. The primary gangue consisted of calcite, ankerite, barite, and
fluorite; but these minerals are now largely replaced by hackly and platy
fine-grained quartz by a process similar to that to which many later
Tertiary gold-silver veins have been subjected. The ore minerals are
smaltite, chloanthite, niccolite, bismuthite, and native bismuth. Native
silver and rich silver minerals are subordinate in the silicified veins, but
appear in the primary barytic veins. From this it is perhaps permissible
to draw the conclusion that the silicification has been accompanied by
solution and removal of silver by ascending siliceous solutions.
Uranium ores, mainly uraninite or pitch blende, are found at Schnee­
berg and, more abundantly, in the somewhat similar veins at Joachims-
thal,2 Bohemia. The geological relations at the two places are similar.
At both places the cobalt and nickel minerals are the older and the rich
silver minerals the younger. Between them in point of age lie the uran­
ium ores.
In 1930, veins were discovered on the east shore of Great Bear Lake,3
in pre-Cambrian sediments. They contain uraninite, cobalt and nickel
arsenides, chalcopyrite, native silver, bismuth, etc., in a gangue of quartz
and rhodochrosite. Their importance remains to be proved.
The Silver-bearing Cobalt-nickel Veins of Ontario, Canada.4—Many
of these veins appear to be connected genetically with igneous rocks of
1 K. Dalmer, E. Kohler, and H. Muller, Section Schneeberg, Geol. Spez. Karte
Sachsen, 1883.
K. Keil, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Co, Ni, Bi, Ag gange, Jahrbuch, Berg-u.
Hiittenw. Sachsen, 105, 1931, pp. A 95-132. (Author erroneously considers silver
earlier than the arsenides.)
2J. Step and F. Becke, Wien. Sitzungsber., k. Akad. Wiss. 113, 1904, pp. 585-618;
also E. S. Bastin and J. M. Hill, Prof. Paper 94, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, p. 122.
3 D. F. Kidd, Econ. Geol., 27, 1932, pp. 145-159.
Ellis Thomson, Univ. Toronto Studies, Geol. Ser., No. 32, 1932.
4 E. D. Ingall, Report on mine and mining on Lake Superior (Silver Islet), Ann.
Rept., Canada Geol. Survey, pt. H, 1887; also C. H. Chadbourne, Econ. Geol., 18,
1923, pp. 77-82.
Willet G. Miller, Cobalt-nickel arsenides and silver deposits of Temiskaming,
604 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Keweenawan age; and the occurrence of native silver in the copper mines
working the amygdaloids of Michigan may be recalled.
The veins of Silver Islet and those at points southwest of Port Arthur,
on the north shore of Lake Superior, have been known for many years.
The Silver Islet vein, at one time a heavy producer, intersects greenstone
and contains, in order of deposition, calcite, ankerite, and quartz, niccolite,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, calcite, native silver, and argentite.
Graphite also occurs in the vein.
In 1903, the silver veins of Cobalt, Ontario, were discovered and they
soon became extraordinarily productive. At the end of 1930, the dis­
trict had produced 365,000,000 ounces silver, or 15,208 short tons,
besides much cobalt, arsenic, and nickel; the maximum output, in 1911,
was 31,500,000 ounces. During the last years, the output has declined
owing to approaching exhaustion and the low price of silver. Cobalt is
the fourth district of the world in regard to silver production, being only
preceded by Potosi, Guanajuato, and Zacatecas. But while Potosi has
been worked for 379 years, the output of Cobalt has been achieved in
27 years. The ore is extremely rich, its tenor often reaching several thou­
sand ounces per ton. Some of the veins contained slabs of native silver
of great size. One specimen, now in the Parliament building at Toronto,
is 5 feet long and weighs 1,640 pounds; it contains 9,715 troy ounces of
silver. The La Rose vein, in a horizontal distance of 100 feet and above
the 60-foot level, yielded 532 tons, which contained 658,000 ounces of
Ontario Bur. Mines, Nineteenth Ann. Rej>t., pt. 2, 1913.
H. V. Ellsworth, A study of certain minerals from Cobalt, Twenty-fifth Ann.
Rept., idem, 1916, pp. 200-243.
E. S. Bastin, Significant mineralogical relation in silver ores of Cobalt, Econ.
Geol., 12, 1917, pp. 219-236; silver ores of South Lorraine, idem, 20, 1925, pp. 1-24.
C. Palmer and E. S. Bastin, Metallic minerals as precipitants of silver, idem,
8, 1913, pp. 140-170.
W. H. Collins, Geology of Gowganda mining division, Mem. 33, Canada Geol.
Survey, 1913.
C. W. Knight, Cobalt and South Lorraine silver areas, Thirty-first Ann. Rept.,
Ontario Bur. Mines, 1924, pp. 1-238. Literature on geology, idem, pp. 321-358.
Read, Denny, and Hutchinson, Mining and metallurgical practice at Cobalt, idem,
pp. 241-320.
E. W. Todd, Gowganda vein minerals, Thirty-fifth Ann. Rept., idem, 1926,
pp. 62-78.
W. L. Whitehead, Econ. Geol., 15, 1920, pp. 103-136; A. R. Whitman, idem, pp.
136-149; J. M. Bell, idem, 18, 1923, pp. 684-694 (South Lorraine).
T. L. Walker, Arsenides from South Lorraine, Univ. Toronto Studies, 20, 1925;
Ellis Thomson, Mineralographic notes, etc., idem, pp. 54-58; T. L. Walker and
A. L. Parsons, A comparison of the Port Arthur, Cobalt, South Lorraine, and Gow­
ganda silver minerals, idem, pp. 59-62.
Ellis Thomson, A qualitative and quantitative determination of the ores of
Cobalt, Econ. Geol., 25, 1930, pp. 470-505, 627-652.
H. C. Boydell (Keeley mine) Bull. 230, Can. Min. Met., 1931, pp. 726-750.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 605
silver. So-called low-grade ores averaged about 200 ounces per ton,
while that which was concentrated before shipping contained about
30 ounces per ton. Some milling ores worked contained only 10 ounces
per ton. Owing to the complex character of the ore the smelting charges
were very high. Later, the cyanide, amalgamation, and flotation proc­
esses have been adopted with much success.

50 O 50 K i l o m e t r e s

F ig . 247.— M ap showing the location of C obalt in relation to the other im portant mining
areas of northeastern O ntario. (A fter Ontario Bur. M ines.)
Similar cobalt-silver veins have been discovered in other portions of
Ontario, particularly at Gowganda and South Lorraine.
The geology of the Cobalt region is summarized by W. G. Miller as
follows: The oldest rocks, known as the Keewatin series, are basic vol­
canic rocks, greenstones, and schists, with more or less cherty or jaspery
sediments. On the eroded Keewatin were deposited the conglomerate
and graywacke (arkose sandstone) of the Cobalt series (Animikie; Upper
Huronian). A thickness of 300 feet of these gently dipping strata is
exposed at Cobalt.
 606
MINERAL DEPOSITS
C o n a /o m ^ ro ts N ip iS S m o „
m i
qrayivaeAl, quarfzifc diabase 1(7/ F a u ilts*,
a n a n a n a n
g e n e r a lly y?<

F ig . 248.— Vertical section through north p art of Cobalt, D istrict of Tim iskam ing, Ontario. (A fter C. W . K night.)
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 607
After the deposition of the Huronian beds an irruption of diabase took
place, assuming the form of sills up to 1,000 feet thick. The veins were
formed after the intrusion of this diabase, which is regarded as of Keween-
awan age; the fractures occupied by the veins were probably caused by
folding and fracturing of the diabase. Figure 248 illustrates the geo­
logical relations and the subsequent erosion of the region to the present
surface. Most of the productive veins occur in a shallow zone, 100 to
200 feet thick, near the base of the Cobalt series, and they rarely contain
ore in the Keewatin, though one fissure (Nipissing 64) filled with calcite has

F ig . 249.— Photograph of vein of arsenides w ith inclusions of graywacke, C obalt district.

(A fter W . L . W hitehead.)
been followed to a depth of 800 feet in the Keewatin. In few places does
the ore descend to more than 300 feet. In exceptional cases, some ore
was found at a depth of 1,000 to 1,600 feet (Beaver mine). In general,
the smaller fissures could not maintain themselves in the tough Keewatin
formation and in the diabase. Some ore has been mined at Cobalt from
the upper contact of the diabase sill, and all the ore at Gowganda and
South Lorraine has come from this contact.
Several large faults (Fig. 248) intersect the district, and on these
some pyrite-sphalerite-chalcopyrite ore may occur. These faults may
have had some influence in damming of the ore solutions. Silver ore
occurs at a few places at Cobalt on the faults, and most of the ore from
South Lorraine has come from Wood’s fault (a reverse dislocation with
a throw of 30 feet). In general, the veins do not continue for long dis­
tance in the diabase. At Cobalt, the small non-continuous, ore-bearing
608 MINERAL DEPOSITS
veins number about 100. Few of them have been followed for more than
500 feet in length.
In the veins, which are seldom more than 6 inches in width, the filling
is often “frozen to the walls” (Fig. 249). In some places the veins form
a network of stringers. The arsenides of cobalt and nickel may fill the
whole vein or may be distributed in calcite or dolomite gangue. The
silver occurs irregularly distributed but frequently appears in sheets at
the walls; the adjoining country rock is not greatly altered but may
contain carbonates of dolomitic character and small specks of the various
minerals, including native silver. The cobalt and nickel minerals occur­
ring in the veins are:
Smaltite........................................................ CoAs2 isometric
Chloanthite.................................................. NiAs2 isometric
Lollingite...................................................... FeAs2 orthorhombic
Safflorite....................................................... CoAs2 orthorhombic
Rammelsbergite.......................................... NiAs2 orthorhombic
Skutterudite................................................ CoAs3 isometric
Arsenopyrite................................................ FeAsS orthorhombic
Gersdorffite.................................................. NiAsS isometric
Cobaltite...................................................... CoAsS isometric
Glaucodot..................................................... (Co, Fe) AsS orthorhombic
Niccolite....................................................... NiAs hexagonal
Breithauptite............................................... NiSb hexagonal
In addition there are native silver, dyscrasite, 1 and some chalcopyrite,
galena, pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and tetrahedrite. Among the rare
minerals are bismuth, polybasite, stephanite, ruby silver, stromeyerite,
and argentite. Cobaltite, safflorite, arsenopyrite, and native silver
appear to be most abundant. Smaltite is not common. Erythrite,
(cobalt bloom (C0 3 AS2 O8 .8 H 2 O), annabergite (nickel bloom (Ni3 As2 08.-
8H2 0)), and scorodite (FeAs04 .2H2 0), and some supergene silver occur
close to the surface. At the Keeley mine, South Lorraine, probably
pre-glacial oxidation has proceeded to a depth of 500 feet.
An analysis by A. R. Ledoux of two carloads shipped to the smelter
shows, besides about 20 per cent Ca-Mg carbonate and 3.34 per cent
silica, the following constituents, in per cent: Co 8.63, Ni 13.87, Ag 5.31,
Sb 1.46, As 42.46, Fe 1.78.
The arsenides are intimately intergrown, and opinions as to para-
genesis are conflicting. E. Thomson (1930) suggests that the di-arsen­
ides, tri-arsenides, and sulpharsenides of cobalt and nickel were the earliest,
the isometric forms apparently crystallizing first. These were followed
by the arsenides and sulpharsenides of iron; and lastly came the mono­
arsenides, particularly niccolite. Later, the calcite gangue was intro-
1 The silver and the dyscrasite contain in places a little mercury, rising in excep­
tional cases to 5 per cent. It is believed to be present as silver amalgam. G- H.
Clevenger, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, p 770.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 609

duced, followed by silver, argentite, and bismuth. Still later came the
scant sulphides of zinc, copper, and lead, the tetrahedrite, and the silver
sulpharsenides.

F ig . 250.— Replacem ent veinlet of silver traversing ferruginous calcite and sm altite (with
niccolite). Arsenides are dotted. (After E. S. Bastin.)

W. Lindgren holds, with emphasis, that the calcite gangue was the
earliest mineral, though additional deposition took place after the
arsenides. The calcite is replaced by all arsenides, sulphosalts, and

A B
F ig . 251.— A. N ative silver (S) w ithin and outside of concretionary sm altite. N ,
Niccolite; black, calcite. Tow nsite M ine, C obalt. M agnification, 22.5 diam eters. (After
E. S. Bastin.) B. Silver enclosed in sm altite. B lack is calcite. Casey M ine, C obalt.
M agnification, 20 diam eters. (After E. S. Bastin.)

native metals. Among the arsenides, cobaltite is probably the earliest

product and niccolite the last, often found replacing the interior part of
the earlier minerals or the calcite included by them,
610 MINERAL DEPOSITS
A moderate amount of crystallized arsenides, also some silver, replace
the country rock. In the filled veins fine-grained granular textures
are common in which a succession is difficult to establish. A dendritic
development of di-arsenides with the interior occupied by calcite or silver
is also common. The dendrites are often covered by successive collo-
form deposits of later arsenides; some textures are plainly colloform, the
arsenides showing rounded outlines and, after removal of the calcite,
excellent contraction cracks (Gowganda).
The acid emanations of chlorides and sulphides were rapidly neutral­
ized by the calcite and colloidal solutions developed, from which the
arsenides and sulphides were precipitated as gels which soon crystallized

F ig . 252.— P hotograph of specim en from C ob alt show ing concretionary arsenides (white) in
calcite veins. O ne-half n atu ral size.
to fine granular or radial aggregates. The silver is distinctly later than
the arsenides and replaces them or the included calcite (Figs. 250and251).
It was deposited in crystalline form and by hypogene solutions. The
so-called “ concretionary” or “ tubercular” texture, almost universally
present (Fig. 252), results, according to Lindgren1and Boydell,2from gel
replacement of calcite and crystallization of the gel.
Many authors believe that the ore-forming solutions were derived
from the diabase sills.
QUARTZ-ADULARIA-ZEOLITE VEINS (ALPINE TYPE)
Occurrence and Mineral Association.—The so-called Alpine veins
have little or no importance as a source of metalliferous ores, but many
of them contain beautifully developed crystals, represented in all large
mineral collections, and are prospected and worked to some extent for
1 Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 36, 1925, p. 259.
2 Trans., Inst. Min. and Met. (London), Dec. 18, 1924, p. 219.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 611
such specimens. They occur in the crystalline rocks in Tyrol, Switzer­
land, and the French Alps. There are several types. One class, found
in the Zillerthal, in Tyrol, contains pyrite and galena with quartz, adularia,
albite, epidote, calcite, prehnite, desmine, and laumontite. Another,
in the French Alps, yields axinite, titanite, ilmenite, and many other
minerals which indicate deposition at high temperature.
The veins in Switzerland have been studied in detail by J.
Konigsberger.1
The “ veins” are approximately horizontal filled crevices in a biotite
gneiss; they are really local openings in joints, which can be followed
for considerable distances and which lie perpendicular to the schistosity
of the rock. These crevices are surrounded by zones of altered rock not
more than double the width of the opening; they usually contain open
cavities into which the crystals project.
The biotite of the gneiss is altered to chlorite, epidote, and quartz;
the plagioclase alters to sillimanite, kaolin, and epidote; albite and
adularia crystallize in vugs; quartz and orthoclase are not attacked but
the latter is often covered by secondary adularia. The kaolin is probably
secondary, for the veins have for a long time been within reach of oxidizing
waters.
It will be observed that the type of alteration is not that of ordinary
veins; it seems most closely related to some veins formed near the sur­
face—for instance, the Cripple Creek deposits. Sillimanite has not been
shown to form in the wall rocks of metalliferous veins.
The general succession is: (1) smoky quartz and adularia (oldest);
(2) calcite; (3) zeolites. The long list of other minerals includes fluorite,
chlorite (often dusting the faces of quartz and adularia), apatite, albite,
stilbite, heulandite, apophyllite, laumontite, chabazite, specularite, and
rarely galena, chalcopyrite, and molybdenite.
Origin.—Konigsberger concludes that the minerals were derived
chiefly from the rock itself, and were deposited by the cooling of hot solu­
tions containing carbon dioxide. The crystallization in the crevices took
place at temperatures of 290° to 130° C. The Alpine veins may have
been produced by intrusive after-effects at various temperatures.
Some of the quartz crystals contain large fluid inclusions; the liquid
contains, in per cent, 85 H20, 5 C02, and 10 of solids, consisting of
alkaline carbonates, chlorides, and sulphates in the order named.
As the smoky quartz is bleached at 300° C., it is assumed that it could
not have been formed above this temperature. The bubbles of the
1 J. Konigsberger, Die Minerallagerstiitten im Biotitprotogin des Aarmassivs,
Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 14, 1901, pp. 43-49.
Ueber Alpine Minerallagerstatten, Schweiz. Min. u. Pet. Mitt., Bd. 5, 1, 1925;
Abhandl. d. Bayr. Akad. Wiss., 28, Bd. 12, 1919. See also review of II. L. Parker’s
work by Ian Campbell in Am. Mineral, 12, 1927, pp. 157-167.
612 MINERAL DEPOSITS
inclusions disappear at 225° C. Because the liquid must have filled the
cavity at the time of formation and because the pressure did not differ
much from that of saturated water gas, the temperature of formation is
about the same as that at which the bubbles disappear.
The red color of the fluorite disappears at 175° C., independent of the
surrounding medium and pressure. The zeolites were probably formed
at about 130° C.
THE COPPER VEINS
The copper-bearing veins in which filling has been the principal
process do not have the importance of the corresponding class of gold-
quartz veins. Only when replacement has converted wider bodies of
rock into ore and when enrichment by descending surface waters has
acted upon the primary ore, do we find large and productive members in
this class.
Many of the great copper deposits are mainly pyritic replacements of
igneous or sedimentary rocks and are described on the following pages
or with the high-temperature deposits in Chapter XXVII. Still others
derive their importance from the accumulation of secondary chalcocite,
either in wide replacement veins or in broad mineralized zones. Many
of these, in fact, also belong to the high-temperature deposits as far as the
poor, primary mineralization is concerned.
Chalcopyrite-Quartz Veins.—Simple veins containing mainly chalco-
pyrite, pyrite, and quartz, with some bornite, more rarely tetrahedrite
and siderite, are common enough in many districts, but are rarely of
great importance unless also containing gold and silver.
J. B. Umpleby1 describes the Lost Packer vein, in central Idaho,
which cuts through mica schist and which, in a gangue of quartz and
siderite, contains chalcopyrite and some pyrrhotite and pyrite. The
ore contains about 3 ounces of gold per ton. The vein is intersected by
dikes and is probably a high-temperature deposit.
Bomite-Quartz Veins.—Quartz veins containing bornite are not
uncommon but are rarely of great economic importance. Veins of this
kind occur in the Virgilina district,12 Virginia and North Carolina, where
F. B. Laney noted interesting intergrowths of bornite and chalcocite
(p. 840). The deposits are, however, lenticular veins and probably were
formed at high temperatures.
Pyrite-Enargite Veins.—The enargite-bearing veins constitute a less
common yet in places a most important class.
1 Bull. 530, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913, pp. 70-73.
2 W. H. Weed, Bull. 455, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911, pp. 67-93.
F. B. Laney, Bull. 21, North Carolina Geol. and Econ. Survey, 1910; and Bull
14, Virginia Geol. Survey, 1917.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 613
Enargite is, on the whole, a rare mineral and rather favors the meso-
thermal deposits. At Mancayan, in Luzon, in the Philippine Islands,
enargite is found in a large replacement deposit in “ quartz porphyry”
and “andesite,” formerly worked on a large scale and containing, in a
quartz gangue, tetrahedrite, bornite, and enargite (luzonite). Another
deposit is that of Bor,1 in Serbia, which is also an irregular quartz-ore
replacement in a rock that is called andesite but is really an intrusive
porphyry with holocrystalline ground mass. The principal minerals are
pyrite, enargite, quartz, barite, and secondary covellite.
The real home of the enargite group of minerals is in the Cordilleran
region of North and South America. In Argentina, in the Sierra Fama-
tina,12 veins carrying enargite and famatinite (CusSbS^ break through
clay slate, intruded by Tertiary granitic rocks and “ dacite.” Many
similar veins are found near Chuquicamata, Chile; and this great deposit
itself, though now mainly worked for its oxidized ores, carries enargite in
depth. Enargite veins also probably occur at Collahuasi, Chile, and
they are worked extensively at Cerro de Pasco,3 at Morococha, and at
Quiruvilca in Peru. No good descriptions of these Peruvian mines have
been published. At Morococha, quartz monzonite, partly sericitized,
is intrusive in Mesozoic limestones and sandstones; the ores occur as
veins and blankets (mantos); the minerals are pyrite, tetrahedrite,
enargite, in places with sphalerite, galena, rhodonite, and rhodochrosite.
There is distinct evidence of zoning with copper ores in the central and
deeper parts and lead-zinc-silver ores farther out.
The ores of the Cerro de Pasco district4 occur principally along the
eastern and southern margins of a body of tuff and breccia filling
a volcanic vent about lj^ mile in diameter, and along a major zone
of faulting which separates an area of Mesozoic limestone on the east
from altered pre-Cambrian or early Paleozoic sediments and Tertiary
tuffs and intrusives on the west. Tabular replacement bodies extend
into the limestone roughly parallel to the eastward dipping bedding.
A small stock of quartz monzonite porphyry intrudes the tuffs on the
western side of the district. The porphyry is locally sericitized and
pyritized.
1 M. Lazarevic, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1912, pp. 337-370.
2 G. Bodenbender, El Nevado de Famatina, Anales Minist. Agricult., Seccion
Geol., 16, No. 1, 1922.
3 G. Stcinmann, Gebirgsbildung und Massengesteine in der Kordillere Stida-
merikas, Geol. Rundschau, 1, 19i0, pp. 13-35. tlber gebundene Erzgange in der
Kordillere Sudamerikas, Int. Congress, Dtisseldorf, 1910.
D. H. McLaughlin, Geology and physiography of the Peruvian Cordillera, Bull.
35, Geol. Soc. Am., 1923-1924, pp. 591-632.
4 Personal communication from the Cerro de Pasco Copper Corporation through
D. H. McLaughlin and L. C. Graton.
614 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The ores are mined from numerous separate bodies of common origin.
The most important types are: (1) enargite-famatinite, tetrahedrite,
and pyrite veins with quartz gangue in bleached and silicified phyllite;
(2) portions of a very large pyritic body along the major fracture zone in
which enargite-famatinite and luzonite ores (with bismuth), silver-bearing
galena-sphalerite ores, and pyritic silver ores (containing tetrahedrite,
famatinite, pyrargyrite, stephanite, etc.) occur with a gangue of pyrite
and cherty quartz with subordinate epidote and barite; (3) rich chalcocite
ores formed by supergene enrichment in portions of the pyritic body; and
(4) oxidized siliceous silver ores (pacos) in an extensive blanket over the
pyritic ores.
The enargite occurs both as large conspicuous crystals and as fine­
grained, slightly pinkish “luzonite.” Chalcopyrite in small amounts is
widely distributed.
Tetrahedrite is probably the chief silver-bearing mineral. In the
greater part of the pyritic silver ore, however, silver minerals are
inconspicuous.
Galena and sphalerite occur in abundance in parts of the massive
pyritic body and with pyrite in replacements in limestone on the eastern
side of the district. These minerals are uncommon in the richer enargite
veins.
Oxidation extends to depths between 50 and 150 feet, and locally to
500 feet. Most of the oxidized material over the pyritic body is a low-
grade silver ore (pacos), high in silica, with copper and zinc thoroughly
leached.
Supergene chalcocite with a little covellite is abundantly developed
in parts of the pyritic ore-body. The richest ore is black, pulverulent
material. It contains much pyrite, but the chalcocite is chiefly a replace­
ment of sphalerite. Pyrite grains are thinly coated or tarnished but not
extensively replaced. The secondary copper ores lie immediately below
the oxidized ground but become reduced to small size before the 500-
foot level is reached and pass with depth into pyritic material, usually
lean in copper but in places high in zinc and lead.
Silver enrichment in the sulphide ores is believed to be relatively
slight.
The mineralization probably occurred shortly after the intrusion of
the porphyry in the early Tertiary. Folded overlying rocks may have
formed a cover of over 10,000 feet when the ores were introduced, but no
certain estimate of post-ore erosion can be made.
In the United States, enargite occurs in mesothermal and epithermal
veins, in the San Juan district and in Gilpin County, Colorado; at Bing­
ham and, especially, in the Tintic district, Utah, and many other
places.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 615
Butte, Montana.1—The most prominent example of the enargite
type of deposit is found in the Butte district, which for some time has
been the most productive copper camp in the world.
In recent years, the Butte district has produced annually about 124,000
tons of copper, 10,000,000 ounces of silver, and $550,000 in gold, besides
some lead and 64,000 tons of zinc, a total value per annum of about
$50,000,000. The largest production was achieved in 1918, when- the
output exceeded 150,000 tons of copper and 15,000,000 ounces of silver
with a total value of $103,331,000. The copper production began in
1879. The ores are concentrated and smelted at Anaconda and at
Great Falls; they average 3 to 4 per cent copper and 4 ounces of silver
per ton. The total value of the output of the Butte district (comprising
only a few square miles) from 1882 to the end of 1929 is calculated to
have a value of $2,119,410,164. In point of metallic wealth extracted,
it is probably only exceeded by the Witwatersrand gold district of South
Africa.
The copper deposits form a system of steeply dipping veins cutting
quartz monzonite as well as a few dikes of aplite and granite porphyry
(Modoc porphyry) intrusive into this granular rock. They are mainly
pyritic replacements along fissures and contain pyrite with enargite,
tennantite, bornite, chalcocite, sphalerite, and a little chalcopyrite
and covellite. There is a scant gangue of quartz.
1S. F. Emmons, W. H. Weed, and G. W. Tower, Jr., Butte Folio, Geol. Atlas 38,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1897.
W. H. Weed, Geology and ore deposits of the Butte district, Montana, Prof.
Paper 74, idem, 1912.
J. F. Simpson, Econ. Geol., 3, 1908, pp. 628-635.
Reno H. Sales, Superficial alteration of Butte veins, idem, 5, 1910, pp. 15-21;
3, 1908, pp. 326-331. Ore deposits of Butte, Montana, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 46, 1914, pp. 3-106.
C. T. Kirk, Conditions of mineralization in the copper veins at Butte, Econ.
Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 35-820.
J. C. Ray, Paragenesis of the ore minerals in the Butte district, idem, 9, 1914,
pp. 463-481.
D. C. Bard and H. M. Gidel, Mineral associations in the Butte district, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 46, 1914, pp. 123-127.
A. P. Thompson, The occurrence of covellite at Butte, idem, 52, 1916, pp.
563-596.
W. W. Atwood, The physiographic conditions at Butte, etc., Econ. Geol., 11,
1916, pp. 697-740.
Many authors, Mining methods in the Butte district, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Met. Eng., 72, 1925, pp. 234-287.
A. Locke, D. A. Hall, and M. N. Short, idem, 70, 1924, pp. 933-963 (Chalcocite).
W. M. Agar, Minerals of the intermediate zone, Econ. Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 695-707.
W. Lindgren, Paragenesis of minerals in the Butte veins, idem, 22, 1927, pp.
304-307.
616 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Extensive sericitization along the veins is characteristic. The age
of the intrusive and of the veins is Eocene or late Cretaceous. The
Butte district covers an area 5 miles square. The copper-producing
area, 2 by 3 miles, occupies the southern and central part of this area.
The principal zinc mines border the copper area on the north, west, and
south. There is a central copper area of zinc-free ores surrounded by a
zone of copper-zinc ores. There is very little copper in the zinc area
proper.
The ores occur in a fissure system of great complexity (Figs. 51 and
52). The principal vein system strikes east-west. A second system
known as the Blue, or northwesterly, veins intersect and fault, with
moderate throw, the east-west veins which are also known as the Ana­
conda system. The dips are generally to the south at high angles.
These two vein systems are cut by northeasterly trending fault fissures
which dip northwest or southeast and which have caused dislocation of
the older veins amounting in places to 200 or 300 feet. The fault veins
sometimes carry ore as “ drag” but do not contain large bodies of ore.
Experiments by W. J. Mead1 suggest that the complicated vein
system may have originated by a progressive shearing movement along
parallel vertical planes.
The ore shoots are irregular; while some continue to the greatest
depth reached in mining (3,000 to 4,000 feet), others have been bottomed
at less depth.
The stope width is from 6 to 30 feet. Closely spaced mineralized
fissures coming from the east-west veins may produce what is known as a
“ horse-tail structure” (Fig. 51) and form together a stockworks; this is
particularly noticeable in the West Colusa area.
While the east-west veins are wider and more productive, there is not
a great difference in mineralization between the two systems. Even
when the veins are sharply defined, as is the case in the Badger mine and
many other places, much of the ore has resulted from the replacement of
country rock. A zone of sericitic and pyritic granite borders the veins,
however small they may be. In the central part of the copper area
there is much spreading replacement by ore and the outlines of the ore-
bodies are indefinite.
The ore is a heavy, coarse-grained sulphide aggregate in which pyrite
predominates; the quartz gangue is not prominent. There are few druses
and little banding or crustification. The succession of the minerals is as
follows, beginning with the oldest: quartz (long continued), pyrite,
sphalerite, enargite, tennantite, bornite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite; scant
magnesian and manganese carbonates;finally calcite closes the succession.
Each sulphide mineral may replace any of the preceding sulphides. The
1Jour. Geol., 28, 1920, p. 512.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 617
chalcocite is massive, rarely crystallized, but then always in ortho­
rhombic forms. At the deposition of these crystals the temperature
cannot have exceeded 90° C.
The silver-lead-zinc metallization is apparently later and the sulphides
consist of pyrite, sphalerite (chalcopyrite), and galena. These minerals
are usually shattered and brecciated by a quartz-rhodochrosite-rhodonite
invasion, with or without fluorite, which in turn is followed by a scant
second generation of pyrite and chalcopyrite.
In contrast to the hypogene chalcocite, there is an upper, deep zone in
which descending cool solutions have deposited supergene chalcocite.
This has been effected by replacement of the other sulphides by solutions
of cupric sulphate. This zone of “sooty chalcocite” yielded the rich
ores mined in the earlier years of the camp. However, much of this
ore was not “ sooty” but compact and mixed with bornite.
The outcrops are not prominent and the copper is leached from them;
in some places they contain chrysocolla. The depth of this oxidized
barren zone of honeycombed quartz veins ranges from 10 to 400 feet.
In the central copper area, where the granite is greatly altered, the upper
limit of the sulphides is practically a plane in spite of surface inequalities
of nearly 300 feet, evidently depending more upon the alteration of the
country rock than on the topography. In the leached zone there is a
slight enrichment of silver, the material containing as much as 30 ounces
per ton, in contrast to 2.5 ounces per ton in the sulphide ore. Supergene
argentite and native silver are rare. The gold tenor is uniform through­
out the copper area, indicating that practically no secondary concentra­
tion has taken place. The ores average 30 to 50 cents per ton in gold,
with little difference between oxidized ore and that of the sulphide zone.
A sharp line of demarcation separates the two zones, the change in many
places occurring within 2 or 3 feet vertically. At this level the ores
contained much chalcocite and averaged 8 per cent or more of copper.
Solid masses of chalcocite ore, 15 feet or more in thickness, were found.
Covellite is less abundant and secondary chalcopyrite is rare. In depth
the enriched ore gradually decreases in value, but supergene chalcocite
persists in places to depths of 3,000 feet or more, particularly along places
where the circulation of water was energetic. In general* chalcocitization
in the upper levels was accompanied by more or less kaolinization.
Below this, enargite began to come in but chalcocite still persisted
and is even now found in the deepest levels (3,500 feet below the surface)
though there is much pyrite, enargite and other older minerals. Covellite
occurred in considerable amounts in the upper levels and as deep as
2,000 feet or more. Reno Sales, J.C. Ray and others long ago expressed the
belief that this deeper and more massive chalcocite is of hypogene origin
though later than the first succession, which is represented by quartz,
618 MINERAL DEPOSITS
pyrite, and enargite. Some geologists also believe that the covellite may
be of hypogene origin.
It is conceded that the present barren zone was created by leaching of
the former upper part of the chalcocite zone and that during this process
the copper was sharply concentrated in the upper part of the present
enriched zone. Therefore the latter, like many other bodies of secondary
chalcocite, must be of considerable geological age. When it was accumu­
lated the water level was assuredly much higher than at present. This
view is supported in a notable paper by W. W. Atwood in which physio­
graphic principles are applied to the study of supergene enrichment.
THE PYRITIC REPLACEMENT DEPOSITS
While pyrite is a persistent mineral, crystallizing within a wide range
of temperatures, it is easily apparent that the deposits containing large
masses of pyrite have not been formed close to the surface, but rather at
considerable depths and at temperatures well above 100° C. The
deposits of this type are mainly confined to regions that have been
deeply eroded since the deposits were formed, and many of them show a
mineral association indicating high temperature.
In many textbooks the pyrite deposits are treated as a distinct class
and are assumed to have a similar origin. We know now that they com­
prise deposits of widely differing origin and history.
In a broad way we may distinguish (1) those associated with silicates
such as amphibole, pyroxene, epidote, tourmaline, and garnet, the iron
sulphide being in part present as pyrrhotite, and (2) those associated with
calcite, barite, and quartz as gangue minerals. The deposits of the first
class were undoubtedly formed at considerably higher temperatures
than those of the second and, in general, probably also at greater
depth.
Class 1 comprises (A) some deposits of magmatic origin like those of
Sudbury, Ontario; (B) a large division, of contact-metamorphic type,
like the deposits of Ducktown, Tennessee; Granby, British Columbia;
and the Highland Boy mine at Bingham, Utah; (C) a third division,
difficult to interpret but thought by many to represent a phase of igneous
injection. In each of these three divisions the deposit may have been
subjected to dynamic metamorphism, with the attendant development of
amphibole and garnet and of schistose structure. Many of these meta­
morphosed deposits have had a complicated history and are among the
most difficult to interpret and classify.
Class 2 is also connected with the eruption of igneous rocks, but the
high-temperature minerals are absent; the deposits of Rammelsberg in
the Harz, Germany, of Mount Lyell, Tasmania, of Rio Tinto, Spain, and
of Shasta County, California, may serve as examples. The deposits at
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 619

Kyschtim,1in the Ural Mountains, at Tyee,2on Vancouver Island, at the

Britannia mine, B. C.,3 at Besshi,4 and Hitachi5 in Japan, as well as
certain occurrences in Arizona, described below, also appear to belong
to this class. The ores, while consisting mainly of pyrite, derive their
value from a small percentage of chalcopyrite; there are usually minute
quantities of gold and silver, and frequently also sphalerite and a little
galena; other sulphides are rare. The ores are fine-grained and massive.
In many of the deposits mentioned a genetic connection with rhyolite
porphyries, alaskite porphyry, or keratophyre can be established, and
deposition by hydrothermal replacement at moderate depth and temper­
ature seems the most reasonable explanation.
Some pyritic deposits of Class 2 will be briefly characterized in the
following paragraphs.
Copper Deposits of Jerome, Arizona6
The pyritic replacement deposits of the Bradshaw Mountains and
Jerome are contained in pre-Cambrian schists of sedimentary and

F ig. 253.— C halcopyrite (w hite) replacing chloritic schist (dark gray). U nited V erde mine,
Arizona. O ne-half n atu ral size.
igneous origin. Their development followed the intrusion of the, also
pre-Cambrian, Bradshaw granite. The most important mine is the
1 A. W. Stickney, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 593-633.
2 C. H. Clapp, Mem. 13, Canada Geol. Survey, 1912, pp. 180-187.
V. Dolmage, Econ. Geol., 11, 1916, pp. 390-394.
3 S. J. Schofield, idem, 21, 1926, pp. 271-284.
4 M. Watanabe, idem, 18, 1923, pp. 174-178. This mine is developed to a depth
of 4,000 feet.
6 Watanabe and Landwehr, idem, 19, 1924, pp. 434-454.
6L. E. Reber, Jr., Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 66, 1922, pp. 3-26.
W. Lindgren, Bull. 782, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1926.
J. L. Fearing, Econ. Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 757-773.
620 MINERAL DEPOSITS
United Verde, which from 1888 to the end of 1929 had produced over
700.000 tons of copper with some gold and silver. The deposit forms a
pipe, with a diameter of several hundred feet, and has been followed to a
depth of 3,500 feet. The fine-grained ore replaces rhyolite schist (Fig.
253) and contains from 4 to 6 per cent of copper. Pyrite is followed by
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and tennantite. The gangue minerals are
quartz, chlorite, dolomite, calcite, and sericite. There is no barite, nor
are there any distinctive high-temperature minerals present.
Copper Deposits of Shasta County, California1
Copper deposits which have been actively mined and smelted since
1895 are found in a number of districts in Shasta County, California;
among the more prominent mines are Iron Mountain, Bully Hill,
Mammoth, and Balaklala. The production of copper in 1929 was
6.034.000 pounds.
The sedimentary rocks consist of Devonian and Carboniferous closely
folded slates and contain intrusions of a highly siliceous and sodic alaskite
porphyry, which is the country rock of almost all the important copper
deposits. Somewhat later than the alaskite porphyry, but belonging to
the same (early Cretaceous) period of intrusion, is a quartz diorite,
probably equivalent to the granodiorite of the Sierra Nevada. No
copper deposits occur in the quartz diorite, but it contains workable gold-
bearing quartz veins. Deep erosion has taken place since the period of
intrusion; Graton estimates the depth of rocks removed as not less than
5.000 or 6,000 feet. The rocks have been subjected to some shearing and
brecciation, but to little extensive dynamo-metamorphism, since the
intrusion.
The copper deposits were formed during the interval between the two
epochs of intrusion. The ore-bodies are large, irregular tabular masses
of pyrite with some chalcopyrite (Fig. 254); single ore masses have
dimensions of 1,200 feet in length, 300 feet in width, and nearly 300 feet
in thickness, and some of them contain many million tons of ore. The
Iron Mountain mass before a great part of it was converted to gossan
probably contained 20,000,000 tons of ore, exclusive of the large amount
which has been removed by erosion. Many of the bodies lie flat and are
easily accessible by tunnels.
The ores contain chiefly pyrite with about 3 per cent of copper as
chalcopyrite, and as much as $2 per ton in gold and silver, about equally
divided between the two metals. Sphalerite is present in varying
1J. S. Diller, Redding Folio, Geol. Atlas 138, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
L. C. Graton, The occurrence of copper in Shasta County, Cal., Bull. 430,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, pp. 71-111.
A. C. Boyle, The geology and ore deposits of the Bully Hill mining district,
Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 48, 1915, pp. 67-117.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 621

amounts, sometimes in later veins and the ore contains a little bismuth,
arsenic, and selenium . The \^.*uon.DAai3
gangue minerals include quartz,
calcite, barite, gypsum, and anhy­
drite; the succession is in general
pyrite (oldest), sphalerite, chalco-
pyrite, quartz, and barite. In
places there is a deep oxidized
zone with sulphide enrichment.
The alaskite porphyry near the
ore-bodies is more or less altered
and contains sericite (probably
also paragonite), secondary quartz,
chlorite, pyrite, carbonates, and
epidote. The pyritic ores occur
in sheared and brecciated zones
and are replacements of the sur­
rounding porphyry caused by hot
solutions emanating from the cool­
ing alaskite porphyry. The action
of surface waters in the ore deposi­
tion is probably negligible, for at
that time the alaskite porphyry
was everywhere covered with a
blanket of impermeable shales.
THE COPPER DEPOSITS OF
BRITANNIA MINES, BRITISH
COLUMBIA
For many years the Britannia
mines1 have produced large
amounts of copper. In 1930,
2,200,000 tons of ore were mined
yielding 22,150 tons of copper with
minor amounts of gold and silver.
The locality is a short distance
north of Vancouver and the main
tunnel is 1,700 feet above the sea.
The deposits occur in a belt of
highly sheared rocks, 5 miles long
1S. J. Schofield, The Britannia g
Mines, British Columbia, Econ. Geol., 21, “ •jj/uoi.j.DAai3
1926, pp. 271-284.
H. T. James, Britannia Beach Map-Area, Mem. 158, Canada Geol. Survey,
1929, 159 pp.
622 MINERAL DEPOSITS
by 2,000 feet wide and have been mined to a depth of 2,500 feet. The
slates, tuffs, and intruded dacites and latites are regarded as early Meso­
zoic and now constitute a roof pendant in the Coast Range batholith.
The various deposits are vein-like replacements in this shear zone.
They contain pyrite, chalcopyrite, quartz, sericite, and anhydrite. This
mineralization is regarded as a later phase, preceded by a less important
sphalerite-barite mineralization not recognized below the 1,050-foot
level.
The Copper Deposit of Mount Lyell, Tasmania1
At Mount Lyell, on the west coast of Tasmania, is one of the large
copper deposits of the world. According to Gregory, the ore-bodies
replace sericite schists, which are dynamo-metamorphic forms of perhaps
Paleozoic acidic porphyries. The Devonian conglomerates are probably
of later age.
The main ore-bodies are lenticular and lie in part in the sericite
schist and in part at its contact with the conglomerates, which have been
brought against the schist by faulting. The largest ore-body is that of
the Mount Lyell mine; this is several hundred feet long and 200 feet wide,
but appears to be limited in depth by a fault.
The ore consists mainly of fine-grained pyrite with some gangue of
quartz and barite. It also contains 5 to 6 per cent of copper in the form
of chalcopyrite, more rarely bornite and enargite.
The ore yields very little gold and 1.33 ounces of silver to the ton.
The output of copper for many years has been about 6,000 tons per
annum. Pyrite is the oldest mineral; it was followed by chalcopyrite,
bornite, enargite, and tetrahedrite.
Enrichment near the surface and in the footwall of the deposit has
added much to the wealth of the property. The outcrops at one place
contained quartz, barite, hematite, and about 15 ounces of silver and §15
in gold per ton. The presence of hematite in the outcrops would suggest
that at some time during the weathering of the deposits the climate was
warmer than now.
The Pyritic Deposits of Rio Tinto, Spain2
General Features.—The pyritic ore-bodies of the southern Spanish
province of Huelva, more generally known as the deposits of Rio Tinto,
1 J. W. Gregory, The Mount Lyell mining field, Tasmania, Trans., Austral. Inst.
Min. Eng., Melbourne, 10, 1905, pp. 26-197.
C. G. Gilbert and J. E. Pogue, The Mount Lyell eopper district of Tasmania,
Proc., U. S. Nat. Mus., 45, 1913, pp. 609-625.
2 J. Gonzalo y Tarin, Descripcidn, etc., de la provincia de Huelva, Mem.., Com.
Mapa Geol. Espana, Madrid, 1-3, 1886—88.
J. H. L. Vogt, Das Huelva Kiesfeld, etc., Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 7, 1899, pp.
241-254.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 623
are probably the greatest in the world and have been mined since Phoeni­
cian and Roman times. The deposits are in the main lenticular; there
are at least 50 of these pyritic lenses, whose length varies from 1,200 to
6,500 feet, while the width, in general proportional to the length, reaches
a maximum of 250 feet and the depth ranges from 500 to 1,800 feet. The
vertical range of deposition, according to Finlayson, probably in no case
exceeded 3,300 feet, and few of the deposits attain a depth of 1,000 feet.

Fio. 255.— Plan and cross-section of ore-bodies, Rio Tinto, Spain. (After Gonzalo y Tarin.)
In the slates the deposits often taper downward to a point, while in the
porphyry a flat or rounded lower surface is not uncommonly observed.
On the whole they appear to lie conformably between slates and porphyry
or in either porphyry or slate.
The production of these deposits has always been large and is well
maintained; in 1926 it was 40,000 metric tons of copper, all sources con­
sidered. Besides the regular copper ore with more than 2 per cent Cu,
up to 4,000,000 metric tons of pyrite, poor in copper, are shipped for
sulphuric acid manufacture. A part of the copper is recovered as a
precipitated cement or a sulphate.
Geological Formations.—The rocks consist of (1) a uniform series of
folded and compressed clay slates and graywacke, striking east and west
and believed to be of Devonian and Carboniferous age; (2) granites and
granodiorites intrusive into the Carboniferous rocks, north of the district;
(3) several varieties of porphyry, including rhyolite porphyry and kerato-
Bruno Wetzig, Beitrage zur Kenntniss dcr HuclvanerKieslagerstatten, Zeitschr.
prakl. Geol., 14, 1906, p. 173.
A. Moncricff Finlayson, The pyritic deposits of Huelva, Spain, Econ. Geol., 5,
1910, pp. 357-372, 403-437.
H. F. Collins, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met. (London), 31, 1922, pp. 61-84.
A. M. Bateman, Ore deposits of the Rio Tinto District, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927,
pp. 569-614.
624 MINERAL DEPOSITS
phyre, some varieties with granophyric structure; in places the porphyry
is affected by shearing and schistosity; (4) basic dikes and sills, mainly
of diabase, but including also camptonites and diorites. Finlayson shows
quite conclusively that the porphyries are intrusive masses, occurring in
belts and lenses throughout the field (Fig. 255). The basic rocks cut
both granites and porphyries.
Displacements of considerable throw occur along many ore-bodies.
According to Finlayson, the last event in this series of igneous and
dynamic disturbances consisted in the development of the mineral
deposits.
The lodes that occur in the slate are in the main conformable with
the bedding, but the ore sometimes, according to Finlayson, cuts across
it; the lode walls are usually well defined and smooth; the deposits occur,
as a rule, along contacts or other lines of weakness and crushing. Accord­
ing to the same author, the adjoining rock shows effects of hydrothermal
action in marked degree, the porphyry being transformed into an aggre­
gate of chlorite, sericite, quartz, carbonates, and pyrite. Analyses show
extremely well-marked carbonatization and sericitization, entirely similar
to the alteration occurring in the California type of gold-quartz veins,
and undoubtedly of hydrothermal origin. The alteration is illustrated
by the following analyses, quoted from Finlayson:
ANALYSES OF FRESH AND ALTERED PORPHYRY FROM THE
SAN DIONISIO M INE, RIO TINTO, SPAIN
Fresh. Altered.
Si02............................................................ 76.21 70.68
A120 3.......................................................... 12.66 11.45
Fe20 3.......................................................... 2.98 1.31
FeO............................................................. 1.46 0.72
MnO........................................................... 0.08 0.05
CaO............................................................. 1.15 2.28
MgO............................................................ 0.10 0.17
K20 ............................................................ 3.27 4.85
Na20 .......................................................... 1.64 0.65
H20 + ........................................................ 0.18 0.23
H20 - ........................................................ 0.35 1.41
C02.............................................................. 0.09 5.08
FeS2........................................................................ 1.27
100.17 100.15
The Ores.—The ores consist chiefly of almost massive pyrite, with but
a small amount of quartz and few other gangue minerals, although barite
occurs in some localities. There are also disseminated ores which clearly
represent replacements of slate or porphyry. Banded or pressed ore is
rarely seen. The primary ore carries from 48 to 50 per cent of sulphur.
Chalcopyrite is present in minute scattered grains, or as threads and
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 625
strings traversing the granular pyrite and filling interstices in the ore.
Sphalerite and galena occur in small amounts, and there are traces of
bismuth, selenium, and tellurium. Arsenic varies from 0.25 to 1 per
cent. The succession is pyrite (oldest), chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena.
Tetrahedrite and enargite are present.
Especially interesting are the changes in the ore produced by weather­
ing. The outcrops are gossans of hematite carrying 10 to 15 per cent of
silica and alumina and little or no copper. The average depth of this
gossan is 100 feet. The lower limit of the gossan is well-defined; and the
line of contact between it and the sulphide ore is sometimes marked by a
thin earthy material, which, as described by Vogt, is rich in gold and
silver. The top portion of the sulphide zone, for a thickness of 3 feet
or more, is composed of leached pyrite with traces of copper (Finlayson).
Below this commences the zone of enriched sulphides, in which the ore
assays from 3 to 12 per cent of copper. This enrichment is effected by
deposition of chalcocite, and its influence may be traced to depths of
300 feet below the surface. In the San Dionisio lode, enrichment was
noted even at a depth of 1,000 feet, indicating, according to Finlayson,
that the secondary changes extend far down into what is usually regarded
as primary ore. Wetzig states that in the Cabeza de Pasto mine the ore
at the 40-meter level contained 3.5 per cent of copper, at the 60-meter
level 3 per cent, and at the 80-meter level 2 per cent. The tenor of the
primary ore ranges from 0.5 to 2 per cent of copper.
Genesis.—The origin of these deposits has been the subject of long
discussion among geologists. The papers presented at the Fourteenth
International Congress in Madrid (1926) well illustrate the diversity of
opinions. The earlier geologists believed in a sedimentary origin, and
this view is still held by some. Gonzalo y Tarin, as well as de Launay,
held them to be veins or lodes deposited in open cavities by ascending
solutions. Later, Vogt considered the deposits to be of pneumatolytic
nature, formed as an after effect of the extrusions of porphyry. In the
latest contributions by Finlayson and Bateman it appears to be firmly
established that the deposits were formed by the hydrothermal replace­
ment of crushed and sheared zones. Finlayson believes that the deposits
were formed after the intrusion of the basic dikes and sills, which are
considerably later than the porphyry, and thinks that the concentration
of the ores was in the first place due to a process of magmatic concentra­
tion of sulphides, accompanying the differentiation of the series of intru­
sive rocks and dependent, with the latter, on the Hercynian tectonic
movements.
Evidence of pneumatolytic deposition seems to be lacking, nor do the
deposits seem to indicate injection of magmatic molten sulphides. On
the contrary, the processes of replacement probably proceeded at moder­
ate temperature and at moderate depth. Magnetite and pyrrhotite
626 MINERAL DEPOSITS
are present in only a few deposits, such as those at Cala, and opinions
differ as to whether these minerals are due to later dynamo-metamorphic
or contact-metamorphic processes, or to original deposition.
The Pyritic Deposit of Rammelsberg, Germany1
The Rammelsberg deposit (Fig. 256), lies on the northern slope of the
Harz Mountains, in Germany, near the town of Goslar. It has been
worked for copper and lead since ancient times, the first records dating
back to the tenth century. Its geological structure has been investigated
by a number of authors, but its complete and detailed description is ns
yet a problem of the future. The most diverse explanations have been
offered as to its mode of origin. Many geologists, like Bergeat and Klock-

F ig . 256.— Cross-section of Ram m elsberg, showing overturned anticline and supposed

conformable position of the ore deposit. (After F. Klockmann.)
mann, lately also G. Frebold and P. Ramdohr, consider it a sedimentary
deposit. Vogt, following Freiesleben and Lossen, explains it as a deposit
from magmatic solutions. Dahlgriin says it is not syngenetic but formed
by plutonic hydrothermal agencies and altered by regional metamorphism.
The deposit is enclosed, apparently conformably, in Middle Devonian
slates, which form an overturned anticline and dip toward the north.
These slates are overlain by a thick series of Lower Devonian Spirifer
sandstone, which makes up the summit of Rammelsberg, at the foot of
which the mine is located.
The slates have suffered considerable deformation and the ore-body
follows their contortions more or less closely. The underground develop­
ments extend for 2,000 meters and have attained a vertical depth of
1 F. Klockmann, Berg- und Hiittenwesen des Oberharzes, 1895, p. 57.
J. H. L. Vogt, fiber die Genesis der Kieslagerstatten vom Typus Roros-Ram-
melsberg, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1894, p. 173.
W. Lindgren and J. D. Irving, The origin of the Rammelsberg ore deposit, Earn.
Geol., 6, 1911, pp. 303-313.
F. Dahlgriin, Abstr., Neues Jahrbuch, Bd. 3 (1), 1930, pp. 1-2.
W. E. Schmidt, Das Rammelsberger Lager, Zeitschrift fur Berg-IIulten-und Sali-
nenwesen 81, 1933, pp. 247-270.
 MESOTIIERMAL DEPOSITS 627
380 meters. Mining has not yet penetrated to great depths, in spite of
the fact that the deposit has been worked for nearly 1,000 years.
The thickness of the “ ore b ed ” swells to dimensions of as much as
30 meters, due to folding and local enlargement. In most places the thick­
ness is not over 1 to 3 meters. The dip is uniformly 45° to the southeast.
The banded structure of the ore is in part unconformable with the
stratification of the slate; but everywhere follows with great faithfulness
the outlines of the sulphide mass, whether these be smooth or irregular.

F ig. 257.—Pressed ore, Rammelsberg, Germany, with alternating streaks of chalcopyrite

(light) and sphalerite (dark gray). Nodules of pyrite, black. Natural size.
The principal minerals are sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, pyrite,
and arsenopyrite, which are abundant approximately in the order enu­
merated. The gangue is barite, but it is often inconspicuous. The ores
themselves are entirely or predominantly composed of sulphides. Altera­
tion of the enclosing slates is rarely observed. A t most there is a slight
impregnation of pyrite.
The texture and composition of the ore vary with the locality, so
that in one place copper will predominate, while in other places the ore
carries mostly sphalerite with a little galena.
The intergrowths of these minerals are fine-grained and intimate,
which adds to the metallurgical difficulties of treating the ore. The most
common texture is that of the banded ores, consisting of dominant sphal­
erite with narrow and gently curved streaks of chalcopyrite and galena.
In places the ore contains rounded nodules, generally of pyrite, around
which Ihe fine-grained streaks of sphalerite and chalcopyrite bend in
628 MINERAL DEPOSITS
regular curves. Pyrite shows a strong resistance to such deformation
(Fig. 257).
Similar phenomena of flowage have been described from the Slocan
district.1
The structural relations of the ore-body indicate that the deposit
is a bedded vein—that is, a fissure vein lying in part, at least, conformable
to the surrounding slates. The distribution and structure of the ore
itself are inconsistent with the theory of sedimentary deposition. The
sulphides do not occur with their primary texture; their structure is
that of a dynamo-metamorphic rock, in which all the constituents, except,
pyrite, have been drawn out into streaks which are intricately mingled.
The appearance shown in the figure could be easily duplicated from any
area of fine-grained schist resulting by pressure from an original granular
rock. The different constituents have recrystallized and flowed under
pressure (p. 749).
While the surrounding slates are soft they evidently behaved quite
differently from the sulphide mass.
The association of minerals with barite tends to show that the deposit
is not of the deep-seated type but was formed at a moderate depth below
the original surface, probably within a few thousand feet of it.
The deposit may have been formed by ascending solutions derived
from the neighboring batholith of granite, which is only 3 kilometers
distant from the mine.
D IS S E M IN A T E D COPPER D E P O S IT S

The group just described carries a massive fine-grained ore, consisting

of pyrite and chalcopyrite. The so-called disseminated copper ores are
very different. They also are products of replacements but instead of
forming veins or bed veins they have a large horizontal extension and
their principal ore mineral is chalcocite. They are often referred to as
“ chalcocite blankets” or “ porphyry ores” though they by no means
always are contained in such rocks.
Large masses of schist, quartzite, monzonite, quartz monzonite, quartz
diorite, or their porphyries have been weakly mineralized by quartz,
sericite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite; such masses contain but a fraction to one
half per cent of copper and the rock texture is very apparent. These
weak mineralizations are called “ protore,” following Ransome. In
their original form they have no value, but when acted upon by descend­
ing waters, chalcocite is deposited at and below the water level, thus
giving rise to large, flat bodies of low-grade ore ranging from 1 to 4 per
cent of copper. As they can be cheaply mined and concentrated, they
form most valuable deposits which have been actively worked since 1900,
and now furnish a large proportion of the copper production in the United
1 W. L. Uglow, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917, pp. 643-662.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 629
States. The Utah Copper, the Nevada Consolidated, the Morenci, the
Ray, and the Miami are mines working such deposits. At a varying
depth the supergene chalcocite ceases. On account of the importance
of supergene processes in these deposits, they will be described in
Chapter XXXII.
W. H. Emmons1has pointed out that these deposits are controlled by
fracturing and that they are situated high on the cupolas or upward
extensions of batholiths. To use Emmons’ classification of deposits in
their relation to the main masses of the batholiths, they are “ acrobath-
olithic.” They are derived from the ascending emanations from such
cupolas.
THE COPPER DEPOSITS OF THE BELGIAN CONGO AND NORTHERN
RHODESIA
In this region, mining history has been made rapidly during the last
10 years. It is now clear that the copper deposits are of great extent and
value and will prove a most important factor in the world production.
From the Cape to the Congo, Africa is chiefly a high plateau about
4.000 feet above the sea. On a basement of crystalline schists, largely
of sedimentary origin and intruded granite, both probably old pre-Cam­
brian, rest unconformably various series of sediments.2 In this region,
that is, on both sides of the Belgian Congo-North Rhodesia boundary,
which follows the Zambesi-Congo watershed, the most important series
is the Katanga System (early Paleozoic or late pre-Cambrian), which
again is divided into an upper part, the Kundelungu with about
12.000 feet of limestone and quartzite, and a lower, apparently conformable
part, called the “ Serie des Mines,” or the “ Serie schisto-dolomitique-cher-
teux” (Katanga); or the Bwana M’Kubwa Series, or the Roan Series (Rho­
desia). Almost all of the copper deposits lie in the “Serie des Mines” and
this is divided into: (1) An upper part (M’washia, Christmas), 1,500 feet
thick, of arkose, shales, and oolite; (2) the Upper Roan (1,500 feet),
of dolomite and interbedded sandstones—these are the ore-bearing
dolomites of Katanga; (3) the Lower Roan (1,000 feet), of shales, arkose,
dolomites, and conglomerates. In Rhodesia, the last section contains the
Roan Antelope, Mufulira, Chambishi, N’Kana, and N’Changa deposits,
all recently discovered. The replaced beds generally lie below imper­
vious shale beds. The persistence of the ore-bearing beds is amazing.
After the close of the Kundelungu deposition followed a period of
folding, close in the Katanga, more open in Rhodesia, and an epoch of
1 Relation of the disseminated copper ores to igneous intrusions, Trans. Am. Inst.
Min. Met. Eng., 75, 1927, pp. 797-815.
2 Anton Gray, The correlation of the ore-bearing sediments of the Katanga and
Rhodesian copper belt, Econ. Geol., 25, 1930, pp. 783-804.
H. Schneiderhohn, Mineralische Bodenschatze im sudlichen Afrika, Nem-
Verlag, Berlin, 1931, 111 pp. Excellent summary.
630 MINERAL DEPOSITS
intrusion of granite, which on the Rhodesia sections is shown as just touch­
ing the “Serie des Mines” but not intruding it extensively; pegmatite dikes
are also mentioned. Some geologists, among them H. Schneiderhohn,
doubt the actuality of these intrusions. Basic rocks certainly intrude
the Roan Series in many places. Then followed, according to the Kho-
desian geologists, the metallization of the folded beds.
Above the folded Katanga Series rest unconformably the flat Lubilashi
beds (Permian to Jurassic, Karroo, coal-bearing series). Erosion and

oxidation then took a hand in the game, the oxidation penetrating deep
below the present water level. In Katanga, the oxidized ores
predominate. In Rhodesia, supergene chalcocite occupies the upper part
of the deposits.
The Katanga Districts.1—In Katanga the deposits extend for about
150 kilometers northwest from Elizabeth ville and are worked by the
Union Miniere du Haut Katanga. The production has risen rapidly
1 P. Fourmarier, Carte gcologique du Congo Beige, Revue Universelle, 1930.
M. Robert, Carte du Katanga, 1:200,000; Comite Speciale du Katanga; also,
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 631

since 1920, now (1931) reaching about 140,000 metric tons of copper a
year. As elsewhere, adverse conditions began in 1930. The reserves
are estimated variously from 40 to 80 million tons of 7 to 8 per cent ore,
practically all oxidized. Deposits now worked are the Kipushi, Ruashi,
Luishia, and Kambove. There is difficultly decipherable close folding
with overthrusts and “ nappes. ” The Kipushi mine is worked by under­
ground methods, the others in huge open cuts; and, owing to the structure,
the thickness of the ore is often great.
The ore carries malachite, chrysocolla and other silicates, copper
phosphates, and copper-pitch ore; in part it contains cobalt. At
Kipushi, chalcocite occurs and bore-holes have shown chalcopyrite
(pyrite), bornite, sphalerite, and tetrahedrite. The ores are con­
tained in dolomite, dolomitic sandstone, and cherty rocks not highly
metamorphosed.
The North Rhodesia Districts.1—In the open folds of the Lower Roan
Series, about 150 kilometers southeast of Elizabethville, five or six very
important districts have been opened since 1924, mostly by drilling. The
beds are thus lower than those of Katanga, and the ore-bearing beds lie
within the lower 1,500 feet of the Lower Roan but not all at the same
horizon. They are generally little metamorphosed arkosic and dolomitic
sandstones.
When the ore beds are in narrow synclines, as at Roan Antelope,
N’Kana, and N’Changa, the deposits lie on both limbs; where they are on
one limb only, as at Mufulira and Chambishi (Fig. 259), they take the
form of tabular lodes. At the Roan Antelope mine, which now is begin­
ning to produce, the syncline is 2,000 feet deep and the ore bed has
been traced for thousands of feet. The thickness of the ore beds ranges
from 20 to 80 feet, and the grade of the ore from 3M to 4Yi per cent.
The possible production of copper per annum, with all of the mines in
operation, would be several hundred thousand tons.
Eton. Geol., 26, 1931, pp. 531-539.
Guidebooks for the Fifteenth Internat. Geol. Congress, Pretoria, 1929.
A. Timmerhans and H. J. Schuiling in papers published in Comptes Rendus of
the Fifteenth Internat. Geol. Congress, Comptes Rendus, 2,1930, pp. 446-453 and 688.
J. Thoreau, idem, pp. 482-484 (Examination of drill cores).
1 A. M. Bateman, The Rhodesian Copper Deposits, Trans. Inst. Min. and Met.
Canada, 33, 1931, pp. 173-213.
A. M. Bateman, The ores of the North Rhodesian Copper belt, Eton. Geol.,
25, 1930, pp. 365-418.
H. Schneiderhohn, op. cit.
J. A. Bancroft and R. A. Pelletier, Mining Magazine (London), Dec. 1929;
Jan., Feb., Mar. 1930.
JL C. A. Jackson (N’Changa) Econ. Geol., 27, 1932, pp. 247-280.
Anton Gray (Mufulira), idem, pp. 315-343.
D. M. Davidson (Chambishi), idem, 26, 1931, pp. 131-152,
632 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The Roan Antelope is believed to have at least 75 million tons of
reserves. The total amount of ore reserves in the various Rhodesian
mines is held to be something like 300 million tons.
The ore is an inconspicuous material—sandy shale, dolomitic shale,
or arkose—mineralized by uniformly distributed sulphide particles, few
over 2 millimeter in diameter. They unquestionably replace the grains
of sand or dolomite, but there are few gangue minerals, little quartz, little
sericite; many of the ores look, however, like biotitic hornfels with moder­
ate metamorphism, but certainly this biotite is not confined to the sharply
defined ore bed. The origin of the tourmaline sometimes observed
seems doubtful. Bateman mentions tremolite and garnet with later sul­
phides from the Muliashi beds, but this seems an exceptional occurrence.
The ore minerals are linnaeite (Co3S4) (earliest), followed by chal-
copyrite, bornite, and chalcocite, the last two often in pseudo-eutectic

F ig . 259.— Vertical section showing geology at Cham bishi Mine. (A fter D. M . Davidson.)
intergrowth. Down to a depth of several hundred feet there is much,
probably supergene, chalcocite. Cobalt in minor quantities is charac­
teristic of all of the Katanga and Rhodesian deposits.
Origin.—Most of the South African geologists call the deposits meso-
thermal, formed by granitic emanations. This theory has apparently
not yet been proved. A theory of sedimentary origin with subsequent
slight metamorphism can not yet be wholly discarded. There are no
mesothermal deposits in the world which are definitely comparable to
these enigmatic South African ores.
CADMIUM ORES
Almost the only cadmium mineral is the yellow greenockite (CdS),
which is fairly common in the Joplin region, Missouri, as a yellow coating
1 C. E. Siebenthal, The cadmium supply of the United States, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Met. Eng., 60, 1919, pp. 185-197.
N. F. Budgcn, Cadmium, its metallurgy, properties, and uses (London), 1924.
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 633
on sphalerite and disseminated in oxidized zinc ores coloring them yellow.
Cadmium, probably as sulphide, is almost universally present in sphaler­
ite. In the Joplin region, the metal is contained to the extent of a trace
up to 1 per cent, averaging 0.3 per cent, but many western ores also
contain this metal in noteworthy amounts. It is found in high-tempera­
ture deposits, for instance, in those of Bodenmais, Bavaria, and also, as
just stated, in zinc ores in limestone without igneous affiliations. The
zinc deposits of Santander, Spain (p. 428), contain 0.4 per cent or more
Cd. Traces of cadmium have been found in some coals and in mine
waters. The metals, indium, thallium, germanium, and gallium generally
accompany cadmium in small amounts.
Cadmium has been produced in the United States since 1907 in increas­
ing amounts, about 60 tons in 1924 and 1,500 tons in 1931. In addition, a
similar amount of cadmium sulphide was manufactured. The metal
being more volatile than zinc is obtained from the dust of the bag houses
of lead smelters that treat zinc-bearing lead ores. Much cadmium is
also produced from the Sullivan ores, British Columbia, from the Broken
Hill ores, New South Wales, Australia, and from the Silesian deposits
in Poland and Germany. The price of cadmium was 56 cents per pound
in 1931.
Cadmium is used in the manufacture of silverware and alloys of many
kinds, in electroplating, for easily fusible alloys, as a substitute for tin,
etc. Cadmium sulphide is a brilliant yellow pigment.
ARSENIC DEPOSITS
Arsenic is of widespread occurrence, in volcanic exhalations, in the
sea water, in many spring waters and spring deposits, and in some prod­
ucts of organic life. Nevertheless, we rarely find pure arsenical ores in
such abundance as to be of economic importance. About the only
plentiful ore mineral of arsenic is arsenopyrite (FeAsS), which is found
in many veins, usually associated with quartz and gold. More rare are
lollingite (FeAs2), smaltite (CoAs2), niccolite (NiAs), and other cobalt
and nickel arsenides; they occur, for instance, in the silver veins of Cobalt,
Ontario (p. 608).
The minerals of arsenic are found in practically all classes of sulphide
deposits of igneous affiliations, but are most plentiful in veins of the
intermediate and high-temperature type.
In a few deposits like that of Hastings, Ontario1 and Brinton, Vir­
ginia,2 arsenious oxide (As20 3) has been recovered by roasting of
arsenopyrite; but the great bulk is obtained as As20 3 in the flue dust of
smelters using mixed ores in which occur the above-mentioned arsenical
minerals or some of the numerous sulpharsenides, such as tennantite or
1J. W. Wells, Eleventh Rept., Ontario Bur. Mines, 1902, pp. 101-122.
2 F. L. Hess, Bull. 470, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911, pp. 205-122.
634 MINERAL DEPOSITS
enargite. There are several sulpharsenides of lead but they are rare in
the United States. In 1929, 16,600 tons of arsenious oxide was produced
from flue dust. The price was about 3 cents per pound, and the use is
largely for killing insect pests, fungi, the preservation of wood, etc. The
largest amount of arsenic is produced at the Boliden gold mine, Sweden
(p. 689).
FLUORITE DEPOSITS
Fluorite (CaF2) is the only simple fluoride occurring in nature.1 It
is a persistent mineral (p. 90) occurring in almost all deposits and formed

F ig . 260.— Idealized section to show vein relationship and stratigraphy at Blue Diggings
shaft, Rosiclare, Illinois. H eavy black represents vein m aterial. (After S. Weller.)

F ig . 261.— Idealized section of fluorspar veins, showing general relationship between wall
rock, minerals, and center slips. (A fter S. Weller.)
at all temperatures. It rarely occurs in great abundance. Most of the
1 Excepting the very rare sellaite (MgF2).
 MESOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 635
fluorite deposits worked are epithermal or mesothermal veins. Among
the associated minerals galena, pyrite, sphalerite, quartz, and barite are
most common.
In the United States, fluorite is chiefly mined in Illinois and Kentucky1
from wide fault veins and from flat replacement deposits in Carboniferous
limestone, shale, and sandstone (Fig. 260). The paragenesis is (1)
coarse-grained calcite; (2) fluorite; (3) sphalerite and galena (Fig. 261).
The texture is massive, sometimes banded. Fine diffusion banding has
been described from the replacement deposits. The deposits are believed
to stand in genetic connection with dikes of peridotite.
Fluorite is also mined from veins in Colorado, in Boulder and Custer
counties, and from many smaller veins in New Mexico.12 The interesting
hot-spring deposit of Wagon Wheel Gap, in Mineral County, Colorado
(p. 71), is of some economic importance.
The English deposits in Derbyshire and Durham are likewise lead-
bearing veins.
Fluorite is used as fluxing material, mainly in the basic open-hearth
steel furnaces, for opalescent glass, enamels, and for the manufacture of
hydrofluoric acid. Lenses are made from optically perfect material which
is rare. In 1930, 96,000 short tons of fluorite were mined in the United
States, mainly in Illinois and Kentucky, and brought an average price,
f.o.b., of $17 per ton. Regarding cryolite see page 765.
SIDERITE DEPOSITS
Siderite occurs as a gangue mineral in many veins (p. 570). When
it predominates and the veins are wide, as in southern Westphalia,3 the
vein filling is used as an iron ore. No such deposits are mined in the
United States.
1 E. O. Ulrich and W. S. T. Smith, Prof. Pa-per 36, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
H. Foster Bain, The fluorspar deposits of southern Illinois, Bull. 255, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1905.
J. F. Fohs, Bull. 9, Kentucky Geol. Survey, 1907; Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, p. 377.
S. Weller, Bull. 41, Illinois State Geol. Survey, 1920.
L. W. Currier, Fluorspar deposits of Kentucky, Bull. 13, Kentucky Geol. Survey,
1923.
J. E. Spurr, The Kentucky-Illinois district, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, Oct. 30,
Nov. 6, 1926.
R. B. Ladoo, Fluorspar, Bull. 244, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1927, 184 pp.
E. S. Bastin, Bull. 58, Illinois State Geol. Survey, 1931, 116 pp.
2E. F. Burchard, Fluorite deposits in western United States, Tech. Pub. 500,
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1933, 26 pp.
3 W. Bornhardt (with P. Krusch), Ueber die Gangverhiiltnisse des Sieger Landes,
Archiv. Lagerslattenforsch., Berlin, 1912. The history of these veins is complicated;
they contain besides siderite, hematite (early), pyrite, marcasitc, bornitc, and gold,
also rare bismuth minerals.
636 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Near deposits in limestone this rock is often replaced by siderite
(p. 592). Extensive replacements may result in deposits of siderite of
economic value. At Eisenerz,1 in Styria, a celebrated deposit of this
kind is worked. Crushed and folded Paleozoic and Triassic limestones
form the material for the replacement. The ore, which averages 39
per cent Fe, is worked in vast open cuts. Opinions as to genesis are far
apart; the relations are very complicated, but the deposits are certainly
epigenetic and probably related to intrusions. The annual output is
nearly 2,000,000 tons.
COBALT DEPOSITS
Cobalt has less pronounced siderophilic tendencies than nickel, and
little of it is contained in the magmatic and pyrometamorphic deposits.
It is rather abundant in some mesothermal ores, here usually associated
with arsenic, nickel and silver (Cobalt, Ontario, Schneeberg and other
places in Saxony, pp. 602-610). In combination with sulphur it occurs
as linnaeite ((Co, Ni)3S4, some varieties without nickel) in mesothermal,
polymetallic veins of the Siegen district, Germany, and other places;
also in the Mississippi Valley lead-zinc deposits (p. 439), and in the
copper deposits of Katanga and Northern Rhodesia (p. 629). Cobalt
seems also to have a tendency to concentrate in deposits ascribed to the
action of meteoric waters.
The present supply of cobalt, about 1,200 metric tons of metal per
annum, is derived from Katanga (700 tons), Cobalt, and various other
places.
For a long time cobalt has been employed in the ceramic and paint
industries for the beautiful color of some of its oxide compounds, e.g.,
cobalt blue, CoO.A120 3, but its principal ever-widening use is for rustless
alloys of the stellite type (Co, Cr, W), and for cobalt steel, used in cutting
tools and steel magnets. The New York price in 1931 for cobalt metal
(97 to 99 per cent Co) was about $2 per pound.
1 T. Redlich, Iron ore resources of the world, Stockholm, 1, 1910, p. 153. Bey-
schlag, Vogt, Krusch, Ore deposits, translated by S. J. Truscott, London, 2, 1926,
p. 817.
K. A. Redlich, Der Steyerische Erzberg, in “Der Bergbau Steiermarks,” Fasc. 9,
Leoben, 1916.
K. A. Redlich, Die Geologic der innerosterreichischen Eisenerzlagerstatten,
Wien-Berlin, 1931, 165 pp.
K. A. Redlich, Zur Tektonik und Genesis des steirischen Erzberges, Jahrbvich,
Geol. Bundesanstalt, 80, 1930, pp. 231-260.
 CHAPTER XXVII
HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS
VEINS AND REPLACEMENT DEPOSITS (EXCEPTING CONTACT-
METAMORPHIC DEPOSITS) FORMED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE
AND PRESSURE AND IN GENETIC CONNECTION WITH
INTRUSIVE ROCKS
GENERAL FEATURES
High-temperature Minerals.—In the ore deposits described in pre­
vious chapters such minerals as the pyroxenes and amphiboles, the
garnets, ilmenite, magnetite, specularite, pyrrhotite, tourmaline, topaz,
the brown and green micas, and the spinels are generally absent. In
the veins and replacement deposits formed at high temperature one or
more of these minerals are commonly present, besides many other
persistent ore and gangue minerals which are formed under widely varying
conditions. In general, simple sulphides and arsenides prevail and are
in many deposits associated with oxides, such as magnetite, specularite,1
ilmenite, and cassiterite.
In the presence of water and other volatile substances, crystallization
may take place at a much lower temperature than in dry fusion. In a
magma, high pressure is necessary to hold these substances in the fluid
melt which then is really a magmatic solution. The conceptions of
solvent and solute are inapplicable, the various constituents of the magma
being dissolved in one another. Under diminishing pressure, as during
the ascent of magmas to higher levels, water and other mineralizers sepa­
rate from the magmatic solution and carry with them certain constituents
of the magma such as silica, some heavy metals, and alkaline metals.
This “magmatic extract” may be in a state of aqueo-igneous fusion
as a pegmatite magma; or when the temperature is lowered the crystalliza­
tion of some constituents may convert it into an aqueous solution.
1 Specularite and magnetite develop in small quantities in some epithermal and
mesothermal deposits (Mogollon, New Mexico; San Juan region, Colorado; the Mother
Lode mines, California). It will also be remembered that specularite may form in the
outcrops of deposits, in tropical regions. Magnetite occurs in small amounts in
certain sedimentary iron ores. It is believed, however, that these two minerals only
appear in quantity in deposits formed at high temperature. Just what are the lower
limits of their temperature fields is not known. Pyrrhotite has been synthesized by
Allen, Crenshaw, and Johnston at temperatures of from 80° to 225° C., but as a matter
of fact the mineral does not appear in ore deposits until the lower limit of the meso­
thermal zone is reached.
637
638 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The hypothermal deposits are formed, we believe, from aqueous
solutions at a comparatively high temperature, say from 300° to 500° C.
These solutions were formed by differentiation mainly from batholithic
magmas at no excessive depth.
What part the critical phenomena play in these solutions is not well
known (p. 117). On one hand there are many fluorides and chlorides in
which the critical temperature is relatively low—not much higher than
that of water. But it must be remembered that these haloid salts are
only parts of the solution which must contain an abundance of salts with
exceedingly high critical points. Among these constituents the most
important is silica which, it would seem, must be carried in colloidal
condition. The evidence tends to prove that the solutions are liquids
rather than gases and that “ pneumatolytic ” conditions (if by this much
abused term is meant solutions above their critical temperatures) play no
important part. Therefore, the term 'pneumatolytic will be avoided in
the following discussions.
These inductions are supported by field evidence of the strongest
kind. Practically all these deposits occur in or near bodies of intrusive
rocks and have been exposed by deep erosion. They were, therefore,
certainly formed at considerable depths below the surface. The contact-
metamorphic (pyrometasomatic) deposits, for which cogent proof of
magmatic origin can be given, grade into these hypothermal veins. On
the other hand, the high-temperature veins at many places imperceptibly
grade into those in which the magmatic origin is less clear, thus giving
in such places an almost complete line of transition from the rocks con­
gealed from the magma, such as the pegmatite dikes, to the metal-bearing
veins of the mesothermal type.
In a given district these phenomena—the pegmatitic dikes, contact-
metamorphic deposits, deep-seated veins, replacement deposits, and veins
of the common type—all developed very soon after the intrusive activity
and during a rather short and sharply defined epoch of metallization, dur­
ing which the temperature gradually declined.
Some of the minerals enumerated on the previous page are dependent
upon temperature only; such are the pyroxenes, spinel and magnetite;
others, like tourmaline, topaz, chondrodite, the micas, etc., contain a
volatile constituent and require pressure and the presence of mineralizers
for their formation. Some high-temperature deposits may be formed
comparatively near the surface and even in lava flows, like certain rare
tin deposits in rhyolite. Similar results may follow in the case of intrusions
near the surface, where the temperature of the solutions is raised to such a
degree that the vapor tension overcomes the pressure and fumaroles and
“soffioni” result. In general, however, it will be found that most depos­
its with a mineral association indicating high-temperature have been
formed at considerable or great depths.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 639

Fumarolic action might result if, for instance, at a depth of 1,000 me­
ters and consequent hydrostatic pressure of 100 atmospheres, there
existed a solution temperature of 330° C. The vapor pressure at this
temperature would exceed the hydrostatic pressure. It is probable,
however, that in such a case there could be no delicate banding of alter­
nating minerals as so frequently characterizes the veins of shallow depth
deposited by ascending hot waters.
If no connection with the surface existed, the pressure would be
measured by the height of the rock column and a much higher solution
temperature would be necessary to produce fumarolic conditions. Gen­
erally, we may say that the pressure will suffice to keep the solutions in
liquid form.
When a mineral deposit carries only persistent minerals, like quartz and
pyrite, there is no mineralogical criterion present to decide whether or not
it belongs to the high-temperature class. In many cases, though not
always, mode of crystallization and geological criteria may solve the
problem.
Metasomatic Processes.—The minerals enumerated in the beginning
of this chapter generally appear in the metasomatically altered country
rock and, to a less extent, in the fillings of the open cavities. The
metasomatic action is often intense and leads to the development of
coarse-grained aggregates. Sericitization still persists in some of these
deposits though the foils of white mica may be larger and usually are
associated with biotite, tourmaline, and similar minerals. The total
changes in feldspathic rocks are, however, often less pronounced than in
the veins produced at lower temperature, and there is less leaching of
alkalies. Sericitization and propylitization are less prominent. On
the other hand, the iron-magnesia metasomatism begins to acquire impor­
tance: iron-rich chlorites, tourmaline, biotite, and amphibole begin to
appear. The processes will be described in detail under the various
classes of deposits.
The carbonate rocks are always peculiarly susceptible to metasomatic
processes and usually absorb large quantities of material from the solu­
tions. Silicates rich in iron, like epidote, andradite (garnet), hedenber-
gite (pyroxene), cummingtonite (amphibole), and certain varieties of
biotite, are frequently found in these deposits.
Andalusite rarely develops in hypothermal ore deposits. B. S.
Butler1 describes such a case in the Beaver lake mining district, Utah,
where a latite has been converted to quartz, pyrite, muscovite, and
andalusite.
From the very beginning of the replacement there develops an active
interchange of constituents between solutions and country rocks. The
composition of the solutions is continually changing.
1Prof. Paper 80, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913, pp. 78-81.
640 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Temperature and Pressure.—As yet we have but few determinations
which will serve as safe guides to the estimation of the temperature pre­
vailing when the hypothermal deposits were formed. Generally speak­
ing, it began by a maximum and the temperature gradually sank during
the later stages.
The best “geological thermometer” (p. 207) for the present purpose is
the enantiotropic inversion from alpha (trapezohedral-tetartohedral)
quartz to beta (trapezohedral-hemihedral) quartz. This is known to take
place at 575° C., which temperature will be but slightly raised by heavy
pressure, probably by not more than 20° to 30° C. Wright and Larsen1
have shown that the quartz of igneous rocks and of most pegmatite
dikes is beta or high-temperature quartz, but that during the later stages
of pegmatite formation the alpha quartz appears; and also that all
quartz of veins and replacement deposits thus far examined is of the alpha
or low-temperature kind. It seems certain, therefore, that most of the
hypothermal quartz was formed below 575° C. Quartz is usually one
of the earliest minerals developed.
Pyroxene is stable at a higher temperature than amphibole. Becke
places the transition point between the two stability fields at about 550° C.
It is true, indeed, that pyroxene is scarce in the hypothermal deposits
while the amphiboles are common. The latter may probably be formed
at a temperature of 300° C. or less.
The synthesis of amphibole,2 tourmaline, and topaz has proved very
difficult, while pyroxene may be easily obtained by fusion. Neither
tourmaline nor topaz has been artificially produced. They are generally
held to be characteristic high-temperature minerals, topaz probably
forming at higher temperature than tourmaline. The absence of tourma­
line in the epithermal veins is significant, especially when we consider
that the hot waters which formed these veins contain boron, sometimes
in considerable quantities. On the other hand, it is true that tourmaline
in authigenetic form is not uncommon in contact aureoles far from the
intrusive and in some regionally metamorphosed rocks where the tem­
perature hardly could have reached 300° C. In both cases the crystals
are very small. V. M. Goldschmidt found boron present in sediments
and coal in larger amounts than in igneous rocks.
A. Brammal and H. F. Harwood3 concluded that the temperature of
crystallization of tourmaline in the Dartmoor granite was about 575° C.
and that the range might be extended upward towards 800° C. The
lower limit was not determined.
1 F. E. Wright and E. S. Larsen, Quartz as a geologic thermometer, Am. Jour. Sri.,
4th ser., 27, 1909, pp. 421-427.
2 Obtained by Chrustchoff and by Allen and Wright. See Geo. W. Morey and
P. Niggli, The hydrothermal formation of silicates, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc.. 35, 1913,
pp. 1086-1130.
3 Mineralog. Mag., 21, 1927, pp. 205-220.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 641
One of the best criteria would be the beginning of the development of
silicates of calcium, magnesium, and iron from limestone or dolomite.
It is generally held that this action begins to take place about 500° C.,
provided an avenue of escape is open for the CO2 set free. Our knowledge
is deficient in regard to this vital point. We do know that in a long line
of deposits of epithermal to mesothermal character the limestone is not
converted to silicates but replaced by silica. Until further data are
secured, it may be assumed that below 300° C. no silicates are formed in
the carbonate rocks. Probably the temperature is not the same for iron,
calcium, and magnesium.
The heat necessary for the development of these deposits is usually
derived from bodies of igneous rocks. The possibility cannot be denied
that the same effect may be produced simply by the natural increment in
temperature due to increase in depth. If a surface temperature of + 25° C.
and an increment of 1° C. for every 30 meters1 are assumed, a depth
of 10,200 meters, or about 33,600 feet, will be required for a temperature
of 365° C. Van Hise has shown that down to this depth even the
hydrostatic pressure is sufficient to hold the water in the form of
a liquid. Such observations as have been made in the Cordilleran
region show that contact-metamorphic and other deposits of the type
here called deep-seated have been formed much nearer to the surface,
some of them at depths of 3,000 or 4,000 feet, the criterion being a
rough measurement of the amount of erosion on the basis of known
thickness of strata. It may be true for some problematical deposits
of the Archean (for instance, the zinc deposit in limestone of Franklin
Furnace, New Jersey), that the rocks have been buried to a depth
approximating 10,000 meters and that, at that depth, they have
been exposed to the metasomatic influence of magmatic gases, while
they were at a considerable distance from igneous intrusions. Such
deposits would be connecting links between igneous and regional meta-
morphism, and such a condition would explain the occasional occurrence
of deposits of the contact-metamorphic type at a distance from known
igneous bodies. The copper deposits of Ducktown, Tennessee, are
clearly of the contact-metamorphic type, but there are no adequate
igneous masses in the immediate vicinity which could have produced the
metamorphism. The district is one of intense regional metamorphism,
and it is possible that magmatic gases of distant origin might have
searched out the limestone beds and transformed the calcareous rock
into ore.
As to the pressures actually existing our knowledge is slight. The
hydrostatic pressure calculated by Van Hise would have little applica­
bility, for at a relatively short distance below the surface the paths of
1C. R. Van Hise, Mon. 47, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 567.
642 MINERAL DEPOSITS
underground water are probably effectively closed, and even where they
are open the friction would be a factor of no mean importance. The
pressure, therefore, at any considerable depth is probably far higher than
that calculated from the weight of the water column. At a depth of
3,000 meters the hydrostatic pressure would be 300 atmospheres. Under
purely static conditions the greatest pressure at any given point would
be that indicated by the weight of the overlying rock column, or, for the
depth just mentioned, equal to 810 atmospheres. Arching of resistant
rocks might make this figure smaller; on the other hand, if the conditions
are those of lateral stress it is possible that the actual pressure might be
considerably higher and would then be measured by the strength of the
buttress against which the pressure was applied.
If magmas and their differentiated gases invade the crust their
pressure would be hydrostatic and could not exceed that of the static
pressure of the overlying rock column without rupture of the rock. A
contact-metamorphic deposit developing at a depth of 1,000 meters
under a covering of limestones could, therefore, have been formed at a
pressure of not more than 271 atmospheres.
Mode of Fissuring and Filling.—The question whether open spaces
exist in the high-temperature veins has been discussed extensively.
Under certain conditions, at least, it would seem improbable that open
spaces could have existed where we now find deposits. Many investi­
gators, as W. O. Crosby, E. J. Dunn, F. B. Laney, and Stephen Taber
(p. 170), hold that the action of crystallization of minerals has forced
the walls apart and thus provided space for the reception of ores. But
aside from the problematic intensity of this force, and the certainty that
pressure would cause increased solubility, such crystallization could
hardly have produced perfect crystals or drusy structure. L. C. Graton,1
in his description of the gold-quartz veins of the southern Appalachians,
has suggested that the vein-forming solutions, representing the final
products of emanation of a granitic magma, were injected under heavy
pressure into the surrounding rocks along lines of weakness and so, like
pegmatite dikes, made a space for themselves by opening their own
fissures. This reasoning, which has much to commend it, would not be
applicable where earlier fissures had established connection with the
surface. Finally, it must be remembered that there is always a strong
hydrostatic pressure helping to hold fissures open and also that any fault
fissure would be sure to be partly or wholly filled by attrition products
which would support the walls while offering little difficulty for the
movement of ascending solutions.
The texture of the veins is generally coarse grained and irregular.
There may be a rude banding by deposition but nothing to equal the
delicate concentric banding of the veins formed near the surface. Com-
1 Bull. 293, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906, p. 69.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 643
pare, for instance, Figs. 180 and 193 to Fig. 268. The structure of the
composite veins, or lodes, is much like that of the deposits formed at
intermediate depth. Compare Figs. 46 and 266.
Classes of Deposits.—The veins and replacement deposits formed at
high temperature may be divided as follows:
1. Cassiterite, wolframite, and molybdenite veins.
2. Gold-bearing veins and replacements.
3. Copper-tourmaline deposits.
4. Lead-tourmaline deposits.
In these deposits we note again the remarkable connection of certain
metals with certain igneous rocks. The tin, tungsten, and molybdenum
veins, for instance, almost always appear in or near intrusions of acidic
granites and porphyries.
The veins and replacement deposits carrying gold, copper, and iron
are mainly connected with intrusive rocks of monzonitic or granodioritic
character. In general, deposits of gold, copper, iron, tin, tungsten, and
arsenic are much more common among the hypothermal class, than those
of silver, lead, zinc, and antimony.
THE CASSITERITE VEINS1
Mineral Association
The cassiterite veins form a rather sharply defined group, connected
by transitions on the one hand with the copper-tourmaline veins and on
the other hand with the wolframite and molybdenite veins. Apparently
they also grade over into pegmatites, though there are few deposits of
importance in this transition zone. They present the constant associa­
tion of such ore minerals as cassiterite, molybdenite, arsenopyrite,
wolframite (also scheelite), bismuth, and bismuthinite, with much
less abundant pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite.
Among the gangue minerals quartz always predominates and is accom­
panied by lithium mica, fluorite, topaz, tourmaline, axinite, and apatite;
more rarely beryl. Specularite, magnetite, and ilmenite are sometimes
present. Siderite is reported from the cassiterite veins, and calcite some­
times appears as one of the very last minerals. On the other hand, the
pyroxenes and amphiboles, as well as magnesium micas and garnets, are
absent. Orthoclase is reported from several localities but does not
assume the form of adularia. Chlorite is occasionally present in con­
siderable amounts. Kaolin and allied hydrous aluminum silicates are
1 H. G. Ferguson and A. M. Bateman, Geologic features of tin deposits, Econ.
Geol, 7, 1912, pp. 209-262.
J. T. Singewald, Jr., Some genetic relations of tin deposits, Econ. Geol., 7, 1912,
pp. 263-279.
W. R. Jones, Tin fields of the world, London, 1925.
644 MINERAL DEPOSITS
often recorded, but are probably products of secondary alteration near
the surface, as are various hydrous arsenates and phosphates.
Cassiterite (Sn02) is the principal ore mineral; it is often well crystal­
lized, sometimes almost transparent, usually zoned in various shades of
brown. Stannite (Cu2FeSnS4) is seldom found in pegmatites and in
the cassiterite veins proper, but is an important ore in certain Bolivian
silver-tin veins. There are also some rarer sulphostannates, like
cylindrite and teallite.
Small quantities of tin, probably as cassiterite, are sometimes con­
tained in pyrite or sphalerite of other classes of veins—for instance, at
Freiberg, Saxony, and at the Sullivan mine, British Columbia.
Cassiterite is extremely resistant to weathering, as shown by its
occurrence in placers. It is held by some authors that the so-called
fibrous tin ore or “ wood tin” which is often found in placers is a product
of alteration of cassiterite, but the question does not seem to be definitely
settled. If secondary, it is probably derived from stannite.
R. Beck gives the following succession of minerals in the cassiterite
veins of Saxony: Molybdenite, lithium mica, quartz and topaz, wolfram­
ite and cassiterite, arsenopyrite, fluorite, apatite, and siderite.
In Cornwall, the general paragenesis is: quartz, mica, tourmaline,
cassiterite, wolframite, stannite, and molybdenite. Or: quartz, chlorite,
fluorite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite. In Bolivia:
quartz, tourmaline, pyrite, arsenopyrite, cassiterite, wolframite, bis-
muthinite, sphalerite.
The tin-bearing veins appear in or near granites (though not all
granites contain them), or in their acidic porphyries, or, occasionally,
in rhyolite. In Bolivia they are found with quartz monzonite and its
porphyries; in Japan with diorite. The tenor of the ores is low, ranging
from 1 to 7 per cent.
Some cassiterite veins contain bismuth, tungsten and copper in
commercial quantities. A little silver and a trace of gold are found
occasionally. In some Bolivian veins silver occurs in important amounts
(p. 579).
PRODUCTION AND USE OF TIN
The world’s production of tin1was 174,000 tons in 1930. This comes
from widely separated countries and is greatly concentrated in certain
localities. Seventy per cent of the tin production is derived from placer
deposits and of this, 60 per cent comes from one remarkable field, the
Malayan province which extends from the Dutch islands off Sumatra
1J. B. Umhau, Summarized data on tin production, Econ. Paper 13, U. S. Bur.
Mines, 1932, 34 pp.
C. W. Merrill, World reserves and resources of tin, Information Circ. 6249,
U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 645
through Malaya and up into Siam and Burma. In 1929, the Dutch East
Indies, from the islands of Banka, Billiton, and Singkep, contributed
30,586 tons, all deposits being owned or controlled by the government.
The Federated Malay States yielded in the same year 67,042 tons, or 37
per cent of the world’s production. Of this, 95 per cent came from
placers. This tin field occupies an area of 200 by 20 miles. Siam yields
7,000 to 9,000 tons, China from 7,000 to 10,000 tons, all from Yunnan
province. Nigeria contributes 10,000 tons. Bolivia, finally, almost
wholly from lode mines, adds annually 30,000 to 45,000 tons, of which
80 per cent comes from six properties.
Other regions are extremely poor in tin. In the whole of North
America the annual production is but a few tons, in spite of many
efforts to encourage the industry. South Africa and Australia yield
a small production.
At first used as an alloy with copper in bronze, tin still finds an exten­
sive use for alloys of many different kinds, but tl.3 principal purpose for
which tin is produced is plating of sheet iron and this again is used prin­
cipally in the canning industry. This industry, one may say, centers in
the United States. Comments on the situation are unnecessary.
The tin fields of the world are being exhausted rapidly. Little, if
any, of the tin used for plating is recovered.
Metasomatic Processes1
General Features.—The tin ores generally appear in distinct fissure
veins or composite lodes; in part they fill open cavities and in such ores
a rough banded structure may appear. Often, however, the fissures are
merely narrow breaks and the ore replaces the adjoining country rock.
In ores of this kind also, a rude banding may result from the accumulation
of tourmaline or cassiterite along lines parallel to the fissure.
The metasomatic alteration is strong and characteristic, resulting in
coarse-grained rocks which contain muscovite, quartz, and topaz or tour­
maline and to which the name greisen is usually applied (Fig. 262).
Where tourmaline takes the place of topaz we may speak of tourmaline
greisen, or luxullianite (Cornwall). Granite, granite porphyry, clay slate,
calcareous shale, limestone, and diabase are affected by this mode of
alteration where they form the country rock of the veins, but the develop­
ment differs in the different rocks. Complete silicification of the wall
rocks is a phase of subordinate importance.
While the total changes in composition of the original rock may be
much less pronounced than in other veins, the metasomatic process is
evidently more intense, pointing to a greater degree of heat and especially
energetic action of mineralizers.
1 Besides the special papers, see l'\ Zirkel, Lehrbueh der Petrographic, 2, 1894,
pp. 118-127.
646 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In granites and porphyries adjoining the more common, or Saxon,
type of veins the feldspars and the brown mica are replaced by quartz,
topaz, and muscovite, in large crystals or foils. Chlorite is sometimes
present. Topaz may also replace quartz grains. Sometimes crystals
or radial aggregates form. Cassiterite appears as an accessory in the
greisen, which spreads out from the fissure plane for a few inches or a few
feet.
The quartz porphyry dikes of Mount Bischoff, in Tasmania, are, in
part, replaced by cassiterite, with much topaz and subordinate tourma­
line. The groundmass is changed to a topaz-quartz aggregate, while the
feldspars are transformed to cassiterite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite,
and fluorite. The quartz phenocrysts remain intact. In the final

F ig . 262.— Thin section of greisen from B anka, derived from granite, g, lithium mica;
q, quartz; z, cassiterite; t, topaz; stippled spots in mica consist of zircon and rutile, sur­
rounded by pleochroic rings. Magnified 45 diam eters. (After R . Beck.)

product quartz and minute crystals of zircon are the only constituents
which have withstood the altering processes. Sideritc appears in places
as a metasomatic product.
Metasomatic Processes in the Deposits of Cornwall.—The Cornwall
granites,1 which consist mainly of quartz, acidic feldspars, muscovite,
and biotite, also carry some tourmaline, topaz, and fluorite. The
greisen along the Cornwall veins consists chiefly of granular quartz and
muscovite, often with aggregates of topaz spreading through the partly
altered feldspars. Fluorite is occasionally present. The albite is more
resistant than orthoclase or perthite. Some of the secondary quartz is
filled with liquid inclusions containing small cubical crystals and mobile
bubbles.
J. S. Flctt, Explan. Sheet 347, Geol. Survey England, 1909.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 647
The elvans, or quartz porphyries, are also altered to quartz, tourma­
line, topaz, and fluorite. Kaolin, where present, appears to be due to a
later process.
The greisen is essentially a vein formation in Cornwall and is not
known to occur in broad masses or in patches either within the granite or
along the contact. The occurrence along the contact is typical of the
tourmaline rock, which, however, in places also appears along the veins.
Tourmalinization is frequently superimposed upon the normal contact-
metamorphic rocks, of which hornfels is the most common. Both
greisen and tourmaline rock are held to have been formed before the
interior of the granite was fully crystallized.
Considerable portions of the granites of Cornwall have been altered by
kaolinization, but Flett believes, with good reason, that this process took
place at a lower temperature than the development of topaz, tourmaline,
and white mica. Kaolinized rocks appear mainly in the central parts of
the granite masses, while the tourmaline rock, usually called "schorl,”
lies mostly along the peripheral parts. The kaolinized portions often
form pipes having rudely circular outlines; the granite is altered to
kaolin, muscovite, and quartz, and the product rarely contains cas-
siterite. The composition differs little from that of the granites. It
seems probable that these kaolin deposits are due to the oxidation of
distinctly later pyritic impregnations, by the action of the liberated sul­
phuric acid on the feldspar and sericite.
Examples of Alteration.—In the following table four sets of analyses
are given showing the composition of fresh and altered wall rocks in Sax­
ony, in New South Wales, in Cornwall, and in Bolivia. If, as seems prob­
able, there has been but little change in the total mass of the alumina, the
analyses are roughly comparable in their present form. Silica has also
remained fairly constant. The additions consist of iron, lithium, tin,
fluorine, and boron, the iron evidently entering in a silicate. Calcium,
of which but little is present, is strongly leached in the rock represented by
analyses IV and VI; the evidence as to magnesia is less conclusive.
Sodium and potassium have both been abstracted, the former more than
the latter.
The composition of a normal greisen from the Erzgebirge, in Saxony,
is, according to Dalmer, as follows: quartz, 50.28; topaz, 12.14; lithium
mica, 36.80; and cassiterite, 0.43 per cent.
Alteration of Sedimentary Rocks.—The alteration of sedimentary
rocks proceeds somewhat differently. In Cornwall, the argillaceous slates
are tourmalinized, forming “ cornubianite” (Fig. 263), the biotite and
muscovite being replaced by that mineral. Andalusite and cordierite
also disappear, but rutile, ilmenite, and magnetite remain. The result is
an aggregate of quartz and tourmaline, which well preserves the original
structure of the rocks. In places tourmaline-albite rocks are formed.
648 MINERAL DEPOSITS
ANALYSES OF GRANITES AND GREISENS DEVELOPED FROM THEM
I II III IV V
VI VII VIII
Si02............ 74.68 70.41 70.17 69.42 76.69 78.47 65.39 63.82
Ti02........... 0.71 0.49 0.41 Trace 0.22 0.48 Notdet.
0.09 a0.49 0.08
ALOj......... 12.73 14.86 15.07 15.65 10.89 11.50 16.15 16.03
Fe20 3......... 1.42 0.88 1.25 0.76 2.64 1.08 None
FeO............ 3.00 5.09 1.79 3.30 0.39 1.05 3.29 8.79
CuO........... 0.50
MnO ___ 0.29 0.12 0.39 Trace
CaO........... 0.09 0.21 1.13 0.63 1.73 Trace 3.07 0.37
MgO.......... 0.35 0.09 1.11 1.02 0.18 0.49 1.87 2.49
K20 ............ 4.64 3.01 5.73 4.06 2.97 1.17 5.35 3.74
Na20 ......... 61.54 0.98 2.69 0.27 5.35 1.99 2.28 None
0.11 0.81
H20 + ( ( 0.70 0.54 0.13 0.23 cl. 13 c4.77
h 2o -S 1 0.18 0.06 0.37 1.17 0.11
p 2o 6........... 0.34 0.40 0.40 0.36
MoS2 ........ 0.80
Cl............... 0.06 Trace
F ................. 3.10 0.15 3.36
S . . 0.04
0.59
trace
Less O for F 100.68 101.75 100.60 100.37
0.07 1.41
Total.... 99.50 100.44 100,61 100.34 99.46 99.81
a As cassiterite 0.43; in mica, chemically combined, 0.06.
6 Including lithia.
c Ignition.
I. Fresh granite, Altenberg, Saxony. K. Dalmer, Explanations to the
section Altenberg-Zinnwald. Geol. map Saxony.
II. Greisen, Altenberg, Saxony. K. Dalmer, idem.
III. Fresh Lamorna granite, Lands End, Cornwall. W. Pollard, analyst.
IV. Greisen, with tourmaline and topaz. St. Michaels Mount, Lands
End, Cornwall. W. Pollard, analyst. Explan. Sheets 351 and 358, Geol.
Survey England.
V. Fresh “acidic granite,” New England, New South Wales. L. A.
Cotton, analyst. Proc., Linnean Soc. N. S. W., 34, pt. 2, 1909, pp. 220-238.
VI. Greisen, cassiterite vein near Inverell, same locality. L. A. Cotton,
analyst. Idem.
VII. Fresh quartz monzonite, Caracoles, Bolivia. Helen Vassar, analyst.
VIII. Altered quartz monzonite close to Llamero vein, same location.
Helen Vassar, analyst.
The calcareous rocks, as well as the greenstones, yield mainly axinite in
large brown crystals, also pyroxene, actinolite, epidote, garnet, sphalerite,
pyrite, apatite, specularite, titanite, and tourmaline, but no topaz.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 649
H. Tronquoy1 describes tin-bearing veins from Villeder, Morbihan,
France, which are accompanied by albitization of granite, without
tourmaline or topaz, while tourmaline develops in adjacent clays late.
The metasomatic development in the sedimentary rocks is of great
interest, for it connects in the closest manner the effects of the ore-bearing
solutions with those in contact-metamorphic deposits. Regarding the

F i g . 2 6 3 . — Veih of quartz, cassiterite, and tourm aline traversing Paleozoic slates, in

which the argillaceous bands are replaced by tourm aline; the siliceous bands in the slate
are not altered. Belowda Beacon, Cornwall. N atural size. (After D. A. MacAlister.)
cassiterite deposits of Alaska and Pitkaranta and their close association
with contact-metamorphism, see page 727.
Origin of Tin-bearing Veins
The occurrence of cassiterite as a primary constituent of granite is
recalled, as well as its occasional appearance in the pegmatitic druses of
granite—for instance, those in Elba described by G. vom Rath.2 We
may further recall the appearance of cassiterite in economic quantities in
pegmatite dikes (p. 760) and its occasional occurrence in base-metal
veins—for instance, in those of Freiberg and in the lower levels of the
Przibram veins. The occurrence of tourmaline in cassiterite veins is also
important in view of the transitions to the chalcopyrite-tourmaline type.
These facts were realized at an early date by A. Daubree and E. de
Beaumont.3 To J. H. L. Vogt4 belongs much credit for his resuscitation
1 Comptes Rendus, 154, 1912, p. 899.
2 G. vom Rath, Zeitschr. deutsch. gcol. Gesell., 1870, p. 646.
3 A. Daubree, Sur le gisement, etc., des amas de minerai d’etain, Ann. des Mines,
3d ser., 20, 1841, and other later papers.
E. de Beaumont, Notes sur les emanations volcaniques et metalliferes, Bull.
Soc. Min. France, 2d ser., 4, 1847, p. 65.
4 J. H. L. Vogt, Zinnstein-Ganggruppe, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1895, pp. 145-156,
and other places.
650 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of these meritorious ideas and the addition of important investigations.
The extensive literature regarding the occurrence of tin deposits has been
summarized by F. L. Hess and L. C. Graton.1
Daubree and de Beaumont argued, from the close association of cassit-
erite veins and acidic granites, that there must be some genetic connection
between them and concluded that the veins were deposited by emanations
from these magmas. This conclusion has been adopted and confirmed
by almost all geologists who have studied these deposits.
The general occurrence of cassiterite in well-defined veins shows
clearly that the granite was consolidated when these fissures were broken,
even if it is probable that the whole granitic intrusion had not congealed
and that liquid magma still existed below the veins. The veins occur
usually either in the center or along the contacts of the granitic masses,
but some of them extend into the adjoining sedimentary rocks. Finally,

F ig . 264.— Ideal section of granite intrusion showing probable developm ent of tin­
bearing veins and the effect of successive erosion levels, a, b, and c; x, m etam orphic aureole;
y, inner lim it of m ineralization. (After Ferguson and Bateman.)
it is clear that the development of these veins cannot be identified with
the contact-metamorphism, for they are distinctly later and their
metasomatic effects are superimposed upon the products of contact-
metamorphism.
The general distribution of tin-bearing veins in relation to an intrusive
mass of granite gradually eroded is shown in the diagram, Fig. 264.
The constant presence of boron and fluorine compounds, as well as
those of phosphorus, in the tin veins is, of course, of the highest impor­
tance. During the short but intense epoch of metallization the tem­
perature must have been high, probably above the critical temperature
of water, and it is usually stated that the deposition took place under
“ pneumatolytic ” conditions. In the absence of exact data as to the
behavior of the solutions at this critical temperature the insistence upon
1 F. L. Hess and L. C. Graton, The occurrence and distribution of tin, Bull. 260,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
F. L. Hess and Eva Hess, Bibliography of the geology and mineralogy of tin,
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 58, No. 2, 1912.
W. R. Jones, Tinfields of the world, London, 1925. Later literature.
 HYPOTIIERMAL DEPOSITS 651
pneumatolysis has, however, little value. Just how much water was
present is problematical; certainly there was some, as shown by the
hydroxyl radicle in muscovite and topaz, by the presence of chlorite and
by the occurrence of aqueous inclusions in quartz crystals. We may
say that the agencies were aqueous solutions.
Daubree’s reaction, inferred as probable from experiments with the
chloride, is as follows:
SnF4 T 2 H 2 O = S11 O2 -h 4HF.
The metasomatic development of topaz has been taken to indicate
that free hydrofluoric acid was active in the solution. We may better
frankly state that at present we are in the dark as to the exact equations
for the reaction. The solutions probably did not contain much chlorine.
Both in Saxony1 and in Cornwall lead-silver veins occur at some
distance from the center of intrusions and the cassiterite veins, and
transitions are also found between them. This would tend to show
that these metals were less easily precipitated and were carried farther
away from their sources than were the tin, tungsten, etc.
The Cassiterite Veins of Cornwall, England
Literature.—An extensive literature exists on the subject of the tin
lodes of Cornwall, for they have been repeatedly studied by geologists
since they were first described in 1839 by H. T. de la Beche, and in 1843 by
W. J. Hen wood. Many articles by J. H. Collins and C. Le Neve Foster
were published about 40 years ago. The deposits have also been studied
by the Geological Survey of England, and the results are published in
a series of memoirs.2
The mining region of Cornwall, known to the ancients for the treasures
of tin which it contained, furnishes one of the most remarkable instances
of the dependence of ore deposits on the distribution of igneous rocks.
The folded Paleozoic slates and sandstones are intruded by four main
granitic batholiths or stocks (Fig. 265), and the tin deposits cluster
1 K. Dalmer, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1894, p. 321.
2 D. A. MacAlister, Geological aspects of the lodes of Cornwall, Econ. Geol., 3,
1908, pp. 363-380.
J. B. Hill, and D. A. MacAlister, Geology of Falmouth and Truro, and the
mining district of Camborne and Redruth, Mem,., Geol. Survey England, Explan.
Sheet 352, 1906.
Usshcr, Flett et al., The geology of Bodmin and St. Austell, idem, Explan. Sheet
347, 1909.
C. Reid and J. S. Flett, The geology of the Lands End district, idem, Explan.
Sheets 351 and 358, 1907.
E. Id. Davison, Mineral association in Cornish tin veins, Mining Mag., 43,
1930, pp. 143-149; The variation in composition of Cornish granites and its relation
to the occurrence of tin lodes, Royal Geol. Soc. Cornwall, 16, 1928, pp. 15-27.
652 MINERAL DEPOSITS
characteristically in the marginal zones of these granitic intrusions, in
both slates and granites. The slates, or killas, as they are locally called,
in part overlie the granite, forming in places the roof of the batholiths.
The intrusion is post-Carboniferous and pre-Triassic in age, and the

F i g . 2 6 5 . — Geological map of the peninsula of Cornwall, England. (After D. A. MacAlister.)

veins were formed shortly after the intrusive activity, probably while
the rocks still remained hot. Before the vein-forming epoch a series of
dikes of granite porphyry (elvans) intersected granite and slate. The
granite is a typical rock of its kind, containing, in order of crystallization,

F i g . 2 6 6 . — D iagram m atic section of the m ain lode at the 300-foot level, Bunny mine,
St. Austell, Cornwall. A, kaolinized granite; B, stanniferous greisen; C, silicified granite;
D, veins of quartz and cassiterite. (After Ussher, Flett, et al.)
zircon, apatite, magnetite, biotite, muscovite, oligoclase, albite, perthite,
and quartz. Tourmaline, topaz, and fluorite are occasional accessories
in the crystallization of the magma.
The tin and copper veins are the older and were followed by a later
though much less important series of veins, containing lead, silver, and
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 653

sometimes also cobalt, nickel, and uranium. A little gold is present, both
in the lead-silver veins and in the cassiterite veins. Many of the veins
are of complex structure and may properly be called lodes. Some of
them are traceable for 2 or 3 miles, or even more. The width of infilled
fissures and altered rocks averages 3.5 feet, but in places, especially in
the slates, reaches 50 feet. The general direction of the veins is northeast.
Stockworks of irregular veinlets also occur. Faulting has taken place
along many of the fissures. The veins are simple or composite (Fig.
266); reopening of fissures was evidently a common phenomenon. The
filling is mainly of quartz, frequently with comb structure and, in the
upper parts of the lodes, also with drusy cavities. Chlorite, fluorite,
scheelite, sphalerite, molybdenite, and bismuthinite are also found in
these veins. Magnetite and specularite are reported, but are rare.
The alteration spreading into the country rock from the fissures
is characteristic and, when effected from a series of closely spaced fissures,
may produce a banded appearance (capel); tourmalinization is the usual
mode of alteration in the granite, resulting in an aggregate of tourmaline

5_______ H_______ H_______ %________ 1 Mile

F ig . 2G7.— Section from Feltrick to New N orth Pool, Cornwall, showing relation of granite
and slate and the lodes intersecting them . (After H ill and MacAlister.)

and quartz. In calcareous rocks or greenstones the altered zone along

the veins contains axinite, pyroxene, garnet, and some tourmaline.
In the slates the lodes often contain much crushed and brecciated
material; sometimes cassiterite and tourmaline following bedding planes
impregnate the slates for some distance on both sides of the lode. On
the whole the copper ores are confined to the lodes in the slates. Where
the lodes break into the granite, the tin ore makes its appearance (Fig.
267).
The main lode of the Dolcoath and Carn Brea contained copper
ores down to a depth of 1,000 feet, mainly in the slates. Below this
depth the tin ore predominated and was worked until recently at a
depth of 3,000 feet. According to Hill and MacAlister, the lode at
the bottom of the mine is 42 feet wide and contains 1 to 3 per cent of
cassiterite. The lodes of Wheal Yor were of enormous value in the
killas, but proved worthless in the granite. At the Great Work mine,
not far distant, these relations were reversed. The great ore-shoots of
654 MINERAL DEPOSITS
both mines plunge eastward approximately parallel to the subterranean
contact surface of the granite.
Cassiterite Veins of Saxony1
Saxony and the adjacent part of Bohemia contain several tin-produc­
ing districts, the ores occurring in or near granites of post-Carboniferous
age. The deposits are now of little importance, but have an interesting
place in the history of ore deposits.
At Altenberg the ores occur in a stockwork, about 3,000 feet in
diameter, of small veins cutting across the granite and the adjacent, older
granite porphyry; the whole mass of rock is altered to a greisen, containing
a little cassiterite and arsenopyrite. The characteristic minerals
occurring in the veinlets are quartz, bismuth, bismuthinite, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, molybdenite, sphalerite, wolframite, fluorite, tetrahedrite,

F i g . 2 6 8 . — Diagram m atic section of vein a t Zinnwald, Saxony, g, granite; or, greisen;

q, quartz; l, lithium mica; z, cassiterite; w, wolfram ite; f, fluorite; sch, scheelite. (After
R. Beck.)
magnetite, and specularite. The ore, according to Dalmer, continued
only to a depth of about 700 feet.
At Zinnwald the veins are likewise in granite, which with flat contact
breaks through quartz porphyry. The numerous fissures are approxi­
mately parallel to the contact, and the veins are formed mainly by filling,
sometimes with excellent banded structure by the development of mica
1 The older literature includes the papers by B. v. Cotta, H. Muller, E. Reyer,
and A. W. Stelzner.
R. Beck, Einige Beobachtungen im Gebiete der Altenberg-Zinnwalder Zinnerz-
lagerstatten, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1896, pp. 148-150.
K. Dalmer, Der Altenberg-Graupener Zinnerzlagerstattendistrikt, Zeitschr.
prakt. Geol., 1894, pp. 313-322; see also idem, 1895, p. 228; 1896, p. 1; 1897, p. 265;
1900, p. 297.
J. T. Singcwald, Jr., The Erzgebirge tin deposits, Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 166-177;
265-272.
 UYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 655
next to the wall; they contain a considerable amount of wolframite
(hiibnerite), besides the usual accompanying minerals (Fig. 268).
Bolivia1
An important tin belt passes through Bolivia from southeast to
northwest, along the high, eastern Cordillera Real. This imposing range,
which towards the south turns into a deeply dissected plateau, is built
of Silurian and Devonian clay slates with some quartzite; these are
folded and faulted but not highly altered but are intruded by stocks
of quartz monzonite (p. 580) in the Illimani and Quimsa Cruz sections.
A little farther south extends the silver-tin area centering around Potosi,
Oruro, Lake Poopo, Chocaya, and other districts, in which the deposits
are connected with intrusive quartz monzonite porphyries and rhyolitic
or dacitic flows (p. 580). The veins which carry tin only have not been
worked until comparatively recently, while the silver mines have been
worked since about 1550.
The relations of the tin veins are best illustrated in the Cordillera
Quimsa Cruz, southward from La Paz. At Caracoles the quartz mon­
zonite contains a great number of replacement veins carrying much
tourmaline, with quartz and cassiterite and scant sulphides. The width
of the veins ranges up to 15 feet, usually it is less. Filling is subordinate.
The ore-shoots appear to extend horizontally. The paragenesis is chlorite
and sericite (oldest), tourmaline, apatite, quartz, cassiterite (wolframite),
pyrite, sphalerite, bismuthinite, quartz, ankerite, and pyrite.
The country rock is altered to a varying distance from the vein, and
the minerals formed in it are chlorite, sericite, tourmaline, and a little
cassiterite (for analyses see p. 648). The altered rock is not exactly a
greisen, though the chemical changes tend in the direction of greiseniza-
tion, with introduction of magnesia and iron, a process which, as explained
above, is normal for many hypothermal veins.
1 W. R. Rumbold, The origin of the Bolivian tin deposits, Econ. Geol., 4, 1909, pp.
321-364.
M. Armas, Ann. des Mines, 10th ser., 20, 1911, pp. 149-213.
W. Mvron Davy, Ore deposition in the Bolivian tin-silver deposits, Econ. Geol.,
15, 1920, p. 463.
W. Lindgren, Replacement in the tin-bearing veins of Caracoles, Econ. Geol.
21, 1926, pp. 135-144.
F. R. Iioeberlin, Eng. and Min. Jour.-Press, April 17 and Nov. 20, 1926 (second­
ary enrichment).
E. Kittl, La Cordillera de Quimsa Cruz y sus yacimientos estanniferos, Revista
minera, Oruro, 2, 1927, pp. 65-80, 97-120.
R. Pilz and M. Donath, Betrachtungen uber die Entstelmng der Eruptivgcsteine
und Erzlagerstiitten des andinen Bolivien, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 37, 1929, pp. 125-138.
F. Ahlfeld, The tin ores of Uncia-Llallagua, Econ. Geol., 26, 1931, pp. 241-527.
E. S. Turneaure (Llallagua), Econ. Geol. 30, 1935, pp. 14-66, 170-190.
656 MINERAL DEPOSITS
In the Paleozoic slates, which surround this intrusive mass, is found
an aureole of other tin deposits in which there is much less tourmaline
and in which filling becomes more prominent. In none of these ores is
there any notable amount of gold and silver. Bismuthinite is almost
always present. Among these are the celebrated Araca veins which
contain quartz, cassiterite, and a certain amount of sulphides. The
cassiterite is often transparent and beautifully crystallized. Other
notable veins occur at Chojnacota and at Monte Blanco; in the latter
place cassiterite replaces quartzite. At Uncia and Llallagua, 250 kilo­
meters southeast of Caracoles, are at present the most productive lode
deposits of tin in the world, yielding about 20,000 tons of tin per annum.
The veins occur in slate cut by a small stock of dacite-porphyry. The
principal minerals are tourmaline, quartz, arsenopyrite, wolframite,
pyTrhotite, siderite, and pyrite. There is said to be a tourmaline zone
in depth and an upper zone of sulphides and sulphosalts. The zone of
oxidation is about 1,000 feet deep. Below this there are much vivianite,
wavellite, and other phosphates. It has been stated that 2,000 feet
seems to be the depth limit for commercial ore. The grade is said to be
about 4 per cent Sn.
At Chacaltaya, near La Paz, are veins in slate containing some tourma­
line, lepidolite, fluorite, cassiterite, and pyrite. Stannite is generally
absent from the veins described above.
For the silver-tin veins, see page 579.
Tin Deposits in Other Countries
United States.—Few cassiterite veins are found in the United States
and none of them are of great value. A vein in granite has been worked
near El Paso, Texas, on the east side of the Franklin Mountains.1 Some
low-grade veins occur in the Temescal Mountains, near Riverside, Cali­
fornia.2 The tin-bearing deposits of the Black Hills of South Dakota
are pegmatite dikes. Pegmatites and also a few quartz veins with cas­
siterite occur in the Appalachian region.3 The tin deposits of Alaska are
described on page 727.
Tasmania. 4—The principal tin deposits of Tasmania are those of
Mount Bischoff, where schists are intruded by dikes of granite porphyry,
1 G. B. Richardson, Tin in the Franklin Mountains, Bull. 235, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1906, pp. 146-149.
2 H. W. Fairbanks, The tin deposits of Temescal, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 4,
1897, pp. 39-42.
3L. C. Graton, Reconnaissance of some gold and tin deposits of the southern
Appalachians, Bull. 293, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
4 W. von Fircks, Die Zinnerzlagerstatten des Mount Bischoff, Zeitschr. deutsch.
geol. Gesell., Bd. 51, Heft 3, 1899, pp. 431-465.
J. G. Weston-Dunn, Econ. Geol., 17, 1922, pp. 153-193 (Mt. Bischoff).
W. H. Twelvetrees and L. K. Ward, Bull. 8, Geol. Survey Tasmania, 1910.
H. Couder, Bull. 26, idem, 1918, pp. 1-96.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 657

both rocks being rich in metasomatic tourmaline and topaz. The whole
forms a weathered mass of rock traversed by cassiterite veins—a stock-
work, large portions of which averaged 2 to 3 per cent tin. Magnetite,
fluorite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, wolframite, and siderite are mentioned as
accompanying minerals.
The tin-bearing district of Zeehan, in northwestern Tasmania, con­
tains deposits of various kinds which appear to show an unusually com­
plete series of transitions. Silurian sediments are intruded by granite.
There is a gradation from cassiterite veins, with tourmaline, in granite,
to contact-metamorphic deposits, containing copper, lead, and zinc, in
which cassiterite has been found, and from these to normal banded veins
containing pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and stannite, and finally to
galena-siderite veins. In other words, the gradation is one from high-
temperature deposits to those formed in the cooler zone with a cor­
responding change of minerals deposited.
Malaya. 1—A tin-bearing province of the greatest importance extends
from the Dutch islands off Sumatra (Banka, Billiton and Singkep)
through the Malayan states up into Siam and Burma. While the
production is chiefly from placer deposits (p. 645), there are also primary
deposits of great value, which range from disseminations in granite to
pegmatites and pipes and finally to normal cassiterite veins. Much
geological work has been done in this province, and at times opinions have
clashed severely. Scrivenor's pioneer work is the outstanding feature.
From the somewhat conflicting evidence we may pick out the follow­
ing as the most probable geologic history: A thick series of cliff-forming
Permo-Carboniferous limestone is overlain by Triassic schistose sedi­
ments; both are intruded by Mesozoic granite; the placers occur in recent
and high level alluvial beds. The lode deposits which yield but little
production in proportion to the alluvials are veins, apparently of normal
type. Most prominent among these are the Pahang Consolidated Mines,
which, as W. R. Jones states, is the fourth largest tin mine of the world
and which yields about 1,600 tons of tin annually.
1 R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., The tin deposits of the Malay Peninsula, Jour. Geol., 2,
1903, pp. 135-154.
J. B. Scrivenor, The geology and mining industry of the Kinta district, Kuala
Lumpur, 1913. The Lahat pipe in Perak, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. (London), 65, 1909,
pp. 382-389. The topaz-bearing rocks of Gunong Bakau, idem, 70, 1914, pp. 363-381.
J. B. Scrivenor and W. R. Jones, The geology of South Perak, Kuala Lumpur,
1919.
W. R. Jones, Tin fields of the world, London, 1925.
E. S. Willbourn, The Beatrice mine, Mining Mag., December, 1931; January,
1932.
R. H. Rastall, The geology of the Kinta Valley, Mining Mag., June, 1927.
R. D. M. Verbeek, Ueber die Zinnerzlagerstatten von Bangka und Billiton,
Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1899, pp. 134-136.
C. T. Groothoff, De primaire Tinersafsettingen van Billiton, Dissert., Delft,
1916.
658 MINERAL DEPOSITS
There is also more or less contact metamorphism at the granite con­
tacts, but these pyrometasomatic deposits contain little tin.
Japan.—Takeo Kato1 describes tin veins from Akenobe, where Paleo­
zoic schists are intruded by diorite. The veins are argentiferous copper
ores with small crystals of cassiterite and wolframite. There is a con­
siderable tin production. The structure of the veins is crustified, and the
paragenesis is as follows: (1) cassiterite; (2) wolframite and cassiterite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite. Colloform deposition of quartz, chalcedony,
and cassiterite is noted. The country rock is chloritized, sideritized, and
silicified. Fluorite is present. The similarity to Chocaya, Bolivia, is
striking.
The Cassiterite Pipes
It remains to discuss the peculiar forms of chimneys and pipes which
are sometimes assumed by cassiterite deposits. It must be confessed
that their place in the system of classification is uncertain. They are in
places connected with pegmatites; in other places they recall contact-
metamorphic mineralization.
Such roughly cylindrical pipes are described from New South Wales.2
They occur in granite and are essentially highly altered rock with dissemi­
nated cassiterite. Similar veins or pipes of cassiterite, accompanied by
specularite, tourmaline, sulphides, and siderite are found in the quartzite
of the Rooiberg district in the Transvaal.3 The pipes in the Kinta
Valley, Federated Malay States (p. 657) are contained in limestone.
J. B. Scrivenor and E. S. Willbourn have described many of these, the
latest publication being that discussing the Beatrice mine (c/. footnotes,
p. 657). The pipes occur in crystalline Permo-Carboniferous dolomitic
limestone, close to granite. They are vertical or steep, and have no defi­
nite walls. Their mode of formation is compared to that of a jet of steam
projected against a block of ice. They have been mined to depths of
many hundred feet and the ore is usually rich. They contain much
arsenopyrite, tremolite, cassiterite, fluorite, calcite, and a hydrated borate
mineral. There is not much quartz.
These pipes bring to mind the similar, though smaller pipes or tubes of
Orijarvi, Finland, described by Triistedt4 and Liesegang.5
1 A contribution to the knowledge of cassiterite veins, Publ. Imp. Univ. Tokyo,
43, Oct. 5, 1926.
2L. A. Cotton, The tin deposits of New England, N. S. W., Proc., Linnean Soc.
N. S. W., 34, 1909, pp. 733-781.
3 H. Kynaston and E. T. Mellor, The geology of the Waterberg tin field, Mem. 4,
Transvaal Gcol. Survey, 1909.
4 O. Triistedt, Die Erzlagerstiitten von Pitkiiranta, Bull. Comm. Geol. de Finlande,
19, 1907.
5 R. E. Liesegang, Gcologische Diffusionen, 1913, pp. 186.
A. Knopf, Bull. 358, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 659
Cassiterite in Rhyolite Flows
Some of the Bolivian tin-silver veins occur in acidic effusive rocks
(Chocaya), but these are of normal epithermal type. The deposits here to
be described are found in rhyolite flows and have certain very peculiar
characteristics, but so far have no economic importance. They are, it
is believed, a sort of exudation deposit, having no deep connections, and
have been formed directly from the residual solutions in local shear zones
immediately after the consolidation of the flows. They evidently develop
at high temperatures and low pressure. It may be recalled that topaz is
sometimes found in lithophysae in rhyolite, indicating a retention of
certain volatile constituents until consolidation of the flows.
The mineral association is wood-tin, and concretionary cassiterite with
opal, chalcedony, and specularite, rarely as in Mexico, with some wolfram­
ite and bismuth minerals; the veinlets have finely developed colloform
structure.1 Occurrences of this kind have been described from Mexico,12
Nevada,3 and New Mexico.4 To judge from specimens received, they
are also found occasionally in the acidic flow rocks of Bolivia.
W O L F R A M IT E V E IN S

Wolframite, including the tungstate of iron (ferberite, FeW04) and

the tungstate of manganese (hiibnerite, MnW04), has a field of occurrence
similar to that of cassiterite. It appears in igneous rocks, in pegmatites,
in cassiterite veins, and sometimes, with quartz and bismuth minerals, in
veins which are evidently of the deep-seated type and allied to the tin
veins. When cassiterite and wolframite occur together the latter is
apparently always the later mineral. But wolframite also appears
abundantly in veins formed under much more moderate temperature
and pressure—for instance, in those of Boulder County, Colorado (p. 596).
Small quantities of hiibnerite are found in epithermal veins, as in those
of Tonopah, Nevada, and Cripple Creek, Colorado. The principal
production in the United States formerly came from Boulder County,
Colorado, but now comes mainly from contact-metamorphic deposits
(p. 728) in Nevada and California.
1 W. H. Newhousc and M. J. Buerger, Observations on wood-tin nodules, Econ.
Geol., 23, 1928, pp. 185-192.
2 W. R. Ingalls, The tin deposits of Durango, Mexico, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 25, 1896, pp. 146-163; 27, 1898; E. Halse, idem, 29, 1900, pp. 502-511; E.
Wittieh, Zinnerze in der Sierra von Guanajuato, Zeilschr. prakl. Geol., 1910, pp.
121-123.
3 A. Knopf, Tin ore in northern Lander Co., Nevada, Bull. 640, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1916, pp. 125-138.
4 J. M. Hill, The Mount Taylor tin deposits, New Mexico, Bull. 725, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1922, pp. 347-359.
660 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Wolframite veins of the deep-seated type have been described from
the Deer Park district,1 in Washington, and from Sauce12 in the Sierra
de Cordova, Argentina. They also occur in Portugal. Wolframite
lodes of great importance have been developed in the Tavoy district,
Lower Burma,3 where they occur in granite and metamorphic schist and
contain in addition quartz, mica, (tourmaline), pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite,
pyrite, bismuthinite, and galena. At the same place wolframite is also
recovered from eluvial deposits. In 1916, the mines of Lower Burma
produced about 3,000 tons of wolframite concentrates, or about one-third
of the annual world production. In 1928, production had decreased to
843 tons. The crude ore is said to average 1.3 per cent W 03per ton.
Scheelite (CaW04) is the second important tungsten mineral. It is
rather widespread in mesothermal gold-quartz veins, and is present in
hypothermal tin-tungsten deposits. It is most common in certain
contact-metamorphic ores.
Tungsten is used mainly for high-speed tool steel, the alloy ferro-
tungsten being first produced. The price for concentrates with 60
per cent W 03 was about $400 in 1910; in 1918, under war conditions,
$1,500; in 1932, about $500; all per short ton. After the World War, the
prices crumbled and for several years there was scarcely any demand for
the ores. During war times Bolivia4 (from tin-tungsten veins) and
China (from placers) were the outstanding producers.
G O L D -Q U A R T Z V E IN S

Gold-bearing veins of a deep-seated type are found in many regions

in the pre-Cambrian and earliest Paleozoic rocks of the American conti­
nent. They appear in the gold belt of the Appalachian states, mainly
from Maryland to Alabama; at various places in the Western states,
particularly in South Dakota and New Mexico; in Ontario and Quebec;
and finally in Brazil, in India, and in Rhodesia.
The Veins of the Southern Appalachians5
The placer deposits of the southern Appalachians have, since their
discovery, about 1800, yielded gold estimated at $30,000,000. The veins
1 Howland Bancroft, Bull. 430, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, pp. 214-216.
2 Bodenbender, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 1894, pp. 409-414.
3 A. W. G. Bleeck, Records, Geol. Survey India, 43, pt. 1, 1913, pp. 48-73.
J. Coggin Brown and A. M. Heron, Records, Geol. Survey India, 50, pt. 2,
1919, pp. 101-121; abs., Mining Mag., 22, 1920, pp. 241-243.
W. R. Jones, Tin fields of the world, London, 1925. On the relative occurrence
in depth of tin and tungsten ore. Trans., Inst. Min. and Met. (London), 1920; Mining
Mag., 22, 1920, pp. 371-375; 376-378.
4 G. L\ J. Prcumont, Eng. and Min. Jour.-Press, April 5, 1919.
5 G. I1'. Becker, Gold fields of the southern Appalachians, Sixteenth Ann. Rept.,
II. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1895, pp. 250-331.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 661

from which the placers were derived proved less productive, though they
have been profitably worked at many places in North and South Carolina,
cat Dahlonega and the Franklin mine in Georgia, and at the Hogback
mine in Alabama. All the deposits are not of the deep-seated type; there
are some which approach the mesothermal gold-quartz veins. Others,
like those described by Taber from Virginia, seem to be related to peg­
matite dikes. The veins are contained in crystalline rocks, usually
more or less schistose, which prove to be granites and quartz monzonites,
intrusive into mica schists, clay slates, altered volcanic tuffs, and amphib­
olites. The age of the intrusives and veins is probably early Paleozoic.
Structurally the deposits may be classed as fissure veins and replace­
ment deposits in schists. The veins are in general of the so-called len­
ticular type, illustrated in Fig. 49, in which the quartz lenses, which
collectively constitute the veins, lie parallel to the foliated structure.
In detail the lenses often cut across the schistosity and are sometimes of
irregular form. Sharply defined veins cutting across the schistosity also
occur. The quartz is massive, without banded or drusy structure. The
replacement deposits form irregular bodies of silicified and pyritic schist;
the deposit worked by the Haile gold mine is the most prominent example
of this class. The ores form more or less regular shoots, often also
pockets, and are in general of low grade; pyritic ore containing $2 per
ton has been successfully treated at the Haile mine; many shoots, how­
ever, average much higher, sometimes $15 or $20 per ton. Free gold is
generally, but by no means always, present below the zone of oxidation.
Quartz, often glassy and semi-transparent, is the principal gangue
mineral and may be accompanied by calcite, dolomite, apatite, chlorite,
ilmenite, magnetite, tourmaline, albite, and sometimes zinc spinel
(gahnite) and garnet. The ore minerals are free gold, pyrite, arseno-
pyrite, pyrrhotite, molybdenite, more rarely galena, sphalerite, and
chalcopyrite. Enargite, tetradymite, altaite, and nagyagite are recorded,
but are rare. The pyrite is always the oldest sulphide, and the gold fills
minute fractures in it, or in the quartz.
The metasomatic alteration of the wall rock shows considerable
variations. The most intense action is shown by some quartz-tourmaline
veins; the adjoining amphibolite is altered to garnet, tourmaline, and
H. B. C. Nitze, Bull. 10, North Carolina Geol. Survey, 1897.
L. C. Graton and W. Lindgren, Reconnaissance of some gold and tin deposits,
etc., Bull. 293, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
H D. McCaskey, Gold, etc., in the Eastern States, Mineral Resources, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 645-681 (with literature).
F. B. Laney, The Gold Hill mining district, Bull. 21, North Carolina Geol.
Survey, 1910.
Stephen Taber, Geology of the gold belt in the James River basin, Bull. 7,
Virginia Geol. Survey, 1913.
662 MINERAL DEPOSITS
magnetite.1 In some of the Dahlonega veins the included amphibolite,
as well as the adjacent wall rock, is altered to well-developed crystals
of pale-red garnet and a dark-green mica. The garnets contain visible
gold; the quartz itself contains pyrite, pyrrhotite, galena, and chalcopy-
rite.2 This mode of alteration is much like that noted in the rocks
adjacent to the pegmatite dikes of the same region.
In other veins a chestnut-brown biotite is the only mineral resulting
from metasomatic alteration; in places both muscovite, in comparatively
large foils, and biotite are present, sometimes with calcite or dolomite,
besides more or less pyrite or pyrrhotite. Amphibolite is the most
easily attacked of the various kinds of country rock. The alteration of
granite is usually slight.
The replacement bodies are generally in the acidic schist derived from
volcanic fragmental rocks; these are extensively silicified and contain
also both sericite and biotite as products of alteration.
The Gold-Quartz Veins of Ontario3
Since 1915 the gold production of the United States has diminished
from a maximum of $100,000,000 to about half that amount. On the
other hand a great increase has taken place in Canada since 1910, the
output reaching 3,050,600 fine ounces in 1932, which is about 63 million
dollars (United States currency).4 Of this, about 80 per cent now comes
from Ontario, principally from the Porcupine and Kirkland Lake districts.5
1L. C. Graton, op. cit., p. 47.
2 W. Lindgren, op. cit., pp. 126-127.
3 A. H. Means, Tourmaline-bearing gold-quartz veins of the Michipicoten district,
Ontario, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 122-135.
H. S. Robinson, Geology of the Pearl Lake area, Porcupine district, Ontario,
Econ. Geol, 18, 1923, pp. 753-771.
A. G. Burrows, The Porcupine gold area, Ann. Rept., Ontario Dept. Mines,
33, pt. 2, 1925.
E. Y. Dougherty, Mode of formation of Porcupine quartz veins, Econ. Geol., 20,
1925, pp. 660-670. Explains the quartz as deposited by a combination of filling and
replacement. Mining geology of the Vipond gold mine, Quebec meeting, Canadian
Inst. Min. and Met., 1934, pp. 25.
A. G. Burrows and P. E. Hopkins, The Kirkland lake gold area, Ann. Rept.
Ont. Dept. Mines, 32, pt. 4, 1925. Reports on many other districts are published
by the Ontario Dept, of Mines.
J. B. Tyrrell and R. B. Hore, The Kirkland Lake fault, Proc., Royal Soc. Canada,
20, Sec. 4, 1926.
T. L. Gledhill, Ann. Rept., Ontario Dept. Mines, 36, pt. 2, 1927.
E. W. Todd, Kirkland Lake gold area, Ann. Rept., Ontario Dept. Mines, 37, pt. 2,
1928.
L. C. Graton and H. E. McKinstry, Outstanding features of Hollinger geology,
Bull, Can. Min. Met., 249, 1933, pp. 1-20.
4 There is a premium on gold in Canada because (since 1931) of the decline of
Canadian dollars measured by United States currency; therefore, production is best
stated in ounces.
5S. D. Strauss, The cost of producing gold, Eng. Min. Jour., July, 1932, pp.
368-370.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 663
The pre-Cambrian gold deposits, widely scattered in Ontario, seem to
be most productive in the central part of the province. Beginning in
Quebec, they range toward the west through Rouyn, Kirkland Lake,
Larder Lake, Abitibi, Porcupine, Matachewan, Swayze township, Michi-

s
£5
to

o
o
lO

oe
10

picoten, Goudreau, Lake of the Woods, Rainy Lake, Red Lake, and
Rice Lake, the last in Manitoba.
The most common type is represented by quartz veins with little
gold and scant sulphides, tourmaline, ankerite, pyrrhotite, and occa­
sionally tellurides. Alteration of country rock is marked by develop­
ment of sericite, carbonates, biotite, and tourmaline.
664 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The second type is represented by the Kirkland Lake veins which
carry quartz, native gold, no tourmaline, and scant sulphides. They
are related to the mesothermal veins.
The third type, represented by the Rouyn deposits, shows lenses or
veins with much pyrite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite, sometimes mag­
netite and native gold (see p. 687 under Gold-Copper Deposits).
A distinct and peculiar magnesian metasomatism with minerals
like chlorite, cordierite, gedrite, and other amphiboles accompanies this
third type.
The fourth, more rare, type carries gold in arsenopyrite.
The most important deposits occur in folded synclines of Keewatin
greenstone and lavas, and of Timiskaming sediments. Genetically,

F ig . 270.— Section of Hollinger vein system looking northeast. (A fter A . G. Burrows.)

they are probably connected with post-Timiskaming and pre-Bruce
intrusives of granite, quartz-monzonite, and syenites.
At various places there appear, also in the Keewatin greenstone,
large hypothermal lenses of sulphide ores carrying copper and zinc with
a little gold. Of these the Sherritt Gordon and the Mandy in Manitoba
are well known examples (see p. 687 under Gold-Copper Deposits).
The Porcupine is the outstanding district. From 1910 to 1932 the
production from this district amounted to over $300,000,000, the
principal mines being the Hollinger, the Dome, the McIntyre, and
the Vipond. Since 1910, the Hollinger has produced 60 per cent of the
figure mentioned. In 1926, the mine yielded $14,800,000 from nearly
2,000,000 tons of ore averaging $7.64. Since then the annual production
has declined to about $10,000,000. There is very little silver in the ore.
 HYPOTJIERMAL DEPOSITS 665
Most of the mines use the cyanide process preceded by fine grinding.
Amalgamation is generally abandoned. Some of the new mills have
introduced flotation with cyaniding of the re-ground concentrates.
The depth reached in the Hollinger mine is 3,800 feet. The Hollinger
mine is working a complex vein system (Figs. 269 and 270) which is
enclosed in a thick series of successive flows of Keewatin lavas, in part
schistose, which vary from andesite to basalt, sometimes separated by
graphitic (sedimentary?) bands. The whole series together with the
overlying Timiskaming greywacke and conglomerate is folded in an
east-pitching syncline. The Keewatin is intruded by “ quartz-por­
phyry,” which L. C. Graton thinks is intruded earlier than the Timiskam­
ing sedimentation. The veins generally avoid the quartz porphyry.

F ig . 271.— A , drawing of polished section of ore from the 800-foot level, Lake Shore
mine, K irkland Lake, showing’ gold (black) deposited on pyrite (P) and quartz (Q). M agni­
fied 87 diam eters. (A fter E . W . Todd.) B, Drawing of thin section showing native gold
deposited in crushed gold-quartz, Rea vein, Porcupine. Black spots are native gold.
Magnified 30 diam eters. (A fter A . G. Burrows.)
The outlying intrusions are of quartz monzonite, and the veins are
considered post-Timiskaming and later than the general folding. The
quartz monzonite may have yielded the magmatic emanations which
produced the veins.
The veins contain, besides predominating quartz, ankerite, albite,
tourmaline, and clinozoisite. Metallic minerals are gold (in both quartz
and metasomatic country rock), pyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, galena
and sphalerite, scheelite, molybdenite, and some tellurides (sylvanite,
petzite, hessite, and altaite). The sulphides are present in scant amounts.
The altered country rock contains much pyrite, carbonates, and
sericite; an analysis gives, for example, in per cent, Si02, 28.96; Al20 :t,
16.89; FeO, 4.83; CaO, 7.97; MgO, 3.34; K20, 3.62; Na20, 1.12; C02,
11.04; H20, 1.79; FeS2, 20.36 (Burrows). The leaching of Na20 is
not so complete as is usual in the California districts, but otherwise the
metasomatic processes are similar. The gold values are fairly evenly
divided between quartz and altered rock. Much of it is so fine that it
666 MINERAL DEPOSITS
can not be recovered by panning or amalgamation. According to some
authors, the coarser gold is deposited in the crushed quartz and seems to
be distinctly later than the earlier quartz mineralization (Fig. 271).
Graton says, however, that the distribution of the gold is not controlled
by late fracturing or by deformation of the vein walls, but by the dis­
tribution of pyrite and ankerite.
The prevailing structure is lenticular (Fig. 272); sometimes, indeed,
the veins appear corrugated and folded.

F ig . 272.— A and B, photographs of veins in Hollinger mine, O ntario. (A fter A. G.

B urrow s.)
The development of the quartz by a combination of filling and replace­
ment was advocated by Dougherty (1925). Graton and McKinstry say
that
the striking complexity of vein shapes is ascribed to the effect of fracturing stresses
on rock material already highly complex structurally, and to selective replace­
ment of contorted beds rather than to important deformation of the quartz
veins after they were formed. Minor faulting is the only post-vein disturbance.
They appear to believe that much of the quartz replaces an early ankerite
which originally replaced the folded country rock. So proceeds the
dispute between replacement and filling, already referred to in the
description of the California quartz veins, with, as yet, no quite con­
vincing conclusions. It must be pointed out, however, that it is a little
difficult to account for a carbonate-pyrite-sericite alteration of the
country rock and a simultaneous silicification of other parts of the
country rock, as the two are separated by sharp boundaries.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 667

The other outstanding district is Kirkland Lake. Since 1913, it

has produced about $120,000,000, United States currency, the output
rising rapidly. In 1932, the production reached about $22,000,000. The
principal mines are the Lake Shore (which now exceeds the Hollinger in
production), the Teck-Hughes, the Wright-Hargreaves, the Sylvanite,
and the Kirkland Lake Gold.
The metallurgical process used is cyanidation, followed by fine grind­
ing of tailings, flotation, and cyaniding. The presence of tellurides
complicates the process; free gold is often visible in the ore. The ores
of the district contain from $12 to $15 per ton.

F ig . 273.— Gold-quartz vein, Goudreau, O ntario, w ith dark bands of tourm aline. (A fter
T . L . Gledhill.)

The Kirkland Lake shaft has reached 5,000 feet (Fig. 274). In the
Lake Shore mine the deepest shaft is 3,800 feet, but 2,800 feet is the
present deepest working level. In 1932, the Lake Shore produced about
50,000 fine ounces per month.
The Kirkland Lake deposits are contained in a synclinal belt of
Timiskaming conglomerates, tuffs, and graywacke, intruded by syenitic
rocks of varying acidity; the more basic facies is called “ lamprophyre.”
The syenites are not schistose, but the Timiskaming rocks are slightly
schistose in places. There are no Keewatin rocks in the district.
The veins, entirely different from those of the Porcupine district,
are simply bodies of quartz filling fractures in and partly replacing the
country rock along a faulted zone—the “ main break.” The faults
follow a remarkably straight line for 2 ^ miles striking N.65°W. The
best ore is associated with the north fault, along which a reverse dis­
668 MINERAL DEPOSITS
placement of about 2,000 feet has taken place (Fig. 274). This shows
in the Kirkland Lake, the Teck-
Hughes, the Lake Shore, and the
Wright-Hargreaves mines. The
dip is steep to the south. There
are also barren cross faults some
of which carry calcite and barite.
The main fault planes are gener­
ally surrounded by subsidiary
fractures and brecciated struc­
tures over a width from 5 to 100
feet which are occupied by quartz,
in part replacing, in part filling.
There is often a gouge along “the
main break.” Ore-shoots are
found in all rocks traversed by
the veins.
The alteration of the country
rock, though widespread, is not
intense, the new minerals con­
sisting of quartz, calcite and
other carbonates, (chlorite),
albite, and sericite, probably also
some adularia. Tourmaline is
reported but is very scarce. The
ore consists mainly of altered
country rock with quartz string­
ers. Fragments and masses of
unaltered orthoclase are often
seen in the ore which occurs in
syenite or porphyry.
The quartz was the first
gangue mineral to form. Most
of the metallic minerals are con­
fined to fractures in quartz and
country rock and consist of scant
molybdenite, pyrite, chalcopyrite,
tellurides, and gold. The gold
is the latest mineral. There is
not more than 2 per cent of
sulphides in the ore. Altaite and
F ig . 274.— Vertical section of K irkland Lake calaverite are the most common
gold mine. (A fter J . B . Tyrrell.)
tellurides, but there is also colora-
doite and petzite, irregularly distributed. Todd presents many analyses
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 669

of altered country rock, which, in general, indicate a strong introduc­

tion of carbonates. The relation between soda and potash is not
consistently or strongly changed.
The veins are undoubtedly of mesothermal type. There is no trace
of zoning. The veins will probably continue to much greater depths.
In some districts, e.g., Larder Lake, the carbonatization of basic rocks
has often resulted in large masses of coarsely crystalline products con­
sisting of ankerite and bright-green mariposite (chromium mica). This
altered rock, which appears to occupy considerable areas, is often cut by
quartz veins and is remarkably similar to certain rocks along the Mother
Lode in California, which have resulted from the alteration of serpentine.
In places, for instance, at the Rice Lake veins, Manitoba, biotite has
developed in the country rock.
The Pre-Cambrian Gold Veins of the Cordilleran Region
It has already been explained that of the pre-Cambrian veins, many,
though not all, suggest formation at high temperature. The veins occur
in the pre-Cambrian rocks of southern Wyoming,1 at Atlantic and South
Pass; also at Cherry Creek, Yavapai County, Arizona;12many veins in the
pre-Cambrian of southwestern Arizona belong to this type. They
usually carry more or less tourmaline.
The Black Hills of South Dakota3contain many gold-bearing deposits
in the pre-Cambrian rocks. They occur, as a rule, in clay slates of
sedimentary origin, not far from massive intrusive granites, also of pre-
Cambrian age, and, while some of them are true veins with glassy quartz
and free gold, others are lenticular bodies of highly altered rock. The
best known among the latter is the Homestake lode at Lead. For many
years the Homestake mine has been a regular producer, yielding annually
from $4,000,000 to $8,400,000 (in 1930) in gold. The total production
from 1875 to 1929, inclusive, was $226,121,128. The mine has been worked
to a depth of 2,600 feet. The recovery is about $4 per ton (in 1930, $6.18
per ton) in gold, with little silver (Ag: Au = 1:5 by weight). About 63
per cent of the gold is recovered by amalgamation; the remaining very
fine gold is extracted by the cyanide process.
Paige was the first to show that the Homestake deposit was formed by
the replacement of an intensely folded and compressed bed of pre-Cam­
1 A. C. Spencer, Bull. 626, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1916, pp. 9-45.
2 W. Lindgren, Bull. 782, idem, 1926.
3 J. D. Irving and S. F. Emmons, Prof. Paper 26, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.
W. J. Sharvvood, Econ. Geol., 6, 1911, pp. 729-786.
Sidney Paige, The geology of the Homestake mine, Econ. Geol., 18, 1923, pp.
205-237; Bull. 765, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924; Folio 219, idem, 1925.
D. II. McLaughlin, Eng. and Min. Jour., Oct. 12, 1931, Homestake Number.
Best description of mine geology.
670 MINERAL DEPOSITS
brian dolomitic rock interbedded with slate, biotite schist, and thin
quartzite. The Homestake ore-bearing bed, of ferruginous dolomite

F ig . 275.— Isom etric projection of the Hom estake ore-bodies. Overlying Ellison
form ation (ef) removed over the plunging folds. Hom estake form ation; double cross-
hatching; ore-bodies solid black. The underlying De Sm et form ation dsf. Ore-bodies:
(1) Caledonia Ledge; (2) Incline Ledge; (3) Pierce Ledge; (4) No. 4 or M ain Ore-bodies;
(5) No. 5 Ledge; and (G) De Sm et form ation. (A fter D. H. M cLaughlin.)

F ig . 276.— Thin sections of Hom estake ores. Left: Gold and pyrrhotite (later), in
arsenopyrite (earlier). Magnified 48 diam eters. R ight: Gold with quartz, iron-magnesium
carbonate, pyrite, and cum m ingtonite. Magnified 32 diam eters. (A fter W . J . Sharwood.)
with an original thickness of 40 to 60 feet, has in places been drawn out
thin, in other places greatly re-folded and thickened. In general
the dips are steep and the plunge is 40°S.E. (Fig. 275). The plung­
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 671
ing ore-bodies lie along a group of minor anticlines that together
form a large complex anticline. Each separate ore-body follows its own
specific fold consistently to the southeast. In part, the dolomitic bed is
replaced by cummingtonite (a monoclinic iron-magnesium amphibole)
with quartz, ankerite, siderite, and calcite, also some garnet, iron-rich
chlorite, and mica. The distribution of the sulphides conforms to the
schistosity. The ore-bodies also include many small gash veins of coarse­
grained, milky quartz which in places contains sulphides and gold. The
coarse gold is chiefly associated with the sulphides. It often occurs in
arsenopyrite or between pyrrhotite and pyrite (Fig. 276); the succession
of ore minerals is arsenopyrite (oldest), pyrite, pyrrhotite, gold. Chal­
eopyrite is rare. Folding and shearing have in places affected the
sulphides. McLaughlin thinks that gold was introduced with the sul­
phides, and that the cummingtonite and garnet were introduced earlier,
during the general metamorphism of the beds.
Hosted and Wright hold that the mineralization is of Tertiary ago
and connected with the porphyries of that age occurring in the district.
This view is probably untenable. The whole mineralization speak;
emphatically in favor of a hypothermal, deep-seated mineralization.
The Gold-Quartz Veins of Southeastern Alaska1
The gold-bearing veins of southern Alaska are closely allied to those
of the Appalachian region and of Brazil, although they present some
features that would rather connect them with the gold-quartz veins of
California, which are believed to be formed under conditions of lower
temperature or more moderate depth.
The veins occur mainly in the narrow strip of sharply folded Paleozoic
slates and greenstones which form the western margin of the great batho-
lithic mass of granodiorite of late Mesozoic age, 40 to 80 miles wide and
continuous for many hundreds of miles parallel to the coast. The condi­
tions are, therefore, essentially similar to those of the California gold
belt, especially as the Paleozoic sediments farther west on Admiralty
Island are adjoined by a belt of slates which are thought to correspond in
age to the Mariposa slate of California.
In the long strip of coast country extending 300 miles there are numer­
ous mining districts, among which are Windham Bay, Port Snettisham,
Sheep Creek, Gold Creek, Douglas Island, Eagle River, and Berners Bay.
1 A. C. Spencer, The Juneau gold belt, Alaska, Bull. 278, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900.
A. Knopf, The Eagle River region, Bull. 502, idem, 1912.
A. F. Buddington and T. Chapin, Geology and mineral deposits of southeastern
Alaska, Bull. 800, idem, 1929.
A. F. Buddington, Coincident variation of types of mineralization and of Coast
Range intrusives, Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 158-179.
672 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The gold occurs in veins and lodes of various kinds, or more rarely, as
on Douglas Island, in altered dikes of dioritic character that contain dis­
seminated free gold and sulphides. The individual veins are rarely con­
tinuous for more than a few hundred feet, but often combine to form more
extended stringer leads or lode systems. As the veins are later than the
schistose structure of the rocks their tendency is to follow foliation planes,
and in places they strongly resemble the lenticular veins of the Appa­
lachian region, but continuous and cross-cutting veins also occur.
The gangue minerals are mainly milky quartz with some calcite or
dolomite; tourmaline is occasionally reported, also magnetite. The
ore contains free gold with more or less silver and associated with pyrite,
pyrrhotite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, and arsenopyrite.
Few of the normal gold-quartz veins have yet been followed to great
depth. Their width is from 1 to 8 or 10 feet at most, and the ores would
probably range from $5 to $20 or more per ton.
The Treadwell ores, which have been mined on a large scale, are of
low grade, containing about $3 in gold per ton, of which 60 to 75 per cent
is free-milling, the concentrates yielding $30 to $50 per ton. The Tread­
well deposits consist of a series of mineralized dikes of albite diorite in
slates near the east shore of Douglas Island. The workings extend for
7,000 feet along the shore. The dikes dip about 50° northeast. The
dimensions of the dikes are variable, the larger ones having a maximum
width of over 200 feet. These ore-bearing dikes have been followed to a
depth of 2,400 feet, and there appears to be no diminution of the average
tenor of the ore at that depth. The average annual production of the
Treadwell mines was, since 1910, $4,000,000. In 1917, an invasion of
sea water filled most of the mines.
The ore-bodies are extensively fractured by a system of conjugated
joints, along which there are irregular veinlets of quartz and calcite. The
ore minerals are chiefly native gold, pyrite, and pyrrhotite, but chalcopy­
rite, galena, sphalerite, and molybdenite are also found. The important
gangue minerals are albite, calcite, and quartz. The original diorite has
been so thoroughly altered that it is difficult to establish its exact char­
acter. The metasomatic processes are described below in more detail.
On the mainland, opposite Douglas Island, the Alaska Juneau mine1
is mining a great stringer lode from 100 to 300 feet wide in steeply dipping
slate, amphibolite, and intruded gabbro, all of Mesozoic age. The min­
erals comprise quartz, ankerite, galena, pyrrhotite, and sphalerite. In
the country rock, biotite and sericite have developed. The operations
extend from sea level to 2,000 feet above. Though the ore contains
slightly less than $1 per ton, profitable operations are now (1931) carried
on in spite of many early difficulties. About 10,000 tons a day are treated
1 Eng. and Min. Jour., September, 1932, Alaska Juneau number; Geology, by
I,. Wernecke, pp. 493-499.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 673
by wet concentration. The concentrates which contain galena, pyr-
rhotite, pyrite, and native gold are amalgamated. The cost is about 55
cents per ton of ore.
The topographic features of this region permit the generalization
that the vertical range of the deposits is over 5,000 feet. They have been
followed 2,400 feet below sea level, and typical veins are found in the
same regions at elevations of 3,000 feet or more above sea level. They
were formed shortly after the great intrusion of granodiorite, and the
vertical range now accessible must have been many thousands of feet
below the surface of the earth at the time of the ore deposition.
Metasomatic Processes in Veins of Southeastern Alaska
The facts that the Alaska veins contain abundant pyrrhotite and some
tourmaline and magnetite and that the altered country rock contains
biotite show that in many parts of the region the temperature of deposi­
tion was high. Albitization is a common process and appears to be
independent of the amount of sodium in the country rock. It takes
place not only in albite diorite but also in normal diorite, gabbro, and
amphibolite.
Adjacent to the cross-cutting fissure veins of the Berners Bay district
the metasomatic action is, as shown by Knopf, very similar to that in the
California gold belt. Dolomite, sericite, albite, and pyrite are the prin­
cipal new minerals formed in the rock.
The Treadwell mine worked large mineralized dikes of albite diorite
in slates and greenstones. According to Spencer,1the original rock con­
tained albite-oligoclase, microperthite, hornblende, and biotite, the latter
two minerals in small amounts. The altered rock contains abundant
albite, mostly developed by the replacement of microperthite, also quartz,
calcite, muscovite, hornblende, rutile, epidote, magnetite, and pyrite.
Albite is also found as narrow veinlets, although most of the veinlets
consist of calcite and quartz. The composition of the altered rock
differs considerably from place to place. Spencer holds that sodium has
been added to the rock, together with carbon dioxide and sulphur. Cal­
cium in the rock has been fixed by the carbon dioxide and suffered little
leaching. The composition of one of the altered rocks is calculated as
follows:
Quartz............................. 2.34 Magnesite....................... 0.11
Albite............................... 84.36 Siderite............................ 0.57
Anorthite........................ 1.11 Apatite............................ 0.13
Zoisite.............................. 0.91 Rutile............................... 0.13
Muscovite....................... 3.03 Pyrite.............................. 2.10
Calcite............................. 3.80
98.59
1A. C. Spencer, The Juneau gold belt, Alaska, Bull. 287, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906,
p. 99.
674 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Spencer and Knopf have shown that at several places on the main­
land, near Juneau, dioritic rocks near the veins have been altered to
products containing brown mica, probably biotite. Spencer describes
the alteration in the Gold Creek district, which results in the develop­
ment of biotite (I and II in the following table). The percentage
mineral composition of the altered rock is calculated as follows: Quartz,
45; biotite, 22; carbonates, 20; titaniferous magnetite, 10.5; and sul­
phides, 2.5.
Knopf describes an altered and fresh amphibolite found near the
Mendenhall Glacier (analyses III, IV, V, p. 675) and calculates
mineral composition approximately as follows:
Fresh Altered
amphibolite amphibolite
Orthoclase (mol.)........................... 6.7
Albite (mol.).................................... 18.3 39.3
Actinolite.......................................... 43.7
Biotite1............................................ 7.9 43.1
Zoisite.............................................. 4.5 16.4
Epidote............................................ 18.3
Apatite............................................ 0.6 1.2
100.0 100.0

These changes differ greatly from those noted along fissure veins
of the more ordinary type. In the first place, they include actual
dehydration and distinct additions of aluminum, sodium, and potassium,
the alkalies having doubled in quantity. In both localities ferric oxide
is almost wholly removed, while there is some decrease in the ferrous
oxide. Beyond this the two sets of analyses are dissimilar, for, while one
indicates 20 per cent of carbonates, the other is entirely without carbon
dioxide. As a consequence, the first has retained much more calcium
and magnesium than the second. As to minerals, the rock rich in carbon­
ate contains biotite, titaniferous magnetite, and sulphides; the one
without carbonates yields albite, biotite, and zoisite, and Knopf considers
that apatite has been formed in it.
In these deep-seated veins actinolite is unstable, while biotite, zoisite,
and ilmenite were developed under the influence of the vein-forming
solutions.
A similar development of biotite has been noted in the Kolar gold
fields in Mysore, India,1 which are very productive and are worked to a
depth of 7,000 feet. The veins, which are probably of pre-Cambrian
age, are contained in crystalline schists. The gangue is a glassy quartz
1 F. Hatch, The Kolar gold field, Mem., Geol. Survey India, 33, pt. 1, 1901.
T. Pryor, Bull. 230, Inst. Min. and Met. (London), 1923.
The famous Kolar gold fields, Mining Jour. (London), Jan. 25, 1930.
 HYPOTIJERMAL DEPOSITS 675
ANALYSES OF FRESH AND ALTERED ROCKS FROM QUARTZ VEINS OF
SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA
(Analysts, George Steiger, I, II, V; J. G. Fairchild, III, IV)

i II III IV V

SiO,..................................... 47.70 44.69 48.30 52.92 + 5.10

Ti02.................................... 1.48 2.25 1.01 0.99 - 0.24
A1,0,................................... 13.98 14.97 13.59 20.53 + 17.70
Fe20 3.................................. 1.99 0.60 3.12 Trace - 9.64
FeO..................................... 8.72 7.05 10.44 8.38 - 7.80
MnO.................................... 0.14 0.14 0.25 0.28 + 0.04
MgO.................................... 9.07 3.92 6.29 2.43 -12.33
CaO..................................... 12.71 10.07 11.09 4.76 -20.00
0.14
Na20 ................................... 1.65 2.36 2.16 4.67 + 6.92
K20 ..................................... 0.20 1.76 1.55 2.96 + 3.83
H20 - ................................ 0.22 0.36 0.00 0.18 + 0.34
H20 + ................................ 2.06 0.20 2.06 1.58 - 2.25
Zr02.................................... 0.02
C02".................................... 8.47
P A .................................... 0.12 0.26 0.26 0.57 + 0.86
s ............................................................................. 0.04
FeS2.................................... 0.27
Fe7S«................................... 2.25
0.02
100.16 99.78 100.12 100.25 -16.80
I. Green diorite, Gold Creek. Contains about 75 per ecnt green horn­
blende; remainder feldspar with some quartz.
II. “ Brown diorite,” Ebner mine, Gold Creek.
III. Amphibolite, Mendenhall Glacier. Sp. gr. 3.084. Dark olive-green
rock.
IV. Altered amphibolite, Mendenhall Glacier. Sp. gr. 2.905. Dark-
brown rock with pyrrhotite.
V. Gains and losses, in grams, in the alteration of 100 cc. of amphibolite
to same volume of altered product.
with native gold and a little pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, and tourma­
line. The veins contain pitching pay-shoots in which the ore is 5 feet
wide, averaging $20 to $30 per ton in the deepest levels (Fig. 83) (p. 197).
Total production was 16,300,000 ounces from 1880 to 1929.
The Gold-bearing Veins of Brazil1I.V
The great pre-Cambrian areas of Brazil contain auriferous lodes of
great value. In many respects they are similar to those of the Atlantic
coast of North America.
1Orville A. Derby, Notes on Brazilian gold ores, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 33,
1903, pp. 282-287; Eng. Min.-Jour. 74, 1902, pp. 142-143. (Footnote continued on
following page.)
676 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The author owes the following notes to the kindness of Prof. L. C.
Graton:1
The Morro Velho gold mine in Minas Geraes, Brazil, is remarkable for having
produced in the neighborhood of $100,000,000 from a single ore-shoot of rela­
tively small cross-section, mined down the dip for a distance of over 2 miles to a
vertical depth of 7,526 feet. It is thus the second deepest mine in the world.
The country rock, of earliest Paleozoic or pre-Cambrian age, is a great body of
sericitic schist, which was originally a carbonaceous shale. Foliation and
original bedding are at most places coincident; the southeasterly dip flattens
toward the bottom of the mine from its normal value of about 45° to as low as 15°.
The attitude of the lode is unusual and has not been clearly made evident
by earlier descriptions. The ore-body is a narrow band or “ ribbon” averaging
about 15 feet thick and some 500 feet wide. This ribbon extends diagonally
downward from the surface along a direction of pitch that faithfully conforms
with the plane, and (roughly) with the dip, of the bedding and regional foliation
of the enclosing schist. But the ribbon stands edgewise rather than flat-wise
to the plane of the rocks, so that its 500-foot dimension is (roughly) at right angles
to the rock bedding. The lode is contained within the same 500-foot layers of
beds from outcrop to mine bottom; in this sense it is conformable with its enclos­
ing rocks. But the true plane of the lode strikes easterly and has almost vertical
dip; therefore, it actually cuts strongly across the beds that enclose it. Decreas­
ing dip in the bottom part of the mine has been attended by a squeezing ard
thinning of the beds; the ribbon itself is, therefore, folded and crumpled in the
deeper levels contrasted with its relatively simple shape above. But this defor­
mation affected the locus before the ore was introduced; the ore has not been
disturbed since deposition.
The ore itself is a massive fine-granular sulphide, with pyrrhotite very strongly
predominating over arsenopyrite and pyrite; but more than half its weight
consists of ankerite, quartz, and albite. Minor to subordinate constituents
include chalcopyrite, wolframite, chlorite, sericite, and scheelite. The gold
occurs native in particles invisible except by magnification. The gold prefers
the interior of arsenopyrite crystals and, as second choice, pyrrhotite or chalco­
pyrite close to arsenopyrite grains. The arsenic-gold ratio of the ore is notably
constant. About the ore proper is an uneven envelope of la-pa seca, a crystalline
aggregate of ankerite, albite, and quartz with subordinate iron sulphides; and
these same minerals penetrate the schist by replacement, as thin bands along
certain bedding planes.
The ore is of surprising uniformity in mineral character and grade from top
to bottom of the mine, averaging about $10 per ton and showing no dis­
Georg Berg, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Goldlagerstatten von Raposos, Zeilschr.
prakt. Geol., 1902, pp. 81-84.
E. Hussak, Der Quartzlagergang von Passagem, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 1898,
pp. 345-357.
Orville A. Derby, Gold-bearing lode of Passagem, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 32,
1911, pp. 185-190.
1 Extract from a paper in preparation by L. C. Graton and Guy N. Bjorge with
permission of the St. John Del Itey Mining Company, Ltd.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 677

coverable differences in kind, proportions, or textures of minerals throughout

its great developed pitch length.
The lower half of the mine is dust-dry. Rock temperatures are unusually
high, exceeding 130° F. at the bottom and with an almost constant increment of
about 1° F. per 100 feet. Cooling and dehydration of the air by means of
elaborate refrigeration plants, both on the surface and underground, suffice, how­
ever, to keep temperature-humidity conditions in a satisfactory state even in the
deepest workings.
The Passagem lode, described by E. Hussak as a gold-bearing pegma­
tite dike, appears to be, according to O. A. Derby, a shattered pegmatite
dike impregnated by gold, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, and tourmaline, with

F ig . 277.— Vertical longitudinal section of the St. John del Rey M ining C om pany’s M o it o
Velho Mine, Brazil.
a little siderite and calcite (p. 769). The gold contains some bismuth.
The appearance of cummingtonite allies the Passagem vein in an inter­
esting manner to the Homestake deposit. In other parts of the Brazilian
gold-bearing area palladium occurs in alloy with gold.
The Gold-telluride Veins of Western Australia1
Western Australia is an arid tableland of moderate elevation sur­
mounted by short and low ridges (Fig. 278). Crystalline schists and
1 A. Gibb Maitland, Bulls. 4, 15, and 20, Geol. Survey Western Australia.
C. F. V. Jackson, Bulls. 13 and 18, idem,. (Footnote continued on following page.)
678 MINERAL DEPOSITS
granites are the principal rocks. The schists extend, with general north-
south strike and vertical or steep dip, across the whole central part of the
state and consist largely of amphibolites, massive or foliated, which
have been derived by metamorphism from a basic rock—diorite, gabbro,
or diabase. There are also highly altered sedimentary rocks such as
quartzites and slates; more rarely limestones.
Granitic rocks, in part gneissoid, also occur extensively in the complex
of crystalline schists. Lenticular masses of amphibolite are contained
in the granitic rocks and vice versa, so that the sequence of the rocks is
not always clearly apparent. Many of the granitic rocks are intrusive
into the amphibolites.
The age of all these rocks is considered to be pre-Cambrian. Toward
the northwest coast the old rocks disappear beneath transgressing
horizontal Carboniferous limestones.
The gold deposits are contained chiefly in the amphibolites but also,
though less commonly, in the granitic rocks.
The center of mining activity is at Kalgoorlie, about 350 miles east
of Perth. From the mines within the so-called “ Golden Mile” at that
place, the larger part of the output of Western Australia has been derived,
although other mines north and northwest of Kalgoorlie now contribute
a considerable share. The most prominent among these outside mines
are the Westralia-Mt. Morgan and Sons of Gwalia, in the Mt. Margaret
gold field, and the Great Fingall, in the Murchison gold field, 300 miles
northwest of Kalgoorlie. In this vicinity is also located the Wiluna
mine, coming into production in 1932. The total gold production of
Western Australia from 1886 to 1932, inclusive, was about $870,000,000;
the annual yield, which is gradually decreasing, was $22,000,000 in 1917
and $10,000,000 in 1931. The yield of the Kalgoorlie mines from
discovery to 1932 is about $430,000,000.
The geologists of Western Australia distinguish two principal modes
of occurrence of gold-bearing lodes.
1. The normal quartz veins usually occur in the amphibolite or along
the contact of granitic rocks and amphibolite. Most of the veins are
short and conform in strike and dip with the steeply dipping schists, and
E. S. Simpson, Bull. 6, idem.
T. A. Rickard, The telluride ores of Cripple Creek and Kalgoorlie, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 1901, pp. 708-718.
P. Krusch, Zeitschr. prakl. Gcol., 1903, pp. 321-331; 369-378.
C. O. G. Larcombe, The geology of Kalgoorlie, Proc., Austral. Inst. Min. Eng., 5,
1910, pp. 1-312.
M. Maclaren and J. A. Thomson, Min. and Sci. Press, 107, 1913, pp. 45, 95, 187,
228, 374.
F. L. Stillwell, Geology and ore deposits of the Boulder belt, Kalgoorlie, Bull.
94, Geol. Survey Western Australia, 1929, 110 pp.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 679
tend to form lenticular ore-bodies. The minerals accompanying the
gold are galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, stibnite,
bismuthinite, pyrite, scheelite, chlorite, calcite, and sericite. In addition
tourmaline is reported from one mine, the Sons of Gwalia.
2. The quartz lenses are at many places surrounded by altered coun­
try rock; where this rock prevails, transitions are formed to the second

F ig . 278.— Geological m ap of W estern A ustralia. Scale: 1 inch = 330 miles.

class of composite replacement deposits or sheared zones, with no definite

outlines, to which the name “ lode formations” is given.
In the Boulder belt of the Kalgoorlie district the lodes intersect a
quartz-dolerite-greenstone (Stillwell) derived by metamorphism and
albitization of a quartz dolerite with which they seem genetically related.
East and west of this are belts of amphibolite with sericite and carbonates;
these are derived from basic lava flows and are known as “ calcschists.”
They are considered unfavorable, and, as the scope of future mining in
680 MINERAL DEPOSITS
depth is limited by these rocks, hope for future production is said to lie in
the southwestern part of the field and in lateral exploration. There are
smaller bodies of sedimentary rocks, such as graphitic slate and quartzite.
The lodes vary in width from 2 or 3 up to 80 feet.
The minerals of the lode formations include native gold and tellurides,1
such as calaverite, krennerite, petzite, hessite, and coloradoite (telluride
of mercury). Pyrite is abundant but is almost always finely divided, in
contrast to the tellurides, which are often massive. Accessory minerals
are chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, pyrargyrite, enargite, lollingite,
fluorite, magnetite, specularite, rutile, calcite, dolomite, siderite, ankerite,
tourmaline, albite, sericite, chlorite, and roscoelite. The ore-bodies, as
shown by H. C. Hoover, form lenticular bodies. They have usually a
rich core from which the gold content decreases outward, and the lenses
are of large dimensions. Mining operations have attained a depth of
3,800 feet, and at this depth some of the mines are still in ore. The
chief mines at Kalgoorlie were the Great Boulder, Ivanhoe, Horseshoe,
Perseverance, Oroya-Brownhill, Associated, and Lake View Consolidated.
The last is still in operation.
The ore varies from a dark-green, distinctly chloritic foliated schist,
as in the Oroya-Brownhill mine, to pale-green sericite schists and to
banded or massive dark rocks, flinty in places, and ranging from dark
green to gray or brown. Small specks of pyrite are distributed through
the ores, which contain bright-yellow gold associated with much pale-
yellow calaverite and black, lustrous coloradoite. In places the tellurides
and gold have developed as seams several centimeters thick in joint
planes crossing the schistosity. The oxidized zone is from a few feet to
200 feet deep. At greater depths free gold is rarely visible and sulphides
tend to take the place of the rich tellurides. The ores have gradually
declined in value from $30 to $40 per ton near the surface to $7 to $10
in the deepest levels.
In Western Australia,2 as in Alaska, there have been local differences
in the processes of alteration. In the Pilbara gold field,3 the granite
next to the vein is altered to a greenish-gray rock, the calcium, mag­
nesium, and sodium having been largely removed and the potassium
considerably increased. It contains no carbonates. The course of
alteration is entirely similar to that of many deposits found at inter­
mediate depths in the Cordilleran region of the United States.
At Kalgoorlie, on the other hand, albite and carbonates are the prin­
cipal products. The unaltered rock consists of an amphibolite contain-
1F. L. Stillwell, The occurrence of telluride minerals at Kalgoorlie, Proc., Austral.
Inst. Min. Met., 84, 1931, pp. 115-190.
2W. Lindgren, Metasomatic processes in the gold deposits of Western Australia,
Econ. Geol., 1, 1906, pp. 530-544.
3A. Gibb Maitland, Bull. 15, Geol. Survey Western Australia, 1904, p. 12.
 IIYPOTHEHMAL DEPOSITS 681
ing amphibole, chlorite, zoisite, and albite. The altered rocks forming
the gold-bearing lode contain the minerals before enumerated and also
ANALYSES OF FRESH AND ALTERED AMPHIBOLITES FROM
KALGOORLIE

3231 1936 206 1753 1751

Si02............................ 48.86 57.72 51.27 46.94 42.01

ai2o 3.......................... 14.91 9.68 13.85 12.49 8.42
Fp!-03.......................... 6.49 1.54 0.33 2.45
F eb /.......................... 11.13 9.17 2.63 9.20 15.76
MgO............................ 7.65 1.63 4.18 3.56 1.67
CaO............................. 12.19 5.05 6.40 6.43 7.07
Na20 ........................... 2.58 3.92 1.78 1.84 2.62
K20 ............................. 0.19 0.12 2.37 2.57 1.15
H20 - ........................ 0.04 0.16 0.40 0.09 0.23
H20 + ........................ 1.51 1.51 0.22 0.30 0.67
Ti02............................ 0.22 1.13 0.23 0.14 0.81
C02............................. None 1.84 8.02 13.41 15.65
pn .....................
T* ...................
FeS2 .......................... 8.41 2.25 0.30
MnO............................ 0.90 0.09 Trace 0.32 0.41
100.18 98.51 101.30 99.87 99.22
3231. Star of Colac, Bull. 6, Geol. Survey Western Australia, 1902,
p. 67. “ Rock consists of coarse-grained mixture of feldspar and chlorite.
It contains colorless hornblende, saussurite with clear mosaic of albite, also
ilmenite surrounded by leucoxene.” Analyst, C. C. Williams.
1936. Hannans main shaft, at depth of 600 feet, idem., “ Rather coarse­
grained rock containing hornblende, chlorite, feldspar (albite?), ilmenite, and
secondary quartz.” Analyst, C. C. Williams.
206. Lake View Consols mine, 300-foot level, idem , pp. 23 and 67.
“Strongly foliated gray lode stuff. Assay, 9 oz. 12 dwt. of gold and 6 oz.
7 dwt. of silver per ton. It shows chlorite and sericite on the cleavage
planes.” Analyst, E. S. Simpson.
1753. A foliated greenish-gray lode stuff from the 400-foot level, Ivanhoe
mine, idem, pp. 23 and 67. “ Contains chlorite, carbonates, a feldspathic
material, ilmenite, and some quartz. Trace of gold and silver.” Analyst,
C. G. Gibson.
1751. Siderite rock, West cross-cut, 400-foot level, Ivanhoe mine, idem,
p. 67. “ Gray compact rock, containing carbonates, grains of quartz and
of black iron ores, . . . altered feldspar, and some scaly green chlorite.”
Analyst, C. G. Gibson.
nests and lenses of fine-grained quartz. The carbonate grains inclose
irregular masses of tellurides and coarse gold, but the larger masses of
calaverite also contain rhombohedrons of carbonates. Crystals of
682 MINERAL DEPOSITS
magnetite embedded in tellurides are reported. E. S. Simpson has
shown that the ores are really derived from amphibolites by replacement.
The replacement is irregular, albite, quartz, or carbonates alternately
predominating.
The character of alteration is shown by the analyses on page 681,
Analysis 3231 is probably fairly representative of many amphibolites
of Western Australia. It contains no free quartz and is rich in lime and
iron. There is very little potash, and only 2.58 per cent of soda.
The last three analyses may be roughly calculated as shown in the
accompanying table:
PROBABLE MINERAL COMPOSITION OF ORES FROM KALGOORLIE

206 1753 1751 Remarks

Quartz................. 29.52 25.20 21.44

Chlorite............... 6.86 2.76 2.94 FeO,4MgO. Al20 3.3Si02.4H20.
Albite.................. 15.12 15.70 22.12
Sericite................ 19.54 21.52 9.58 K2O.3Al2O3.6Si02.2H30.
CaC03.................. 11.42 11.50 12.61
MgC03................. 4.20 5.38 1.76
FeC03.................. 2.32 14.60 23.20
MnC03 .............. 0.67
Pyrite.................. 8.41 2.25 0.30
Magnetite (?)... 0.47 3.53
Ti02..................... 0.23 0.14 0.81
Fe20 3................... 1.54
Al^O," ........ 2.14 0.61
Hygroscopic 0.23
water
101.30 100.13 99.19

At first glance the analyses of the altered rocks do not show very
great changes so far as bases and silica are concerned. The principal
differences are in the added carbon dioxide of the altered rocks, ranging
from 8 to nearly 16 per cent.
Magnesium, calcium, and iron have been fixed as carbonates, the
last also as pyrite. The combined water has decreased owing to
replacement of chlorite by sericite. The silica set free has been deposited
as quartz. Soda has decreased slightly but potash has increased, though
not very greatly. The abundant development of albite and carbonates
recalls the processes of replacement in the deposits near Angels Camp
in California, and at the Alaska-Treadwell mine.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 683

Gold-Quartz Veins in South Africa

The pre-Cambrian areas of South Africa, particularly in the Transvaal
and Rhodesia, contain many gold-quartz veins; although their produc­
tion of about $10,000,000 a year seems small compared to the vast
quantities of gold produced from the Rand conglomerates.
The Shamva1 mine in South Rhodesia was the most productive,
yielding nearly $2,000,000 per annum. It is now closed. This, probably
hypothermal, deposit is a broad shear zone in quartzite; granite porphyry
occurs on both sides of it. The shear zones are impregnated with calcit.e,
quartz, and pyrite; the ore-shoots, which are separated only by assay
walls from the adjoining quartzite, are long and wide, the maximum
width being about 250 feet. The lowest-grade ore that can be mined
contains $2.75 per ton. Many of the Rhodesian gold-quartz veins
contain stibnite.
Gold-Quartz Veins in Europe
It seems remarkable that the Fenno-Scandian shield should be
almost barren of gold-quartz veins. Some of these deposits are found
in northern Finland but have proved of little importance.
Gold-quartz veins, apparently of hypothermal type, occur in the
Hohen Tauern of Austria, in gneiss and schist. They have been described
by many eminent geologists,12 beginning with von Cotta and Posepny.
They contain quartz, pyrite, arsenopyrite, and native gold.
Other gold veins in the Austrian and Tyrolean Alps3 are lenticular
and some of them contain tourmaline.
In Bohemia, gold-quartz veins have been worked at Roudny,4 and
at Kasejovic.5 At Roudny, the small but numerous veins occur in gneiss
and aplite near a granite batholith and carry quartz, tourmaline, siderite,
calcite, barite, fluorite; at Kasejovic, the veins contain pyrite, arseno­
pyrite, sphalerite, and native gold.
The gold-quartz veins in the Ural Mountains have likewise been
described by many geologists.6 The so-called ladder veins in the
“beresite” dikes at Beresowsk contain quartz, tourmaline, and gold.
A description by Purington differs somewhat from the older accounts.
1J. M. McLaren, Mining Mag., December, 1924, pp. 329-339.
2 P. Krusch, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 1897, p. 77.
P. Beyschlag, idem, p. 210.
3 C. F. Behrend, idem, 1924, p. 9.
1 F. Slavik, Sitz-ber. k. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., 12, 1912, pp. 1-28.
J. T. Singewald, Jr., Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 257-264.
6 A. Hofman and F. Slavik, Bull. Acad. Sci. de Bohcme, 17 and 18, 1913.
‘ R. Beck, 1, 1909, p. 450.
C. W. Purington, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, June 13, 1903.
684 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Other gold-quartz veins are found in many Siberian mining districts,
e.g., in the Alatau and the Amur regions.
COPPER D E P O S IT S

The Copper-tourmaline Deposits

In several parts of the world the association of chalcopyrite with
tourmaline is fairly common. In addition the ores may contain seme
gold and silver. Other minerals present are magnetite, specularite,
rutile, pyrite, pyrrhotite, molybdenite, bismuthinite, wolframite, scheel-
ite, tetrahedrite, quartz, siderite, fluorite, and biotite. Anhydrite is
often present but barite is rare.
The copper-tourmaline veins of Cornwall, which also carry cassiterite,
establish the transition from these deposits to the tin-bearing veins.
Other occurrences, like those of Meadow Lake, California, and the
Passagem lode, Brazil, emphasize the transition to the gold-bearing
quartz veins.
The deposits are in part fissure veins, in part replacements in brec-
ciated or sheared zones. In both modes of occurrence the country rock
is subject to intense metasomatic changes, and tourmaline is developed
by replacement, often for a considerable distance from the solution ducts.
The normal form of alteration in feldspathic rocks is sericitization, some­
times accompanied near the veins by silicification. The feldspars are
replaced by sericite, and both feldspar and quartz are penetrated by
acicular tourmaline prisms, usually of bluish-gray color. Chalcopyrite,
pyrite, and sometimes other sulphides also develop in the altered rock.
The final product, unless the tourmalinization is unusually intense, lacks
the coarsely crystalline structure of the typical greisen; the mica foils
are usually small. In some deposits biotite develops.
Chile.—Many tourmaline-copper deposits are found in Chile. They
appear to be connected with basic rocks—gabbro, diabase, porphyrite,
diorites, etc.1
Yon Groddeck has described the formerly important Tamaya mines,
where veins containing copper ores cut diabase and porphyrite. The
tourmaline is not only present in the filling of the principal vein, which
dips 35° and is from 3 to 6 feet thick, but is also abundantly developed
in the calcitic, chloritic, and micaceous altered country rock. Asbestos
and tremolite (cummingtonite) are also mentioned.
1 A. von Groddeck, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., 39, 1887, pp. 237-266.
A. W. Stelzner, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1897, pp. 41-53.
Moericke, Tschermak’s min. u. pe.tr. Mitt., 12, 1891, pp. 186-198.
L. Darapsky, Das Department Taltal, Berlin, 1900, pp. 167-172.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 685
Similar veins at Las Condes, 90 miles east of Santiago, have been
described by A. W. Stelzner. The rocks are granite and altered andesites.
The vein filling consists of pyrite, chalcopyrite, quartz, and a loose mass of
tourmaline needles and minute crystals of zircon, octahedrite, and specu-
larite. The country rock is bleached and impregnated with pyrite and
tourmaline. At Peralillo, 31 kilometers from Santiago, a similar pyrite-
chalcopyrite vein in diorite carries tourmaline, molybdenite, scheelite,
and cupro-scheelite.
The most prominent representative of this type in the world is the
Teniente, or Braden,1deposit, situated in the Western Cordillera, 50 miles
S.S.E. of Santiago, at an elevation of 8,000 feet. Very large ore-
bodies have been developed by tunnels over a vertical interval of 2,500 feet,
and the production is now about 15,000 tons per day of 2 to 3 per cent ore.
An intrusive mass of andesite porphyry and monzonite porphyry is
injected into Tertiary andesitic lavas and has been extensively mineral­
ized. The greatest ore-bodies surround a volcanic explosion vent about
3,600 feet in diameter. This is filled with rudely stratified tuff and the
tuff is again intruded by masses of andesitic breccias of several kinds.
The period of greatest mineralization followed the intrusion of the brec­
cias and resulted in the replacement of the rocks surrounding the “ crater”
by quartz, specularite, tourmaline, chalcopyrite, pyrite and occasionally
other sulphides. A still later epoch of mineralization yielded richer
ores of chalcopyrite, bornite, tennantite, siderite, rhodochrosite and anhy­
drite; while during the last commercially unimportant epoch were depos­
ited chalcopyrite, bornite, quartz, barite, and gypsum. A crystal of
gypsum 10 feet long and 2 feet in diameter was found in a cave coated by
these products of the last mineralization.
The deposit has been somewhat enriched by chalcocitization effected
by descending waters.
The mineralization probably took place at a depth below the surface
of about 4,000 feet and was effected by solutions containing much boric
acid. They were probably very hot and may have reached the surface
in gaseous form like the “soffioni” of Tuscany. The abundance of boron
emanations connected with volcanic action in the southern Andes is
remarkable. The numerous borax deposits in Chile, Bolivia, and the
Argentine bear witness that some of these emanations reached the surface.
A. Locke suggests that the Braden “ crater” could be interpreted as an
area of collapse caused by removal of material underneath. Many
features, however, speak against such an interpretation.
United States.—In the Cordilleran region of the United States there
are a number of similar smaller deposits. They have been described from
W. Lindgren and E. S. Bastin, Econ. Geol., 17, 1922, pp. 75-99.
686 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Meadow Lake, California,1from the Blue Mountains of Oregon,2and from
the upper Pecos River in New Mexico.3
The most productive deposit of this type occurred at the Cactus
mine,4 in the San Francisco Range, southern Utah. This deposit is
contained in a brecciated zone in post-Paleozoic monzonite; it is in places
200 feet wide and at least 900 feet long. The ores have been followed to a
depth of 800 feet. Brown tourmaline, with quartz, pyrite, and chalcopy-
rite, coats the fragments of brecciated rock, which is sericitized and con­
tains some metasomatically developed tourmaline. Butler contributes a
detailed study of this alteration. Other minerals, formed somewhat later
than the tourmaline, are siderite, anhydrite, specularite, and tetrahedrite.
The development of chalcopyrite continued during the whole epoch of
mineralization. In 1908, 177,000 tons of ore were mined which yielded
copper, 2 per cent; silver, 0.2 ounce,
and gold, 0.01 ounce per ton. The
ore was concentrated and smelted.
The mine is now closed, poorer ores
having been found in depth.
The Gold-copper Deposits
British Columbia.—In some of
these copper deposits tourmaline is
absent or rare. The Rossland
district5is situated near the boundary
line of the State of Washington.
It* has produced smelting ores since
F ig. 279.—Replacement veinlet, War 1890 and has yielded a total of
Eagle Mine, Rossland, B. C. a, granu­
lar aggregate of orthoclase with a little 162,300,000
sericite; b, biotite; q, quartz; c, chlorite; silver. The ores contain about $5
black, pyrrhotite. Magni fi ed 40 to 810 in gold and 0.3 ounce silver,
diameters.
per ton, as well as 0.5 to 3 per cent
copper. The mines are opened to a greatest depth of 2,200 feet;
there was no production in recent years. The deposits are steeply
dipping replacement veins along shear zones in monzonite and
augite porphyrite. Small areas of granodiorite may represent
upward extensions of the Trail batholith, the emanations from which are
1 W. Lindgren, A m . J o u r . S c i., 3d ser., 46, 1893, p. 201.
2 W. Lindgren, T w en ty-seco n d A n n . R ep t., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901, pp.
551-776.
3 P. Kricger, E con . Geol., 27, 1932, Nos. 4 and 5. W. Lindgren, P rof. Paper 68,
idem , 1910, p. 113.
4 B. S. Butler, Geology and ore deposits of the San Francisco and adjacent districts,
Utah, P ro f. P a p e r 80, id em , 1913, pp. 172-178.
5 C. W. Drysdale, Geology and ore deposits of Rossland, B. C., M e m . 77, Canada
Geol. Survey, 1915.
 UYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 687
believed to have formed the deposits. The ore minerals are chalcopyrite
and pyrrhotite (Fig. 279) with some pyrite, arsenopyrite, molybdenite,
and bismuthinite. The gangue minerals comprise quartz, magnetite,
calcite, and biotite with some garnet, arsenopyrite, actinolite, and wol-
lastonite. The metasomatic action on the country rock has resulted in
much secondary biotite. The veins were formed within the epoch of
intrusion for they are intersected by many basic dikes related to camp-
tonite. Apophyllite and other zeolites occur in druses. There is little
evidence of secondary enrichment as perhaps is natural in a recently
glaciated country.
Manitoba.—Lenticular replacement bodies of pyritic ores are found
in the pre-Cambrian of Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec. The sulphides,
often massive, consist of pyrite, pyrrhotite, sometimes magnetite, with
chalcopyrite and sphalerite. They usually approach the hypothermal
class; the gangue is quartz, sericite, chlorite, calcite; garnet, amphibole,
and scapolite are said to occur in some deposits. They occupy shear
zones in gneiss or in Keewatin volcanics and are held to be later than the
schistosity and shearing. They may be genetically connected with
pre-Cambrian granitic intrusions.
In Manitoba,1the long pyritic deposit of the Sherritt-Gordon mine has
been developed in late years. The Flin-Flon12deposit in the same region is
actively being worked (in 1932) at the rate of 4,000 tons a day, producing
annually 18,000 tons of copper, 82,000,000 in gold, and 1200,000 in silver,
besides much zinc. The ore contains, in per cent: copper, 1.71; zinc,
3.45; gold, 0.074 ounce per ton; and silver, 1.06 ounces per ton. The
ore-body is traceable for 2,600 feet and is from 35 to 200 feet wide.
It lies in ellipsoidal greenstone of the Amisk formation.
Quebec.—The Rouyn gold-copper district3 has lately attracted much
attention;the Noranda being the outstanding producing mine. It adjoins
the Kirkland Lake district on the east. The deposits form replacements
along shear zones in Keewatin rhyolitic lavas; more rarely, well-defined
veins. The Keewatin, as well as the overlying Timiskaming beds, is
intruded by many massive bodies ranging from granite to granodiorite and
to syenitic rocks. There is also a diabase earlier than the deposits, and
later diabase dikes probably later than the ore. The minerals are pyrite,
magnetite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite, the magnetite
apparently later than the pyrite; the gangue consists of quartz, chlorite,
sericite, amphibole (in part rhombic), and cordierite. It is distinctly an
1E. L. Bruce, Econ. Geol., 15, 1920, p. 386; idem, 24, 1929, p. 457.
2 George Hanson, idem, 15, 1920, p. 574.
3 H. C. Cooke, W. F. James, and J. B. Mawdsley, Geology and ore deposits of the
Itouyn-Harricanaw region, Quebec, Mem. 166, Canada Geol. Survey, 1931, 314 pp.
Rogers Peale, The geology of the Waite-Ackerman-Montgomery ore deposit,
Bull. 233, Can. Min. Met., 1931, pp. 1069-1086.
688 MINERAL DEPOSITS
iron-magnesium, high-temperature metasomatism, allied to the later
described cordierite-anthophyllite mineralization (p. 743). The Noranda
(Horne) mine has become one of the more important of the world’s gold-
copper deposits with a present production of 4,500 tons of ore per day.
Of this, 3,300 tons are smelted directly or used as flux and 1,200 tons
are concentrated. The annual gold production is about $6,000,000.
The mine is opened to a depth of 2,700 feet, though the present lowest
stoping level is at 1,225 feet. It makes little water. The two main
ore-bodies seem to follow tuff beds and stand vertically. There are
smaller flat ore-bodies between rhyolite and andesite, ore replacing both.
Other smaller ore-bodies are controlled by shear zones. Possibly the
whole deposit is guided by the intersection of two major shear zones.
The gold is irregularly distributed along smaller veins and along walls.
According to Peter Price (oral information), it occurs in part native, in
part also as tellurides. The average gold content is about $4 per ton.
One gains the impression that a gold mineralization, perhaps similar
to that of Kirkland Lake, has been superimposed on the pyritic
mineralization.
New South Wales.—The copper lodes of Cobar1lie in an eroded desert
range of older Paleozoic sediments; they are replacement veins from 10
to 120 feet wide, cutting sandstone and slate. The ore carries chalco-
pyrite, magnetite, and pyrrhotite in big lenses. The average contents
are 2.5 per cent copper with $1 to $2 in gold and 2 to 3 ounces of silver
per ton. Among the gangue minerals are quartz and an iron silicate,
probably ekmannite. The greatest depth attained is 1,600 feet.
There was strong enrichment of copper in the upper levels as oxidized
ores. A short distance below water level, secondary sulphides were
found, comprising, according to Andrews, both chalcocite and chalco-
pyrite. There was little enrichment of gold and silver. No intrusive
rocks are found within long distance of these deposits, but they were
doubtless formed at great depth and at high temperature.
Alaska.—Somewhat similar are the copper ores of Prince William
Sound.12 The Beatson mine, now closed, was the largest copper mine in
Alaska as to tonnage. The ores form elongated replacement bodies
along shear zones in graywacke and slate of Jurassic (?) age, and contain
pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and cubanite, also a little sphalerite.
The gangue is quartz with some ankerite and siderite.
Sweden.—About 1923, a rich sulphide deposit containing gold,
copper, and arsenic was located by electric prospecting methods at
1 E. C. Andrews, Report on the Cobar copper and gold field, Mineral Resources 17,
Geol. Survey N. S. W., 1913.
2 A. M. Bateman, Geology of the Beatson Copper mine, Alaska, Econ. Geol., 19,
1924, pp. 338-368.
 HYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 689
Boliden,1 on the Baltic shore of northern Sweden, an area heretofore
markedly barren of gold-bearing ores. In 1931, 800 tons of ore were
mined per day and smelted in local works. The smelting ore contains
in per cent: 26 sulphur, 2.5 copper, and 12.5 arsenic; further about $12
in gold and 80 grams of silver per metric ton. It promises heavy produc­
tion of gold and arsenic.
The steep lenses attain a length of 600 meters and a thickness of
30 meters and are enclosed in sericite schist, considered to be altered lep-
tite; the leptite is an Archean supracrustal formation of acidic flows and
tuffs (p. 740) overlain by phyllite and quartzite. The mineral succession
is quartz, pyrite, fine-grained arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and
chalcopyrite in coarse-grained intergrowth. Bismuth minerals, tetra-
hedrite, and galena also occur. The gold is chiefly connected with
arsenopyrite occurring in minute grains. It is also found in chalcopyrite
and as stringers in quartz. The ore shows pressure effects.
The Copper-bearing Veins Allied to Contact-metamorphic Deposits and
Pegmatites
In regions containing contact-metamorphic copper deposits it is not
altogether unusual to find pyritic veins which exert an alteration on
adjoining limestone similar to contact metamorphism, indicating that the
vein-forming solutions possessed a high temperature.
The veins of cupriferous pyrite at Clifton, Arizona,2 which intersect
porphyry and contact-metamorphic limestone, are probably in part
of this kind, for it was observed in many places that where they cut across
limestone, tremolite and magnetite have developed adjacent to the veins.
The primary deposits contain little copper but are enriched by surface
waters.
One of the best instances is that of Massa Marittima, in Tuscany,
described by B. Lotti3 and V. Novarese. The great veins carry chalco­
pyrite, pyrite, galena, and sphalerite, and cut across Eocene limestone
and clay shales. The limestone, but not the shale, is replaced near the
vein by pyroxene, epidote, quartz, and sulphides. Some bismuth and
a little tin are present in the ore. The mineralization is believed to be
due to the intrusion of a granite of Tertiary age which on the surface
does not come within several miles of the deposit.
1S. Mortsell, Gcdiget guld i Bolidenmalmen, Geol. For. Fork., Stockholm, 53,
1931, pp. 394-414.
Alvar Hogbom, Nya iakttagelser inom Norr-och Vasterbottens urberg, idem,
pp. 415-438 (Geology).
It. Schreiter, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., 83, 1931, pp. 233-243.
2 W. Lindgren, Prof. Paper 43, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
3 B. Lotti, Descrizione, etc., di Massa Marittima in Toscana, Mem. descritt. Carta
Geol. d’Italia, 8, 1893.
K. Ermisch, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 1905, pp. 206-241.
690 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Copper-titanium Veins.—The small but interesting group of the
chalcopyrite veins associated with titanium minerals is of uncertain affilia­
tions. In some respects they are very closely allied to the pegmatites.
Such deposits have been described from Hereroland in South Africa,1
at Rehoboth and Otjizongati. They are continuous quartz veins in
mica schist and carry pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and molybdenite
with orthoclase, albite-oligoclase, rutile, ilmenite, apatite, and tourma­
line. They contain also a little gold.

F ig. 280.— Stereogram showing relation of quartz pipe and mineralized quartz mon-
zonite in the O.K. Mine, Beaver Lake district, U tah. 1, quartz; 2, altered monzonite;
3, monzonite; 4, high-grade ore. (A fter B. S. Butler , U, S. Geol, Survey.)

Copper-molybdenum Veins.—The association of copper and molyb­

denum is not uncommon but many other ore minerals are usually also
present. Butler12 describes the O.K. deposit, Beaver Lake district, Utah,
in which the characteristics of pegmatites are curiously mixed with those
of high-temperature veins. The deposit, worked to a depth of 400 feet,
consists of a cylindrical body of extremely coarse and drusy pegmatitic
quartz connected with a steep fissure and surrounded by a zone of
sericitized quartz monzonite. The quartz has many offshoots of minor
veins, which carry quartz, chalcopyrite, and molybdenite (Fig. 280).
The ore in the upper levels is oxidized with secondary sulphides.
1 Eberhard Ilimann, Zeitschr. prakl. Geol., 22, 1914, pp. 223-226.
2 B. S. Butler, Prof. Paper 80, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913, p. 125.
 HYPOTHEIiMAL DEPOSITS 691

THE LEAD-SILVER-ZINC DEPOSITS

Veins with Tourmaline.—The combination of galena and tourmaline
is rare, galena being generally found in deposits formed at lower tem­
peratures. A. Knopf,1 has shown that many of the veins in the contact
zone and in the igneous rock of the Boulder batholith of quartz monzonite,
in Montana, belong to this unusual group. The Alta vein is the best
known and the richest of these deposits; it is supposed to have yielded
over $32,000,000 in lead and silver, and was thus one of the greatest
lead-silver deposits of the world. The monzonite contains a little tour­
maline, its aplite dikes somewhat more, and the quartz veins are rich in
this mineral. In the same district, H. V. and A. N. Winchell2observed a
pyrite-tourmaline vein, the ore of which contains mainly silver with some
copper and lead minerals. P. Billingsley and J. A. Grimes3 have also
examined these veins and conclude that they have been formed in or
near the flat roof of that batholith.
Veins with Garnet.—The great Broken Hill lode4 in the desert region
of western New South Wales is representative of this rare class. This
lode, which is said to have yielded lead, silver, and zinc to the value of
about $688,000,000 since its discovery in 1883, has been described in
great detail by Andrews in a notable monograph, and the intergrowth
of the sulphides has been investigated by Stillwell. The lode has been
opened over a length of 3 miles and the deepest shaft has attained 2,200
feet, ore continuing in depth. Output of zinc in 1931 was 54,000 tons.
The lode is contained in a thick series of pre-Cambrian sediments,
which now appear as mica schists, sillimanite schists, and quartzite.
Intrusive rocks were injected into the sediments, forcing them apart.
The intrusive forms are pressure lenses and phacoliths, also lit par lit
injections. The igneous rocks now appear as “ augen-gneiss ” (footwall
gneiss) also pegmatites, diorite, and igneous quartz lenses. After the
intrusion followed close folding and dynamic metamorphism. The folds
are drag folds of weaker rocks against stronger buttresses. Garnet,
1The tourmaline-silver-lead type of ore deposit, Econ. Geol., 8, 1913, pp. 105-118;
also Bull. 527, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913.
2 Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 287-294.
3 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 58, 1918, pp. 284-368.
4 E. C. Andrews, Geology of the Broken Hill district, Mem. 8, Geol. Survey
N. S. W., 1922.
F. L. Stillwell, Mineral constitution of the Broken Hill Lode, Proc., Austral.
Inst. Min. Eng., Now Series, 64, 1926, pp. 97-172; idem, 67, 1927, pp. 187-220.
See also Report of subcommittee, Trans., Austral. Inst. Min. Eng., 15, 1911,
pp. 160-236.
W. E. Wainright and P. H. Warren, The Broken Hill South mine, Mining Mag.,
January, 1918, pp. 12-19.
E. J. Kenny, The Broken Hill lode—its geological structure, Proc., Austral.
Inst. Min. Met., 87, 1932, pp. 217-245.
692 MINERAL DEPOSITS
staurolite, sillimanite, micas, and other minerals developed along planes
of schistosity. The ore-body developed in fault zones and drag faults
and occurs sandwiched in between sedimentary sillimanite schist and
intrusive gneisses. In the stress zone the lode takes the form of pressure
lenses and replacement lenses comparable to those of the Homestake lode.
A fault zone 6 to 10 feet wide occupies the footwall of the deposit
(Fig. 281). On the hanging-wall side the ore bulges in places to great

F ig . 281.— Vertical transverse section, M ain Broken Hill Lode, Central mine, looking
north. Ore replacing anticlinal drag fold. Black is ore. Full- and broken-line patterns
indicate sillim anite gneiss. M inor intrusions of pegm atite and amphibolite. Scale: 0.4
inch = 100 feet. (A fter E . C. Andrews. Reproduction from Trans. A m . Inst. Min.
M et. Eng.)
masses, which seem to follow the folded schists and form saddle-like
bodies probably formed by replacement of the schist.
According to Andrews, the lode material rose as emanations under
enormous pressure and forced its way along zones of strain. Its first
appearance was as pegmatites with green feldspar; then followed the
development of manganese garnet, rhodonite, pyroxene, magnetite,
 EYPOTHERMAL DEPOSITS 693

gahnite, apatite, calcite, and a little quartz. The quartz in the deposit
has been formed at temperatures below 575° C. Later than the silicates
are the sulphide minerals. Predominating are galena and sphalerite.
The ore contains from 3 to 14 ounces of silver per ton, 14 to 16 per cent
lead, and 8 to 18 per cent zinc.
The small amounts of pyrite, arsenopyrite, and a nickel-cobalt
mineral are thought to be the oldest, followed by sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
and cubanite, the latter two probably unmixing products of sphalerite.
Then follow galena and tetrahedrite, overlapping in part with the sphaler­
ite group. Later came recrystallization so that the chalcopyrite was
partly converted to chalcostibite (Cu2 S.Sb2 S3) and tetrahedrite partly
dissociated into chalcostibite and chalcopyrite or pyrrhotite. The silver
of the tetrahedrite appeared as pyrargyrite or dyscrasite. In some cases
lead sulphide took part in the reaction and meneghinite (4PbS.Sb2S3)
developed. See page 750 for a case where jamesonite forms by a similar
reaction.
The surface gave little indication of the character of the deposit.
Down to a depth of 300 feet there was a gossan, 20 to 100 feet wide, of
quartz, limonite, manganese dioxide, hematite, and kaolin. Below this
were found great masses of cerussite, anglesite, cuprite, and malachite,
with abundant cerargyrite, embolite, and iodyrite. There was but little
smithsonite, the zinc having been removed by leaching.
Where the oxidized ores changed to primary sulphides, there was a
thin deposit of sooty chalcocite, rich in silver and copper; the slight
thickness of these secondary sulphides is remarkable.
The Sullivan Mine.1—The important deposits in the Kootenay district
of British Columbia must have been formed under similar conditions;
they may be considered as high-temperature equivalents of the Coeur
d’Alene lead deposits. The Sullivan mine is now probably the greatest
producer of lead and zinc in the Americas. In 1930, nearly 2,000,000
tons of ore were mined. The workings reach 700 feet above the main
adit and an incline is now being sunk below it.
The ores form replacement deposits in the Aldridge argillaceous
quartzite of pre-Cambrian (Beltian) age. This formation is about 8,000
feet thick. The rocks are probably underlain by intrusive (Cretaceous?)
granite.
The ore-bodies conform roughly to the strike and dip (10° to 30°) of
the quartzites and grade into them; the greatest horizontal dimensions
1 S. J. Schofield, Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 351-363; Geology of the Cranbrook area,
B. C., Mem. 76, Canada Geol. Survey, 1915.
G. M. Schwartz, Microscopic features of Sullivan ore, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press,
Sep. 4, 1926.
Engineers of Sullivan mine, Bull. 146, Canadian Inst. Min. Eng., 1924, pp.
401-465.
694 MINERAL DEPOSITS
are 825 by 120 feet. The ore is an intimate, fine-grained mixture of
galena and sphalerite with minor amounts of pyrite, pyrrhotite, mag­
netite, and jamesonite; the scant gangue contains manganese garnet,
garnet, diopside, actinolite, and biotite with subordinate calcite. Banding
by differential replacement is marked. The gangue minerals are earlier
than the sulphides. Some cassiterite is present. The ore is said to
contain 11 per cent lead and 13 per cent zinc.
The Mexican High-temperature Lead Deposits.—The close associa­
tion of hypothermal vein deposits with contact-metamorphic deposits is
not surprising when one considers that both are caused by highly heated
solutions and fluids. When these reach a temperature at which lime
silicates will be formed (400° to 500° C.) and when the solutions instead
of permeating limestone beds follow fissures in limestone, the general
mineralization will be very similar, for garnets and like silicates will
appear. In veins, the mineralization is derived from deep-seated sources;
in contact-metamorphic deposits, from the general body of intrusives
adjacent. In many cases it may indeed be difficult to decide whereto
draw the line between these two kinds of deposits.
In 1906, Lindgren1 described lead-bearing veins with garnet gangue
from near Hachita, New Mexico. A little later Spurr and Garrey2gave
excellent and detailed accounts of the deposit at Dolores, Mexico, where
hedenbergite, andradite, actinolite, fluorite, and quartz occur in fissure
veins, accompanied by pyrite and chalcopyrite. Zoisite, prehnite, and
apophyllite occur in the later phases. Later, Basil Prescott brought atten­
tion to the chimneys of Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua, where pyrrhotite,
pyrite, galena, and sphalerite are associated with iron and iron-manganese
silicates, such as knebelite, ilvaite, hedenbergite, fayalite, and chlorite.
In the upper parts, in the horizontal pipes, no silicates are found (p. 599).
A still more remarkable case is that of the Santa Barbara district,3
where lead-zinc veins intersect Jurassic (?) shales with a limited am unt
of intruded rhyolite porphyry. These veins are in part at least charac­
terized by the same silicates, particularly ilvaite, hedenbergite, and faya­
lite. There is apparently no limestone in the district.
THE COBALT-TOURMALINE VEINS
The association of tourmaline with nickel and cobalt minerals in San
Juan, Department Freirina, Chile, has been described by O. Stutzer.4
In the same paper he gives a general review of the tourmaline veins.
1 W. Lindgren, Prof. Paper 68, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, pp. 335-337.
2 Econ. Geol., 3, 1908, pp. 688-725.
3Harrison Schmitt, Geologic notes on the Santa Barbara area, Eng. Min. Jour.,
Sept. 15, 1928, p. 407.
1 Zcitschr. prakt. Geol., 1906, pp. 294r-298.
 CHAPTER XXVIII
PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS
INTRODUCTION
General Features.—In many geological provinces and during all ages
molten magmas have invaded older rocks without reaching the surface.
The intrusive magma cooled slowly and crystallized either as rocks with

F ig . 282.— Sketch showing relation of ore zone to granodiorite and limestone, Bullion
district, Nevada. (A fter W . H. Emmons.)
coarsely granular texture, such as granite, diorite, syenite, monzonite,
gabbro, or diabase, or as the corresponding porphyries with holocrystal-
line groundmass. By means of uplift and subsequent erosion, these
igneous rocks become exposed at the surface. If the rocks bordering the
intrusives are crystalline schists or older igneous rocks, they seldom show
much alteration along the contacts, but where they are of sedimentary
695
696 MINERAL DEPOSITS
origin, like sandstone, shale, and limestone, considerable metamorphism
is effected in them for a varying distance from the contact. In many
places deposits of metallic ores or other useful minerals occur at these
contacts, particularly where the older rock consists of limestone.
The form of such deposits is irregular and bunchy, but many of them
are tabular by reason of following the contact (Fig. 282), or certain strata
in the intruded rocks favorable for deposition (Fig. 283). Their mode
of occurrence is metasomatic—that is, they are formed by replacement
of the enclosing rock with addition of substance. They are formed at
high temperature by emanations issuing from the intrusive. They are
therefore, suitably termed pyrometasomatic deposits.
The mineral association is characteristic: Chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyr-
rhotite, sphalerite, and molybdenite are the most common sulphides;

F ig . 283.— Diagram of contact-m etam orphic deposit in vertical section. Ore shown in
black. Contact-m etam orphic rocks beyond ore stippled.
magnetite and specularite the most common oxides. The heavy metals
have been introduced from the outside. The most prominent gangue
minerals are various silicates of calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum,
the elements of which have in part been furnished by the carbonate rocks
and shales. Among these so-called contact-metamorphic silicates are
garnet, epidote, vesuvianite, diopside, tremolite, and wollastonite.
Recrystallized, sometimes exceedingly coarse calcite is abundant; quartz
is rarely present in large amounts. The ore minerals are usually later
than the silicates.
Some of these deposits contain valuable non-metallic minerals, like
graphite or corundum, but ordinarily they are mined for the base metals.
In the main the minerals are of simple composition and formulas. The
association indicates an origin at high temperature, perhaps from 400° to
600° C. Close to the igneous rock the temperature may have been
materially higher.
The igneous rock itself may be wholly fresh, or it may contain minerals
closely allied to those in the deposit itself, such as garnet and epidote, or
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 697
it may show sericitization with veins somewhat later than the alteration
at the contact.
History.—In 1865 Bernard von Cotta described the iron deposits of
the Banat province of Hungary and expressed the opinion that they were
due to the action of intrusive rocks on the adjoining Mesozoic limestone.
He also correlated these ores with those of Bogoslowsk, in the Ural
Mountains, of Kristiania, in Norway, and of other districts. Von
Groddeck,1however, first recognized them as a definite group to which he
gave the name “ Kristiania type.” He stated that they were produced
by contact metamorphism.
In 1894 Vogt12 revived the interest in this class by describing the
contact-metamorphic deposits of Kristiania. A little later the deposits
at Seven Devils, Idaho3—the first of this type to be noted in the United
States—were described, and, in a paper on the character and genesis of
certain contact deposits,4the type was redefined and a number of examples
from the United States were cited. W. P. Blake5mentioned the frequent
occurrence of this type in Arizona. W. H. Weed6 described a number of
additional sub-types; a little later J. F. Kemp,7 0. Stutzer,8 and J. E.
Spurr9 discussed the subject again from a general standpoint.
Intrusive masses were found to be normally accompanied by contact-
metamorphic deposits which, in some cases, were connected by transitions
with the swarm of veins that usually surround these igneous bodies as an
aureole of metallic treasure. The great importance of this type for the
solution of problems related to the genesis of ore deposits became clear to
the minds of many investigators. In Europe, many geologists have of late
made detailed studies of contact-metamorphic deposits—among them
B. Lotti, R. Beck, Loewinson-Lessing, E. Weinschenk, A. Bergeat, and
V. M. Goldschmidt.
The views expressed in the above-mentioned papers, involving acces­
sion of material from the magma have not been allowed to pass unchal­
lenged. F. Klockmann10 expressed the opinion that these deposits were
older accumulations of iron ore, altered at the intrusive contact; W. O.
1A. von Groddeck, Die Lehre von den Lagerstatten der Erze, Leipzig, 1879, p. 260.
2J. H. L. Vogt, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1894, pp. 177, 464; 1895, p. 154.
3 W. Lindgren, Min. and Sci. Press, 78, 1899, p. 125.
W. Lindgren, Twentieth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, pt. 3, pp. 249, 253.
4 W. Lindgren, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 31, 1901, p. 23.
6 W. P. Blake, idem, 34, 1904, pp. 886-890.
6 W. H. Weed, Ore deposits near igneous contacts, idem, 33, 1903, pp. 719 el seq.
' J. F. Kemp, Ore deposits at the contact of intrusive rocks and limestone, Econ.
Geol., 2, 1907, pp. 1-13.
8 0. Stutzer, Kontaktmetamorphe Erzlagerstatten, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 17, 1909,
pp. 145-155.
9 A theory of ore deposition, Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 485-492.
10 F. Klockmann, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1904, pp. 73-85.
698 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Crosby1and A. C. Lawson12 held that such bodies were simply the result
of the ordinary circulation of meteoric character. As a general explana­
tion neither of these views appears to be tenable.
In 1914, the discussion3 regarding the origin of the garnet zones flared
up again and was participated in by W. L. Uglow, W. Lindgren, J. F.
Kemp, C. K. Leith, A. C. Lawson, and C. A. Stewart.
CONTACT METAMORPHISM
General Features.—It will first be necessary to enter a little more
deeply into the problem of contact metamorphism. This peculiar action
of intrusive igneous bodies upon adjacent sedimentary rocks has been a
well-known fact in geology since the days of Durocher (1846), and the
processes have been described in much detail. Effusive rocks—that is,
lava flows—rarely exert intense metamorphism beyond a baking or
hardening of the sediments at the contact or an alteration of included rock
fragments. The magmas intruded in sedimentary rocks, on the other
hand, are in most cases surrounded by a halo of gradually fading meta­
morphism which may extend over a width of 1 or 2 miles, although usually
much narrower. The immediate contact is ordinarily sharp, with no
evidence of melting; only at contacts which were deeply submerged is
there evidence of assimilation and extensive injection or feldspathization
of the sediments. Slates and shales are ordinarily converted to hard,
compact “hornfels”—that is, fine-grained holocrystalline rocks contain­
ing biotite, cordierite, andalusite, staurolite, scapolite, garnet, and
feldspar; in extreme cases gneissoid rocks result. This metamorphism
gradually diminishes, and at some distance the only evidence of change is a
knotty texture of the rocks. Sandstones change to quartzite at the con­
tact. Calcareous rocks become highly crystalline marbles and usually
develop the contact-metamorphic minerals garnet, epidote, diopside,
tremolite, vesuvianite, etc. According to the older view expressed by
Rosenbusch, Zirkel, Brogger, and others, there is little change in com­
position aside from the expulsion of carbon dioxide from the limestones.
The silicates are held to be formed under the influence of the heat of the
magma from the impurities contained in the limestone.
It is well known that Rosenbusch4 proposed a way of calculating the
original character of a metamorphic rock from its present composition,
and in regional metamorphism this is undoubtedly often justified. This
1 W. O. Crosby, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 1906, pp. 626-646.
2 Min. and Sci. Press, Feb. 3, 1912.
3 Sec Econ. Geol., 8, 1913 and 9, 1914; Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 48, 1915, and
Min. and Sci. Press, Oct. 17, 1914.
4 Elemente dcr Gesteinslehre, 2d ed., 1901, p. 484.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 699
thought has been followed by J. Barrell1 in more direct application to
contact metamorphism.
G. W. Hawes,2however, many years ago pointed out that emanations
of boron and silica entered the sediments from the magma; and the
introduction of tourmaline, for instance, has often been proved since
then; it is in fact admitted even in the older textbooks of petrography.3
Petrographers of the present day, represented, for instance, by
Alfred Harker and A. Lacroix, lean strongly toward the view that water
and other gases containing C02, H2S, S, Cl, B, and F must pass into the
neighboring rocks while these are still heated by the intrusion.
The surrounding rocks of some intrusive bodies are, for instance,
permeated for long distances by chloride solutions, this action resulting
in the development of scapolite (Na4 Al3 Si9 0 2 4 Cl).
The escape of these substances, as pointed out by Harker, may not
have been uniform. A large part was doubtless given off while the
magma was still fluid. Another part may have been liberated at the
time of consolidation; still another part may have been retained until
cooling had advanced considerably. Finally, fissures and shattering of
the partly consolidated or congealed mass may have permitted gases
from the still fluid interior or basal part to reach the outside of the
intrusions.
It does not seem possible that atmospheric waters could have gained
access to the contacts during intrusion. Both the heat of the magma and
the pressure of the volatile compounds striving to free themselves would
prevent such access.
The magmatic solutions enter into the rocks adjacent to the magma
and produce a series of metasomatic changes the character of which will
depend upon the composition of the solutions and their temperature, as
well as upon the kind of country rock exposed to these hot extracts.
Ore deposits of this kind are rarely formed in argillaceous shales,
sandstones and quartzite. Limestone, dolomite and calcareous shale,
on the other hand, are easily permeable and appear to soak up the solu­
tions like a sponge. It will be recalled that even at ordinary temperature
limestone will absorb oil and similar substances. This permeation is
facilitated by the Assuring and crushing along the contact. If the solu­
tions are dilute, or if no opportunity is afforded for the carbon dioxide to
escape, little replacement occurs but the limestone usually becomes
coarsely crystalline, or scattered silicates will be produced by reaction
between the calcite and the silica usually contained in most limestones.
When the solutions are more concentrated and contain much silica,
1Joseph Barrell, The physical effects of contact metamorphism, Am. Jour. Sci.,
4th ser., 13, 1902, pp. 279-296.
2 G. W. Hawes, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 21, 1881, p. 21.
3 F. Zirkcl, Lohrbuch der Petrographic, Leipzig, 2, 1894, p. 97.
700 MINERAL DEPOSITS
sulphur, iron, and other metallic constituents, the replacement of carbon
dioxide by silica will proceed with energy and the calcareous rock may be
converted to a mass of ore and gangue minerals. In places whole beds
of pure limestone or dolomite may be converted to garnet, diopside, and
other silicates associated with recrystallized calcite and with magnetite,
specularite, and simple metallic sulphides.
Form and Texture.—The frequency of rudely tabular bodies depend­
ent upon parallelism with contacts or beds has already been emphasized.
Sometimes the outlines are entirely irregular, but a selective action is
very common by which the development of the best ore takes place along
certain horizons in which the limestone is especially susceptible to
metamorphism. This is doubtless caused by the physical condition of a
particular bed, which may be a pure or an impure limestone; but the
reason for this selective action is not always clearly apparent. While
the deposits rarely extend far from the contacts, cases are known where
they reach out along certain beds for a distance of 2,000 feet or more.
The contact-metamorphic minerals in limestone often cease suddenly
and form sharp contacts with the unaltered rock. Fissures may guide
the solutions, and transitions to veins may be formed by deposition along
them.
Favorite points of maximum ore development are limestone fragments
included in the igneous rock or points where the calcareous rock projects
into the intrusive. In most places the ore-bodies are of comparatively
small size, but occasionally we find ore-bodies containing millions of tons.
In case of copper deposits, subsequent oxidation and enrichment has
often, as at Bisbee, Arizona, greatly enlarged the available ore-bodies.
The texture of the ore is commonly coarse, characteristic of replace­
ment at high temperature. The absence of banding by crustification or
deposition in open space is notable. But replacement processes some­
times result in a rude banding by a rhythmic metasomatic action or in
orbicular or pipe-like arrangement of minerals. Such orbicular structures
have been described by Trustedt1 in tin deposits at Pitkaranta, Finland,
and by Knopf2 in similar deposits in Alaska.
The calcite is often recrystallized to extremely coarse masses. Garnet
and other silicates frequently show crystal outlines, but the sulphides,
excepting pyrite, are rarely crystallized in distinctive form. Drusy
cavities into which quartz crystals, garnets, etc., project are found in
some deposits.
Mineralogy.—Among the ore minerals those of simple composition
prevail. In order of abundance we have pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite,
pyrrhotite, sphalerite, molybdenite, arsenopyrite, and galena. Tetra-
1O. Triistedt, Die Erzlagerstiitten von Pitkaranta, Bull. Com. gdol. de Finlande,
19, 1907.
2 Adolph Knopf, Bull. 358, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 701
hedrite, jamesonite, and other complex sulphosalts are rare; most of those
common in deposits formed at lower temperature are absent. Tellurides
are rare, though tetradymite is reported from a few localities. Native
gold is seldom present though most of the ores contain a trace of that
metal. Graphite is not uncommon and platinum has been reported from
one or two localities. The oxides are represented by magnetite, ilmenite,
hematite, quartz, corundum, and spinels of various kinds. In all of the
deposits of magmatic affiliations described above, magnetite and specu-
larite are absent or scarce. Here they are plentiful. Magnetite is easily
converted to specularite along the octahedral partings, and specularite
crystals are often reduced to magnetite, wholly or in part.1
The silicates, especially those containing lime, magnesia, and iron,
are abundant. We enumerate garnet (grossularite and andiadite),
epidote, zoisite, diopside, hedenbergite, tremolite, vesuvianite, forsterite,
fayalite, anorthite, ilvaite, and wollastonite. Some of these contain the
hydroxyl molecule.
Among the minerals containing chlorine, fluorine, or boron are scapo-
lite, chondrodite, axinite, ludwigite, topaz, and tourmaline. The last
two are not abundant.
Other minerals occasionally present are orthoclase, albite, muscovite,
biotite, wolframite, scheelite, and fluorite while barite and anhydrite are
absent. Andalusite, sillimanite, and staurolite, so common in contact-
metamorphosed shales, are not usually connected with ore deposits.
Chlorite is sometimes found in large crystals; serpentine is a product of
decomposition of other silicates. Calcite, ankerite, and dolomite are
usually present.
Many zeolites are also found but always crystallize during the last
phase of mineralization.
On the whole, iron and copper deposits are the most common. Zinc,
lead, gold, silver, and tin are much less abundantly represented.
Intensity of Metamorphism.—There are all degrees of metamorphism
at the contacts of intrusive masses. Some magmas are evidently poor
in volatile constituents and may exert only a slight recrystallization on
adjacent limestone, while along the contact of others large bodies of ore
may form. Along the same contact there are often great irregularities in
mineralization. The degree of alteration of non-calcareous shales is a
good indication of the intensity of the metamorphism, though these
rocks rarely contain ore deposits.
Influence of Composition of Igneous Rock.—Highly acidic rocks,
such as normal granites, are not always accompanied by ore deposits of
the contact-metamorphic type, although they may produce widespread
1 F. F. Grout, Magnetite-martite-hematite, Econ. Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 375-393.
P. Ramdohr, Beobachtungen an Magnetit, etc., Festschrift z. 150 Jahrfeier
cl. Bergakademie Clausthal, 1925.
702 MINERAL DEPOSITS
effects of metamorphism and a later mineralization of quartz veins. The
rocks accompanying the contact-metamorphic deposits of the Cordilleran
type are generally monzonites or quartz monzonites or granodiorites.
Many examples show, however, that more basic rocks also may pro­
duce metallization of adjoining limestones—diabases, for instance, at
Cornwall, Pennsylvania, and gabbro at the Nickel Plate mine, British
Columbia.
Alteration of the Intrusive Rock.—Fresh granitic rock often adjoins
the contact and is then separated sharply from the altered limestone.
This is important to bear in mind. In many cases the intrusive rock is,
however, more or less altered by sericitization or the development of other
silicates. The alteration may have taken place simultaneously with the
metamorphism of the sedimentary rock, or afterward.

F ig . 284.—Longitudinal section, Empire mine, White Knob, Idaho. (After J. B. Umpleby,

U. S. Geol. Survey.)
The hot intrusive, whether molten or just consolidated, and the
adjacent cooler limestone form a system in which there will take place a
vigorous exchange of material. Most of the changes will occur at the
cooler side but the intrusive will also receive material, perhaps mainly
carbon dioxide, and oxides of calcium and magnesium, from the sedi­
ments. Thus we find frequently epidote in large masses, more rarely
garnet or diopside, developing in the igneous rock by replacement through
the mass or in replacement veinlets. Such phenomena have been
described by Spurr and Garrey from Dolores1and Velardeiia,12by Bergeat3
from Concepcion del Oro, all in Mexico; and by Umpleby4 from White
Knob, Idaho. At the latter place it is often impossible to define the
contact between garnetized limestone and granite-porphyry (Fig. 284).
1J. E. Spurr, G. H. Garrey, C. N. Fenner, Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 444-492.
2 J. E. Spurr and G. H. Garrey, idem, 3, 1908, pp. 688-725.
■1 A. Bergeat, Boletin 27, Inst. Geologico de Mexico, 1910.
4 J. B. Umpleby, Prof. Paper 97, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917; The genesis of the
Mackav copper deposits, Idaho, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 307-358.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 703
In other cases the alteration observed consists in sericitization, which
is believed to be later than the contact metamorphism proper and largely
caused by hot waters similar to those which form ordinary fissure veins;
these waters may ascend from deeper portions of the intrusive from which
emanations continue to be given off for considerable time after the
irruption.
In the ordinary course of events an intrusive suffers various changes
as to composition and texture at a contact. Basic facies may appear, or
fine-grained texture, or a laminated or schistose structure.
The history of any igneous rock is marked by a successive develop­
ment of minerals. Flett1states that in the Cornwall granites tourmaline,
white mica, and topaz may be primary minerals and have a long period
of formation, continuing to develop until the quartz separates out, and
even long afterward.
Spurr and Garrey state that at Dolores and Velardena many changes
took place after consolidation in the small stocks of diorite, alaskite and
monzonite breaking through Cretaceous limestone, and that a transition
between contact-metamorphic deposits and normal veins is found at
the former place. Pegmatitic, vuggy segregations are observed, and the
older minerals have been altered to an early phase characterized by
orthoclase, apatite, titanite, chlorite, quartz, diopside, and pyrite. At
Velardena grossularite garnet, and vesuvianite also appear.
Attention has lately been called to these so-called deuteric minerals2
which also include such minerals as magnetite, chlorite, epidote, and
zeolites (see p. 88).
Succession of Events.—The idea of successive epochs during the
intrusion is frequently advanced. The general metamorphism by heat
and dilute vapors is commonly considered to have taken place first,
while foreign substances were added later. If we conceive magma rising
to regions of lessening pressure, however, it is difficult to see why the
escape of gases should not have begun at once when the melt was brought
into contact with the cooler, surrounding sediments. The frequency of
contact-metamorphic deposits in roof pendants of intrusive masses and
along dikes in the roof shows that the volatile substances were concen­
trated in the upper parts, or cupolas, of the intrusives and in dikes radiat­
ing from these “ gassed” parts of the magma. We observe also the scant
metamorphism along flat intrusions, like laccoliths, and its relative
strength in cross-cutting bodies where gases from below could more easily
gain access.
The description of a few typical localities will show that the contact
phenomena may vary greatly in different places. At times the general
1J. S. Flett, Mem., Geol. Survey England, Explan. Sheet 347, Bodmin and St.
Austell, 1909, p. 58.
2 R. J. Colony, Jour. Geol., 31, 1923, pp. 169-178.
704 MINERAL DEPOSITS
metamorphism is very weak while the metasomatic phases are strong and
vice versa. Undoubtedly emanations along fissures continued after the
general consolidation in many places, and if they had a high temperature
the later alteration would be of the same type as that produced during
the intrusive act.
Influenced by his experience in Mexico, where contact-metamorphic
ores seem to grade into high-temperature veins, J. E. Spurr1 has sought
to minimize the importance of pyrometasomatic ore deposits, holding
that they are generally the result of ascending emanations (ore magmas)
rising along fissures from very deep-seated places of differentiation. This
view is assuredly wrong. The phenomena of contact metamorphism are
well established, and the metasomatic rocks having notable addition of
substance cannot be separated from those of pure metamorphism. The
development of hornfels, the recrystallization of limestone, the introduc­
tion of silica, the formation of lime-iron silicates, the growth of the iron
oxides, and the sulphide phase, all form a continuous series and are
caused by one and the same agency, i.e., transfer of heat and substance
from the intrusive.
The best proof that the mineralization came from the intrusive mass
itself is the great tendency of the ores to form in salients and inclusions
of the limestone.
In an admirable study of contact metamorphism at Marysville,
Montana, Barrell2 describes the metamorphic zone, Yi to 1 mile wide
surrounding a small stock of quartz monzonite which widens in depth.
The intensity of the metamorphism is thus increased.
Barrell distinguishes between (1) contact metamorphisrn, which
results in recrystallization of the sediments to hornfels, marble and
lime-silicate rock; and this was produced by the first wave of meta­
morphism ; and (2) contact metasomatism in which magmatic emanations
added some constituents to the altered rocks. This latter zone is at
most 1,000 feet wide. Silica, iron, and sulphur were added. Diopside
and hornblende, with a little apatite, tourmaline, garnet, and pyrite
were the minerals formed. There are no contact-metamorphic deposits
of economic importance at this place.
A very different state of affairs is described by Calkins3from Philips-
burg, Montana, where a larger batholith invades Algonkian sediments
of all kinds. The contact zones are half a mile or more in width. The
author draws no sharp line between metamorphism and metasomatism,
and evidently considers both to progress at the same time. The meta­
morphism is strong; close to the contact are masses of magnetite, in part
carrying gold, with garnet, vesuvianite, humite, and forsterite. Scapolite
1Ore magmas, New York, 1922, pp. 99, 588.
2 Joseph Barrell, Prof. Paper 57, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907.
3 W. H. Emmons and F. C. Calkins, Prof. Paper 78, idem, 1913.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 705
and tourmaline are distributed in the sediments for a distance of a mile
or more from the contacts showing a widespread diffusion of magmatic
chlorine and boron. Fluorine has also been introduced, likewise sodium,
silica, and iron, the last only close to the contact.
A monograph by V. M. Goldschmidt1 describes in great detail the
type locality of the Norwegian contact-metamorphic deposits near
Kristiania. They are of little economic importance. On a basement of
Archean rocks rest Paleozoic sediments; these are broken by laccoliths
of gradually more acidic composition, beginning with essexite, which is
followed by syenitic rocks. Near the contacts of the essexite the meta­
morphism is exceedingly strong but takes place without addition of
substance.
Along the syenite contacts Goldschmidt observed both an older
normal contact metamorphism by recrystallization without addition and
a younger “ pneumatolytic” metamorphism by recrystallization under
the influence of magmatic gases, resulting in “skarn rocks,”2 in which
the copper deposits are contained. The characteristic minerals of the
hornfels or altered slates were formed before the consolidation of the
magma and probably without the aid of other water than that normally
contained in the rock. Though the “ skarn rocks” and their metallic
sulphides are later than the general metamorphism they were formed
shortly before the crystallization of the magma, though the immediate
contact may have been congealed. Pyroxene occurs in the inner and
amphibole in the outer contact zone; according to Becke, the transition
point between the stability fields of the two minerals is about 550° C.
at 200 atmospheres.
The “skarn rocks” are coarsely crystalline and consist of andradite,
hedenbergite, wollastonite, scapolite, axinite, adularia, albite, calcite,
fluorite, zeolites, specularite, magnetite, bismuthinite, galena, chalco-
pyrite, primary chalcocite, primary willemite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite,
molybdenite, and bornite. Many of these also occur as primary minerals
in miarolitic cavities in the syenite. Magnetite forms nearer to the
igneous rock than specularite. The scapolite becomes unstable at lower
temperatures and is transformed to albite, epidote, microperthite and
zeolites. The metallic ores are somewhat later than the skarn minerals.
From Ely, Nevada, Spencer3 describes contact zones along small
stocks of quartz monzonite. These zones extend a few hundred feet to
half a mile from the contact. The monzonite porphyry is greatly
altered with development of sericite, biotite, and pyrite but no garnet or
diopside. The process involved loss of sodium, calcium, and some
1 Die Contactmetamorphose im Kristianiagebiet, Kristiania, 1911.
2 An old Swedish mining term signifying the garnct-pyroxene-epidote rooks
accompanying many Scandinavian magnetite deposits.
3 A. C. Spencer, Prof. Payer 96, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917.
706 MINERAL DEPOSITS
alumina; gain of potassium and sulphur. The shales are converted to
strongly pyritic hornfels involving addition of sulphur and iron. The
limestones have developed white and brown mica, tremolite, pyroxene,
garnet, epidote, scapolite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphal­
erite, molybdenite, magnetite and hematite. In places very heavy
masses of jasperoid have been formed from limestone. In general,
silicon, sulphur, potassium, iron, copper, and other metals have been
added.
Spencer again draws no sharp line between metamorphism and
metasomatism, conceiving that the whole process took place by emana­
tions from deeper parts of the magma after the parts now at the surface
had consolidated. The areas exposed he considers too small to have
effected the changes shown. It seems probable that in this case the
alteration of the porphyry and the silicification of the limestone resulted
from a somewhat later mineralization at lower temperature though
practically continuous with the earlier phase.
Different conditions exist at White Knob, Idaho, described by
Umpleby.1 Here the Carboniferous limestone is very little altered in
contact with fresh granite porphyry. Marble has developed close to the
contact and more extensively in a roof segment of the batholith with
scattered crystals of wollastonite, tremolite and diopside. Engulfed
blocks of limestone are, however, more extensively garnetized with
development of considerable ore-shoots (Fig. 284). The process shows
great additions of iron, alumina and silica. To some extent the granite
porphyry is also garnetized so that in places the contacts are indistinct,
and it contains also diopside which replaces biotite and hornblende.
The feldspars are the last minerals of the intrusive to be affected. Two
stages of metamorphism are recognized: (1) Contact metamorphism at the
time of intrusion; (2) contact metasomatism after the consolidation of
the magma. The garnet and ore were developed during the last
stage. That the last process took place after the intrusive had solidified
is proved by garnetization following joint planes in the rock.
In the San Francisco district, Utah,2 Butler finds silicate zones one-
fourth mile wide and recrystallization of limestone over much wider
areas. The contacts of garnetized limestone and fresh monzonite are
often exceedingly sharp, the transition zone being less than 1 inch in
width.
All this shows that the process varies considerably in different magmas,
and that there are considerable differences of opinion as to the various
stages of the process.
Succession of Minerals.—The introduction of sulphides and other
metallic ores into the limestone is too obvious to be disputed. Many
1 J. B. Umpleby, Prof. Paper 97, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917.
2 B. S. Butler, Prof. Paper 78, idem, 1913.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 707
observers have noted a certain succession of developments. Generally,
the silicates and the magnetite are earlier than the sulphides, but the
periods of deposition overlap.
In the deposits at White Horse, Northwest Territory, Stutzer1reports
the succession: wollastonite, pyroxene, magnetite, garnet, calcite, and
sulphides; at Berggiesshiibel, Saxony, pyroxene, garnet, pyritic ores,
sphalerite, arsenopyrite. At the Holgol Mine, Korea, Koto12 found the
succession to be ilvaite,3 diopside, garnet, while the sulphides fill the
interstices between the diopsides (Fig. 290). Frequently, chalcopyrite
replacing calcite cements the garnet and other silicates.
Other authors admit that the sulphides are in part later but point
out that to a considerable extent they have crystallized together with
the silicates. This seems to be the condition in the White Knob, San
Francisco, Ely, Clifton,4 and Camp Hedley5 districts. At the Imperial
mine, Utah, Butler finds magnetite in part later than chalcopyrite.
Takeo Kato6 found that at the Okufo mine, Japan, the succession
began by wollastonite, which is replaced by andradite. The sulphides
are deposited contemporaneously with the andradite or at the very close
of its deposition.
C. H. Clapp7 describes contact-metamorphic deposits on Vancouver
Island, in which the order is diopside, epidote, garnet, magnetite, pyrrho-
tite, pyrite and chalcopyrite, but the silicates continued to form after
some metallization had taken place.
The succession of the sulphides generally begins with arsenopyrite
and pyrite; then follow pyrrhotite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena; the
rarer sulphosalts were formed last.
The early appearance of pyrite is explained by Spencer8 by the
accession of additional iron in the solutions from the sediments and
igneous rock which would bring about precipitation of iron compounds
before those of copper. He regards the magmatic solutions as containing
much Si02, H2S, KSH, C02, HC03, F, Fe, and Cu. The relative abun­
dance of metals in the deposits at Ely is Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Mo and in the
main that is also the sequence of deposition. This leads to the suggestion
that the principal control in determining the order of deposition of the
sulphides was the relative concentration of metal radicals in the mineraliz­
ing solutions.
1Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 17, 1909, pp. 116-120.
2 Jour. Coll. Sci., Imp. Univ. Tokyo, May 28, 1910.
3 Hedenbergitc according to D. F. Higgins, Econ. Geol., 13, 1918, p. 19.
4 W. Lindgren, Prof. Paper 43, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
6 C. Camsell, Mem. 2, Canada Geol. Survey, 1910.
c Jour. Geol. Soc., Tokyo, 20, 1913, pp. 13-32.
7 Mem. 13, Canada Geol. Survey, 1912, p. 158.
8 A. C. Spencer, Prof. Paper 96, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, pp. 64-72.
708 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Detailed studies supported by many analyses have been made of the
contact-metamorphic changes in limestone at Bingham, Utah.1 The
metasomatic processes were followed in detail, showing introduction of
garnet, epidote, wollastonite, tremolite, and diopside with pyrite,
magnetite, siderite, and some chalcopyrite. Much Fe, Si02, Mg, and
some Na was added, while carbon, C02, and CaO were carried away.
There was no important change in volume.
Volume Relations.—The replacement of limestone by sulphides,
oxides, and silicates liberated a large volume of carbon dioxide; a portion
may have been resorbed in the magma, but a larger part was doubtless
dissipated in the fractures surrounding the intrusive mass and gradually
escaped or mingled with the escaping magmatic water and some distance
away with the ground-waters, thus adding to the load of ascending thermal
springs.
In the Morenci district, Arizona, the clearest evidence is given by the
transformation effected along dikes of unaltered quartz monzonite
porphyry, which come from near the apex of an intrusive stock and which
seem to have carried unusual quantities of magmatic emanations. One
of these, 20 to 50 feet wide, crosses the successive Paleozoic formations
with no evidence of fractures that could have admitted solutions from
the depths after the consolidation. In the lower limestones the contact
zones are only a few feet wide, consisting of epidote next to the intrusive
rock, followed by garnet, which adjoins the unaltered limestone. The
addition of iron and silica to this narrow zone, which shows no evidence
whatever of contraction of volume, is so clear that it hardly admits of
discussion. Farther up, the same dike cuts across a pure limestone about
80 feet in thickness. This has been changed to massive andradite
garnet, with some epidote, for a distance of about 100 feet from the
dike. Stains of malachite are present, but this particular rock is poor in
copper (Fig. 285).
If all of the lime has been used in the garnetization and only C02
has escaped, the volume of the rock would have increased about one-half.
If, on the other hand, as seems probable, the volume has remained
approximately constant, then 460 kilograms CaO and 1,190 kilograms
C02 per cubic meter have been carried away, while 1,330 kilograms Si02
and 1,180 kilograms Fe20 3 have been added. These are astonishing
figures and give an idea of the vigorous transfer of material which took
place during metamorphism. The fresh limestone contains 94 to 96
per cent CaC03, less than 1 per cent MgC03, 1 per cent Si02, and 1 to 3
per cent A120 3 and Fe20 3. The andradite garnet contains 1.53 per cent
1 W. Lindgren, Contact metamorphism at Bingham, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 35,
1924, pp. 507-514.
A. N. Winchcll, Petrographic studies of limestone alterations at Bingham,
Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 70, 1924, pp. 884-899.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 709
AI2O3, 31.41 Fe203, 42.63 Si02, and 23.37 CaO. The transfer has been
mutual, for at some places the intrusive rock next to the contact has been
strongly epidotized by lime derived from the calcareous rock.
That the volume has remained practically constant even in the most
intense metasomatism may be considered proved and confirmed by the
observations in the Ely, San Francisco and White Knob districts referred
to above. Preservation of structure, like stratification planes, joints and
fossils, has repeatedly been observed in the silicate rock and in the
sulphides.1
C. K. Leith and E. C. Harder12 have attempted to account for the
silicate rock at the contact of the Iron Springs intrusive in southern
Utah by assuming that the silica and alumina have remained constant
while the volume of the rock has been decreased as much as 60 or 80
Feet above B n Level

F ig . 285.— Vertical section showing flat ore-bodies at Shannon mine, Clifton, A rizona
Ore-body in porphyry dike consists of secondary chalcocite
per cent by reason of abstraction of lime. No definite field evidence,
however, was found in favor of this view.
On the whole, it may be asserted that contact metamorphism takes
place without change in bulk volume, though in places some vuggy or
drusy structures may appear.
Mode of Transfer.—During the alteration of the carbonate rock
much of the carbon dioxide and lime was carried away. In various
proportions this has been compensated by additions from magmatic
emanations of silica, iron, alumina, sodium and a number of other useful
metals. Mineralizers like sulphur, chlorine, boron, fluorine, and arsenic
have also been introduced. Many writers, like Leith and Harder, Calkins
and Goldschmidt, believe that the heavy metals were introduced as
1 Adolph Knopf, Bull. 580, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915, pp. 1-18.
W. Lindgren, Prof. Paper 68, idem, 1910, p. 294.
2 Bull. 388, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908. See also review by Kemp, Econ. Geol., 4,
1909, p. 782, and answer by Leith, idem, 5, 1910, p. 188.
710 MINERAL DEPOSITS
chlorides, fluorides, etc.; and this view is very likely correct. The mode
of transfer of silica from the intrusive to the limestone is a problem not
yet fully solved.
The equations roughly representing the transformations would be as
follows:
2FeCl3 + 3H20 = Fe20 3 + 6HC1
2FeF3 + 3CaC03 = Fe20 3 + 3CaF2 + 3C02
2FeCl3 + 3CaC03 = Fe20 3 + 3CaCl2 + 3C02
CaC03 -|- Si02 = CaSi03 -f- C02
H. von Eckerman1 has contributed valuable information regarding
the progress of silicatization in large limestone masses included in granite
magma, and has also pointed out that C02 may exert an oxidizing action
on iron, resulting in Fe20 3 being formed from FeO of the igneous rock.
On the other hand the CO thus generated would exert a reducing influence.
Physical Conditions at the Contact.—The temperature at the contact,
according to the composition of the magma, may have been as much as
1500° C.; the siliceous rocks consolidating at a temperature of 500°
to 1100° C. Where there is no chemical action involved CaC03 begins
to lose carbon dioxide at 550° C., but the reaction would probably begin
at a lower temperature for MgC03. Magmatic gases acting chemically
on the calcite might still further reduce the temperature necessary for
silicatization. Under abyssal conditions no opportunity would be
afforded for the liberated carbon dioxide to escape through the fissured
rocks.
Even where the carbon dioxide can not escape there may be intense
action between the igneous rock and the limestone. The two rocks will
form a chemical system with great difference of temperature, and it may
be assumed that there will be intense transfer of material between the
two. Possibly lime and carbon dioxide will be absorbed by the magma
in exchange for metallic constituents exhaled from the igneous rock.
At great depths the action will be sustained over a longer period and the
results may be different from those obtained within the cooler and more
brittle upper zone. In its earlier stages the process is surely pneuma-
tolytic, that is, effected by magmatic gases.
A gradual lowering of the temperature from the maximum obtaining
at the contact will take place (1) during the diffusion of the gases outward
into cooler sediments; (2) during the gradual cooling of the intrusive
itself. The presence of wollastonite indicates that the temperature at
this particular place could not have exceeded 1300° C., above which point
this mineral is unstable. It may form at 825° C. but not at 660° C.2
1 H. von Kckormann, Geol. EOr. Eorh., 45, 1923, pp. 465-537.
2 II. Ehrenberg, Zeilschr. phys. Chemie, 14, 1931, pp. 421-434.
 PYROMETAROMATIC DEPOSITS 711
Lindgren and Whitehead1 attempted to determine the temperature
by the solubility curve of sodium chloride, which salt is present as sharp
cubes in fluid inclusions in quartz in a contact-metamorphic deposit at
Zimapan, Mexico. They concluded that the temperature of formation
was about 400° to 500° C.
Wright and Larsen12 have shown that the quartz in contact-meta­
morphic deposits was formed below 575° C. Spencer3 examined fluid
inclusions in jasperoid at Ely, Nevada, and by calculations based on
relative volume of gas and liquid found probable temperatures of 200° to
350° C. The jasperoids were, however, probably formed at lower temper­
atures than the contact-metamorphic silicates.
The garnet in pyrometasomatic deposits commonly shows double
refraction. H. E. Merwin4 found that such birefringent garnet became
isotropic upon heating to 800° C. and hence concluded that the temper­
ature of formation must have been below the figure indicated.
Depth of Formation.—In many cases it is difficult to ascertain the
depth below the surface at which contact-metamorphic deposits were
formed. In the Cordilleran region of America, which contains the most
abundant and characteristic examples of this type, the conditions of
sedimentation and intrusion were such that approximately correct
measurements are feasible. Brogger, many years ago, pointed out that
granular intrusive rocks by no means always crystallized at abyssal depths
and that some intrusions in the Kristiania region had congealed less than
1,000 meters below the surface.
In the central Cordilleran region sedimentation was almost continuous
from the Cambrian to the late Cretaceous; the intrusive rocks now
exposed were injected into these sediments during Cretaceous or early
Tertiary time, well up in the zone of fracture and far above normal
“anamorphic” conditions. In 1907, Barrell5 showed that at Marysville,
Montana, the batholith reached within 4,000 feet of the surface, and
Leith and Harder gave the same figure for the iron deposit at Iron Springs,
Utah. In New Mexico6 similar conditions existed. At the close of the
Cretaceous period practically the whole state was covered by a mantle of
sedimentary rocks from 6,000 to 9,000 feet thick. The Cretaceous part
of this section, into which most of the numerous intrusive masses reached,
was between 3,000 and 5,000 feet thick; much of it consisted of tough but
1Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 435^462; see also N. L. Bowen, Geologic thermometry,
in Fairbanks, Laboratory investigation of ores, New York, 1928, pp. 172-199.
2 Am. Jour. Sci., 4th scr., 27, 1909, pp. 421-447.
3Prof. Paper 96, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, p. 63.
1 In Prof. Paper 87, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915, p. 108.
5 Prof. Paper 57, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907.
0 W. Lindgren, L. C. Graton, and C. H. Gordon, Prof. Paper 68, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1910, p. 41.
712 MINERAL DEPOSITS
pliable shales not easily broken through by the intrusions. At many
places contact-metamorphic deposits were formed less than 3,000 feet
below the surface.
The intrusive “trap” sheets of Triassic age in Connecticut, New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania have exerted some contact-metamorphic action
and produced small copper deposits; at Cornwall, Pennsylvania,1impor­
tant magnetite deposits were formed in calcareous Carboniferous rocks.
The depth below the surface was probably less than 1,000 feet.
For contact-metamorphic deposits in pre-Cambrian areas and in
general where periods of dynamic metamorphism have intervened exact
data of this kind can rarely be obtained. Some deposits of this class were
formed at great depth and under distinctly abyssal conditions.
Distribution.—In the northern part of the Cordilleran region the
deposits seem to be less abundant, though several representatives may be
found in British Columbia, Alaska, Montana, Idaho, Nevada, and Utah.
There are relatively few of them in Colorado, but they occur in much
greater abundance in New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico.
A reconnaissance of the metal deposits in New Mexico permits a good
review of the frequency and relationships of these ores. Along a belt
extending from the northern boundary down to the southwestern part of
the state the Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata are intruded by at least 20
stocks of early Tertiary quartz monzonite or monzonite, usually of
moderate size. The major part of the commercial mineral deposits
cluster around these intrusions. Contact-metamorphic deposits were
found in 14 districts and at least 25 mines have been worked on a com­
mercial scale. At San Pedro and Jarilla, primary chalcopyrite ores are
smelted; at Magdalena, the deposits yield zinc, copper, and lead; at
Hanover, magnetite, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite. In the minor deposits
the ores may simply form irregular masses at the contact, rarely extending
more than 200 feet away from it.
In southern Arizona the deposits are equally common. Among them
are the copper deposits of Clifton, Bisbee, Saddle Mountain, Twin Buttes,
Washington, Silver Bell, Ajo, Casa Grande, and Yekol. At Clifton and
Bisbee the ores have been greatly enriched by oxidation; at Saddle Moun­
tain, Twin Buttes, Washington, and Silver Bell primary chalcopyrite
ores are worked.
In eastern Mexico cupriferous contact-metamorphic deposits are
common where monzonites break through Mesozoic limestones, as first
mentioned by Ordonez and Aguilera. Since then detailed descriptions
have been given of the districts of Santa Fe, in Chiapas; Velardena, in
Durango; San Jose, in Tamaulipas; Concepcion del Oro, in Zacatecas;
Dolores, in San Luis Potosi; and Cananea, in Sonora.
1 A. C. Spencer, Bull. 359, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
 PYUOMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 713
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CONTACT-METAMORPHIC DEPOSITS
The contact-metamorphic deposits may be classified as follows:
1. Magnetite deposits.
2. Chalcopyrite deposits. Principal ore minerals are chalcopyrite,
pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, molybdenite, magnetite, and specularite.
3. Galena and sphalerite deposits.
4. Arsenopyrite-gold deposits. Principal minerals are arsenopyrite
and pyrrhotite.
5. Gold deposits.
6. Cassiterite deposits.
7. Scheelite deposits.
8. Graphite deposits.
The chalcopyrite and magnetite deposits present the most common
type; the ores containing galena, arsenopyrite, gold, or cassiterite are
distinctly rare.
Magnetite Deposits
General Character.—The magnetite deposits of this class are of
common occurrence, though rarely very large. Associated with the
magnetite is more or less specularite, almost always a little pyrite and
chalcopyrite, and the ordinary contact silicates including andradite,
ilvaite, olivine, and hedenbergite—all four rich in iron (Fig. 286). The
magnetite is sometimes crystallized and often developed in coarsely
granular masses (Fig. 288). The ore-bodies are of irregular form, unless,
as often happens, they follow the stratification for some distance.
Foreign Occurrences.—Among the European deposits those of
Berggiesshiibel, in Saxony; Schmiedeberg, in Silesia; and Gora Mag-
nitnaja and Wyssokaja Gora, in the Ural Mountains, are usually described
in the textbooks. Regarding the latter two occurrences, the opinions
seem to be somewhat divided.
The classical deposits of the Banat province, in southeastern Hungary,
first described by von Cotta, deserve special mention. In this region
early Tertiary intrusive rocks, designated as diorite, syenite, and their
porphyries, break through Mesozoic limestones. Along the contacts
the limestones become coarsely crystalline, and the usual metamorphic
silicates,1together with irregular masses of magnetite and some sulphides,
develop in them. A banded structure, sometimes apparent, is caused by
alternating layers of garnet and magnetite of contemporaneous origin.
Masses of garnet from seventy to several hundred feet thick occur.
The best-known mines of this region are at Moravicza, Dognacska, and
Oravicza. The present annual production is small. According to
1A ferromagnesian borate, ludwigite, is recorded from Moravicza.
714 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Bergeat, there can be no doubt that the ores are of contact-metamorphic
origin.
The celebrated mineral deposits of Elba,1Italy, with their beautifully
crystallized hematite, are likewise of contact-metamorphic origin and
were formed under the influence of post-Eocene granite.
Fierro, New Mexico.—Many magnetite deposits of this kind are
known in the United States, particularly in the Western States, but most
of them are comparatively small. A deposit at Fierro,2 in southwestern
New Mexico, is actively worked at present, the ore being shipped to
Pueblo, Colorado. The ore occurs at the contact of quartz monzonite
porphyry, probably of early Tertiary age, with Paleozoic limestone; it

F ig . 286.— Thin section showing m agnetite replacing lim estone in contact-metamorphic

zone, Philipsburg, M ontana. Interm ediate zone rich in olivine. ( A fter F . C. Calkins,
U. S. Geol. Survey.)
outcrops in bold masses and is mined in open cuts. The ore-bodies are
mainly irregular, lenticular masses of magnetite with a little chalcopyrite;
in part they are pure magnetite containing from 60 to 70 per cent of iron.
Those parts which contain a notable quantity of chalcopyrite are left as
pillars. Small bunches of garnet and epidote are present in the ore, and
in places there are horses of more or less metamorphosed limestones; the
phosphorus is rarely above 0.07 per cent; the sulphur averages 0.02 per
cent. Similar deposits, richer in copper, have been mined for flux, the
ores being used in the copper furnaces at Douglas, Arizona.
1 B. Lotti, Z eilschr. p ra kt. Geol., 1905, p. 141.
2 L. C. Graton, P ro f. P a p e r 68, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 313.
Sidney Paige, B u ll. 380, idem., 1909, pp. 199-214; Folio 199, id em , 1916.
 P YROMETA SOMA TIC DEPOSITS 715
Heroult, California.—Another deposit is situated in Shasta County,
California.1 The ore was formerly smelted locally at Heroult, in an
electric furnace. The ore-bodies are found mainly at the contacts of
diorite and Triassic limestone, and also, to a minor extent, at the contacts
of the same diorite with Permian shale and with granodiorite. Magnetite,
garnet and hedenbergite, ilvaite and quartz, pyrite and chalcopyrite are
the minerals present. The limestone is practically pure, and that
material has been transferred from the intrusive seems to be the unavoid­
able conclusion. The ore is low in phosphorus and sulphur.
Iron Springs, Utah.—The important deposits of Iron Springs, in
southern Utah, have been described by C. K. Leith and E. C. Harder.2

Scale of Feet
0j________________500--------------------------
i
1000 1500
1--------------------------
1

F i g . 2 8 7 . — Planshowing m agnetite and lim estone in projecting point of limestone, Iron

M ountain, Iron Springs, U tah. (After Leith and Harder.)
Ores from this district, mined in open cuts, and averaging about 53 per
cent iron, are now smelted in blast furnaces at Provo in the same state.
A laccolith of quartz syenite porphyry (andesite according to the nomen­
clature of the authors) breaks through sediments of Carboniferous,
Cretaceous, and Tertiary age (Fig. 287). The magnetite appears in
fissure deposits and replacements along the contact with the Carboniferous
limestone. Quartz, garnet, diopside, apatite, and hornblende are minor
constituents of the ore. According to the authors only a part of the ore
is associated with contact metamorphism, for the probably gaseous
emanations of iron compounds continued after the consolidation, and the
resulting magnetite, sometimes associated with apatite, garnet, etc.,
filled contraction fissures in the intrusive and replaced the limestone near
the contact.
1 Basil Prescott, E con. Geol., 3, 1908, pp. 465-480.
2 B ull. 338, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
D. McVichie, T ra n s., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 74, 1926, pp. 163-173.
716 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Cornwall, Pennsylvania. 1—In Pennsylvania and also in Virginia
intrusions of Triassic diabases come in contact with Paleozoic calcareous
shales; at many of these places deposits of magnetite have been formed.
. The principal deposit is at Cornwall, and has been extensively
worked as an open cut and later by underground workings. About
31,000,000 tons have been mined and concentrated. Chalcopyrite is
also recovered. Thick sills of diabase are in contact with Triassic shales
and with a 90-foot thick bed of Paleozoic calcareous shale. The former
have been indurated at the contact but contain no deposits. The

F ig . 288. — Thin section showing m agnetite (black) replacing trem olite, Cornwall, Penn­
sylvania. Magnified 35 diam eters. (A fter W . H . Callahan.)
calcareous shale has been extensively contact-metamorphosed with the
development of tremolite and magnetite (Fig. 288) and a small amount
of specularite, garnet, epidote, and diopside. The order of crystalliza­
tion is tremolite, magnetite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite. The ores continue
in places for several hundred feet from the contact.
All those who have examined the deposit agree that the iron and
copper were derived from the solidifying diabase magma, and not from
any other direction. Callahan shows that specularite, magnetite, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, apophyllite and albite occur on the joints in the diabase.
The evidence adduced by Shannon from Virginia is very important and
conclusive.
1 A. C. Spencer, Magnetite deposits of the Cornwall type in Pennsylvania, Bull.
359, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 74-76; B u ll. 430, idem , 1910, pp. 247-249.
E. C. Harder, Structure and origin of the magnetite deposits near Dillsburg,
Pennsylvania, E con. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 599-622.
E. V. Shannon, P roc., U. S. Nat. Mus. 66, 1924, pp. 1-86.
W. H. Callahan and W. H. Newhouse, E con. Geol., 24, 1929, pp. 403-411.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 717
Chalcopyrite Deposits
General Character.—The contact-metamorphic deposits that carry
chalcopyrite as the predominating ore mineral are not abundantly
represented in Europe, but are the most common type in North America,
particularly in New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico, and are sparingly
present in the Cordilleran region of South America. Similar deposits
have been found in Australia, Japan, and Korea. They occur, as a rule,
at the contacts of smaller intrusive masses of monzonite or quartz mon-

F ig . 289.— Thin section showing contact-m etam orphic ore, Clifton, Arizona, c, calcite;
g, garnet; q, quartz, cu, chalcopyrite. Magnified 15 diam eters.

zonite against limestone. Their form is irregular or tabular. The

tabular deposits follow certain beds in the limestone formations, and their
hanging and footwalls may consist of little-altered or unaltered limestone.
The structure of the ore is massive and coarse granular (Figs. 289 and 290).
The ore minerals consist of chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite, more rarely
pyrrhotite and sphalerite, often also molybdenite and other sulphides;
galena is rare. The ore frequently contains much magnetite and specu-
larite. The gangue minerals are andradite, grossularite, epidote, diop-
side, tremolite, vesuvianite, wollastonite, ilvaite, and calcite. The
deposits are poor in gold and silver and are frequently enriched in copper
by oxidation, but in many occurrences the primary ore is rich enough to
be utilized.
718 MINERAL DEPOSITS
New Mexico. 1—In the fourteen districts of New Mexico distinguished
by contact-metamorphic deposits, the copper ores are by far the most
common.
The most important of these deposits, economically, is that of the
San Pedro mine, in the laccolithic mountain group of the same name.
Beds of Upper Carboniferous rocks, over 700 feet thick, have been meta­
morphosed by the underlying laccolith of granodiorite porphyry and by
dikes extending upward from it. The lower 200 feet of shaly limestone
is only partly altered, with local development of garnet and tremolite and
a little chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite, but along a certain bed of purer lime­
stone garnetization has taken place for half a mile, the thickness of this

A B
F ig . 290.— Thin sections showing contact-m etam orphic ores at Holgol, Korea. A,
chalcopyrite (black) in diopside. B , radiating crystals of ilvaito (black) in granular
limestone. Ilvaite incloses crystals of diopside. Magnified 30 diam eters. (After B.
Koto.)
strongly metamorphosed stratum being about 50 feet. Bunches of
chalcopyrite are irregularly distributed in it. Within this zone beds of
pure crystalline limestone adjoin wholly garnetized beds. In places the
rock consists of a mixture of garnet and coarsely crystalline limestone.
On the dip, the gently inclined ore beds have been followed for 300 feet.
The upper beds of the series consist mainly of somewhat metamorphosed
and baked shale and sandstone.
Clifton, Arizona.—In Arizona almost all the contact-metamorphic
deposits yield copper as the principal metal. Near Clifton2 a stock of
1Lindgren, Graton, and Gordon, P rof. P a p e r 68, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910.
2 W. Lindgren, P rof. P a p e r 43, id em , 1905.
L. E. Reber, Jr., The mineralization at Clifton-Morenci, E con . Geol., 11, 1916,
pp. 528-573.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 719
granite porphyry and quartz monzonite porphyry breaks across pre-
Cambrian granite, a Paleozoic series about 1,000 feet thick, and Cretaceous
sediments about 400 feet thick. The Paleozoic limestones and shales,
as well as the Cretaceous sandstones, are contact-metamorphosed. The
ore deposits lie mainly near Morenci and Metcalf; at both places the
beds are cut by an unusual number of dikes, which have exerted a
specially strong contact-metamorphic action on the sediments.
The ore deposits form a complicated series very similar to those
observed at Cananea, Mexico, at Ely, Nevada, and at Bingham, Utah.
The oldest ores are contact-metamorphosed limestones; these, as well as
the adjoining porphyry, are cut by a series of pyritic veins, poor in copper,
which in the sericitized porphyry spread out into disseminations of pyrite.
Widespread oxidation has altered all the deposits and enriched them.
Well-defined chalcocite zones (p. 832) have formed by replacement of the
pyrite by descending cupric sulphate solutions, and the present impor­
tance of the district is due wholly to the exploitation of these chalcocite
ores, which contain from 1 to 2 per cent of copper.
The primary contact-metamorphic deposits lie in limestone and form
irregular bunches or tabular deposits parallel to dikes or following the
stratification. Wherever the character is not masked by oxidation, these
primary ores consist of garnet, epidote, diopside, calcite, chalcopyrite,
pyrite, magnetite, and sphalerite, occasionally also molybdenite. In the
earlier days of the district, from 1875 to 1900, these oxidized ore-bodies
were mined; they were easily reduced and comparatively rich in copper,
containing mainly malachite, azurite, and limonite. The rich Longfellow
ore-body formed a funnel-shaped mass in Ordovician limestone, between
two porphyry dikes.
Farther west, in the Manganese Blue and Detroit mines, were several
tabular ore-bodies, following the stratification in the Ordovician, Devon­
ian, and Carboniferous limestones; these also owed their richness to
several porphyry dikes, a few hundred feet from the main contact.
Along the main contact were many irregular bunches of oxidized contact-
metamorphic ores. At Metcalf, the Shannon Mountain contained
several similar ore-bodies (Fig. 285), lying in an isolated mass of Paleozoic
limestones extensively cut by porphyry dikes.
Bisbee, Arizona.1—At Bisbee, Arizona, pre-Cambrian rocks are over-
lain by about 5,000 feet of Paleozoic limestones, which after deposition
1F. L. Ransome, Prof. Paper 21, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.
W. L. Tovote, Min. and Sci. Press, Feb. 4, 1911.
Arthur Notman, The Copper Queen mine and works, Trans., Inst. Min. and
Met. (London), 22, 1913, pp. 550-562.
Y. S. Bonillas, J. B. Tenney, and L. Feuchere, Geology of the Warren mining
district, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 55, 1917, pp. 284-355.
J. B. Tenney, The Bisbee mining district, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press. May 21, 1927.
720 MINERAL DEPOSITS
were deformed by folding and faulting. After a period of erosion a
transgression of the Cretaceous sea deposited a thick series of beds on the
older series. The Paleozoic series is cut by intrusions of granitic porphyry
of doubtful (Tertiary ?) age, which is intimately connected with the
origin of the copper deposits (Fig. 291). The principal mass, of which
the most prominent point is Sacramento Hill, close to Bisbee, is about
1 mile long and lJ-jj miles wide.
The copper deposits lie in the limestones, surrounding crescent-like the
east side of the intrusive mass, and appear as irregular and ill-defined o:
rudely tabular masses, which on the whole follow the dip of the strati­
fication. They are almost entirely oxidized, even down to depths of
1,400 feet below the surface. The oxidized ore, containing copper carbon­
ates, cuprite, and sometimes also chalcocite, with limonite and some sid-
erite, passes gradually on its peripheries into “ledge matter ” orlimonitic
clays, which in turn grade into altered and contact-metamorphosed lime­
stones. The contact metamorphism is unusually inconspicuous, but the
limestone surrounding the intrusive mass contains fine-grained tremolite,
diopside, garnet, vesuvianite, and quartz, associated with magnetite,
pyrite, bornite, and a little chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite. In the
Oliver shaft, close to the contact, on the 1,200-foot level, the limestone is
more intensely metamorphosed than elsewhere and contains bodies of
pyrite, mixed with chalcopyrite and bornite.
The porphyry dips underneath the limestones, and the contact is thus
found farther west in the mines than on the surface. The limestones
are also cut by a considerable number of dikes. A heavy mantle of
pyritic quartzose ore, with some chalcopyrite and chalcocite, surrounds
the porphyry, pitching parallel to the contact underneath the limestone
of the surface.
Lead ores occur towards the east of Sacramento Hill suggesting a
zonal arrangement of metals.1 Later work by the Calumet and Arizona
Copper Company has developed extensive replacement ores towards the
southwest, at the Campbell shaft, with pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite,
sphalerite, chert, and specularite. The last is said to be a border
phase following the chalcopyrite. In the same direction are widespread
chert replacements in the favorable limestones (Naco and Escabrosa).
While the ores adjoining the main mass of porphyry and associated dikes
are probably of pyrometasomatic origin, the metallization continued
over a considerable period and takes the form of hypothermal or meso-
G. M. Schwartz and C. F. Park, Jr., E con. Geol., 27, 1932, pp. 39-51 (Ores from
Campbell mine).
Ore deposits of the Southwest, G uidebook 14, Sixteenth Intern. Geol. Congress,
1933: Papers by F. L. Ransomo and J. B. Tenney.
1 W. II. Emmons, Relations of metalliferous lode systems to igneous intrusives,
T ra n s., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 74, 1926, pp. 29-70.
Q u arry <au ll

PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS
F ig . 291.— East-W est section across Bisbee mining district. (After J . B . Tenney.)

721
722 MINERAL DEPOSITS
thermal replacements in the areas removed from the center of the
intrusions.
The deep oxidization of the ores certainly dates back to the Tertiary
period and took place under conditions of water level different from those
of to-day. The sericitized and chloritized porphyry, particularly that of
Sacramento Hill, contains some large bodies of low-grade chalcocite ore,
this mineral replacing pyrite.
The Bisbee (Warren) district produced in 1916 about 2,000,000 tons
of 5 to 6 per cent ore yielding about 100,000 tons of copper with
some lead, gold, and silver; the total metallic value was $52,000,000.
The principal production is derived from the Copper Queen and Calumet
& Arizona mines. In 1929, the output was 2,796,000 tons of ore yielding
$1,410,400 in gold; 2,264,000 ounces of silver; 93,100 tons of copper;
1,020 tons of lead; valued in all at $35,505,000 or $11.90 per ton. The
total value of the production amounts to about seven hundred million
dollars.
Silver Bell, Arizona.—At Silver Bell,1 northwest of Tucson, extensive
primary chalcopyrite deposits have been worked. The mines are near
the summit of one of the numerous desert ranges of that region; the ores
were smelted, without concentration, at the Sasco plant. Several small
masses of Paleozoic limestone are engulfed in a large mass of granite
porphyry, and along their contacts metamorphism is irregularly developed
—in part by marmorization, in part by garnetization. The ore consists
of chalcopyrite and light-brown garnet, said to be andradite, with a
little magnetite, sphalerite, galena, and molybdenite. Much of the
ore averaged 7 per cent copper, but that smelted would average about
4 per cent. About 800 tons were mined per day in 1909, and some
production is still maintained. A trace of gold and 1 to 2 ounces of silver
per ton are present. The oxidation is shallow, wholly fresh rock being
encountered at the 200-foot level. The porphyry is locally silicified, but
otherwise not greatly altered, except for some disseminated pyrite and
chalcopyrite. No extensive chalcocite zone has been found in the
porphyry.
Cananea, Mexico.—The mines at Cananea lie a short distance south
of the Arizona-Sonora boundary line, in one of the short ranges that rise
out of the gently sloping desert plains. Since 1900, these deposits have
yielded large quantities of copper from ores enriched by oxidation and
development of secondary chalcocite. The district was described by
S. F. Emmons.2
The deposits show some similarity to those of Clifton, Arizona,
but the geological history is much more complicated. Three successive
1 C. F. Tolman, Jr., M in . a n d S c i. P ress, Nov. 27, 1909.
C. A. Stewart, T ran s., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 43, 1913, pp. 240-290.
2 S. F. Emmons, E con. Geol., 4, 1909, pp. 312-356.
W. H. Emmons, op. cit., p. 720.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 723
irruptions, termed diorite porphyry, granodiorite, and quartz porphyry,
have caused contact metamorphism in relatively small areas of Paleozoic
limestone. Among the primary minerals are chalcopyrite, bornite,
sphalerite, magnetite, and specularite; the limestones are garnetized,
marmorized, and silicified.
A second epoch of mineralization by aqueous solutions resulted in
veins and disseminations of pyrite, chalcopyrite, and quartz. Both
classes have been enriched by oxidizing solutions resulting in valuable
deposits of chalcocite.
Bingham, Utah. 1—The Bingham mining district near Salt Lake City,
Utah, is remarkable for its enormous ore production amounting to a
value of $915,693,000 since 1865. The geological features comprise
about 10,000 feet of Carboniferous quartzite with numerous lenses of
limestone, all folded into an open syncline. In this has been injected
an irregular, spreading mass of quartz monzonite porphyry occupying
only about 3 square miles. The metallization took place in and near the
intrusives and formed a great variety of ore deposits the development of
which was spread over a time interval of gradual cooling following the
intrusion. A low-grade “ protore” in the intrusive mass has been
enriched by supergene processes and now forms the ore-body worked
by the Utah Copper Company; it is one of the largest low-grade copper
mines of the world (p. 847). In many other parts of the district supergene
processes have been at work enriching the ore deposits.
Some of the limestone lenses near the porphyry have been extensively
contact-metamorphosed and near the intrusives chalcopyrite and pyrite
have been introduced, as in the Highland Boy mine where the ores for a
long time averaged fram 2.5 to 3 per cent copper. In depth, lower grade
pyritic ores were met. It seems probable that these ores are of early
contact-metamorphic origin following the silicatization. But there are
also many replacement deposits and veins, partly in the altered white
limestone, partly in the unaltered black limestone, which carry mainly
lead and zinc without any high-temperature minerals and which are
considered to be formed at a lower temperature and during the later
stages of metallization.
Ketchikan, Alaska.—Several contact-metamorphic copper deposits
in southeastern Alaska are described by F. E. and C. W. Wright.*12
M. J. Elsing, Secondary enrichment at Cananea, Eng. and Min. Jour., Sept.
25, 1930.
1J. M. Boutwell, Prof. Paper 38, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
A. N. Winehell, Petrographic studies of limestone alteration at Bingham, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 70, 1924, pp. 884-899.
W. Lindgren, Contact metamorphism at Bingham, Bull. Geol. Soe. Am., 35,
1924, pp. 507-514.
R. N. Hunt, The ores in the limestones at Bingham, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Met. Eng., 70, 1924, pp. 856-883.
2Econ. Geol., 3, 1908, pp. 410-417; Bull. 347, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
724 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Those of Copper Mountain, Prince of Wales Island, present an unusually
excellent illustration of deposits occurring at intervals along the contacts
of an isolated granite intrusion. On the Kasaan Peninsula are several
magnetite-chalcopyrite deposits, also containing pyrrhotite and pyrite,
in a gangue of amphibole, epidote, orthoclase, garnet, and calcite.
Wright believes that the ores were formed after the consolidation of
the last intrusions of syenite. At both places shear zones and vein
deposits containing copper accompany the contact deposits.
Zinc and Lead Deposits
Almost all contact-metamorphic sulphide deposits contain some
sphalerite, and often also a little galena, but only a few deposits are
known in which these metals constitute the principal value of the ore.
Where they occur, the amphiboles and epidote appear to be more promi­
nent than garnet.
One of the best examples is furnished by the Magdalena mines,1
in New Mexico, which in the oxidized zone, 200 to 300 feet deep, were
worked for their lead, silver, and zinc. In depth large bodies of sphal­
erite were found, together with a little galena and chalcopyrite.
According to Gordon, the Magdalena Range consists of faulted blocks
of Paleozoic (Mississippian and Pennsylvanian) limestone, resting on
pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks. The limestones are cut by dikes of
granite porphyry, which are exposed near the Graphic mine and which
are believed to have caused the mineralization. In the limestones, which
dip westward, toward a hidden contact with the granite porphyry,
mineralization has taken place at five horizons, of which only one, just
below the “ Silver Pipe” limestone, is of great importance. The ore-
bodies are roughly lenticular and may be as much as 40 feet in thickness.
Besides the sulphides mentioned, they contain magnetite and specularite,
with much epidote, pyroxene, and tremolite, but little if any garnet.
The distance along the dip of the strata to the intrusive rock is probably
not less than 2,000 feet.
Important deposits of sphalerite with ilvaite and hedenbergite are
found at Hanover,2 New Mexico, not far from Fierro (p. 714); they are
contained in the outer part of the metamorphic aureole, surrounding a
stock of granodiorite porphyry.
Knopf3 describes lead deposits from Darwin, Inyo County, California,
which present a succession ranging from contact-metamorphic types to
fissure veins. Over large areas the Carboniferous calcareous rocks are
altered to wollastonite, diopside, and grossularite rocks, with perfect
1 C. H. Gordon, Prof. Paper 68, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, pp. 241-258.
2 Ore deposits of the Southwest, Guidebook 14, Sixteenth Intern. Geol. Congress,
1933, p. 34 (Sidney Paige).
3 Adolph Knopf, Bull. 580, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915, pp. 1-18.
 PYROMET ASOMA TIC DEPOSITS 725
preservation of structure. An enormous quantity of material, chiefly
silica, has been added during metamorphism. The contact-metamorphic
ores lie between quartz-diorite and lime-silicate rocks. The minerals
are galena, andradite, calcite, and fluorite. Orthoclase and apatite are
present in other similar deposits. Numerous veins of galena and
fluorite break through lime-silicate rock in other parts of the district.
The contact-metamorphic deposits are considered by Knopf to be
later than the general metamorphism, but the argument is not wholly
convincing.
Contact-metamorphic deposits have been described from eastern
Mexico, where the thick Cretaceous limestone is broken through by
many small intrusives. Most of these are copper deposits, but sometimes
they contain lead as at La Sirena mine,1 near Zimapan, Hidalgo, where
dikes and masses of monzonitic character intruded into the pure limestone
have caused mineralization along the contacts. The ore formation
began by development of quartz, albite, danburite (CaB2Si20 8), apatite,
garnet, actinolite, and fluorite in the order given. Then followed deposi­
tion of arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite, and lastly galena, sphalerite,
and jamesonite.
Gold Deposits
Gold is present in traces in almost all sulphide deposits of the pyro-
metasomatic type, and a few ounces of silver to the ton is likewise not
unusual, but it is rare to find in such deposits ores which are valuable
chiefly on account of their precious metals.
One of the best examples of a gold-bearing contact-metamorphic
deposit is that of the Cable mine, Montana, described by W. H. Emmons.2
The ores are included in a long, thin block of limestone, in contact on
both sides with quartz monzonite. The principal minerals are calcite,
quartz, pyrrhotite, pyrite, magnetite, and chalcopyrite, with actinolite,
garnet, and green mica. The gold, in part coarse, is disseminated in
calcite, quartz, and sulphides. Altaite, the lead telluride, is reported
by Sharwood. This deposit has yielded about $3,000,000.
Platinum is rarely found. One occurrence in Sumatra is mentioned
by L. Hundeshagen;3 the metal occurs in wollastonite. It also appears
in the contact-metamorphic zone of the Bushveld complex (Transvaal)
(p. 782).
Gold-Arsenopyrite Type.—A deposit of this rare type, described
by C. Camsell,4 is that worked by the Nickel Plate mine, British
1W. Lindgren and W. L. Whitehead, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 435-462.
2 Prof. Paper 78, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913, pp. 221-231.
3L. Hundeshagen, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met. (London), 1904, pp. 1-3. See also
under Platinum, Chap. XXXI.
4 Geology and ore deposits of the Hedley district, B. C., Mem,. 2, Canada Dept.
Mines, Geol. Survey Branch, 1910.
726 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Columbia. Gently folded Carboniferous limestones associated with
shale, quartzite, and volcanic tuffs are intruded by sheets of gabbro
and diorite. Along the contacts of these sheets, and particularly of their
apophyses, the impure limestones are converted into contact-meta-
morphic minerals with arsenopyrite. The commercial ore-bodies, which
have yielded several million dollars in gold, are tabular and follow the
dipping contacts of the basic rock, which are not exactly parallel with
the inclination of the strata. The principal ore-body has been followed
350 feet along the dip and has a width parallel to the contact of 125
feet.
The ore minerals are, in order of abundance, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, tetradymite (Bi2Te3), and molybdenite.
The depth of oxidation is slight, but in the upper levels free gold occurred
associated with tetradymite, while at the greater depth now attained it
seems to be intimately bound up with the arsenopyrite and is not amen­
able to amalgamation. The pure arsenopyrite may contain as much as
12 ounces of gold per ton. The gold tenor varies from $6 to $14 per ton,
but beyond the ore-body minor quantities of gold are widely disseminated
in the contact-metamorphic rocks. There is very little silver; traces of
platinum (as sperrylite?) and nickel are present. The gangue minerals
are andradite, pyroxene, epidote, calcite, and axinite, and the sulphides
are closely intergrown with them; the chalcopyrite is somewhat later than
the arsenopyrite. Although the rocks are faulted and fissured by post-
intrusive stresses, these fractures contain practically no valuable ores.
The only similar deposit described in the literature is that of Reichen-
stein, Silesia, where auriferous arsenopyrite has been worked on a small
scale, probably since the thirteenth century. According to C. Wienecke1
and H. Reh,12 the ore-producing intrusive is probably a neighboring
granite, and the altered rock a dolomitic limestone.
Contact-metamorphic deposits carrying telluride ores are rare.
W. H. Weed3 describes such an occurrence at the Dolcoath mine at
Elkhorn, Montana, where auriferous tetradymite is found in a 15 to
18-inch bed of garnet, diopside, and calcite. Weed4 also mentions a
deposit at Bannock, Montana, where tellurides occur with specularite,
garnet, pyrite, and free gold at a contact between diorite and limestone.
It seems well established, then, that tellurides may sometimes crystal­
lize at high temperatures. They are not known as products of igneous
consolidation.
1 Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1907, p. 273.
2Herbert Reh, Beitrag zur Kenntniss der erzgebirgischen Erzlager, Neues Jahr-
buch, Beil. Bd., 65-A, 1932, pp. 1-86.
3 W. H. Weed and J. Barrell, Elkhorn mining district, Twenty-second. Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901, p. 506.
4 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 33, 1903, p. 732.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 727
Cassiterite Deposits
Contact-metamorphic deposits with the assemblage of fluorine and
boron minerals characteristic of cassiterite veins are rare. The tin­
bearing magmas, which are generally normal granites, seem to retain
the tin and associated substances until a later stage, after consolidation
of the rock.
Cassiterite occurs, in part in connection with fissures, in the contact-
metamorphic deposits of Pitkaranta, in Finland; of Schwarzenberg and
Berggiesshiibel, in Saxony; and of Campiglia Marittima, in Tuscany.
Other examples of more typical character have been noted at Dartmoor,
in Devonshire, England;1 by A. Knopf2on Lost River, Seward Peninsula,
Alaska; and by Steidtmann.3 At the latter place the granite has pro­
duced a narrow but long contact zone of lime-silicate rocks rich in tour­
maline, axinite, ludwigite, hulsite and paigeite (the last two are ferro-
magnesian stannoborates), vesuvianite, fluorite, scapolite, chondrodite,
galena, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, scheelite, magnetite, pyrox­
ene, and cassiterite. In the banded limestone the argillaceous layers
are converted to tourmaline, with tremolite and vesuvianite, while the
purer calcareous layers are marmorized. The orbicular structure of the
contact minerals of this district has been mentioned on page 700. None
of these deposits are of great economic importance.
At the last named locality cassiterite also occurs in tourmalinized
granitic masses or dikes, in quartz veins cutting granite and developing
greisen, in quartz porphyry dikes, and in quartz stringers cutting lime­
stone and slate.
The dikes of quartz porphyry, which pierce the limestone, contain
cassiterite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, wolframite, and fluorite, with mica and
topaz. The adjoining limestone is reticulated by veins which carry
cassiterite, and around these veinlets, hornblende, vesuvianite, fluorite,
plagioclase, mica, and topaz have formed.
In the so-called Dolcoath lode a narrow dike is transformed into dan-
burite (borosilicate of calcium) and tourmaline, with some arsenopyrite
and cassiterite.
In the offshoots from the main granite mass are found fluorite, cas­
siterite, muscovite, tourmaline, and topaz, the last two having crystal­
lized after the feldspar and quartz.
These interesting observations clearly show the intimate connection
and, in fact, the transition between contact-metamorphic deposits and
hypothermal veins.
1 K. Busz, Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 13, 1899, p. 100.
2 Bull. 358, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
3 E. Steidtmann and S. H. Cathcart, Geology of the York tin deposits, Alaska,
Bull. 733, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1922.
728 MINERAL DEPOSITS
S C H E E L IT E D E P O S IT S

Scheelite (CaW04), a heavy white mineral of non-metallic luster,

occurs in many contact-metamorphic deposits. Such scheelite deposits
have been discovered in Inyo County,1California, apparently of economic
importance. The scheelite is associated with garnet, calcite, hornblende,
and pyroxene. Metallic minerals are rare. In 1917 and 1918 several
such deposits were discovered and worked in the Humboldt Range,

F ig . 292.— M ap of scheelite contact zone near Golconda, Nevada. (A fter Hess and Larsen,
XJ. S. Geol. Survey.)
Nevada, particularly near Mill City.2 The association is calcite,
scheelite, garnet, epidote, and pyrite; the deposit occurs in limestone close
to granite and is intersected by a dike of aplite. Possibly many such
deposits have been overlooked. The intrusive rock is usually a grano-
diorite; the replaced rock always a limestone or a dolomite. The suc­
cession is in general garnet, diopside, epidote; scheelite was apparently
formed with the silicates; the scant sulphides were later. The granitic
rock adjoining the contact had solidified at the time of ore formation.
Hess and Larsen give the name of “tactite” to the contact-metamorphic
1 Adolph Knopf, Bull. 640, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, pp. 229-249.
F. L. Hess and E. S. Larsen, Contact-metamorphic tungsten deposits of the
United States, Bull. 725, idem, 1922, pp. 245-311.
2 Information Circ. 6280, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 729
rock. Many interesting illustrations show the tendency of the tungsten
ore to form along the periphery of limestone inclusions in the intrusive
(Fig. 292).
Graphite1
Properties.—Graphite is a form of carbon crystallizing in the rhombo-
hedral system; it is soft, steel-gray to black, and has a greasy feel.
Even in its purest form it contains a little volatile matter and ash, usually
less than 1 per cent. Many varieties are impure, and for some purposes,
like paint-making, material with as little as 35 per cent graphitic carbon
is utilized. Analyses quoted by Cirkel show that the commercial grades
of graphite, even those considered as of high quality, contain several
per cent of volatile matter and may be high in ash. It is stated that
graphite always contains hydrogen and nitrogen.
The question whether graphite really exists in some of the varieties of
“graphitic slate” yielding “ amorphous graphite” is debatable; the
minuteness of the particles renders it difficult to determine whether they
are crystalline or not. The term “ graphitoid” has been proposed for
such substances. The best test for graphite is said to be its characteristic
property of yielding “ graphitic acid” (C11H4O5) with strong oxidizing
reagents such as nitric acid. The amorphous carbons do not respond to
this test.
According to H. Moissan, graphite begins to oxidize at 650° to 700° C.
In texture graphite is flaky or scaly or, when in veins, often fibrous
perpendicular to the walls; these varieties are called “ crystalline” in the
trade. “ Plumbago” and “ black lead” are trade names for the mineral.
General Occurrence and Origin.—Graphite appears mainly in rocks
which have suffered intense regional or igneous metamorphism. The
literature on its occurrence and origin is very extensive and shows plainly
that the mineral may have originated in several ways:
1. It may form an integral part of rock magmas and crystallize
together with the rock. This possibility is indicated by its presence in
meteorites, in the terrestrial iron of Ovifak, Greenland, in nepheline
syenite,2 and in pegmatites.3 In some of the occurrences in pegmatite
dikes the graphite has, however, clearly been absorbed from the surround­
ing crystalline limestone. This is the origin of one of the occurrences
1F. Cirkel, Graphite, its properties, occurrence, refining, and uses, Dept. Mines,
Canada, 1907, p. 307.
B. L. Miller, Mineral Industry, Annual issues.
E. Donath, Der Graphit, Leipzig and Vienna, 1904.
E. Weinschenk, Der Graphit, etc., Leipzig, 1904.
T. H. Clark, The origin of graphite, Econ. Geol., 16, 1921, pp. 167-183; A. N.
Winehell, idem, p. 492.
2 T. H. Holland, Mem., Geol. Survey India, 30, 1901, p. 201.
3 G. O. Smith, Bull. 285, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906. pp. 480-483.
730 MINERAL DEPOSITS
described by George Otis Smith, as well as of the graphite in a dike near
Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, described by A. C. Spencer.1 These
deposits are rarely of economic importance.
2. Graphite forms by the recrystallization of carbonaceous matter in
metamorphic sedimentary rocks resulting from sandstone, shale, lime­
stone, or coal. This transformation is well established and can evidently
be effected under conditions of intense regional or igneous metamorphism,
but it probably requires a relatively high degree of heat, certainly well
above 200° C. The development of graphite in the zone of contact
metamorphism is assumed by some authors, like E. Weinschenk, to
mean that the carbon has been supplied by emanations from the magma.
Weinschenk also applies this theory to its occurrence in many areas of
regional metamorphism, but this view is probably not justified.
In studying the contact-metamorphic graphite from Ticonderoga,
New York, E. S. Bastin showed by experiments that the contemporaneous
quartz crystals had not been exposed to a temperature of 575° C. While
a very high temperature is necessary for the manufacture of artificial
graphite, the transformation can evidently be effected in nature at a
much lower degree of heat.
Winchell2 has shown that two reactions are possible by which the
carbon in limestone can be expelled in gaseous form, as, for instance, has
evidently happened at Bingham, Utah, during contact metamorphism;
they are: C + 2H20 = C02 + 2H2and C + C02 = 2CO. If these reac­
tions are reversible and move towards the deposition of free carbon upon
cooling, this would afford a satisfactory explanation of the formation of
graphite. The first reaction does not occur below 550° and proceeds very
slowly below 600° while the second reaction does not begin below 600° but
proceeds freely at 800° to 900° C. The free carbon was probably driven
out of the limestone while the temperature was at least 700° C. The
same solutions produced tremolite which can not be formed above 1000
to 1100° C.3 If both processes went on simultaneously, therefore, the
temperature was probably about 800° C.
3. Lastly, graphite occurs in veins, sometimes 2 or 3 feet wide, having
the appearance of resulting from the filling of open fissures; and in this
form the mineral usually possesses a marked transverse fibrous structure.
Such veins are found in igneous rocks like pegmatites and granites, and
also in the surrounding metamorphosed sediments. Fine examples are
seen in the graphite regions of New York, Canada, and Ceylon.
The origin of this type is less easy to explain. As the veins are
usually found near intrusive contacts where high heat prevailed, it may
be conjectured that they were formed by deposition from gaseous carbon
1 Franklin Furnace folio, 161 Geol. Atlas, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
2Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 70, 1924, pp. 884-899.
3 E. T. Allen and J. K. Clement, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 26, 1908, p. 101.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 731
compounds, such as carbon monoxide or cyanogen compounds, perhaps
with metals; in some of these graphites the ash contains much iron. The
prevailing opinion is that the carbon is derived from surrounding sedi­
ments and was deposited shortly after the intrusion, but E. Weinschenk1
and others consider it as originating from exhalations of igneous origin.
Types 2 and 3 form many valuable graphite deposits.
Occurrences.—Deposits of graphite have been found in a number of
states in the Union, but few are of economic importance; many of them
are graphite slates or clays which are utilized as pigments or as lubricants.
A part of the domestic supply of “ crystalline” graphite is obtained
from New York; the mines are located in Essex, Warren, Washington,
and Saratoga counties, in the Adirondack region,2 and the largest mine,
that of the American Graphite Company, has been worked for 30 years.
The rocks are pre-Cambrian crystalline schists of sedimentary origin.
The principal bed worked is a dark silver-gray quartz-graphite schist and
is said to average about 6 per cent graphitic carbon. Elongated quartz
grains, muscovite, apatite, pyrite, and graphite, the last in thin and
ragged flakes, averaging about 1 millimeter in length, are the constituents.
Two beds are known, one about 8 feet thick, the other from 3 to 20 feet.
Excavations have extended for 2,000 feet along the gentle dip of the
thicker bed, the greatest depth below the surface being 250 feet. The
associated rocks are garnetiferous gneisses and limestones of the Grenville
series. The sediments are metamorphosed by intrusion and injection
of granite and gabbro of Laurentian and possibly Algoman age.
Three miles northwest of Ticonderoga, in the same region, coarse
graphite plates are irregularly distributed throughout the contact zone
between pegmatite and pegmatitic granite and the schists and limestones
which these rocks intrude. Contact-metamorphic minerals, like scapo-
lite, pyroxene, and vesuvianite, occur in this zone. The graphite also
forms veins, 1 to 2 inches wide, which cut across both the schist and
granite. The deposits at this locality have been worked for a number
of years.
The production of flake graphite from a belt of Paleozoic mica schist
in Clay County, Alabama, and the adjacent region has acquired consider­
able importance. The ore contains about 3 per cent graphite.
A deposit containing graphite in veins similar to those of Ceylon
has been found near Dillon, Montana.3 The veins occur along a contact
1Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., 21, 1901, pp. 218-335.
2 E. S. Bastin, Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 134-157.
D. H. Newland, Annual reports of the graphite industry, Bulls., 1905 to 1916,
N. Y. State Mus.
Ida H. Ogilvie, Bull. 96, idem (Geological m ap).
H. L. Ailing, The Adirondack graphite deposits, Bull. 199, N. Y. State Mus., 1918.
2 A. N. Winchell, Econ. Geol., 6, 1911, p. 218.
E. S. Bastin, idem, 7, 1912, p. 435.
732 MINERAL DEPOSITS
zone of granites and pegmatites, intrusive in pre-Cambrian schists and
calcareous rocks which have been contact-metamorphosed.
At several places in New Mexico1 intrusions of basic igneous rocks
have altered the coal beds of the Tertiary or Cretaceous formations. At
Madrid the coal was converted to anthracite. Near Raton the intrusions
have turned the coal into a coke-like material, but at one place 7 miles
southwest of Raton a number of sills produced exceptionally intense
metamorphism, converting the coal to graphite. Graphite also occurs in
irregular masses in the diabase and has a more or less columnar texture
normal to the faces of the igneous rock.
Similar conditions produced the important deposit of amorphous
graphite of Santa Maria, in central Sonora, Mexico. According to
F. L. Hess,2 several coal beds, attaining a maximum thickness of 24 feet,
have been subjected to contact metamorphism and folding by intruding
granite and are converted into amorphous graphite. The main vein
averages 86 per cent graphitic carbon and furnishes a good material for
the manufacture of lead pencils.
The graphite deposits of Ceylon3 are among the most productive in
the world, yielding about 14,000 metric tons a year of high-grade product,
principally from the Ragadera mine. The mineral is said to occur as
filled fissure veins, from 12 to 22 centimeters wide. They show little or no
replacement but consist almost entirely of graphite with radial fibers at
the selvages, and platy masses in the middle. According to F. D. Adams,
the earlier minerals are pyroxene, calcite, apatite, rutile, and pyrite.
The calcite seems to be contemporaneous with the graphite. The mines
are from 100 to 1,200 feet deep. The rough material often contains up
to 50 per cent impurities and is hand picked and sorted.
According to Bastin, the veins are found in a fine-grained acidic or
basic gneiss to which he applies the name granulite. Some crystalline
limestone is also present. The gneisses are intruded by granites and
pegmatites. In the last few years Madagascar is rivaling Ceylon. In
1929, 16,050 metric tons are said to have been produced, the quality of
flake graphite being about the same as that of the domestic output. .
The Siberian deposits, in the Batagol Mountains near Irkutsk, yield
material of great purity, which formerly supplied the lead-pencil industry.
L. Jaczewski,4 describing the Alibert mines in this region, states that the
graphite occurs in a nepheline syenite close to the contact of a schist that
also contains graphite, the latter, as well as the inclusions in the igneous
rock, being considered of organic origin.
1 W. T. Lee, M ineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1908, p. 733.
2M ineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1908, p. 734.
3 E. S. Bastin, Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 419-443 (with literature).
F. D. Adams, Trans., Can. Inst. Min. Eng., 1926, pp. 496-503.
* Neues Jahrbuch, 1901, ref. 2, p. 74. (Original in Russian.)
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 733
The deposits at Passau, in Bavaria, comprise few veins; the graphite
occurs in a crushed, schistose rock; and Weinschenk1regards the deposits
as caused by volcanic emanations. Passau is discussed again by E.
Ryschkewitsch and W. Peinert,12 both authors3 apparently upholding
Weinschenk’s theory of magmatic origin.
The graphite deposits of Canada are contained chiefly in Buckingham
and Grenville townships, Quebec, near Ottawa. The production in
1929 was about 1,325 metric tons. These deposits, which have been
described by A. Osann,4 show particularly clear relations to contact
metamorphism. The rocks are largely gneiss, quartzite, and crystalline

F i g . 293.— Vertical section of graphite F ig . 294.—Vertical section of graphite

veins, Buckingham Township, Quebec. vein in limestone, Grenville district, Quebec.
Black, graphite. (A fter A . Osann.) {After A . Osann.)

limestone of Grenville age cut by granite, pegmatite, and diorite.

Graphite is widely distributed in fissure veins or lenticular masses in
these intrusions or near their contacts, also as disseminated flakes in
limestone or gneiss (Figs. 293 and 294). Associated minerals are apatite
and scapolite, often appearing in the wall rocks of the veins, also biotite,
titanite, wollastonite, and pyrite. The analogy of these deposits with
the apatite veins is striking and the conclusion seems justified that they
were developed by igneous emanations shortly after the close of the
intrusive activity.
1E. Weinschenk, Zur Kenntniss der Graphitlagerstatten., Abh. Bayer. Akad.
Wiss., 19, 1899, pp. 511-563.
2 Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1924, pp. 70-76.
2 Idem, 1925, pp. 12-15.
4 Ann. Repl., Canada Geol. Survey, 1899, pp. 660-820. See also Cirkel’s report
quoted above.
734 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Deposits from South Australia similar to those of the Adirondack
have been described by C. E. Tilley.1 Tilley shows inclusions of graphite
crystals in garnet.
Production and Uses.—The production of natural graphite in the
United States has varied considerably, owing to the large quantities of
low-grade material used for paints and fertilizers. The output of flake
graphite from New York State was in 1918 about 1,600 tons per annum.
Alabama, in 1924, produced 292 tons; the total domestic output of natural
graphite in 1929 was 6,458 short tons, of which 2,900 tons were flake
graphite, mainly from Alabama. There was no domestic output in 1931.
Artificial graphite is manufactured in electric furnaces at Niagara Falls at
the rate of 6,000 tons per annum, from anthracite coal mixed with a small
percentage of ash. In addition about 20,000 to 42,000 tons of graphite
are imported from the highly productive mines in Ceylon, Mexico, Korea,
and Madagascar. Ceylon graphite sold in New York (1929) for 3 to 9
cents a pound. Domestic crystalline graphite brought an average price
of 4.6 cents per pound in 1929.
There is a great demand for graphite from many branches of industry.
The inert and heat-resisting nature of the “ crystalline” graphite makes it
particularly valuable for crucibles, the fibrous Ceylon product being
most suitable for this purpose.
Graphite is extensively used as a lubricant, with oil, and for this
purpose the artificial mineral, which is “ deflocculated,” causing it to
remain indefinitely in suspension in oil, is especially employed. Other
uses are for pencils, foundry facings, polishing powder, paint, electrodes,
and, strange to say, as an adulterant for fertilizers; it is claimed that it
prevents absorption of moisture and caking.
The low-grade material from New York State is concentrated at the
mines by crushing, washing on buddies or other appliances, and settling,
but the details of the process have not been made public. The prac­
tice for amorphous graphite in Clay County, Alabama, includes dry
crushing, water flotation and drying.2
Garnet
Some varieties of garnet, especially almandite, are mined and used as
abrasive material. In the state of New York there are several deposits
of this kind.3 The garnets occur in highly altered rocks of somewhat
uncertain history but probably the result of contact metamorphism.
1 Econ. Geol., 16, 1921, pp. 185-198.
2 Irving Herr, Eng. and Min. Jour., April 21, 1917.
3 W. J. Miller, Garnet deposits of Warren County, N. Y., Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp.
493-501.
W. M. Myers and C. O. Anderson, Garnet, its mining, milling and utilization,
Bull. 256, U. S. Bur. Minos, 1926.
W. M. Myers, Mineralogy of eommereial garnets, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 12,
1926, p. 115.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 735
P Y R O M E T A S O M A T IC D E P O S IT S NOT RELATED TO CONTACTS

General Features.—The deposits thus far described lie close to the

well-defined contact of an intrusive rock with a sedimentary series.
There are deposits, however, in which the mineral association points to
the same mode of origin, but which are not clearly related to any given
contact. This may result from a sloping or irregular contact of a large
batholith, so that a point on the surface that is several miles from the
contact horizontally may be only a few thousand feet from it in a vertical
direction. General metamorphism, without special development of
mineral deposits, appears to have been effected by such conditions at the
northern end of the great batholith of Idaho between the Clearwater and
St. Joe rivers.1 During a long and deep immersion into the abyssal zone,
metallic gases given off by magmas may have penetrated farther from
the intrusion than they have near the surface. Obscure fissures may
have guided the emanations. Erosion may have cut away the metal­
lizing dike or mass, so that its relation to the deposit is no longer apparent .
Ores of copper, zinc, lead, and iron are included in this class. Many
representatives are found among the obscure deposits in the pre-Cam­
brian of Scandinavia.
Boundary District.—At Phoenix12and Greenwood, in British Columbia
near the international boundary, are a number of ore-bodies which have
yielded several million tons of ore. The geology of the region is complex.
A thick series of volcanic rocks (porphyrites), both clastic and massive,
crystalline limestones, and argillites, all of upper Paleozoic age, is intruded
by a granitic batholith of probable Jurassic age and smaller masses of
syenite.
The large ore deposit of the Granby Company, now exhausted, lies in
a mineralized zone which represents a part of the limestone replaced by
epidote, garnet, etc. The ore-bodies are lenses or large masses, one of
which is 2,500 feet long and 900 feet wide and has a maximum thickness
of 125 feet. The dip becomes flat in depth and the ore ceases at a vertical
depth of 675 feet. The ore consists of chalcopyrite, pyrite, hematite,
and magnetite, with andradite, actinolite, and epidote. Calcite and
quartz fill the interstices between the lime-iron silicates. The ore as
smelted contained from 1.2 to 1.6 per cent copper with 0.04 ounce of
gold and 0.3 ounce of silver per ton. The original limestone, which
appears in some remnants near the ore-body, is comparatively pure and
contains from 1 to 10 per cent of silica and little or no iron. The lime­
stone is in large part converted to jasperoid, the alteration appearing
to have taken place before the development of the ore.
1 F. C. Calkins and E. L. Jones, Bull. 530, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913, pp. 75-86.
2 O. E. LeRoy, Mem. 21, Canada Geol. Survey, 1912.
736 MINERAL DEPOSITS
No large bodies of igneous rocks appear in or near the deposits, and
the nearest—small—outcrops of granodiorite are 1 to 2 miles away; one of
these outcrops has been locally replaced by garnet, epidote, and actinolite.
Deep drilling below the deposits failed to disclose intrusive rocks. It is
held that the ores were formed by igneous emanations of iron, silica, and
copper which traversed the limestone laterally from some unit of the
intrusive series that is now eroded.
Ducktown, Tennessee.—The copper ores at Ducktown have been
worked since about 1848 and still maintain an output of about 8,000 tons
of copper a year. In addition, about 1,000 tons of sulphuric acid are now
obtained daily from these ores. The district, which lies in the moun­
tainous area of the southern Appalachians, has been the subject of
NW

Ore
F ig . 295.— Cross-section of M ary mine, Ducktown, Tennessee. (A fter W . H. Emmons,
U. S. Geol. Survey.)
repeated geologic investigation by C. Heinrich, J. F. Kemp, and W. H.
Weed. W. H. Emmons and F. B. Laney1 reported on the deposits in
1926. The last paper is by C. S. Ross, 1935.
The deposits are contained in a highly compressed, metamorphosed
and schistose series of arkosic sediments of Cambrian age, consisting of
poorly sorted conglomerate, sandstone, and shale. Garnet and staurolite
have developed abundantly in the rocks, the staurolite following certain
horizons persistently. Thin lenses of limestone were contained in the
series and are exposed in some places in the mines; they are now
crystalline and contain layers of biotite and muscovite. Here and there
1 W. H. Emmons and F. B. Laney, Geology and ore deposits of the Ducktown
mining district, Tenn., Prof. Paper 139, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1926. C. S. Ross, Prof.
Paper 179, 1935. Ross denies the presence of limestone lenses and holds that the
carbonates were deposited by hydrothermal solutions.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 737
are small ill-defined lenses of a highly metamorphic rock looking like a
diorite-pegmatite and consisting of quartz, feldspar, hornblende, and
garnet. These peculiar phases are now believed to be the result of
strong metamorphism of the arkosic sediments. Dikes of gabbro, later
than the mineralization, are intruded in the sediments.
The deposits are elongated, roughly tabular masses, some of them
curved, lens-shaped, or folded, striking northeast and mostly dipping
southeast (Fig. 295). The ore beds are parallel to the strike of the schists
and average 60 feet in width. The primary ore is a coarsely crystalline
mass of pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, specularite, mag­
netite, actinolite, calcite, tremolite, quartz, pyroxene, garnet, zoisite,
chlorite, mica, graphite, titanite, and feldspars, all of practically con­
temporaneous crystallization.
Much of the ore is almost massive pyrrhotite and pyrite. Along the
strike and dip the ore may grade into a lime-silicate rock of gangue min­
erals, and these in places grade into crystalline limestone. The contact
between schist and ore is sharp or gradational within a few inches. The
beds have been worked to a maximum depth of 1,400 feet. A thin but
rich chalcocite zone due to enrichment by surface waters was found at a
depth of 50 feet (p. 835), but below this the ores contain 1.5 to 3.0 per
cent copper, a small amount of silver, and a trace of gold. The ores from
the Mary mine average 2.5 per cent. It is held that the ores are formed
by the replacement of thin limestone beds; all the abundant gangue
minerals are in fact rich in lime. The sequence is believed to have been
as follows: (1) Development of lime silicates and pyrite; (2) crushing by
continued dynamo-metamorphism; (3) introduction of pyrrhotite and,
later, sulphides of copper, zinc, and lead.
Franklin Furnace, New Jersey.1—The great zinc-manganese deposits
of northern New Jersey are of exceptional complexity and interest.
Known since 1650, and actively worked since 1860, they now yield
annually about 773,000 short tons of ore containing about 98,000 tons
of zinc. The treatment of the crude ore by magnetic concentration
yields franklinite, “ half and half,” and willemite; the first is used for the
manufacture of zinc oxide for paints and leaves a manganiferous residue
which goes to the blast furnace to make spiegeleisen; the second is also
used for zinc white; and the third after further concentration yields a
product of willemite from which a high-grade spelter (zinc) is made.
1 A. C. Spencer, H. B. Kiimmel, J. E. Wolff, and Charles Palache, Franklin
Furnace folio, Geol. Allas 161, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908; review by C. K. Leith, Econ.
Geol., 4, 1909, p. 265.
H. Ries and W. C. Bowen, Origin of the zinc ores of Sussex County, N. J., Econ.
Geol, 17, 1922, pp. 517-571.
J. E. Spurr and J. Volney Lewis, Eng. M in. Jour.-Press, Feb. 21, 1925.
Charles Palache, The minerals of Franklin and Sterling Hill, Prof. Paper 180
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1935.
738 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The two ore deposits of Mine Hill and Sterling Hill, 3 miles apart,
are situated along a belt of pre-Cambrian crystalline limestone adjoined
on the west by coarse gneisses of igneous origin. Cambrian limestone
covers these rocks to the east and west. Both deposits form canoe­
shaped beds in the pre-Cambrian limestone. The Mine Hill ore bed
(Fig. 296) is closely adjoined along its west flank by the gneiss, the con­
tact of which is parallel to the ore-body. The ore mass is thus a layer
varying from 12 to 100 feet in thickness, which, bent upon itself, forms a
long trough or one-half of a canoe with sides of unequal height, the keel
pitching north at a gentle angle.
The mines are opened by a vertical shaft 965 feet deep and an incline
1,500 feet long. The ore forms transitions into the limestone, and at

F i g . 29G . — Plan
of outcrop and levels, and vertical section of M ine Hill ore-body, Franklin
Furnace, New Jersey. (After A . C. Spencer, U. S. Geol. Survey.)
Sterling Hill the limestone between the flanks also contains lean ore.
Pegmatite dikes cut ore, limestone, and gneiss. The ore is a coarse
aggregate of franklinite, 50 per cent; willemite, 20 to 30 per cent;
zincite, 2 to 6 per cent; and calcite, 3 to 11 per cent. Franklinite ((Fe,
Mn, Zn) O. (Fe, Mn)20 3), contains about 42 per cent iron, 15 percent
manganese and 12 per cent zinc; willemite, (Zn2Si04), 58 per cent zinc;
zincite, (ZnO), 77 per cent zinc. The four minerals mentioned are held
to constitute the original ore. Besides, there are a great number of rarer
minerals such as tephroite (Mn2Si()4), zinc pyroxene (schefferite), zinc
amphibole, zinc spinel (gahnite), manganese garnet (polyadelphite),
axinite (borosilicate of Al, Ca, Fe, Mn), apatite and scapolite (containing
chlorine), rhodochrosite, fluorite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite,
chalcopyrite, and lollingite. In all, about 100 minerals have been identi­
fied in the deposit. Most of these are regarded as products of secondary
metamorphism due to the pegmatite dikes. Many veins cut the deposits,
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 739
some of them contain the normal recrystallized ore minerals, others are
distinctly later with sulphides associated with calcite, albite, bornite,
quartz, dolomite, etc.
In the older literature the deposits were considered of sedimentary
origin. The question of genesis was reopened in 1889 by F. L. Nason,
who admitted the possibility of igneous origin. Spencer believes that
the original deposit was formed by the injection of magmatic emanations
from the gneiss intrusions into the limestone. Participation in the
general deep metamorphism which affected this region in pre-Cambrian
time has further complicated the relations. It is certain that the texture
of the ore and the universal rounding or corroding of the ore minerals
point distinctly to igneous metasomatic action. The abundance of the
spinel minerals is indicative of high temperature.
Ries and Bowen believe that the ore minerals were formed by replace­
ment of a limestone bed which subsequently was folded. Spurr and
Lewis suppose that the deposit was originally a magmatic ore-body of
sphalerite, pyrite, and rhodochrosite which later was metamorphosed by
an injection of magma. Still another theory which has something to
recommend it, is that the deposit was originally an epigenetic sulphide
mass in limestone, which was thoroughly oxidized by weathering processes
and subsequently intruded and metamorphosed by granite.
Langban, Sweden.1—This remarkable manganese deposit, from which
108 minerals have been described, in some respects forms a close analogy
to Franklin Furnace. Magnetite, hematite, braunite, and hausmannite
are accompanied by andradite, diopside, and tremolite. There are also
lead silicates, arsenates, arsenites, antimonites, and native lead. It is
held that a primary Fe-Mn ore, probably sedimentary, was exposed to
granitic intrusions which gave rise to the extremely complicated minera-
logical development.
Metasomatic Magnetite Deposits of Sweden.2—Many of the earliest
known and longest worked of the Swedish iron deposits form irregular
1 N. H. Magnusson, L&ngbans malmfalt, Geol. Survey Sweden, Mon. 23, 1930,
111 pp.
2 Hj. Sjogren, The geological relations of the Scandinavian iron ores, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 38, 1908, pp. 766-835.
Hj. Sjogren, The question of the origin of the iron ores in the older pre-Cambrian
series of Sweden, Geol. For. Fork., 30, 1908, pp. 115-155.
H. Johansson, The question of the origin of the middle-Swedish iron ores
(Swedish), Geol. For. Fork., 28, 1906, pp. 516-538; 29, 1907, pp. 143-186, 232-255;
30, 1908, pp. 232-235.
Review, Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 494-498.
See also a summary of literature by A. Bergeat in Fortschritte der Mineralogie,
etc., 2, Jena, 1911, pp. 43-44.
Excellent descriptions of individual districts are found in the guide to the excur­
sions of the Internat. Geol. Congress, Stockholm, 1910.
P. Geijer, Some problems in iron ore geology in Sweden and America, Econ. Geol.,
740 MINERAL DEPOSITS
masses or lenses in rocks of Archean age. They are either directly
associated with crystalline limestone, or they occur near limestone but
surrounded by masses of silicates, like pyroxene, garnet, and epidote, to
which the term “skarn” is usually applied. Though not so large as some
of the more recently discovered deposits of certain or probable magmatic
origin, the deposits have in the aggregate furnished much ore of excep­
tional purity and as yet are far from being exhausted. Formerly these
deposits were considered by the Swedish geologists as of sedimentary
origin, like bog iron ores, but subsequently metamorphosed. At present
few observers hold to this view. There is a strong similarity between ihe
Swedish ores and the pyrometasomatic deposits of the Banat. Unmis­
takable also is their similarity to the pyrometasomatic deposits of North
America, many of which contain much magnetite and which at some
places are worked for iron.
The Swedish deposits are, however, not so simply explained, for while
in the districts mentioned the ores unquestionably adjoin igneous intru­
sions, the granitic rocks of Sweden are generally later than the deposits,
which normally are contained in a peculiar fine-grained rock with gneis-
soid texture that is widely distributed in the iron region and has been
variously designated “ halleflinta,” eurite, leptite, or granulite. These
rocks, which form wide zones in the pre-Cambrian of Sweden and are
locally associated or interbedded with amphibolites and masses of more
distinctly sedimentary quartz-mica slates and also with beds or lenses of
crystalline limestone or dolomite, are salic rocks, generally with at least
67 per cent silica, and consist largely of albite, orthoclase, and quartz.
The most prevalent opinion is that these rocks are in part effusive, per­
haps originally tuffaceous, and in part intrusive, generally supracrustal,
and that the limestone and mica schist are of sedimentary origin.
The bodies of magnetite are in general associated with masses of
crystalline limestone in this leptite formation. The ores form stock-like
masses with greatest extension in a vertical direction and border directly
against granulite, limestone, or “skarn.” The bodies have been fol­
lowed to a depth of about 1,000 feet; some of them cease distinctly at
various depths, but other stocks still continue below the greatest depth
reached. Many of them, but not all, conform with the banding of the
leptite (Fig. 298).
The “limestone ores” are more directly embedded in limestone, but
here too skarn minerals may be present. In such an ore-body at Klack-
10, 1915, pp. 209-239.
P. J. Holmquist, Structure and metamorphism of Swedish iron ores (Swedish),
Geol. For. Fork., 35, 1913, pp. 233-272.
N. H. Magnusson, Persbergs Malmtrakt, Bull. 2, Dept. Comm., Stockholm, 1925;
Nordmarks Malmotrakt, Mon. 13, Geol. Survey Sweden, 1929, 98 pp.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 741
berg a narrow zone of dark-brown garnet was noted along the contact of
limestone and ore, and in the limestone itself was disseminated a dark-
brown amphibole. The “skarn ” consists mainly of pyroxene and
amphibole. At Persberg and other places, there are also some cordierite-
magnetite ores poor in lime. The limestone ores often carry manganese
and some of them constitute manganese deposits, like that of L&ngban.
Stretching and schistosity were superimposed upon the deposits in places,
and sometimes the direction of the stretching indicates the pitch of
the ore-body. The magnetite is fine-grained; it contains in places a little

F i g . 2 9 7 . — Vertical gections of the K ran mine, Persberg, Sweden. Shaded areas indicate
stopes. (A fter H j. Sjogren.)
specularite. Some deposits contain small quantities of pyrite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, and arsenopyrite.
The composition of one of the Persberg ores is as follows:
Fe 30 4........... ........ 71..56 CaO........... ........ 4. 85
FeO............. ........ 5 .11 AI2O3......... ........ 0 .77
Fe................ ........ 55. 79 Si02........ ........ 1 2 . 76
MnO........... ........ 0 , 17 P 20 6.................... 0 . 005
MgO............ ........ 4..18 s .............. ........ 0 .031
Secondary changes have resulted in crushing along certain zones (skolar)
and a great development of chlorite and other minerals of dynamo-
metamorphic affiliations. Among the celebrated deposits of this type
should be mentioned those of Persberg, Taberg (in Wermland), Nord-
mark, Norberg, and Dannemora.
742 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The field relations indicate beyond doubt that the ores and skarn are
metasomatic replacements of limestone or dolomite similar to contact-
metamorphic deposits, probably effected by very hot solutions, contain­
ing iron, manganese, silica, etc., derived from intrusive magmas.
Holmquist holds that the bedded, supracrustal leptites with accom­
panying sedimentary iron ores (p. 313) subsided into underlying granitic

F ig . 298.— Geological m ap of Geton, near Persberg, Sweden. Showing relations ol

m agnetite to the leptite-lim estone series. (After N . H. Magnusson.)
magma, which effected igneous metamorphism of the bedded ores and
developed magnetite and lime silicates in the limestone. The later events
included a regional metamorphism which affected the ores to some degree,
and the final intrusions of granite, pegmatite, and diabase which have
exerted very slight influence on the deposits.
During the last years opinions have again shifted somewhat. Sun-
dius, Lindroth and Magnusson1 appear to believe that the iron ores
1 Sec discussion of N. H. Magnusson and Per Geijer in Geol. For. Fork., 47, 1925,
pp. 357-361. (Footnote continued on following page.)
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 743
stand in closest connection with the effusive leptites; and, the leptites
being supracrustal, it is suggested that one must choose, therefore,
between a sedimentary origin and metasomatism near the surface at lower
temperatures. The formation of the iron ores was followed by the intru­
sion of the ancient granites which metamorphosed the skarn ores and the
leptite with development of silica, fluorite, pyrite, scheelite, anthophyl-
lite, gedrite, and cordierite, probably also sulphide ores (p. 744). Still
later came the younger granites which produced very slight changes.
P. Geijer holds to the view of deep-seated pyrometasomatism, and his
arguments have considerable weight. The relations are exceptionally
well illustrated by Fig. 298.
Magnetite Deposits in the United States.—Deposits of magnetite,
which are similar to the Swedish ores just described, are found in the
United States at few places. The Tilly Foster mine,1in New York State,
contained a steep lenticular body of ore embedded in gneiss; the magnetite
was associated with calcite, dolomite, chondrodite, enstatite, epidote,
chlorite, garnet, and scant sulphides. The ore-body was followed to a
depth of about 600 feet.
The Iron Ores of the Lahn Syncline, Germany.—This district of
folded Devonian slate, “schalstein,” and effusive, probably submarine,
diabase flows (Fig. 16) has attracted much attention.*12 The ores lie
between diabase and Devonian slates or tuffaceous beds and contain
magnetite, specularite, pyrite, siderite, and quartz; magnetite often
replaces crystals of specularite. It is held probable by the authors cited
that the ores were formed by submarine volcanic exhalations, the prod­
ucts of which were deposited on the sea bottom. This explanation is not
universally accepted in Germany.
PYROMETASOMATISM OF TH E CORDIERITE TYPE

Cordierite is a mineral typical of the contact-metamorphic zones;

it is common in hornfels but does not ordinarily develop in limestone.
In certain kinds of copper deposits, which occur only in regions of strong
metamorphism and very deeply buried rocks, we find the association of
cordierite, anthophyllite, or gedrite, quartz, chlorite, biotite, and mus­
N. H. Magnusson, Persbergs Malmtrakt, Bull. 2, Dept. Comm., Stockholm, 1925.
G. Lindroth, Geol. For. Fork., 48, 1926, pp. 357-409.
N. Sundius, Tschermak’s min. u. petr. Mitt., 38, 1925, pp. 175-194.
1 F. It. Koeberlin, The Brewster iron-bearing district of New York, Econ. Geol., 4,
1909, pp. 713-754.
R. J. Colony, Magnetite iron deposits of southeastern New York, N. Y. State
Mus., Bulls. 249, 250, 1923.
2 H. Schneiderhohn, Geol. Rundschau, 14, 1923, pp. 60-68.
A. Cissarz, Mitt. Kaiser-Wilhelm Inst. Eisenforsch., 5, 1924, pp. 109-126.
E. Dannecker, Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 53-d, 1925, pp. 197-208.
744 MINERAL DEPOSITS
covite, in places chondrodite (also a magnesian mineral), with pyrite,
pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, more rarely other sulphides, sometimes mag­
netite. These deposits have been variously interpreted. In the second
edition of this book some of them were referred to as “injected pyritic
deposits,” following Weinschenk and Bergeat. Although truly magmatic
injections of pyritic ores occur, some of the examples mentioned belong
to a different class. They have been formed by replacement, and
have received important magmatic additions of magnesia, iron, copper,
and sulphur. We know the origin of these deposits chiefly by the work
of P. Eskola and P. Geijer. The former has demonstrated their existence
at Orijarvi, Finland, in a notable publication; the latter has shown that
many representatives of the class are found in Sweden. In the United
States the type is very rare.
In brief, these deposits are pyrometasomatic in origin and have
developed in slates, schists, or quartzite, not in limestone. They are of
irregular, roughly tabular, or stocklike form. Many important copper
mines have been working ores of this origin.
Bavaria.—At Bodenmais,1 granite intersects gneisses. The ore
deposits lie in cordierite gneiss. The ores contain pyrrhotite and pyrite,
with some sphalerite rich in cadmium and galena rich in silver; the
bodies lie in general parallel to the dip of the gneiss. The contact between
ore and gneiss is sharp, though there are some disseminated sulphides in
the surrounding rock. Many of the gangue minerals are rounded or
corroded. Recent papers show widely varying opinions of origin.
Sweden.—The renowned copper deposit at Falun,12in Sweden, forms a
huge inverted cone enclosed in gray quartzose and gneissoid rocks and
extending to a depth of 1,200 feet. The ore-body is really composed of
the same rock, impregnated to greater or less extent with pyrite, pyrrho­
tite, and chalcopyrite. The gangue minerals accompanying the ore are
cordierite, magnetite, andalusite, spinel, and garnet. It is difficult to
arrive at a definite conclusion regarding the origin of this deposit; at any
rate it was formed at high temperature. According to Vogt, the total
production of copper from Falun from 1300 to the present time is about
500,000 metric tons.
The copper deposit at Bersbo,3 in Sweden, is of a similar type. The
ores are quartzose and are embedded in gray fine-grained “ granulite”
1E. Weinschenk, Z eitsch r. pra kt. G eol., 1900, pp. 65-71.
For different interpretations, see papers by Hegemann and Maucher and by
Dessau, Annotated Bibliography of Economic Geology, VI (1): 243; and idem , VI (2):
214, both 1934.
2Hj. Sjogren, The Falun copper mine, G uide exc., XIe Cong. geol. internat.,
Stockholm, 31, 1910.
A. E. Tornebohm, Geol. For. F ork., 15, 1893, pp. 609-690.
3 A. Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstatten, 2, 1904, p. 978.
N. Sundius, Atvidabergstraktens geologi, Geol. Survey Sweden, ser. C, 306, 1921.
 PYROMETASOMATIC DEPOSITS 745
or “leptite” (p. 740). In thin section the ores show a texture resembling
that of contact-metamorphosed schist and contain as gangue minerals
quartz, cordierite, spinel, biotite, hornblende, and garnet. On the whole,
the succession is magnetite (oldest), pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and
chalcopyrite.
More recently P. Geijer has contributed valuable data on this group.
He has re-examined Falun and finds that it is practically a mass of con-
tact-metasomatic quartzite and schist. At Riddarhyttan1 are many
examples of this type.
Finland.—At Orijarvi, P. Eskola2 has described the very extensive
contact metamorphism produced in a series of limestones and leptites
and ore-bodies of pyritic copper ores replacing the latter. Much cordier­
ite is present.
United States.—It is significant that no deposits of this type have
been found in the Cordilleran region where contact metamorphism is very
common but usually of a kind which developed relatively close to the
surface. It seems that very high temperature and pressure are necessary
for the formation of the cordierite-chalcopyrite deposits.
At Blue Hill, Maine,3 copper ores have been worked intermittently,
last during the World War. The Ellsworth schists (Cambrian?) have
been intruded by granite. Near the contact irregular or tabular bodies
of pyrite and chalcopyrite have developed in the chlorite-sericite schist.
A considerable amount of quartz and cordierite accompanies the ores.
1 P. Geijer, Riddarhyttans Malmfiilt, B u ll. 1, Dept. Comm., Stockholm, 1923.
2 B u ll. 40, Comm. g6ol. de Finlande, 1914.
3J. L. Gillson and R. M. Williams, E con. Geol., 24, 1929, pp. 182-194.
 CHAPTER XXIX
REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED SULPHIDE DEPOSITS
Rocks subjected to stress at moderate depths within the zone of
fracture may rupture in closely spaced breaks, producing the appearance
of a schistose structure. In such rocks no great chemical changes would
occur, except perhaps by subsequent deposition along the tight fis­
sures. At greater depth deformation may take place by granulation
and recrystallization, accompanied by chemical changes that are effected
by the aid of the scant rock moisture. Uralite and chlorite may form
from pyroxene, the soda-lime feldspars may recrystallize to zoisite and
albite, the quartz crystals may be crushed and elongated, new mica,
particularly muscovite, may develop; also crystals of aluminum garnet.
The chemical composition of the rock will, however, change but little;
although the various transformations involve transportation of substance,
this movement is not free, but is limited and hindered in all directions.
Under these circumstances it is improbable that processes of con­
centration could have much opportunity to assert themselves; the minute
quantities of useful metals contained in the original rock could not easily
assemble to form larger masses.
Nevertheless certain deposits may develop by recrystallization of
the substances contained in the original rocks. Disseminated graphite
deposits (p. 730) may result from the crystallization of carbonaceous
matter. Talc and soapstone may form from basic rocks. The crystal­
lization of garnet may lead to deposits which can be utilized for abrasive
purposes. Aluminum silicates, like cyanite and sillimanite, when
plentifully present, may be useful for refractory material.
In amphibolite schist small grains of chalcopyrite, often intergrown
with pyrrhotite and magnetite, appear to be more common than in the
primary igneous rock from which the schist was derived. If even
the slightest and slowest circulation of water were established during the
deformation, some concentration of chalcopyrite could well take place,
as it does in fissures traversing similar rocks.
When the deformation takes place at higher temperatures a number
of minerals are developed which are similar to or identical with those of
contact metamorphism. It is often difficult, indeed, to draw the line
between regional and igneous metamorphism, especially in intensely
metamorphosed regions where intrusive masses are abundant. There is
reason to believe that at temperatures of, say, several hundred degrees
746
 REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED SULPHIDE DEPOSITS 747
some of the rocks, particularly limestones, become permeable to the
gaseous emanations of water and metallic compounds yielded by intru­
sive masses, and thus an opportunity is afforded for the introduction of
new substances, which in places may become concentrated into ore
deposits. To such a permeation in the deep zone, many of the most
enigmatic ore deposits of the crystalline schists may owe their origin.
These deposits would then differ in some respects from the ordinary
contact-metamorphic ores, which have, as a rule, developed only close
to intrusive contacts, in most cases also actually within the zone of
fracture.
Dissemination of sulphides is a phenomenon often encountered in
almost any area of crystalline schists. In the majority of occurrences
pyrite, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite are prominent; the sulphides of
lead and zinc are far less common. Such disseminations are particu­
larly connected with amphibolitic or chloritic rocks. As indicated above,
these ore minerals may have various modes of origin. In the first place,
the dissemination may be caused by mineralization along both sides of a
fissure, parallel with the schistosity—that is, by the formation of a
“bedded vein.” Such mineralization is later than metamorphism,
and the metamorphic minerals will probably be found to be altered—
sericitized, carbonatized, or more rarely silicified.
If, on the other hand, the sulphide minerals were contained in the
rock previous to metamorphism, or if they were developed during that
process, they will be found intergrown with the metamorphic minerals,
such as amphibole, epidote, chlorite, garnet, and albite, and usually
accompanied by some magnetite or ilmenite.
Larger pyritic masses of this kind are, in most cases, probably original
products of magmatic concentration; or they may be old fissure veins or
replacement veins which have been rendered unrecognizable by deforma­
tion; or, finally, they may be of contact-metamorphic origin.
Sparser disseminations, often following certain lines along the strike
of the schist, are often called “fahlbands” (the German “fahl” meaning
rusty brown and referring to the oxidized outcrops). Such fahlbands,
first noted in Kongsberg, Norway,1 where they enrich the silver veins,
may be several miles long and vary in thickness between a fraction of a
foot and several hundred feet. The enclosing rocks vary from gneiss
to mica schist, diorite, and amphibolite. The ore minerals are pyrite,
pyrrhotite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and sometimes cobalt
minerals. They are often intergrown with amphibole or garnet.
The fahlbands are rarely of economic importance, but many of them
characteristically enrich intersecting veins, causing native silver and gold
1 C. A. Munster, Ref. in Z eitsch r. p ra kl. Geol., 1896, p. 93.
J. H. L. Vogt, idem , 1899, pp. 177-181.
748 MINERAL DEPOSITS
as well as cobalt and nickel ores to appear at the intersections. This is
probably only a special case of the general law that veins are enriched
where they cut across belts of pyritic impregnation. Fahlbands rich
in cobaltite, with pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and molybdenite,
were worked at Skutterud and Snarum, in the Modum parish, Norway,
from 1776 to 1899. For a long time these deposits were among the
principal sources of cobalt oxide, which is used to impart a deep blue
color to glass and porcelain. According to the older literature quoted
by Stelzner and Bergeat,1 the fahlbands at Skutterud lie between gneiss
or quartz schist and amphibolite. Other minerals mentioned are
malacolite, anthophyllite, and rarely graphite and tourmaline. The
ores were poor, containing, even when sorted, less than 1 per cent cobalt.
A parallel belt at Snarum is said to be enclosed in amphibolite and con­
tains more copper.
The fahlbands have been variously interpreted. At a time when
the crystalline schists were generally considered as altered sediments, they
were held to be sedimentary deposits. Dali and Kjerulf,12 in 1880, held
them to be impregnations related to gabbro intrusions. Vogt considered
the gray gneiss of Kongsberg as a pressed granite and held that it had
been impregnated with sulphides at the same time as the surrounding
schists.
That the dissemination of sulphides in its present form is dependent
upon dynamo-chemical metamorphism is clearly shown by the minerals
with which the sulphides are now intergrown. Sulphide emanations
from intrusive magmas at a considerable distance from their source do
not usually crystallize with amphibole, pyroxene, and garnet, but
rather with calcite, sericite, and quartz as gangue minerals. Still, the
recrystallization under pressure does not necessarily explain the ultimate
origin of the minerals, and it is probably hopeless to speculate on this
subject until the metamorphic series at the location of typical fahlbands
has been more carefully examined as to the original character of its
rocks.
Somewhat similar fahlbands in amphibolite and gneiss are reported
in the older literature from Schladming, in Styria, where they enrich
intersecting cobalt-nickel veins, and from Les Challanches, in France,
where similar relations exist.3 Descriptions from both places show that
the so-called fahlbands are in reality narrow veins accompanied by
alteration of the wall rocks.4
1 Die Erzlagerstatten, 1, 1904, pp. 269-271.
2 Die Geologie des siidlichen und mittleren Nonvegens, 1880.
3 Stelzner and Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstatten, 1, 1904, pp. 268-269.
4 C. Schmidt and J. H. Verloop (Schladming), Z eitsch r. prakt. Geol., 17, 1909,
pp. 271-276.
T. A. Rickard (Challanches), T ra n s., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 24, 1894, pp. 689-705.
 REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED SULPHIDE DEPOSITS 749
T H E PLASTIC D E F O R M A T I O N OF MINERALS

In rocks which have been exposed to strong pressure, practically

all minerals have been crushed and deformed; even the hardest of minerals
are not exempt if the pressure is strong enough. Naturally the defor­
mation takes place most easily in the softer minerals; it is expressed by
crushing, sheeting, and transformations of grains and crystals into lenticu­
lar masses. It may also find expression in translation gliding or in twinning.
The latter mode is exemplified by the frequent twinning in calcite. The
softer ore minerals are easily affected, particularly galena, sphalerite,
and chalcopyrite.1
Galena deforms by translation along cube planes; and, by twinning,
along other planes; evidences of deformation are often seen in lead
deposits (p. 567). Sphalerite deforms by gliding on octahedral planes
resulting in twinning. Chalcopyrite deforms by gliding on the pyramid
and sometimes becomes twinned. Pyrrhotite also deforms in a plastic
way. Pyrite resists vigorously and is usually crushed or sheeted.
Ore deposits contained in schists and gneisses usually show a
more or less perfect alignment of the ore minerals with the schistose
structure. This banded structure may have resulted from the dynamic
metamorphism of a massive ore-body, but it is also possible that the ore
minerals may have been introduced after the metamorphism and that
the banded structure may have resulted from a preferential replacement
of certain bands, or minerals, in the schist. It is often of importance to
distinguish between these two cases. The subject has been well treated by
Newhouse and Flaherty.12 In the case of dynamic metamorphism of the
ore, two generations of each mineral will generally be found, and there
will be evidence of elongation and straining of the ore minerals.
It is clear that fracturing, crushing, and plastic deformation are not
the only effects of pressure on sulphide ores. They are accompanied by
more or less extensive recrystallization. Newly formed aggregates heal
and cement the material; in part they are gangue, in part sulphides or
similar compounds. It has been supposed that the recrystallization
takes place by the aid of very small amounts of water or gas which permit
solution and re-deposition of the original material. Many of the ores
affected must, however, be nearly dry. For such conditions it is well
to bear in mind the results obtained by metallographic research. In
1 M. J. Buerger, The plastic deformation of ore minerals, Am. Mineralogist, 13,
1928, pp. 1-7, 35-51 (with literature and account of older data); Translation gliding
in crystals, idem, 15, 1930, pp. 45-64.
F. D. Adams, Differential pressure on minerals and rocks, Jour. Geol., 18, 1910,
pp. 489-525.
2 W. H. Newhouse and G. F. Flaherty, The texture and origin of some banded or
schistose sulphide ores, Econ. Geol., 25, 1930, pp. 600-620 (with literature).
750 MINERAL DEPOSITS
metals and alloys, recrystallization often takes place upon relatively
slight heating in the absence of a fluid phase, so that it must be concluded
that a limited rearrangement and migration of molecules can also occur
within the solid phase itself.
The Mandy ore-body at Flin-Flon, Manitoba, although occurring in
schist, shows the microscopic texture of a normal replacement ore.
The copper deposit at Rammelsberg,1 in the Harz Mountains (p.
626), well illustrates the effects of local dynamo-metamorphism at no
great depth. Under strong pressure the softer minerals, like galena,
chalcopyrite, and sphalerite, are easily deformed along gliding planes
and pressed out to plastic streaky masses. Pyrite, being harder, is
crushed without plastic deformation and subsequently cemented.
Pyritic deposits, with chalcopyrite, forming lenses or bedlike masses
in probably Paleozoic schists are found at several places in New England
and Quebec. Among them are the Milan, New Hampshire, the Ely,
Vermont, and the Eustis, Quebec. The ores appear to be later than
the schistosity and replace the schist under the influence of Paleozoic
intrusions. Some slight later deformation may be observed.
At the Milan mine,12 cordierite and quartz are among the gangue
minerals, but neither they nor the sulphides antedated the metamorphism
of the surrounding schists.
POST-MINERAL REACTIONS

It is well understood that dynamic metamorphism may change the

structure, texture, and even the mineral composition of ore deposits.
It is likewise well known that many changes take place under the influ­
ence of descending, oxidizing surface waters; these we call supergem
processes, and they will be described in detail later. But there are other
changes that may occur after the process of mineralization by ascending
waters has ceased. Little attention has been given to these, but it is
almost self-evident that complex ores may not always be in a state of
equilibrium with the residual solutions which still linger in the deposit.
The temperature has been reduced, but it may still be fairly elevated,
say from 50° to 100° C. Under such conditions some of the minerals
may prove unstable or may react together. Such minerals as marcasite
and complex sulpho-salts may form. Waldschmidt3 was probably the
first to call attention to the development of boulangerite or jamesonite
1 W. Lindgren and J. D. Irving, E con . Geol., 6, 1911, pp. 303-313.
F. D. Adams and J. A. Bancroft, On the amount of friction developed in rocks
during deformation, etc., J o u r. Geol., 25, 1917, pp. 597-637.
Paul Ramdohr, Ueber den Mineralbestand und die Struckturen der Erze des
Rammelsbergs, N eu es Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 5 7 -A , 1928, pp. 1013-1068.
2W. H. Newhouse and G. F. Flaherty, op. cit., p. 609.
3 W. A. Waldschmidt, Deformation in ores, E con. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 573-586.
 REGIONALLY METAMORPHOSED SULPHIDE DEPOSITS 751
in the ores from the Coeur d’Alene district as a distinctly post-mineral
process. Later investigations (unpublished) have shown that in the deep
levels of the Morning mine of that district tetrahedrite reacts with galena
to form a lead sulphantimonide. Pressure seems to favor the reactions.
Observations made by Stillwell1 indicated that meneghinite forms from
a similar reaction.
In the Porvenir silver mine at Huanuni, Bolivia, franckeite (a complex
tin-lead sulphantimonide), also argentiferous jamesonite, marcasite,
and pyrite develop from galena, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, and cylindrite,
likewise apparently under pressure. To what extent descending waters
may contribute to these reactions is not yet fully known. In the Morning
mine at least, the process went on far beyond the reach of surface waters.
T H E ZINC O R E S O F A M M E B E R G , SWEDEN

One of the most mysterious of ore deposits is that of Ammeberg,2

in Sweden, where the zinc ore is disseminated in banded and contorted
gray gneissoid '‘leptite.” Some layers of gabbro, crystalline limestone,
and lime-silicate rocks are intercalated in the steeply dipping leptite.
Sphalerite, with very little galena, is widely disseminated in the leptite,
seemingly taking the place of magnetite, and along certain zones has accu­
mulated as long, lenticular folded bands, some of which are 30 to 50 feet
in width and have been followed to depths of 1,000 feet. The ores are
rich in sphalerite but contain few other minerals. A fahlband of dis­
seminated pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite lies in the leptite of the footwall.
The deposit certainly seems to be of syngenetic origin and the mineral
association indicates that it has been subjected to high temperatures.
1F. L. Stillwell, Mineral constitution of the Broken Hill lode, P roc., Austral. Inst.
Min. Eng., 64, 1926, pp. 97-172.
2 H. E. Johansson, The Ammeberg zinc ore field, Geol. For. F ork ., 32, 1910, G uide
cxc., XIemc Congres geol. internat., Stockholm, 35, 1910.
 CHAPTER XXX
MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES
INTRODUCTION

Each large intrusive mass is usually accompanied by a series of later

dikes. These “ complementary” dikes have, as a rule, a composition
similar to that of the prevailing rock, but differ from it in showing an
enrichment of certain constituents and a reduction of others. They
are generally regarded as products of magmatic differentiation, forming
residual parts of the dominant magma after its consolidation has begun.
Some of them are basic, like kersantite, minette, or camptonite; others
are acidic, like granite porphyry, aplite, or pegmatite.
Under the name of pegmatite are grouped the coarse granular dike
rocks, often with well-developed idiomorphic texture, which accompany
intrusive rocks, each group being characterized by pegmatites of special
types.
Gabbros are sometimes accompanied by basic pegmatites of feldspar
and pyroxene, and diorite by similar dikes of a basic feldspar and horn­
blende. The anorthosites are followed by pegmatitic dikes containing
labradorite, hypersthene, and ilmenite; the nepheline syenites by peg­
matites of soda feldspars, nephelite, sodalite, lepidomelane mica, aegirine,
arfvedsonite, and minerals containing zirconium and titanium.
Most abundant are the granitic pegmatites, which consist mainly
of coarsely crystallized orthoclase and quartz with muscovite; they often
contain tourmaline, cassiterite, beryl, orthite, topaz, and a host of other
rare minerals.
MINERALIZERS A N D T H E NA TU RE OF THEIR ACTION1

The processes of intrusion and crystallization bring about an increas­

ing concentration of the volatile constituents in the magma, if no
avenue of escape is open to such substances. In subaerial eruptions
they are given off into the atmosphere. These volatile substances, which
of course formed an integral part of the original magma, consist of water
and compounds of boron, fluorine, chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur, carbon,
arsenic, and other rarer elements. They exert a peculiarly favorable
1 A. Harker, Natural history of igneous rocks, 1909, pp. 282-302.
J. F. Kemp, The pegmatites, E con. Geol., 19, 1924, pp. 697-723.
K. K. Landes, Origin and classification of pegmatites, A m . M ineralogist, 18,
1933, pp. 33-55; 9fi-103.
752
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 753
action upon the crystallization of magmas and minerals by decreasing
their viscosity, lowering their freezing point, and furthering the develop­
ment of minerals which otherwise do not crystallize from dry magmas.
Harker says:
The action is doubtless partly physical, partly chemical. The nature of the
chemical effect, where the agent does not enter the crystallized product, is sometimes
designated as a cata lytic action, signifying a peculiar property possessed by certain
bodies of inducing chemical changes in other bodies without themselves entering into
the composition of the final product. In other instances the “mineralizer” forms part
of the crystallized material.
In the acidic rocks, which are known to contain fluorine and boron,
the action of mineralizers is particularly clear, but they are doubtless
present also in basic rocks, in which chlorine, phosphorus, and sulphur
take the place of fluorine and boron. More or less water is always
present.
The presence of inclusions containing water in quartz crystals of
acidic intrusive rocks shows plainly enough that the magma contained
some water, as do also the rare transitions from pegmatite dikes to
deep-seated ore-bearing veins.
The residual magma contains, besides these volatile mineralizers,
the principal elements of the igneous rock crystallizing as quartz,
feldspar, ferromagnesian minerals, and muscovite, and a number of rarer
elements, such as tin, tungsten, zircon, tantalum, columbium, cerium,
beryllium, molybdenum, lead, copper, lithium, and cesium. These rare
elements appear to have been carried along in the process of differentia­
tion by the mineralizers, which in many cases have also carried large
quantities of iron differentiated from the main igneous body.
It is possible that these fluid extracts may have been pressed out of
the semi-consolidated magma by mechanical action. The residual magma
has a high vapor tension, and both factors facilitate its separation.
The mineralizing agents do not confine their action to the later stages
of differentiation, but doubtless play a part in the crystallization of
the main body of every magma. This is shown by the occurrence of
molybdenite, pyrite, bismuthinite, sphalerite, titanite, and zeolites in
the druses of granitic rocks; among such are the occurrences at Striegau,
described by A. Schwantke,1 and those in the syenitic rocks in the
vicinity of Kristiania, mentioned by Goldschmidt.2 The granites of the
Island of Elba contain in druses such minerals as albite, tourmaline,
beryl, garnet, pyrite, arsenopyrite, cassiterite, and zeolites.3
1 Drusenmineralien des Striegauer Granits, Leipzig, 1890.
2 V. M. Goldschmidt, Die Contactmetamorphose im Kristiania Gebiet, Kristiania,
1911.
3 G. Vom Rath, Die Insel Elba, Z eitsch r. deutsch, geol. Gesell., 22, 1870, p. 466.
754 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Many of the silicate minerals, formed by the aid of mineralizers as
the last stage of intrusive action, are of remarkably complex chemical
nature. To many minerals of this class no formula can confidently be
assigned. Other minerals, especially the sulphides, are characteristically
of simple formula and composition.
A distinct paragenesis or succession of minerals is noted in many
pegmatites. With successively lower temperatures new sets of minerals
were formed and many of those stable at a higher degree of heat became
subject to alteration as the temperature became lower. Thus in tbe
Norwegian pegmatite dikes, Brogger distinguishes three epochs of
crystallization ending with the zeolites. Later investigators have
emphasized this feature.
The residual magma is injected into the earlier consolidated portion
and also into the encasing rocks; its fluidity and low melting-point are
factors of great importance, allowing it completely to soak and penetrate
schistose and fissile rocks encountered in its way. The pegmatites are
essentially residual magmas, but they may become so admixed with
water and dissolved gases that we may speak of them as in aqueo-igneous
fusion at a temperature of around 575° C.
A praiseworthy attempt to carry this problem forward by the con­
struction of diagrams showing the temperature of formation during
magmatic and post-magmatic epochs has been made by Fersmann,1
in regard to the pegmatites of Trans-baikalia and Chibina (Kola).
OCCURRENCE AND GENERAL CHARACTER

The pegmatites form dikes, sheets, pipes, and irregular masses;

where appearing as dikes or sheets no great regularity or extended con­
tinuation in depth can be counted upon, and this is important to consider
in the exploitation of such bodies. Probably this irregularity is explained
by the sudden and explosive action by which they make room for them­
selves and hold the cavities open until their substance is crystallized.
Very different is this action from the slowly applied compressive stresses
by which the fissures of most veins are opened.
The pegmatites are essentially coarsely crystalline rocks. Under
some circumstances the dimensions of the crystals may be enormous.
In the Ural Mountains a quarry was opened in a single orthoclase crystal;
in India muscovite plates 10 feet in diameter have been found; at the
Etta mine (Fig. 299), in the Black Hills of South Dakota, spodumene
occurs in crystals resembling tree trunks and as much as 42 feet in length;
quartz crystals several feet in length are not uncommon. At Albany,
Maine, beryl crystals 18 feet long and 4 feet in diameter have been
1 A. Fersmann, Geochemische Diagramme, N eu es Jah rbu ch , Beil. Bd. 64, 1931,
pp. 663-680. On classification of granite pegmatites, see same author, Tschcrmak’s
m in . u. petr., M ill., 41 (1), 1931, pp. 64-94.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 755
found. Feldspar and quartz often crystallize together as graphic granite,
but in other pegmatites there is a distinct succession, with muscovite,
for instance, at the walls and quartz and feldspar in the center, or with
feldspar crystals along the walls and a central filling of quartz. The rarer
minerals usually form the later generations and probably crystallized
below 575° C., the crystallographic inversion point for quartz. The
pegmatites are generally not eutectics. The rarer minerals are accessory,
as a rule, for there are enormous masses of pegmatites which contain
little but quartz and feldspar.1
E lia K n o b

Fig . 299.— C ross-section of the E tta pegm atite dike show ing crystals of spodutnene.
(Afier G. M . Schwartz, Econ. Geol.)
In their present condition there is little evidence of water as a con­
stituent of their magma, but facts already referred to force us to the belief
that some water was present as well as some carbon dioxide.
Liquid inclusions in pegmatitic quartz from Branchville, Con­
necticut,2 were found to consist of 98.33 per cent C02, 1.67 per cent
nitrogen, and traces of hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, fluorine, and
possibly chlorine.
A marked contact-metamorphic action, sometimes stronger than
that of the original magma, characterizes many pegmatites. H. B
Patton3 describes, for instance, a pegmatite dike in Colorado which is
10 feet wide and which contains but little tourmaline, but which strongly
impregnates the surrounding rock with this mineral for a distance of
2 or 3 feet from the contact. However, no sulphide impregnations
analogous to the normal contact-metamorphic deposits have been found
at the contacts of pegmatite and limestone. The quartz monzonites
1E. S. Bastin, Origin of the pegmatites of Maine, J o u r. Geol., 18, 1910, pp. 297-
320; B ull. 445, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911.
2 (!. W. Hawes and A. W. Wright, A m . J o u r. S c i., 3d ser., 21, 1881, pp. 203 and 209.
2 B ull. Geol. Soc. Am., 10, 1898, p. 21.
756 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of the western states, along whose contacts most of the deposits mentioned
occur, are rarely accompanied by pegmatitic dikes.
The pegmatites often absorb material from their walls, and near
them minerals, otherwise foreign, are likely to appear; andalusite, garnet,
and staurolite are among these minerals.
TYPES OF PEGMATITES

Acidic Pegmatites.—The most common type consists of the granitic

pegmatites, which always contain orthoclase, albite, and quartz, usually
also microcline and muscovite. Among the accessory minerals magne­
tite, often in crystals, is perhaps most common. Other rarer minerals
are tourmaline, topaz, fluorite, cassiterite, apatite, ilmenite, rutile, orthite,
monazite, beryl, samarskite, spodumene, amblygonite, and many more.
The typical mineralizers are boron and fluorine, together with a little
phosphorus and sulphur. Lithium and the metals of the cerium and
thorium groups are also characteristic. Among sulphides, molybdenite
and bismuthinite are the most common, but pyrite, arsenopyrite, pyr-
rhotite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and sphalerite are occasionally found.
In the south Norwegian granitic pegmatites, lithium and tin are absent.1
Schaller2 holds that the development of pegmatites involves an
original injection of quartz-orthoclase magma, as graphic granite, and
a long series of high-temperature replacements during which the rarer
and well-crystallized minerals were formed. At Pala, California, the
gently dipping pegmatites are contained in granodiorite or in gabbro.
The lower part of the dike is banded by quartz and albite, which upwards
goes over into graphic granite. Albitization comprises the first stage of
the replacements; then follow muscovitization and the development of
tourmaline and garnet. Lastly, the lithium minerals replace all others,
mainly along the middle seam of the dike; the solutions ascend through
the middle and hotter part of the mass.
Hess3 discusses the lithium pegmatites of the Black Hills inde­
pendently and arrives at similar conclusions.
Lacroix4 describes the pegmatites of Madagascar which contain
many rare minerals such as columbates and tantalates of uranium;
also danburite, gold, specularite, bismuthinite, etc.
The pegmatites of central Maine5 contain original microcline, micro-
perthite, and quartz, with subordinate black tourmaline, beryl, lepidolite,
1 W. C. Brogger, Die' Mineralien der siidnorwegischen Granit-pegmatit Gange,
Videnskabsselskabets Skrifter, Math.-naturw. Klasse, Kristiania, 1909, 6, 159 pp.
2 W. T. Schaller, The genesis of lithium pegmatites, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 10,
1925, p p . 2 6 9 -2 7 9 .
3 F. L. Hess, Natural history of pegmatites, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, Aug. 22, 1925.
4 A. Lacroix, Les mincraux de Madagascar, Paris, 1922.
6 K. K. Landes, The paragenesis of the granite pegmatites of central Maine,
Am. Mineralogist, 10, 1925, pp. 355-411.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 757

garnet, biotite, amblygonite, and arsenopyrite. Residual solutions

moving up through the dikes replaced the original constituents and
deposited (1 ) quartz, cleavelandite (variety of albite), lepidolite, beryl,
gem tourmalines, spodumene, and apatite; (2 ) amblygonite and rare
phosphates, rhodochrosite; (3) latest quartz, apatite, and cookeite
(related to lepidolite).
Syenitic Pegmatites.—A second group is formed by the syenitic
pegmatites, rich in alkalies and especially in sodium. These contain soda
orthoclase, aegirine, acmite, arfvedsonite, biotite, nephelite, sodalite,
l&venite, and a number of rare titanium and zirconium minerals, also
fluosilicates. There is little or no quartz. The characteristic mineral­
izers are fluorine and chlorine. Brogger1 distinguishes in south Norwegian
syenite pegmatites four phases of crystallization. In the earliest phase
he places feldspars, nephelite, sodalite, aegirine, lepidomelane, barkevikite,
and magnetite, followed by fluorite, rosenbuschite, lhvenite, and woehlerite
(containing fluorine); by sodalite (containing chlorine); by helvite (con­
taining sulphur); by lollingite (containing arsenic); and by homilite and
melanocerite (containing boron). There is no tourmaline, topaz, or quartz.
The second phase consists in the filling of drusy cavities in part
by destruction of the older minerals; these druse minerals consist of
leucophane and fluorite, representing the fluorine group; of homilite and
datolite, representing the boron group; and of the simple sulphides, such
as molybdenite, sphalerite, and galena.
The third phase, at a considerably lower temperature but still prob­
ably above 100° C., comprises the zeolites, which are followed by a
fourth phase of low-temperature carbonates and fluocarbonates.
Pegmatite pipes in the riebeckite granite of Quincy, Massachusetts,
have been described by Warren and Palache. 2 A zone of a coarse
granitic aggregate of quartz, feldspar, riebeckite, and aegirine graduates
into a central mass of almost pure massive quartz, sometimes containing
molybdenite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite and, in its miarolitic
cavities, fluorite, octahedrite, ilmenite, and parisite, the last a fluocar-
bonate of the cerium metals.
Basic Pegmatites.—The basic pegmatites are less common. Boron
and fluorine are not usually present, but phosphorus and chlorine,
probably also sulphur, play important parts. Soda-lime feldspars,
amphibole, pyroxene, quartz, apatite, rutile, scapolite, and brown mica
are the most abundant minerals.
ECONOMIC FEATURES OF PEGMATITE DIKES
The pegmatites, on one hand, contain many of the common minerals
in exceptional size of grain and purity, and, on the other hand, they are a
1 W. C. Brogger, Zeitschr. Kryst. Mineralog., 16, 1890.
2 Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 21, 1910, p. 784.
758 MINERAL DEPOSITS
storehouse for a great number of the rarest minerals, many of which are
not found elsewhere. These deposits are therefore of considerable
economic importance and their valuable products are of manifold
kind.
Feldspar and Quartz.1— The orthoclase and quartz of granitic
pegmatites are mined or quarried at numerous places, particularly in
Maine, Connecticut, and North Carolina, in Norway, and in many other
countries. The total value of the quartz and feldspar obtained from
pegmatite dikes in the United States amounts annually to several
hundred thousand dollars. Crude feldspars bring about $6.50 per ton.
Very fine crushing raises the cost greatly. The feldspars are used for
pottery, for soft abrasives, etc. Potassium feldspars are preferred on
account of the higher melting point; sodium feldspars are used for glazes.
The quartz is also utilized as an abrasive, in paints, and for the coating
of tarred roofing. A minor quantity of quartz is also cut as a semi­
precious stone under the names rock crystal, smoky quartz, rose quartz,
and rutilated quartz. In the Red Rose mine in the Black Hills unusually
large masses of rose quartz are found.
Mica.2—White mica, more commonly known as muscovite, is also
an important product of the granitic pegmatites. It occurs as irregularly
disseminated bunches of foils, or “ books,” in pegmatite dikes, sometimes
crystallizing along the walls. The mica-bearing pegmatites are worked
in three belts in the North Carolina mountain region, where they break
itito the pre-Cambrian crystalline schists and gneisses. The dikes, which
also carry orthoclase, perthite, oligoclase, and quartz, are of varying
thickness and persistence, at some places lenticular, following the
schistosity, at others cutting across the country rock (Fig. 300). Acces­
sory minerals are biotite and several rare or gem minerals, among them
beryl and its variety aquamarine. Some of the occurrences constitute
transitions to quartz veins, which are assumed to have been formed by
more distinctly aqueous solutions.
Muscovite is also mined in New Hampshire, Virginia, South Dakota,
Alabama, and Georgia.
Muscovite owes its usefulness to its transparency, elasticity, great
resistance to heat and weathering, and applicability as a non-conductor
of electricity. The essential use of sheet mica is for electric insulation.
1 Information Circ. 6044, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1927; also 6381, idem, 1930.
E. S. Bastin, Economic geology of the feldspar deposits of the United States,
Bull. 420, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, 85 pp.
2 D. B. Sterrctt, Mica deposits of South Dakota, Bull. 380, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1909, pp. 382-397.
D. B. Sterrett, Mica deposits of North Carolina, Bull. 315, idem, 1907, pp.
400-422.
D. B. Sterrett, Mica deposits in the United States, Bull. 740, idem, 1923.
H. S. deSchmid, Mica, Publ. 118, Canada Dept. Mines, 1912.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 759
Ground mica is chiefly used for roofing. There are many minor uses.
Crystals of mica may be several feet in diameter, but this is exceptional,
sheets of 1 foot in diameter being considered large. The largest on record
are 1 2 feet in diameter. 1 Smaller sheets a few inches square find ready
use and are split into thin lamellae and cut into proper shapes for stove
doors and for various electrical insulating purposes. The scrap from the
trimming is often ground and compressed into mica board or “micanite”
for use in insulating. It is also used for the manufacture of wall papers
and roofing materials. The quality of mica is best judged by the trans­
parency of sheets about 2 millimeters thick; it is graded as “ wine” or

F ig . 300. — Vertical section across pegm atite dike, Thorn M ountain mine, N orth Carolina.
{After D. B . Sterrett, U. S. GeoL Survey .)
“rum” or smoky and spotted mica, the latter being undesirable for
insulation. The price paid for sheet mica varies greatly according to
the size of the sheets. The average price ranges up to $1 per pound for
sheets 2 by 3 inches; larger sheets are worth several dollars per pound.
In 1929, the domestic output was 1,018 tons of sheet mica and 6,253 tons
of scrap. Considerable quantities are imported, mainly from Canada
and India.
The Indian mica, which is mined on a large but primitive scale, is
generally muscovite contained in pegmatite dikes cutting gneissoid rocks.
The Canadian mica, of which much is also exported, is mainly a phlogopite,
or brown magnesium mica, and is better adapted to electrical uses than
the muscovite. It occurs with apatite, in dikes or veins of pyroxene
in gneiss or limestone, the principal localities being north of Ottawa.
Associated minerals are calcite, scapolite, titanite, various metallic
sulphides, among which molybdenite is mentioned, and one or two
1 A. L. Hall, Mica in eastern Transvaal, Mem. 13, Union of South Africa Geol.
Survey, 1920, p. 21.
760 MINERAL DEPOSITS
zeolites. These peculiar deposits are undoubtedly analogous to the
Norwegian apatite-scapolite veins; in part they are certainly derived
from limestone by contact metamorphism. Many of these dikes have
been worked to a depth of several hundred feet. The quantity of
trimmed mica obtained from the rock mined is small, often less than 1
per cent. Occasionally plates 5 feet in diameter are found.
Oxide Ores.—Specularite, magnetite, and ilmenite are of com­
mon occurrence in pegmatites, but scarcely ever of economic impor­
tance. Cassiterite, or oxide of tin, is also very common in many granitic
pegmatites.
Pegmatites containing cassiterite, with phosphates and lithium
minerals, have been mined near Gaffney, South Carolina, and about
50 tons of tin have been obtained from the detrital deposits. 1 The
average tenor is low, but the mineral is concentrated along certain lines
in the dike not unlike a shoot in a metalliferous vein. Tin-bearing
pegmatites occur also in the Black Hills of South Dakota, where attempts
to mine them have shown that they carried a very low percentage of
the metal. 12 At Tinton, in the northern Black Hills, mining operations
have been carried on and some cassiterite recovered. At ihe Etta or
Harney Peak mine, in the southern Black Hills, the percentage of tin
appears to be too small for successful recovery.
In the New England district in New South Wales, as described by
E. C. Andrews and L. A. Cotton, 3 there are pipes of greisen with transi­
tions into pegmatite containing cassiterite associated with wolframite,
molybdenite, bismuth, arsenopyrite, tourmaline, fluorite, and beryl.
Remarkable rutile deposits have been discovered in Virginia, in
Amherst and Nelson counties. 4 They are probably pegmatitic develop­
ments of pre-Cambrian magmas of gabbro or anorthosite, which, in other
parts of the world, are also characterized by the concentration of titanium
and phosphorus.
It is apparently a case where it is difficult to draw the line between
ordinary rock differentiation and pegmatitization, but the features of
the deposits clearly recall the latter process. The districts mentioned
contain a predominant rock of quartz monzonite gneiss with an unusually
1L. C. Graton, Gold and tin deposits of the southern Appalachians, Bull. 293,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
2 F. L. Hess, Tin, tungsten, and tantalum deposits of South Dakota, Bull. 380,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909, pp. 131-163.
3 E. C. Andrews, The geology of the New England Plateau, Records, Geol. Survey
N. S. W., 8, pt. 2, 1905, pp. 131-136.
L. A. Cotton, The tin deposits of New England, Proc., Linnean Soc. N. S. W., 34,
pt. 4, Nov. 24, ’909.
4 T. L. Wat m and S. Taber, The Virginia rutile deposits, Bull. 3-A, Virginia
Geol. Survey, 19i3.
C. S. Ross, Trans., Am. Geophys. Union, 1, 1934, p. 245.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 761
large percentage of titanium and phosphorus. Besides, there are dikes of
gabbro still richer in titanium. The pegmatitic facies consist essentially
of a bluish quartz with plagioclase, orthoclase, and pyroxene, the last
converted into hornblende with much rutile and accessory apatite and
ilmenite. The rock has an even granular texture and contains as much
as 59 per cent titanium dioxide and 12 per cent phosphoric pentoxide.
Fluorine is present in quantities of 1 per cent or more and sulphur to
the same amount, but there is very little chlorine. The rutile as well as
the ilmenite is recovered by concentration and is used mainly for the
manufacture of arc-lamp electrodes.
Wolframite.—As noted above, wolframite usually accompanies
cassiterite in pegmatites, but only a small amount of the world’s supply
of tungsten is derived from these sources.
Columbite and Tantalite.1—These minerals are columbates and
tantalates of iron and manganese ((Fe, Mn) (Cb, Ta) 2 0 6). Their home
is in the granitic pegmatites, from which the small quantities needed
for incandescent lamps, electrodes and surgical instruments are derived.
Large masses of columbite in black tabular crystals have been found in
the pegmatites of the Black Hills, especially at the Etta mine. One ton
of columbite was mined there in 1926. Mangano-tantalite, richer in
tantalum, is mined from similar sources in Western Australia. Columbite
is not uncommon in many regions characterized by pegmatite dikes, such
as Connecticut and Virginia. Strtiverite (Fe0.(Ta,Cb)2 0 6 .4Ti02),
isomorphous with rutile, has been found in abundance at the Etta mine,
South Dakota and, in places, in the Federated Malay States.
Metallic tantalum is one of the most useful of the rare metals owing
to its hardness, ductility, and resistance to acids. Its density is 16.9
and its melting point 2770° C. It is said to be more resistant to cor­
rosion than any other known metal or alloy. It is used for many scientific
and industrial purposes and has been called a rival of platinum . 2 Its
price ranges from $90 to $160 per kilogram or about $4 to $7 per ounce.
Yttrium, Thorium, Cerium, and Uranium Minerals.3—Among the
many rare earth minerals the following are the most important: thorite,
(ThSiCL); monazite [(Ce, La, Y, Th) P 04]; gadolinite (beryllium-iron-
yttrium silicate); allanite (cerium epidote); yttrialite (silicate of yttrium
and thorium); euxenite (columbate and titanate of cerium metals and
uranium); samarskite (columbate and tantalate of cerium metals and
uranium). Some of these minerals, mainly monazite, are used exten­
sively as a source of thorium salts in the manufacture of incandescent
iF . L. Hess, Bull. 380, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909, pp. 157-161.
Information Circ. 6348, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930.
2 Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, May 28, 1927; Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 71,
1925, pp. 696-697.
3 Information Circ. 6321, Thorium, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930.
762 MINERAL DEPOSITS
mantles; the yttrium minerals, like fergusonite and gadolinite, were used
in the manufacture of Nernst lamps in which the incandescent part
consisted of 25 per cent yttria and 75 per cent zirconia. The cerium
minerals have a limited use for chemicals, etc., as well as for the manufac­
ture of ferrocerium, an alloy emitting sparks when rubbed against a hard
substance. The Welsbach incandescent mantles are coated with a sub­
stance containing 60 per cent zirconia, 2 0 per cent yttria, and 2 0 per cent
oxide of lanthanum.
At the present time incandescent mantles are said to contain 99 per
cent Th0 2 and 1 per cent CeC03. The principal compound manu­
factured from the thorium minerals is thorium nitrate, which is worth
fl to $2 per pound. Most of the thorium nitrate used in the United
States was imported from Germany where it was manufactured from
Brazilian monazite. In 1929, 10,000 pounds were imported (see p.
249). In 1929, about 400 metric tons of monazite sands were concen­
trated from marine sands in India and Brazil. The small amount
of cerium used is derived from monazite. Mesothorium, an element
similar to radium and used for curative purposes and luminous paint,
is also contained in thorium minerals and is extracted as a by-product.
All these minerals find their home in the granitic pegmatites and in the
placers derived from them (p. 248). To some extent they are also primary
constituents of igneous rocks. In Scandinavia there are some celebrated
occurrences, like those of Hittero, in southern Norway, and of Ytterby,
Korarfvet, Brodbo, and Finbo, in Sweden. One of the most renowned
localities in the United States is Baringer Hill, 100 miles northwest of
Austin, Texas; few other localities have yielded as large amounts of
rare-earth minerals as this place. 1
Baringer Hill is a low mound, about 100 feet wide and 250 feet long,
preserved from erosion by its relative hardness. The country rock is a
coarse, porphyritic granite of pre-Cambrian age, and the dike itself an
unsymmetrical body or pipe. At the edge of the dike is pegmatite of the
“graphic” variety 1 to 6 feet wide. The central part is made up of
large individuals of quartz and feldspar, the latter being microcline and
albite. In the center of the dike the quartz appears to be concentrated.
Some of the feldspar crystals are several feet long. Vugs are lined with
smoky quartz. One smoky quartz crystal weighed 687 pounds. The
rarer minerals, some of which occur in large amounts, are fluorite,
ilmenite, gadolinite, allanite, fergusonite, and polycrase—in short, a
1 W. E. Hidden and C. H. Warren, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 22, 1906, p. 515.
F. L. Hess, Minerals of the rare-earth metals at Baringer Hill, Llano County,
Texas, Bull. 340, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 286-294.
K. L. Kithil, Monazite, thorium and mesothorium, Tech. Paper 110, U. S. Bur.
Mines, 1915. See also idem, Information Circ. 6321, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930.
S. J. Johnstone, The rare earth industiy, London, 1918, 136 pp.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 763
series of silicates, columbates, titanates, and uranates of cerium, yttrium,
and other rare metals. There are also sulphides, particularly chalco-
pyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, and molybdenite, the last named being the
most abundant. The rock contains no tourmaline, beryl, zircon, garnet,
or cassiterite. The deposit is worked intermittently for the yttrium
which its minerals contain. Some of the minerals show a marked
radioactivity.
Uraninite (U02) in isometric crystals occurs in many pegmatites and
has been mined for uranium and radium at Wilberforce, Ontario, and
other places. Regarding radium, see page 415.
Zircon.1— Zircon (ZrSi04) is an accessory mineral of granitic and
monzonitic rocks; it also occurs in pegmatites. It is absent from veins
formed nearer the surface or under conditions of lessened temperature and
pressure. The metal hafnium occurs in notable amounts in zirconium
minerals.
Zircon occurs in considerable amounts in many placer deposits
derived from the disintegration of granitic and pegmatitic rocks. In
the miner’s pan it is concentrated, with the gold, as a string of minute
crystals of brilliant white, almost metallic luster. The best-known
deposits are at Zirconia, near Green River, in Henderson County, North
Carolina; from the decomposed outcrops of a pegmatite dike at this
locality many tons of zircon have been obtained. Formerly zircon was
concentrated from beach sand at San Pablo, Florida, where 624 tons were
produced in 1925. The value of the concentrated zircon sand is about
7 cents per pound.
A zirconium mineral, 2 at first thought to be baddeleyite (Zr02),
has been found in Brazil, in the Caldas district on the border of the states
of Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo. It occurs in large quantities and is
probably connected with pegmatite dikes in nephelite-syenite, and
appears to consist of brazilite, a fibrous variety of Zr02, zircon and an
unknown zirconium mineral with 75 per cent Zr02, possibly a silicate but
not identical with zircon. In 1930, 1,500 tons of this material were
imported.
The principal use of zircon is as an excellent refractory material;
it has also a very low coefficient of expansion. Zirconia is also used for
incandescent mantles and zirconium as a steel-hardening metal. Nickel-
tungsten-zirconium (cooperite) is an alloy used for high-speed tools. The
value of zircon varies: $115 to $140 per ton have been paid.
Apatite.—Apatite associated with pyroxene (malacolite), hornblende,
phlogopite, titanite, and much calcite occurs in many deposits in southern
1 J. H. Pratt, Zircon, monazite, etc., Bull. 25, North Carolina Geol. Econ. Survey,
1916.
E. P. Youngman, Zirconium, Information Circ. 6456, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1931.
2 W. T. Schaller, Mineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1916, pp. 377-379.
764 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Ontario, near Kingston. 1 The deposits are said to be dikes of pyroxenite
with segregations of apatite and calcite intruded in gneiss and limestone
of pre-Cambrian (Grenville) age. It seems certain now that some of
these pyroxene rocks are contact-metamorphosed limestone (Fig. 294);
but there are also dikes, though with what intrusions these dikes are
associated is not certain. In part the apatite may be regarded as of peg-
matitic origin. The mineral is well crystallized and of greenish color. In
small quantities apatite also occurs here in veins in gneiss, and is then
associated with pyroxene and scapolite. The output of Canadian
apatite has ceased.
The Norwegian apatite veins, 12 described in detail by Vogt, now yield
a small production. In some features they stand between the high-
temperature veins and the pegmatites. The minerals are chlor-apatite,
rutile, ilmenite, pyrrhotite, hornblende, enstatite, malacolite, and
specularite. The feldspars in the rocks adjacent to the veins are altered
to scapolite indicating the presence of chlorine in the emanations.
Very rich apatite deposits have recently been discovered in the
alkaline syenites of the Kola Peninsula, Russia.
Apatite is used for the manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers, but
comparatively little is now mined.
Lithium Minerals.3—Among the alkaline metals lithium accom­
panies potassium in the pegmatites and appears in a series of minerals,
the most common of which are lepidolite, or lithium mica (4 per cent
lithia); spodumene, a lithium-aluminum silicate allied to pyroxene
( 8 per cent lithia); petalite, lithium-aluminum disilicate (5 per cent
lithia); triphylite, a lithium-iron-manganese phosphate (9 per cent lithia);
and amblygonite, a fluophosphate of aluminum and lithium ( 1 0 per
cent lithia). Spodumene and amblygonite are the principal raw mate­
rials from which lithia salts are manufactured. These minerals have been
mined in the Ingersol, Peerless and Etta pegmatite dikes, in the Black
Hills, South Dakota. In 1928, 4,600 tons of lithium minerals valued at
$94,750 were mined. Other lithium pegmatites are found at Pala,
San Diego County, California; in New Mexico, and in Manitoba. The
use of lithium salts is small, chiefly for fireworks, medicine, and certain
storage batteries.
At the Etta mine attempts have also been made to mine the pegma­
tite for tin and columbite. The Etta deposit is a roughly circular
mass of coarse pegmatite about 150 by 200 feet in extent (Fig. 299).
Spodumene crystals as much as 42 feet in length and having a cross-section
1 F. D. Adams and A. E. Barlow, Geology of the Haliburton and Bancroft areas,
Mem. 6, Canada Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 383.
2 J. H. L. Vogt, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 1895, pp. 367-370, 444—459, 465-740.
3 Information Circ. 6215, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930.
Lithium, The mineral industry of the British Empire, London, 1932, 27 pp.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 765

of 3 by 6 feet are found here. Hess mentions a mass of amblygonite

27 feet in diameter. The list of primary minerals found at this remark­
able locality is given below. 1 No topaz or axinite is present.
MINERALS FOUND AT THE ETTA MINE
Orthoclase Lepidolite Q uartz Colum bite M olybdenite
A lb ite P etalite Zircon T a n ta lite Arsenopyrite
M icrocline Spodumene R u tile W o lfram ite L o llin g ite
Alm andite Tourm aline Spinel M onazite Leucopyrite
Grossularite Epidote Cassiterite Am blygonite Bism uth
Andalusite B e ryl Corundum A p a tite Galena
Muscovite T ita n ite Ilm en ite T rip lite Stannite
B io tite T rip h y lite

Beryl.12—The common greenish variety of beryl [Be3 Al2 (Si0 3 ) 6 with

14 per cent BeO] is found in small amounts in pegmatites all over the
world. It has been mined in Maine (Albany, crystals up to 18 feet long);
New Hampshire; at the Etta mine, South Dakota; Namaqualand, South
Africa; and other places. Commercial ore should contain from 8 to
10 per cent BeO and brings about $50 per ton. Beryllium added to cop­
per, aluminum and magnesium alloys greatly increases their strength and
corrosion resistance. About 100 tons are absorbed by the markets per
annum. The price of the metal is about $100 per pound. Concerning
emerald, see page 766.
Cryolite.3—Cryolite (3NaF.AlF3, with 12.8 per cent aluminum) is a
white to brown or even black mineral of which only one large deposit is
known. The locality is Ivigtut, in west Greenland, close to the sea, where
it occurs as a large mass having surface dimensions of 160 by 600 feet;
it has been worked to a depth of 150 feet. The cryolite occurs in a
coarse granite enclosed in gneiss and is undoubtedly to be classed as an
unusual pegmatite mass. The coarsely crystalline mineral is associated
with siderite, argentiferous galena, auriferous chalcopyrite, pyrite,
fluorite, topaz, and ivigtite; also druses of many rare fluorides. About
17,000 tons are produced annually, 7,718 long tons being imported into
the United States in 1929.
1 F. L. Hess, Bull. 380, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909, p. 149.
F. C. Lincoln, Pegmatite mining in the Black Hills, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, June
18, 1927.
2 Information Circ. 6190, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1929.
Beryllium, The mineral industry of the British Empire, London, 1931, 26 pp.
3 N. V. Ussing, Denmark Geol. Undersog., 2d ser., No. 12, 1902, pp. 97-102.
R. Baldauf (and R. Beck), Ueber das Kryolith-Vorkommen in Gronland, Zeilschr.
prakt. Geol., 18, 1910, pp. 432—446.
S. H. Ball, The mineral resources of Greenland, Meddelelser om Gronland, 63,
Copenhagen, 1922.
S. H. Gordon, Mining cryolite in Greenland, Eng. Min. Jour.-Prexx, Feb. 6, 1926.
766 MINERAL DEPOSITS
A pegmatite mass adjoining the cryolite contains the same minerals
and also cassiterite in a coarse-grained aggregate of microcline, albite,
and quartz. It is thought by Gordon that the cryolite and the sulphides
may be later replacements of an original pegmatite. The deposit is thus
a most unusual magmatic concentration of fluorides.
Bauxite, the hydroxide of aluminum, is now used for the manufacture
of the metal. Before the present methods of smelting aluminum were
introduced the easily fusible cryolite was used for this purpose, and even
now it is added to the charge to promote the melting. It is also used for
the manufacture of soda; for enameling iron ware, and for making white
Portland cement.
Precious Stones.1— The pegmatite dikes have always been famous
as the source of gem minerals, which are valued for ornaments on account
of their color, hardness, and brilliancy. Many of these beautiful crystals
appear to belong to one of the later magmatic stages of consolidation and
usually occur in druses of the rock. Among the most productive Ameri­
can regions are North Carolina, Maine, and San Diego County, Cali­
fornia. The pink tourmalines of Pala , 2 and other places in San Diego
County are famous. Accompanying this mineral are hiddenite and
kunzite, the green and lilac-colored gem varieties of spodumene.
Green tourmaline comes from Maine; emerald and aquamarine
(Be3 Al2 (Si0 3 ) 6 ), both varieties of beryl, are found in pegmatites in North
Carolina, accompanied by quartz, albite, and tourmaline. Aquamarine
of gem quality with much greenish beryl is found in pegmatite
quartz of southern New Hampshire. The emeralds of Colombia, 3 at
Muso, occur in carbonaceous Cretaceous limestone, in calcite veins
which seem to belong to the high-temperature veins rather than to
the pegmatites. The emeralds found near Ekaterinburg in the Ural
Mountains are said by Fersmann4 to occur in granitic pegmatites
injected in biotitic and magnesian schists. An exchange of elements
has taken place between these two rocks. The chromium coloring the
green emeralds was derived from the basic magnesian rocks.
Rubies are also found in pegmatite dikes. Most of the supply is
derived from a pre-Cambrian crystalline limestone of Mogok, in Burma, 5
1 G. F. Kunz, The production of precious stones, Mineral Industry, annual issues.
S. H. Ball, The geologic and geographic distribution of precious stones, Econ.
Gcal., 17, 1922, pp. 575-602. An excellent summary. See also idem, 26, 1931,
pp. 681-738.
E. H. Kraus and E. L. Holden, Gems and gem materials, New York, 1931,
260 pp.
2 W. T. Schaller, Bull. Univ. Cal. 3, 1903, p. 266.
3 J. E. Pogue, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 55, 1917, pp. 910-934.
4 A. Fersmann, Geochemische Migration der Elemente, Abh. prakt. Geol. (G. Berg),
18, 1929, 116 pp.; idem, 19, 1929, 86 pp.
5 F. D. Adams, A visit to the gem districts of Ceylon and Burma, Bull. Canadian
Inst. Min. Met., February, 1926.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 767

LIST OF GEM MINERALS BY ORIGIN

(After S. H. Ball)

Pegmatite.. Basic and alkaline Contact-metamorphic

igneous rocks
Tourmaline Obsidian Ruby
Beryl Sodalite Spinel
Emerald Hauynite Tourmaline
Quartz Zircon Grossularite
Spodumene Sapphire Vesuvianite
Topaz Ruby Sphene
Moonstone Diamond Epidote
Anatase Pyrope Willemite
Rutile Olivine Apatite
Cordierite (Peridot) Cordierite
Phenacite Labradorite Sapphire
Axinite Enstatite
Spessartite
Apatite
Cyanite
Danburite
Sphene
Sapphire
Ruby
Diopside
Zircon

Regional-metamorphic Ascending waters Descending waters

(in part magmatic)
Nephrite Opal Turquoise
Jadeite Variscite Chrysoprase
Cyanite Agate Chrysocolla
Staurolite Chalcedony Malachite
Diopside Jasper Azurite
Andalusite Amethyst Dioptase
Almandine Quartz Smithsonite
Crocidolite Gold-quartz
(Tiger eye) Thompsonitc
Sillimanite Prehnite
Datolite
Rhodonite
Benitoite
Uvarovite
Chrysoprase
768 MINERAL DEPOSITS
where also pink spinels and blue sapphire occur, but some good stones
have been obtained from gravels near pegmatite dikes in Cowee Valley,
North Carolina.
Topaz is found in pegmatite as well as in lithophysae of rhyolite
and in high-temperature veins. Quartz of the clear, smoky, and rutilated
varieties is common in pegmatites.
Ball has presented many interesting facts as to the value and dis­
tribution of precious stones. The world’s production of rough stones
has an annual value of about $81,000,000, of which the diamond (p. 777)
accounts for 94.3 per cent; sapphire, amber (fossil resin), emerald, ruby,
jadeite, turquoise, and opal together, another 4.6 per cent. Thus the
value of the subordinate stones is only about $1,000,000. The sources
of all gems, excepting the diamond, are as follows: The pegmatite dikes
furnish precious stones to a value of about $700,000; other igneous
rocks, $85,000; metamorphic and metasomatic rocks, $282,000; deposited
by water (opal, turquoise, etc.), $595,000; fossil material (amber, etc.)
$825,000; gravels and sands (secondary deposits) $2,096,500; all these
items making $4,583,500.
Native Metals, Sulphides, and Arsenides.—The sulphides and allied
minerals so abundant in fissure veins play a very subordinate part in the
pegmatite dikes; nevertheless their occurrence is of great scientific
interest, for the pegmatites form a transition between the magmas and
many ore deposits connected with igneous rocks.
Gold in visible form is rare. Spurr states that gold occurs in pegma­
tite dikes or in quartz veins closely connected with them in the Yukon
districts in Alaska and at Silver Peak, Nevada, but the quantities reported
are, as a rule, small—at most 0.05 ounce per ton.
A. Lacroix1 mentions several cases of gold in pegmatite from Mada­
gascar. B. S. Butler2 describes a pipe-like deposit from near Gold Hill,
Utah, which contains enough gold to be worked. It carries quartz,
microcline, actinolite, tourmaline, chalcopyrite, bismuth, scheelite, and
molybdenite, also apatite and sphene. Evidently this is related to
pegmatite.
A. Knopf3 describes similar quartz-microcline dikes or veins from near
Rochester, Nevada, which have yielded some ore containing native
gold.
A very interesting occurrence is that of the Natas mine in South­
west Africa, investigated by E. Reuning. 4 An apex of a granitic stock
is accompanied by pegmatite dikes which in places contain some gold,
1Les mindraux de Madagascar, Paris, 1922.
2Prof. Paper 111, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1920, p. 476.
3 Bull. 762, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, p. 52.
4 E. Reuning, Natas mine, Southwest Africa, Neues Jakrbvch, Beil. Bd. 52,
1925, pp. 192-264.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 769
chalcopyrite, and scheelite. In the same vicinity are quartz veins with
more gold, in which the feldspars are generally absent. Reuning empha­
sized the difference existing between the quartz veins and the pegmatites
though realizing their close relationship.
In 1898, E. Hussak 1 described the Passagem lode, in Brazil, and
regarded it as a gold-bearing pegmatite dike. Orville A. Derby 12 has
reviewed the evidence and arrived at the following conclusions, which
are quoted because they very likely apply to many similar occurrences:
The Passagem lode presents evidence of three distinct processes of filling
. . . (1) An extensive fissure opened by stress . . . was closed by an invasion
of pegmatite running off into clear quartz. At this stage the lode contained only
the minerals characteristic of a granitic magma . . . (2) A subsequent stress . . .
fractured this pegmatitic quartz, rendering it accessible to a pneumatolytic
action . . . which filled its fissures with tourmaline and sericitized the feldspar
of the pegmatite. (3) A third stress coming near the end of the second phase
of the lode fractured the tourmaline filling and gave access to a pneumatolytic
action characterized by sulphur, arsenic, metallic oxides, and metals (gold and
silver), which filled the fissures of the lode, invading to some extent its pre-existing
portions and probably also some of the adjacent and enclosed country rock.
Arsenopyrite, lollingite, galena, sphalerite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite
have been reported from numerous localities in the granitic and syenitic
pegmatites; there is not the slightest reason to doubt that they are here
primary minerals, even if they belong to one of the later phases of
magmatic consolidation. There are, however, no deposits known in
which they are abundant enough to be mined.
Bismuth and bismuthinite are reported from many places, and
are said to be so abundant in certain pipes of pegmatite in the New
England district of New South Wales as to have some economic value.
The occurrence of bismuth is interesting owing to its low melting point
(271° C.).
Molybdenite.3—Molybdenite is an accessory mineral in certain
granites, pegmatites, and aplites; it is usually of late origin, connected
with quartz veinlets and sericitization. It is common in many veins
of the deep-seated class, more or less closely connected with pegmatites.
It is also of frequent occurrence in contact-metamorphic deposits and in
ordinary fissure veins, both in those formed at great depth and in
those deposited near the surface, but in the main is confined to deposits
genetically allied to acidic igneous rocks. In the pegmatites and the
1 E. Hussak, Zeilschr. prakt. Geol., 1898, pp. 345-357.
2 Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 32, 1911, pp. 185-190.
3 V. L. Eardley-Wilmot, Molybdenum, Rept. 592, Canada Dept. Mines, Mines
Branch, 1925, 292 pp.
A. V. Petar, Molybdenum, Econ. Paper 15, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1932 (litera­
ture) .
770 MINERAL DEPOSITS
abyssal veins the individual particles of molybdenite are often large and
sometimes well crystallized. In the deposits formed under conditions
of less intense heat and pressure molybdenite usually appears as small
or microscopic scales.
In Quebec, Canada, some pegmatitic dikes contain enough molyb­
denite to be of economic importance (Fig. 301). In Ontario, near
Kingston, 1 molybdenite occurs with pyrrhotite in contact-metamorphic
or pegmatitic deposits, similar to those which carry pyroxene, apatite,
and brown mica (Fig. 293).
Pegmatites containing molybdenite occur in Washington and Hancock
counties, Maine. 2 Some of them may have economic importance.

F ig . 301.— M olybdenite (black) along the borders of pegm atite dike in gneiss, ltomaine,
Quebec. One-half natural size. (A fter T. L . W alker.)
One of the principal deposits occurs at Cooper, 2 2 miles southwest of
Calais, associated with the more quartzose phases of the pegmatite.
Similar deposits are found in many parts of the United States but
difficulties of concentration long confined the product to hand-picked
material. By aid of the flotation process, the production of molyb­
denite on a large scale has become of great importance. Formerly,
most of the product came from Ontario and British Columbia; in 1916,
84 tons of pure sulphide were produced from concentrates containing
60 to 70 per cent of molybdenite.
The world’s greatest supply is now obtained from Climax, Summit
County, Colorado. 3 In 1930, about 1,000 tons of ore were milled daily.
The deposit is contained in pre-Cambrian granite. Around a central
silicified core is a zone up to 300 feet thick, which contains veinlets of
quartz, orthoclase, and marginal grains of molybdenite. The grade of
ore is about 0.5 per cent Mo. Another deposit of considerable
importance is worked at Questa, Taos County, New Mexico. In 1930,
the domestic production of molybdenum, in ores and concentrates,
1 E. Thomson, A pegmatitic origin for molybdenite ores, Econ. Geol., 13, 1918)
pp. 302-313.
2 Geo. O. Smith, Bull. 260, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, pp. 197-199.
3 B. S. Butler and J. W. Vanderwilt, The Climax molybdenum deposit of Colorado,
Proc., Colorado Sci. Soc., 12(10), 1931, pp. 309-353.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE PEGMATITE DIKES 111
amounted to 3,759,269 pounds valued at $2,068,000. New South
Wales, Queensland, and Norway also yield molybdenite.
Wulfenite (PbMoCb), a yellow tabular mineral, is not uncommon in
many oxidized deposits, the primary ore of which contained galena and
molybdenite. Some of the output of molybdenum in the United States
has been derived from this mineral, though it is less desirable than
molybdenite.
Aside from many chemical and industrial uses, the principal value
of molybdenum lies in its steel-hardening qualities. Molybdenum
steel, containing a very small amount of the metal, is used for rifle
barrels, propeller shafts, and especially for high-speed steel-cutting
tools.
Ferromolybdenum with up to 80 per cent Mo is made in the electric
furnace from molybdenite. The melting point of ferromolybdenum is
very high, 2500° C. Usually the molybdenum is introduced in the steel
in the form of calcium molybdate, which is made by roasting MoS2 and
combining the oxide with lime. The price of the MoS2 in 1931 was from
40 to 45 cents per pound; of calcium molybdate 85 cents per pound; of
ferromolybdenum $1 per pound. Mainly from the Climax deposit, there
were produced in 1931 about 1,150 tons of molybdenite concentrates
(about 80 per cent MoS2). About 300 tons of such concentrates were
produced in Norway.
 CHAPTER XXXI
MINERAL DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN
MOLTEN MAGMAS
GENERAL FEATURES'
Certain kinds of mineral deposits form integral parts of igneous rock
masses and permit the inference that they have originated, in their
present form, by processes of differentiation and cooling in molten
magmas. The minerals are of simple composition and few in number;
most prominent among them are magnetite, ilmenite, spinel minerals,
cassiterite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, lollingite
(FeAs2), arsenopyrite, corundum, platinum, and diamond. At some
places the resulting deposits are large and rich, but as a whole they are of
much less importance than those formed by aqueous solutions.
The characteristic feature of a deposit of this class is that it is a part
of a body of igneous rock; the crystals of its minerals formed in the magma
solution from which the rock crystallized, or in one similar to it. The
associated gangue minerals are those which make up igneous rocks.
Structures other than those of purely igneous origin should be absent.
If there is evidence of metamorphism or metasomatic replacement, with
the development of minerals like sericite, carbonates, chlorite, uralite,
garnets, 2 or epidote, or bleaching or kaolinization, we must conclude that
processes other than those of purely igneous origin have been active.
Many igneous deposits have, at a later period, been subjected to influences
producing alteration and their original characteristics may then have
become veiled.
Some igneous deposits are simply parts of the rock, which contains
disseminations of the useful mineral, like diamond in certain peridotites,
and have then the form of that rock mass itself—a dike or a volcanic
neck, for instance. In other deposits the massive ore forms a dike, as
in certain titaniferous magnetites. Or again, the ore minerals may have
become concentrated in parts of the igneous rock and form rudely tabular
or wholly irregular, usually ill-defined, masses in the rock. Unless the
deposit is of large cross-section it can rarely be followed to great depth
like a fissure vein, for the movements in a viscous magma facilitated the
1 J. H. L. Vogt, Magmas and igneous ore deposits, Econ. Geol. 21, 1926, pp. 207—
233, 309-332, 469-497.
2 Garnets are, however, also occasionally found in normal igneous rocks, but their
primary or secondary nature is not difficult to establish.
772
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 773

formation of irregular streaky or pasty masses—often termed “schlieren,”

after the German usage—rather than bodies persistent for long distances
in a given direction.
These deposits represent extreme conditions in mineral formation;
the temperature of basic surface lavas is considered to have been about
1000° to 1250° C., but the deep-seated granular rocks in which most of
the igneous mineral bodies occur crystallize more slowly than lavas and
in general at lower temperatures, probably from about 575° to 1000° C.
The temperature before emission and consolidation may have been
hundreds of degrees higher than the various figures given above.
In order to understand these deposits, which are often designated as
“liquid magmatic,” and in order to distinguish them from other deposits
of magmatic affiliations, it is necessary to take up first the law that
governs the constitution, crystallization, and differentiation of magmas.
For this purpose the reader is directed to Chapter X of this book.
We may recall the fact that mineral deposits of this type may be
formed by the simple crystallization of a magma rich in some valuable
constituent, as corundum in some syenites or diamonds in peridotite.
The ore mineral will then be scattered in the rock mass from which it
may be recovered by some process of concentration. On the other hand,
differentiation by crystallization involves the early separating of minerals
like magnetite, chromite, or ilmenite, the sinking of these crystals in the
liquid magma and, consequently, their accumulation in the lower part
of the magma body. Uplift and erosion may bring such masses to the
surface, or they may be re-melted and injected as dikes of almost solid
ore.
Finally, the magma may, at a high temperature, carry in solution a
considerable amount of sulphides of iron, copper, and nickel; when the
temperature drops part of the sulphides becomes immiscible with the sili­
cate magma, and may sink to the lower part of the mass, coalescing
to drops and accumulating to larger masses, which will remain liquid till
all of the rock constituents have separated out. Then, again, these
sulphides may become exposed at the surface by uplift or erosion or,
they may conceivably be injected as liquid dike-like masses into cooler
rocks.
Deposits formed by processes like these have been called orthotectic,
by Graton and McLaughlin. 1
The conditions are not always as simple as outlined, for there are
transitions to hypothermal deposits. The ore minerals are no longer
accompanied only by minerals of the igneous rock, but hydrothermal
products begin to appear, such as sericite, epidote, etc. The oxide or
sulphide melt contains mineralizers which will more or less deeply modify
1Ecnn. Geol., 13, 1918, p. 85.
774 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the strictly magmatic influences. Such transitions are observed at the
Sudbury nickel deposits and in the New Jersey magnetite deposits. For
such transitional forms the authors mentioned suggested the term
pneumotectic.
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF DEPOSITS
Among the valuable minerals formed during the consolidation of
magmas are diamond, platinum, chromite, ilmenite, magnetite, corun­
dum, cassiterite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, molyb­
denite, sperrylite, and apatite. A much more complex series of minerals
is contained in the pegmatite dikes, which are described separately.
For each kind of rock certain minerals are characteristic, and most
of the rocks are of the deep-seated type, crystallizing with granular,
structure.
Diamonds, chromite, platinum, and sometimes corundum are asso­
ciated with peridotites; corundum also with certain nepheline syenites.
Chalcopyrite, pyrite, pentlandite, and pyrrhotite follow the basic rocks,
especially gabbros. Apatite and magnetite are connected with alkali-
rich syenites; ilmenite and titaniferous magnetites with anorthosites
(labradorite rocks) and gabbros; cassiterite with granite.
DIAMONDS1
Diamond is pure carbon, crystallizing in the isometric system. It
is the hardest of all minerals and has a specific gravity of 3.52. Usually it
is white or yellowish, but other pale colors are not uncommon. Rounded
gray forms with aggregate structure are called bort and occur in the
Premier and other South African deep mines. The dark-gray or black
carbonado, found in placers in Bahia State, Brazil, is granular and
without visible cleavage. Its specific gravity is less than that of the
1 Gardner F. Williams, The genesis of the diamond, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,
35, 1905, p. 440.
A. von Fersmann and V. C. Goldschmidt, Der Diamant, Heidelberg, 1911.
A fundamental and important work.
C. Doclter, Handbuch der Mineralchemio, Dresden, 1, 1911, pp. 28-56.
Percy A. Wagner, The diamond fields of southern Africa, Johannesburg, 1914.
Percy A. Wagner and L. Reinecke, Mineral deposits of the Union of South
Africa, Third Empire Min. and Met. Congress, Johannesburg, 1930, 310 pp. An
excellent review.
A. F. Williams, The genesis of the diamond, 2 vols. London, 1932.
R. A. F. Penrose Jr., The Premier diamond mine, Transvaal, Econ. Gcol., 2,
1907, pp. 275-284.
W. N. P. Reed, The carbonado, Eng. and Min. Jour., 1930, pp. 289-293.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 775

diamond. Both varieties are used for drilling on account of their great
hardness. About 1,000,000 carats of bort and 25,000 carats of carbonado
is the world’s present annual output of these abrasives. Diamond
powder is used as an abrasive.
Diamonds are mined in placer deposits of detrital origin (p. 250), and
this was the only source before 1871. Since that time one-half or more
of the world’s production has been obtained from primary deposits which
consist of intrusions, usually pipes, of basic igneous rocks, more or less
altered, belonging to the peridotite family. Practically the whole of this
production comes from the Union of South Africa. It is estimated that
since 1883, about 126,000,000 carats have been obtained from the placers
and deep mines of the Union. The placer diamonds are of a better
quality than those in the pipes.
The only American occurrence of note is near Murfreesboro, Pike
County, Arkansas, 1 where stones of good quality are found in decom­
posed peridotite and breccias of late Cretaceous age, very similar to the
South African occurrences. From 1906 to 1920, a total of 5,300 stones,
averaging 0.4 carat, had been found. The largest stone found weighed
2 0 ) 4 carats.
In 1871 the Kimberley diamond field in South Africa was discovered,
the first known occurrence of diamonds in primary rock. The district
lies in the northern part of Cape Colony and the adjacent part of the
Orange Free State. Another district centers at Jagerfontein, in the
Orange Free State; still another at the Premier mine, near Pretoria, in
the Transvaal.
The diamonds in the South African field are disseminated in volcanic
necks, commonly called “ pipes,” of “ kimberlite,” a serpentinized rock
derived from peridotite. In places the pipes are connected with dikes
of similar material. The age is Cretaceous and the intrusions have been
deeply truncated by erosion. The kimberlite, first recognized in 1886
by Carvil Lewis, has been the subject of much investigation. The best
description is that by Percy A. Wagner in the work noted. The kimber­
lite is a peridotite, often tuffaceous or brecciated, always more or less
serpentinized and of a dull, greasy appearance. There are two varieties,
one the so-called basaltic type; the other, a lamprophyric variety rich in
phlogopite. The rocks are porphyritic; the ground mass is greatly
altered but may contain olivine, apatite, perovskite, ilmenite, apatite,
chromite, with grains of enstatite, garnet, and diopside. Calcite,
iddingsite, serpentine, apophyllite, and chlorite are secondary minerals.
An analysis of the Premier “ blue ground” gave, in per cent: SiC>2 , 38.29;
1 G. F. Kunz and H. S. Washington, Diamonds in Arkansas, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., 39, 1908, pp. 169-176.
H. D. Miser and C. S. Ross, Econ Geol., 17, 1922, pp. 662-674; Bull. 735, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1923, pp. 279-322.
776 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Ti02, 2.00; A12 0 3, 2.66; Fe2 0 3, 5.77; FeO, 2.93; CaO, 2.42; MgO, 29.46;
K 2 0, 1.03; Na2 0, 0.30; H ,0 -, 3.13; H 2 0 + , 10.19; C02, 0.02; and
P 2 0 5, 1.44; total, 99.82. Analyst, M. Dittrich. This rock breaks
through the horizontal quartzitic sandstones, volcanic flows, and shales
of the Karroo formation (Carboniferous to Triassic).
The Kimberley pipe has been worked down to a depth of about
3,500 feet, its diameter being about 500 feet. Near the surface the
kimberlite was decomposed (“yellow ground”) but at greater depth the
fresher “ blue ground” was met. The latter is now mined exclusively;
and the tough rock is allowed to slack on the surface for many months
before it can be washed in pans and jigs, the final concentration being
effected on greased tables, the grease having the property of holding
the diamonds while the other constituents of the rock are washed over
it. Successive crushing is now often substituted for the slacking and
treatment in pans. The pipes are probably to be regarded as explosion
vents and the rock filling them is undoubtedly of igneous origin. There
are hundreds of these vents scattered from Cape Colony to the Congo
and many more are probably concealed by the covering deposits of the
Kalahari Desert. Only a few of these pipes carry diamonds in economic
quantities. The diamonds are often crystallized as octahedrons, with
convex or concave faces, but most of the crystals as recovered are
broken. The color is white, yellowish, greenish, lilac, and even deep
yellow. Small rounded masses with concentric growth have also been
noted and many dark-gray semi-transparent pieces are found.
The “blue ground” contains fragments of carbonaceous shale, which
at first were thought to have furnished the material for the diamonds.
Stelzner, Bonney, and others have shown that the gem crystallized as an
integral part of the magma. Stelzner mentions intergrowths of pyrope
garnet and diamonds, and Gardner F. Williams has collected specimens
from Kimberley which show crystallized diamonds still partly enclosed
by garnet and ferromagnesian minerals. Triibenbach and Bonney have
also found that diamonds actually occur in fresh eclogite, a garnet-
pyroxene rock closely allied to peridotite, from the Newlands mine, about
40 miles west of Kimberley. T. W. E. David described a 34-carat
diamond from New South Wales, embedded in a solid matrix of horn­
blende diabase.
The production at Kimberley by the De Beers Company is about
1 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0 carats per annum; the average price for the rough stone ranges
from $16 to $26 per carat. The best ground is said to average about 1
metric carat ( 2 0 0 milligrams) per ton.
The deposit at the Premier mine, discovered about 1900, is a pipe
34 mile by 34 mile in horizontal section penetrating the older Pretoria
series of sediments. The mine is 325 feet deep. About 2,800,000 tons
of material are treated annually, yielding about 733,000 carats. In
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 111
this mine the largest diamond ever found was obtained; it is known as
the Cullinan diamond and formed a broken octahedron 4 inches long
and 2 inches wide; its weight was 3,025% carats.
Much of the product from the South African mines is sold in the
United States, the imports reaching a value of about $60,000,000 a year.
Good cut stones sell from $200 to $500 per carat.
Production, and imports into the United States, dropped sharply
after 1929. The period of depression since 1929 has had a disastrous
effect on the diamond market.
The world’s production of diamonds for 1929 was estimated at about
7,150,000 metric carats, of which 3,661,000 came from the Union of South
Africa, over 1,800,000 from the Congo, 860,000 from Angola and South­
west Africa, and 214,000 from British Guiana. In the three latter regions
the gems occur in placer deposits (p. 250).
A government control board now regulates the production of
diamonds from alluvials in the Union of South Africa. A private
corporation controls the output of the deep mines to avoid
overproduction.
Carbon is soluble in molten magmas and can crystallize from them.
Small diamonds have been artificially produced in several ways, well
summarized by F. W. Clarke in his book, “Data of Geochemistry.”
They have been obtained by dissolving carbon in molten iron, fused
olivine, and lime-magnesia magmas. The discovery of small diamonds
in meteorites of iron or peridotitic rock is another fact clearly pointing
to a magmatic origin of this mineral. It has been shown by R. A. A.
Johnson1 that chromite, a mineral of the peridotite rocks, contains micro­
scopic diamonds.
OTH ER P R E C IO U S STO N ES

Other precious stones contained in igneous rocks are sapphire, garnet,

and peridot (pp. 766 and 797).
Pyrope (magnesium-aluminum garnet) of the beautiful deep-red
color which is necessary for gem quality is usually found in basic rocks
of igneous origin. The garnets of Bohemia, obtained in washing a
Cretaceous conglomerate, are probably derived from a serpentine. The
diamond-bearing serpentine of South Africa contains pyrope of gem
quality, called Cape ruby. Almandite (iron-aluminum garnet) is not
so extensively used. It occurs in granite and aplite, and also, as a product
of metamorphic action, in crystalline schists. In the Navajo Reser­
vation, Arizona, pyrope and peridot (yellowish-green olivine) are
obtained as disintegration products of a basaltic rock.
1 Mem. 22, Canada Geol. Survey, 1913, p. 83.
778 MINERAL DEPOSITS
P L A T IN U M AND P A L L A D IU M 1
Nearly all the platinum of the world is derived from placers, mainly
in the Ural Mountains in Russia (p. 246), but also in Colombia, Cali­
fornia, Canada, South Africa, Abyssinia, and New South Wales (p. 246).
Native platinum occurs as an alloy with others of the platinum group
—osmium, iridium, palladium, ruthenium, and rhodium. Native
iridium, iridosmine, and other alloys are found with it.
An analysis of the crude platinum sand of California by Deville and
Debray showed the following percentages: Platinum, 85.50; iridium,
1.05; palladium, 0.60; rhodium, 1.00; gold, 0.80; copper, 1.40; iron,
6.75; iridosmine, 1.10; sand, 2.95.
The platinum in the placers forms small rounded, also concretionary
and knobby dark-gray pieces. Bright silvery scales of iridosmine occur
with it. In the Ural, large pieces of platinum have been found, the
largest weighing about 26 pounds.
Platinum and associated metals are siderophile elements and mainly
occur as magmatic products in basic rocks, particularly in peridotite.
To some extent they follow the high-temperature copper ores, though
here there is usually more palladium than platinum present.
Platinum has been found in primary deposits, but until recently
few of them have been of economic importance. The modes of occur­
rence of platinum are as follows: (1 ) in placers; (2 ) disseminated in
peridotite and olivine gabbro, associated with chromite; (3) in magmatic
deposits in basic rocks, associated with chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite
(with palladium); (4) in small quantities in quartz veins (with palladium);
(5) in contact-metamorphic deposits; (6 ) in traces in copper deposits of
many kinds (with palladium); (7) concentrated by processes of oxidation
in replacement ores of copper and gold in limestone (with palladium).
Daubree showed, in 1875, that the Russian platinum is intergrown
with olivine, pyroxene, and serpentine. R. Beck, on authority of S,
Conradi, reports it in Paleozoic peridotite from Solowioff Mountain, in
the Ural Mountains, and states that the metal forms zonal crystals of
unquestionable magmatic origin lying between grains of chromite.
Duparc has described the geological conditions relating to platinum in
the Ural Mountains. 2 Kemp has found platinum in dunite from the
1 J. F. Kemp, Bull. 193, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1902.
C. W. Purington, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 29, 1899, p. 3.
D. T. Day, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 1900, p. 702.
F. W. Clarke, Data of geochemistry, Bull. 770, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp.
717-722.
L. Duparc, and M. Tikonowitch, Le platine et les gttes platiniferes de l’Oural et
du monde, Geneva, 1920.
2 A. N. Zavaritsky, Primary platinum deposits of the Urals, Com. geol., Mater,
geol., livr. 108, 1928, Leningrad, 56 pp,
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 779
Tulameen River, British Columbia. The serpentines of this region also
yield traces of platinum.
In the nickel deposits at Sudbury, Ontario, which are considered
of magmatic origin, platinum arsenide, sperrylite, probably accom­
panied by palladium arsenide, is found as small silvery-white cubes
intergrown with pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. The same mineral was
discovered at the Rambler mine, 1 Wyoming, in copper ores, mainly
chalcopyrite and covellite, probably of igneous origin and forming a
lens in a dioritic rock. Much palladium is also present.
The Salt Chuck mine, 12 on Prince Edward Island, Alaska, near
Ketchikan, carries disseminated bornite, also some chalcocite, covellite,
and epidote in a dark-green pyroxenite. The ore-body was mined for
several years before it was recognized that the bornite contained an
appreciable amount of palladium. About 3,000 ounces of palladium were
recovered in 1925. The concentrates contain copper 40 per cent, gold
1 ounce per ton, silver 5 ounces, palladium 3 ounces. Mertie thinks the
deposit is epigenetic.
Another rare mode of occurrence of platinum is in quartz veins,
described by Bell, 3 from the southern island of New Zealand, from
northern Finland, and from Canada.
A peculiar occurrence of platinum with wollastonite and grossularite
in a contact-metamorphic rock has been reported from Sumatra. 4
Palladium occasionally occurs alloyed with gold. E. Hussak5
found in Brazil such palladium-bearing gold in a limestone close to the
contact of an igneous rock. Platinum and palladium are also recovered
in the electrolytic refining of copper bullion.
A gold-platinum-palladium deposit concentrated by processes of
oxidation has been described by Adolph Knopf. 6
The ore occurs in a mesothermal lead-copper-gold replacement
deposit in limestone in the Yellow Pine district, southern Nevada. The
material which contains the precious metals is plumbojarosite, a sulphate
of iron, lead and bismuth, and occurs in important amounts. It may
average, in ounces to the ton: Gold, 3.46; silver, 6.4; platinum, 0.70;
palladium, 3.38. All metals are in minute division. The gold is rough,
black and spongy, the palladium-platinum appears as microscopic black
grains. The platinum metals were probably contained in the primary
sulphides and, most likely, have been concentrated by solutions in which
they were present in colloidal suspension.
1S. F. Emmons, Bull. 213, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1903, pp. 94—97.
2 J. B. Mertie, Jr., Bull. 714, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1921, pp. 121-126.
3 J. M. Bell, Econ. Geol., 1, 1906, p. 749.
4 L. Hundeshagen, Trans., Inst. Min. and Met. (London), 13, 1903-1904.
5 Silz.-ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 113, No. 1, July, 1904, pp. 1-88.
6 Bull. 620, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1915, pp. 1—44.
780 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Production and Use.—At best the world’s annual output of platinum,
mainly from the Ural Mountains, was 400,000 troy ounces. War
conditions greatly decreased the Ural production, but it is now increasing
slowly, with production of 100,000 ounces in 1929. The dredges in
Colombia now turn out about 45,000 ounces per annum. The output
of platinum metals from all domestic sources is now (1930) about 10,000
ounces, of which 527 ounces is from Pacific coast placers; the rest comes
from electrolytic copper refineries and oxidized ores; more than one-half
of this consists of palladium. The nickel mattes of Sudbury, Ontario,
yielded in 1931 about 45,000 ounces each of platinum and palladium. The
price of platinum per troy ounce rose from $ 2 0 per ounce to a maximum
of $120 but has now (1932) dropped to $35 per ounce; palladium now
costs $20 per ounce. Iridium is obtained in refining crude platinum
or osmiridium. Some is produced by picking out iridium grains from
the concentrate. The price is about $90 per ounce. The world's
production of platinum in 1930 was about 230,000 ounces.
Platinum is used for jewelry, in dentistry, for chemical utensils,
for spark devices, and in the contact process for making sulphuric acid.
Attempts are now made to save platinum by using alloys of tungsten,
molybdenum, chrome-nickel, and palladium.
Palladium, a silvery-white ductile metal, soluble in HN03, is used
for silvering circles on surveying instruments, and other electroplating;
also in dentistry and, in alloy with gold, as substitute for platinum; the
last named use being the most important.
Iridium, exceedingly hard and resistant, is used for hardening plati­
num; 5 to 20 per cent are added. It is also employed for chemical and
physical instruments, contact devices, etc.
Rhodium finds use with platinum for thermo-couples. There is
little demand for it, or for ruthenium.
Osmium is available in considerable quantities from the refining
of platinum sand. Formerly it was used in incandescent lamps. At
present, it is little used for industrial purposes.
LATE D IS C O V E R IE S O F P L A T IN U M M ETALS

Needless to say the shortage of platinum caused by the shutdown

of the Ural mines stimulated prospecting all over the world. The
developments in Colombia were one result of this.
The recovery of osmiridium in the Rand gold field since 1921 is also
to be noted. It is believed the mineral, like the gold, is of detrital
origin. 1 About 6,000 ounces are now recovered per annum.
1 An analysis from Government Areas mine gave 35.78 Ir., 39.71 Os., 9.60 Ru.,
6.12 Pt., and 0.16 Rh. Iridosmine comprises two varieties: (1) osmiridium (sisert-
skite), with less than 40 per cent iridium; and (2) iridosmium (nevyanskite), with
more than 40 per cent iridium. Both occur as hexagonal tabular or flaky crystals.
Iridosmium is silvery white, osmiridium gray.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 781

It has also been found that platinum is widely distributed in the

basic rocks of the Transvaal1 and probably also in South Rhodesia
(Fig. 302).
Much attention has been given to these developments and the
literature is already extensive. Wagner calls attention to the extra­
ordinary richness of South Africa in some of the siderophile elements,
such as chromium, platinum, and diamond.

F ig . 302.— M ap of South Africa showing location of principal occurrences and potential

sources of the platinum metals.
There are several different kinds of platinum deposits in the Trans­
vaal. The first group is connected with the lower norite zone of the great
Bushveld igneous complex, 2 which breaks through the Transvaal system
(probably pre-Cambrian) and which occupies an area of over 150,000
square miles. This great intrusive sheet or “lopolith” presents many
analogies to the smaller intrusive sheet of Sudbury, Ontario (p. 804).
A peculiar pseudostratification, or division into horizontal sheets of
different composition seems to be characteristic of the norite zone, which
comprises many rocks ranging from peridotite to anorthosite and norite.
There are much assimilation and alteration of the underlying beds of
1A. W. Newberry and J. F. Kemp, Platinum in the Transvaal and elsewhere,
Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, 121, 1926, pp. 717-725; 763-768.
Percy A. Wagner, Occurrence of the platinum metals in South Africa, Econ.
Geol., 21, 1926, pp. 109-134; 243-270.
The platinum deposits and mines of South Africa, Edinburgh, 1929, 326 pp., with
a chapter by H. Schneiderhohn.
G. H. Stanley and P. A. Wagner, Jour. Chem. Met. Min. Soc., South Africa,
March, 1925; also Mining Mag. (London), 32, 1925.
2 R. A. Daly and G. A. F. Molengraaff, Jour. Geol., 32, 1924, pp. 1-35.
782 MINERAL DEPOSITS
quartzite, shale, and dolomite. Even the upper acidic differentiates of
the complex carry some platinum in places.
1. Occurrences in Hortonolite-dunite.1—In the lower part of the
norite are pipes, segregations, or veins of a peridotite of the above-
named variety, extremely rich in iron and containing, besides olivine,
some phlogopite, diallage, hornblende, chromite, and titaniferous
magnetite. In some of these masses platinum occurs in important
amounts, say 0.1 to 7.0 ounces per ton, as cubical crystals and irregular
grains up to 4 millimeters in diameter. Small amounts of Fe, Os, Ir,
Pd, and Rh enter the composition of the platinum.
2. Chromite Deposits.—Flat “ beds” of chromite occur in the norite
zone and some of these contain platinum (Fig. 303).
Afog a //'e s h e rg

\D/abose C/fipe r- CAromHe

H o r iz o n
A fe r e n s / fy H / c r tin u m \ *
A / o r iz o n
* | B u s h v e ld
g r a n it e
LoPrer C A ro m /^ f. M agn e ■ //' /•<? j | Hor/fe
Horizon H o n 'z o n Zone

F i g . 3 0 3 . — Section
across N orite Zone of Bushvcld Complex, east of Rustenburg
showing position of M agnetite Horizon in relation to Platinum and Chromite Horizons.
{After P. A . Wagner.)

3. Platinum with Small Amounts of Ni-Co-Fe Sulphides. 2—These

deposits occur in bronzitite and norite. Palladium and platinum are
associated with pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and pentlandite.
The Merensky-horizon type forms important low-grade platinum
deposits occurring in a persistent flat sheet of diallage-norite, 3 to 30 feet
thick. Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and pentlandite are present and are,
according to Wagner, of purely magmatic origin; orthotectic, to use
Graton’s term.
The platinum is present as metallic grains, probably also as sperrylite.
Over miles this rock contains platinum, about 0.1 to 0.15 ounce per ton.
These deposits occur in the Lydenburg and Pretoria districts. Another
occurrence and one of great importance appears near Potgietersrust, also
in the norite horizon. It is near the rocks of the Transvaal system and
includes both strictly magmatic and contact-metasomatic deposits
in the basal dolomite; here too the platinum is associated with the
sulphides. One horizon has been traced for 1,700 feet and averages
0.3 to 0.5 ounce platinum to the ton. Promising values have also been
2P. A. Wagner and E. T. Mellor, Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa, 28, 1925, pp.
1-18.
2 P. A. Wagner, On magmatic nickel deposits of the Bushveld igneous complex,
Mem. 21, Geol. Survey Union South Africa, 1924.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 783
shown in crushed zones of banded iron stone (taconite) occurring at
the base of the dolomite series.
The main horizon in the Potgietersrust field is probably the equivalent
of the Merensky horizon in the Lydenburg district.
In this vicinity, the most important deposits in South Africa have
been opened; they occur in a sheet of diallage-norite, which is 150 feet
thick, covered and underlain by anorthosite-norite. Platinum occurs
mainly in the upper 50 feet, associated with some sulphides and averaging
about 0.1 to 0 . 2 ounce per ton. Crystals of sperrylite half an inch in
diameter have been found. An important mineral in norite is said to be
cooperite, PtS 2 ; there are also native platinum and stibiopalladinite
(PdaSb) . 1
Platinum-palladium Deposits of the Waterberg District.—These
deposits are most interesting. They occur in central Transvaal and are
brecciated quartz veins or composite lodes occupying faults of post-
Karroo age in felsite or felsite tuff, belonging to the Bushveld complex.
The main lode can be traced for 21^ miles, is 6 to 50 feet thick, and
dips steeply. The banded quartz shows comb structure. There are
quartz, and chalcedony, also specularite, oxidized pyrite, and chromifer-
ous chlorite.
Platinum 2 occurs in small gray specks, showing under the microscope
a concentrically banded structure suggesting colloidal deposition. The
platinum contains up to 37 per cent palladium, and it has been suggested
that the colloform structure is caused by alternating bands richer in
palladium. The distribution of the platinum is erratic. Assays up
to 150 ounces per ton have been obtained. Some sections average
14 ounces over 60 inches. Operations were suspended in 1926.
These deposits present a remarkable similarity to the colloidal
cassiterite deposits in rhyolite, described from Nevada, New Mexico,
and Mexico. There are the same high-temperature minerals, deposited
apparently near the surface. Traces to small amounts of platinum occur
in the post-Karroo dolerite, in the great serpentine dike of Rhodesia,
and in the kimberlite of the diamond pipes.
Production.—The recovery of platinum from these deposits formed
a difficult subject. Concentration on tables, amalgamation, or flotation
and smelting of the resulting low-grade concentrate are the processes
adopted. The recent drop in the price of platinum may considerably
retard the development of the deposits. At any rate, the production
from the Potgietersrust, Lydenburg, and Rustenburg districts has
1 H. R. Adam, Trans., Geol. Soc. South Africa, 33, 1930, pp. 103-109.
2 P. A. Wagner and T. G. Trevor, Platinum in the Waterberg district, Bull. 101,
Industries bulletin series, Pretoria, 1924.
G. H. Stanley and P. A. Wagner, Note on the microstructure of Transvaal
platinum, Jour. Chem. Met. Min. Soc. South Africa, March, 1925.
784 MINERAL DEPOSITS
increased rapidly since 1926 and in 1930 reached 47,021 ounces, including
a notable percentage of palladium.
IR O N AND N IC K E L

Native iron occurs sparingly in some basalts. Large masses have

been found in a basalt at Ovifak, West Greenland, where the natives
used the metal for their tools and weapons. The iron contains from 2 to
3 per cent of nickel and 3 per cent of carbon and was long thought of
meteoric origin. The basalt breaks through Tertiary beds containing
coal, and it is believed by some that the metal was reduced from the rock
by means of the coal. The nickel it contains militates against this view;
more likely it was carried up from some deep-seated source by the
basalt.
Awaruite (FeNi2) is disseminated in gravels and also as small grains
in the serpentine and peridotite of Red Mountain, on the south island
of New Zealand, and is found also in sluice boxes for gold washing at
Hoole Canyon, Yukon Territory. 1 A similar mineral, josephinite
(FeNi3), has been found in detritus in areas of serpentine in southwestern
Oregon and a few other localities.
C H R O M IT E 2
Chromite (Fe0.Cr2 0 3 ) , 3 a mineral of the spinel group and usually
admixed with other spinel molecules, is an almost constant accessory in
peridotites and the serpentines derived from them and is often found
in them as accumulations large enough to be mined. The ore, more or
less mixed with the rock, forms irregular bunches and masses or flat
bodies along the contacts or in the interior of the intrusive masses;
frequently also it forms ill-defined streaks or “schlieren.” Investiga­
tions, of Vogt and others, have shown that chromite in large masses
mainly represents purely magmatic separations in peridotite magmas.
Vogt showed that the succession in the Norwegian deposits was chromite,
olivine, and soda-lime feldspar, and in all cases the chromite appears to
1 J. Keele, Summ. Rept., Canada Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 257.
2 J. H. L. Vogt, Zeiischr. prakt. Geol., 1894, pp. 384-393.
E. Glasser, Les richesses minerales de la Nouvelle CaMdonie, Ann. des Mines
(10) 4, 1903, pp. 299-536.
W. Glenn, The chromites of Maryland, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 25, 1896,
p. 481.
E. C. Harder, Some chromite deposits in western and central California, Bull.
430, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, pp. 167-183.
J. S. Diller, Recent studies of domestic chromite deposits, Trans., Am. Inst. Min.
Met. Eng., 63, 1920, pp. 105-149.
3 Theoretically, chromite should contain 68 per cent Cr20 3 and 32 per cent FeO,
but AUOa and MgO are always present and the actual content of C^Oa is rarely more
than 60 per cent. It is one of the most difficultly fusible minerals, melting at
2180° C.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 785

be the earliest consolidated constituent. Deposits in serpentine are

often admixed with magnetite. It is noteworthy that during the
weathering of peridotite few chromium silicates are formed, while nickel
silicates often develop. A little chromiferous muscovite (mariposite),
also ouvarovite or chrome garnet, as well as chloritic chromium minerals,
in places accompany the chromite.
In the later literature 1 the opinion seems to be gaining ground that
chromite may in part be early magmatic, in part late magmatic, and in
part even hydrothermal. L. W. Fischer, C. S. Ross, and Edward
Sampson have expressed such views. Sampson shows that in South
Africa chromite occurs in pyroxenite and rocks rich in bronzite and
anorthite, rather than in peridotite.
Chalcopyrite is occasionally found with the chromite. Niccolite
(NiAs) has been found in serpentines and peridotites at Malaga, Spain. 2
The mineral is later than the chromite and, according to R. Beck, 3
cements crystals of augite.
Chromite ores should contain 45 to 50 per cent Cr2 0 3. Deposits
occur in many countries. Until lately, the largest supplies were received
from Asia Minor, near Antiochia, Smyrna, and Brussa. These deposits
are of unusual size. The Daghardy mine, 4 near Brussa, yielded annually
12,000 to 15,000 metric tons of ore. One of the masses from this mine
was 70 meters long, 25 meters wide, and 20 meters deep. Much chromite
is also exported from New Caledonia, where the ore occurs in part as
residual deposits, which are concentrated, in part as masses and “ vein­
like segregations” in serpentine. Chromite has been mined near Balti­
more, Maryland, in North Carolina, in California, and in Oregon.
Although there are many deposits, particularly in the great Serpentine
Dike of California, in Eldorado and Placer Counties, the total production
is small. Deposits of chromite in the serpentine areas of Quebec have
been worked by concentration.
The great deposits of southern Rhodesia now supply much of the
demand. Foremost among these is the Selukwe district, 5 where the ore
occurs in talcose, chloritic, and serpentine schists, evidently representing
dynamo-metamorphosed peridotites.
Other important deposits occur as successive flat sheets, about
10 inches thick, in the serpentine of the Great Dike of southern Rhodesia.
1See papers in Econ. Geol. 24, 1929; also Edward Sampson, Varieties of chromite
deposits, Econ. Geol. 26, 1931, pp. 833-839; idem, 27, 1932, pp. 113-144.
2 F. Gilman, Notes on the ore deposits of the Malaga serpentines, Trans., Inst.
Min. and Met. (London), 1896, pp. 159-165.
3 Erzlagerstatten, 1, 1909, p. 89.
4 R. E. Weiss, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1901, pp. 249-262.
W. F. A. Thomae, Emery, chrome ore, etc., in Asia Minor, Trans., Am. Inst.
Eng., 28, 1898, pp. 208-225.
6 A. E. V. Zeally, Trans. andProc., Geol. Survey South Africa, 17, 1914, pp. 60-74.
786 MINERAL DEPOSITS
This remarkable intrusion, similar to the Serpentine Dike of the Sierra
Nevada in California, extends north and south for 300 miles (p. 781) and
is 3 to 4 miles wide. The exact mode of intrusion of this dike has not
been studied. It seems analogous in some ways to the Bushveld
intrusions. It is composed of norite, pyroxenite, and peridotite, the
serpentine being derived from the latter rock. The total exports of
chromite from southern Rhodesia in 1930 are reported as 205,631 metric
tons.
Chromium is used as a steel-hardening metal, for stainless steel, and
also for the preparation of bichromate of potassium, principally for
tanning, also pigments. Chromite bricks are used as refractory material
in the steel industry. Chromium is extensively used for electroplating
of metals. The metal resists nitric acid; also fruit acids.
The maximum of domestic production, during the World War, was
82,430 long tons. In 1930, 326,617 tons of chromite were imported,
mainly from Rhodesia, Greece, Cuba, New Caledonia, and the Union of
South Africa. The price f.o.b. shipping ports is about $20 per ton.
IL M E N IT E OR T IT A N IC IR O N ORE

General Features.—At many places in the world large masses of

ilmenite (FeTi03, containing oxygen 31.6, titanium 31.6, iron 36.8),
are found associated with more or less magnetite, olivine, pyroxene, and
soda-lime feldspars. Ilmenite, with magnetite, is one of the earlier
products of consolidation in magmas and is contained in almost all
diabases, basalts, and gabbros; it occurs also in other less basic rocks, but
the real home of ilmenite is in the rocks poor in silica. The larger masses
of ilmenite are simply facies of the rock itself produced by concentration
from the same magma. Near such masses the dark constituents first
increase; finally the feldspar disappears and the ore-body consists of a
mixture of ilmenite with ferromagnesian silicates. Vogt1 first called
attention to this well-defined group of ore deposits and explained its
origin.
The ilmenite deposits, though large, have thus far been little utilized
on account of difficulties in the metallurgical treatment; but these do
not seem to be insuperable, and, as it is known that titanium confers
valuable qualities of hardening on steel, the ores may at some time
become important in metallurgy.
Ferrotitanium is manufactured from rich titaniferous iron ores.
Rutile is used for arc electrodes. Titanium white (Ti02), an excellent
pigment, is made from Ti rich ilmenite by treatment with H 2 S04 and
electrolysis of the titanium sulphate. 2 Most of the ilmenite used for
1 Die Bildung der Erzlagcrstatten durch Differentiation in basischen Eruptiv-
magmata, Zeitschr. prakl. Geol., 1893, 1894, 1900, and 1901.
2 Information Circ. 6365, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1930.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 787

pigment is obtained from beach sands near Travancore, Southern India.

In 1930, 29,000 metric tons were exported from there.
Microstructure of Ilmenite.—The complex intergrowths of ilmenite
with magnetite, rutile, and hematite have been described by J. T.
Singewald; 1 by C. H. Warren; 2 and by Paul Ramdohr. 3
Warren summarizes his results as follows: One type, represented by
occurrences at Miask, Arendal, and Snarum, is homogeneous, though
ilmenites from the two latter localities contain a great excess of Fe 2 0 3
compelling the belief that there is a wide range of miscibility between the

A B
F ig . 304.— A . Photom icrograph of polished section showing intergrow th of hem atite
(light); ilm enite (dark), St. U rbain, Quebec. Magnified 100 diam eters. B . Intergrow th
of m agnetite (dark); ilm enite (light); a grain of olivine in upper right corner, Cum berland,
Rhode Island. Magnified 180 diam eters. (B oth after C. H . W arren.)
molecules RTi0 3 and Fe2 0 3. A second type presents an intergrowth
of grains of homogeneous ilmenite and magnetites. The occurrences
at Lake Sanford, New York, and Iron Mountain, Wyoming, belong here.
Many so-called titanic iron ores are magnetic.
A third type, represented by St. Urbain, Quebec (Fig. 304A) and
Egersund, Norway, consists of a well-defined crystallographic intergrowth
of ilmenite and hematite, caused by the unmixing of an originally
homogeneous solid solution.
A fourth type, illustrated by specimens from Cumberland, Rhode
Island and Iron Mountain, Wyoming, shows an extraordinary minute
regularly oriented intergrowth of magnetite and ilmenite (Fig. 304A).
Warren believes that there exists a limited solid solution of the ilmenite and
1J. T. Singewald, Jr., B u ll. 64, U. S. Bur. Mines, 1913.
2 C. H. Warren, A in . J o u r. S ci., 4th ser., 33, 1912, pp. 263-277. The micro-
structure of certain titanic iron ores, E con. Geol., 13, 1918, pp. 419-446.
3 P. Ramdohr, Beobachtungen an magnetit, ilmenit, etc., Festschrift 150, zur
Jahrfeier d. Berg. Akad. Clausthal, 1925, pp. 307-341.
P. Ramdohr and H. Sehncidcrhohn, Erzmikroskopie, 1931, Berlin, pp. 539-550.
788 MINERAL DEPOSITS
magnetite molecules, with a eutectic; and that ilmenite and hematite form
a complete solid solution at higher temperatures, with an inversion inter­
val and limited miscibility at lower temperatures.
Ramdohr also interprets the intergrowth of Fe20 3 and FeTiOj as
a result of unmixing by slow cooling. Similar unmixing of the solid
solution Fe30 4-FeTi03 produces the intergrowths of magnetite and
ilmenite.
Irregular Bodies.—The titanic iron ores form irregular masses or
rather sharply outlined streaks in the central parts of gabbro or norite
intrusives. The transitions to the country rock indicate that these
masses have been formed by differentiation in the magma after the irrup­
tion into its present place. In these differentiated magmas ilmenite and
magnetite have, as a rule, crystallized after the silicates, though some
titanium and iron are retained in the residual magma. The order of
crystallization is ferromagnesian silicates, spinel, ilmenite, and magnetite.
Probably little water was present and the temperature of consolidation
was high, perhaps near 1450° C., the fusion point of ilmenite, according to
Brun. Vogt has shown that during the differentiation of a gabbro or
norite magma a concentration of ferric oxide takes place, as well as of
titanium, chromium, and vanadium; the lime, magnesia, and particularly
silica diminish greatly, the silica to such an extent that the alumina and
magnesia are forced to crystallize as corundum and spinel, both of which
occur frequently in these deposits. Little sulphur or phosphorus is
present.
Dikes.—Separated during a deeper-seated differentiation and re­
melted, veritable dikes of almost pure ilmenite may be injected into the
prevailing rock, which then is usually an anorthosite.
Occurrences.—Vogt and Kolderup have described the Norwegian
occurrences in norite and anorthosite in the great intrusive region in
Ekersund; the largest body is 3 kilometers long and from 30 to 70 meters
thick. Its composition is about 21 per cent plagioclase, 41 per cent
hypersthene, and 38 per cent ilmenite. At Routivare, in northern
Sweden, a gigantic mass of titanic iron ore is included in a mass of highly
altered gabbro, intruded in Cambro-Silurian strata. Some pyrrhotite is
associated with the ore.
A large deposit at St. Urbain, in Quebec, is described by C. H.
Warren1and J. B. Mawdsley.2 Elongated, sometimes dike-like masses of
ilmenite are inclosed in anorthosite. Specularite is intimately intergrown
with ilmenite. Much rutile and blue grains of sapphirine (Mg5 Ali2 Si20 27),
also andesine, biotite, and spinel are contained in some of the ore. Other
varieties in which no rutile is present contain only 5 to 6 per cent of other
minerals.
1Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 33, 1912, pp. 203-277.
2Mem. 152, Canada Geol. Survey, 1927, 58 pp.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 789

J. F. Kemp1 has described the large deposits in the Adirondacks

of New York, near Elizabethtown and Lake Sanford. These ores are
contained in a gabbro which is intrusive in a large “massif” of anorthosite.
They are granular mixtures of magnetite and ilmenite with a maximum of
15 per cent Ti02 and form irregular or tabular masses. Osborne12 finds
that the ore-bodies are in part intrusive into the country rock, in part
concordant with the rock structures. As the ilmenite is later than the
silicates, the second type is interpreted as concentrations by “filter
pressing” or some such process. The ores contain plagioclase, pyroxene,
olivine, hornblende, garnet, pyrite, apatite, spinel, and quartz, but are
low in sulphur and phosphorus. At the principal locality, probably
several million tons of ore are exposed above the level of the lake.
Other deposits are known to occur in Minnesota3 and Ontario.
In eastern Wyoming, at Iron Mountain,4 a dike of almost solid
ilmenite, in places 300 feet wide, breaks through anorthosite containing
but little pyroxene and scarcely any ilmenite. This is a most remarkable
instance of complete deep-seated differentiation of magmas. An analysis
of the ore is as follows:
Si02............ ____ 0.7 6 M nO............ ___ 1.38
Ti02.......... ___ 23.49 MgO............ ___ 1.56
a i 20 3.......... .... 3.9 8 CaO.............. . . . . 1.16
Cr20 3........ ___ 2.4 5 P A ............ . . . . trace
Fe20 3.......... . . . . 45.03 S.................... . . . . 1.44
FeO.......... ___ 17.96 ZnO ............. ___ 0 .4 7
99.68
Total Fe...................................................................... 45.49
Some olivine, spinel, and magnetite are present as inclusions in the
ore.
Concentrations of ilmenite with prevailing magnetite are not uncom­
mon in gabbros and diabases, though rarely of economic importance.
Taberg, in southern Sweden, is of interest as one of the first places in
which the existence of magmatic ore deposits was demonstrated, by A.
Sjogren, Tornebohm, and Igelstrom. Taberg is a prominent hill 400
feet high, composed of norite. Toward the center the ilmenite and
magnetite are greatly concentrated and form a mass of ore with some
olivine, biotite, and plagioclase. The ore has at times been smelted
as iron ore; it contains about 6 per cent titanic dioxide.
1Titaniferous iron ores of the Adirondacks, N in eteen th A n n . R ep l., U. S. Geol.
Survey, pt. 3, 1898, 383-422.
2 F. F. Osborne, Certain magmatic titaniferous iron ores, Econ. Geol., 23, 1928,
pp. 724-761; 895-922.
s F. F. Grout, E con. G eo l, 20, 1925, pp. 424-430.
4 S. H. Ball, B u ll. 315, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, pp. 206-212.
790 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Flat sheets of titaniferous magnetite occur in the upper part of the
Bushveld igneous complex, South Africa. They are up to 15 feet thick
and can be traced for miles; they contain from 16 to 19 per cent titanium.
Influence of Pressure.—Kolderup has shown that, under dynamo-
metamorphic influences, the ilmenite in deposits of this class changes to
rutile, pyroxene is replaced by amphibole, garnet is developed, and new
biotite and feldspar aggregates are formed.1
M A G N E T IT E

As iron is contained in some basic igneous rocks in great quantities and

as even the average of this metal in all igneous rocks is 4.46 per cent, it
might be expected that magmatic concentrations of magnetite would be
abundant. This does not seem to be the case, however. In the early
stages of consolidation of igneous rocks some magnetite is crystallized,
together with other accessories, but the tendency to form silicates is
strong and sufficient silica is usually available to take care of all the ironin
the form of ferromagnesian silicates. In basic rocks much iron remains in
the residual magma and is separated at a late stage of the consolidation.
Commercially valuable deposits of magnetite as differentiation
products of magmas have been found only in connection with syenites,
syenite porphyries, and keratophyres, and here the magnetite is usually
later than the ferromagnesian silicates and the feldspars. Fluor-
apatite frequently accompanies the magnetite, but sulphides are rare.
Some basalts contain as much as 8 per cent FeO and 4 per cent Fe203;
some gabbros and norites as much as 15 per cent FeO and 1 or 2 per cent
Fe20 3. Magnetite requires 69 per cent ferric oxide and 31 per cent ferrous
oxide. Any process of differentiation favoring the separation of magne­
tite thus requires a transfer of part of the iron to a ferric state.
By later processes the magnetite may develop hematite along cleavage
planes or by pseudomorphism (martite). Magnetite deposits are rarely
found in surface lavas, doubtless because the time before consolidation
has not been long enough to permit of differentiation. Such concentra­
tions in basalt have been described from Colorado2 and a similar occur­
rence in andesite is on record from Nevada.3
The Iron Ores of Northern Sweden.4—The great magnetite deposits
in the extreme northern part of Sweden, the largest in the world, have
been studied by many geologists. For many years they remained
1 R. Beck, Erzlagerstatten, 3d ed., 1, 1909, p. 57.
2 H. S. Washington and E. S. Larsen, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 3, 1913,
pp. 449-452.
3 J. C. Jones, Econ. Geol., 8, 1913, pp. 247-263.
4 O. Stutzer, Die Eisenerzlagerstatten bei Kiruna, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 14, 1906,
pp. 65-71; 137-142. Ref. Econ. Geol, 2, 1907, pp. 88-91.
Per Geijer, Igneous rocks and iron ores of Kiirunavaara, etc., Stockholm, 1910,
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 791
unworked on account of their high percentage of phosphorus, which,
since the invention of the Thomas process, is no longer objectionable.
The deposit at Kiruna forms a north-south ridge which is, as exposed
at the surface, about 2.8 kilometers in length and rises 248 meters above
Lake Luossajarvi, or 748 meters above the sea. The magnetite forms the
highest part of the ridge and is from 32 to 152 meters wide. The total
amount of ore proved above the level of the lake is said to be 265,000,000
metric tons, and the total, to a depth of 300 meters, proved by borings,
about 1,075,000,000 tons. The annual production from open-cut and
underground workings reached a maximum of about 9,000,000 metric
tons in 1929; the ore is exported to England and Germany.
The ore-body and surrounding formations are of pre-Cambrian age
and dip steeply to the east (Fig. 305). In the footwall lies a syenite
porphyry with fluidal structure and rich in soda (per cent: 61 Si02, 8

5 Km.

F ig . 305.— Schematic cross-section of iron deposit a t K iruna. 1, soda greenstone;

2, K urravara conglom erate; 3, syenite porphyry; 4, m agnetite deposit; 5, quartz porphyry;
5 and 6, Hauki Complex; 7, am phibolite; 8, quartz porphyry.
iron oxides, and 6 to 7 Na20), the pyroxene of which is largely altered to
amphibole, chlorite, and epidote. Magnetite is present in two gener­
ations, the later of which may surround the feldspars and enter them along
cleavage planes. The contact between the ore-body and footwall
porphyry is apparently sharp, but shows in detail a narrow zone of transi­
tion due to small, sharply defined dikelets of magnetite in the porphyry.
An ultimate product of this zone is a mixture of magnetite with green
hornblende; it contains vugs filled with apatite, titanite, and magnetite.
The deposit itself is free from vugs. The reddish quartz porphyry of the
hanging wall is essentially similar in microscopic character, but contains,
in per cent, about 71 silica, 5 iron oxides, and 5 to 6 Na20, and has been
classified as a quartz keratophyre. It contains fragments of magnetite ore
and occasionally of the footwall porphyry. Above this hanging wall
porphyry lie quartzites, clay slates, and conglomerates, with water-worn
fragments of iron ores and keratophyre.
The ore is compact and fine-grained, consisting chiefly of magnetite
and apatite in intimate intergrowth, apparently having crystallized
278 pp. Author’s abstract, Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, pp. 699-718 (English).
Per Geijer, Berggrunden inom malmtrakton Kiruna-Gellivare (English summary),
Ann. Rept. 24, Swedish Geol. Survey, Ser. C, No. 366, Stockholm, 1931, 225 pp.
Per Geijer, The iron ores of the Kiruna type, idem, No. 367 (English), 1931,
39 pp.
792 MINERAL DEPOSITS
together. In places it contains pyroxene. The ore is said to average
68 per cent iron. The phosphorus is, as a rule, above 2 per cent, and some
parts of the ore yield from 3 to 4 per cent or even more of this substance.
The apatite seems to have crystallized first. In places magnetite and
apatite appear to be contemporaneous (Fig. 306). The sulphur is not
above 0.05 per cent; manganese not above 0.70 per cent; a similar amount
of magnesia is recorded, about 1.5 per cent silica, 0.75 per cent alumina,
about 3 per cent lime, and 0.3 per cent Ti02. In places a fluidal structure
of the magnetite and branching veinlets of apatite, suggesting a eutectic,
are observed in the ore.
In 1898, H. Lundbohm published the first monograph on the deposit.
A little later Hogbom proved the magmatic origin of the deposit, though

F ig . 306.— T liin section of apatite-rich ore, K irunavaara. A patite, white; magnetite,

black. Magnified 14 diam eters. (A fter P er Geijer.)
he believed that the differentiation had proceeded in place. The investi­
gations of Stutzer and the later monographic works by Geijer have shown
plainly that the ore was differentiated from magmas in depth and that it
has been brought to its present position in a molten condition. The differ­
ences largely depend upon whether the porphyries are to be considered as
effusive or intrusive. Stutzer held the latter and more probable view,
regarding the syenite porphyry as the earlier rock followed by the intru­
sion of a dike of magnetite. On the east side the magnetite was later
intruded by quartz porphyry which includes fragments of ore. Geijer,
holding that the porphyries were extrusive, thought that the ore was
intruded as a sheet of molten material between the porphyries while the
flows were still horizontal, and that it was later brought into a vertical
position.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 793
The injection theory necessitates a magmatic differentiation in depth
and probably requires also a remelting before intrusion. On the whole,
the deposit illustrates beautifully the extreme magmatic differentiation
from an alkaline magma with concentration of iron, titanium, phosphorus,
and fluorine. Undoubtedly the latter elements greatly depressed the
melting point of the magnetite.
The great iron mines of Gellivare, a short distance south of Kiruna,
produce about 1,500,000 metric tons of ore per annum.
The ore is principally mined in open workings and contains the same
minerals as that of Kiruna—that is, magnetite and apatite—but it has a
coarser grain. Locally it contains pyrite, chalcopyrite, fluorite, calcite,
and zeolites. The ore is rudely schistose, conforming with the steep dip
of the country rock, and forms large lenses, partly imbricating on parallel
and curving strike lines.
The rocks are chiefly gneisses. The red gneiss is most common near
the deposit and is traversed by many irregular veins of magnetite. It
consists of albite with some quartz, chlorite, apatite, and biotite.
The reddish-gray gneiss is similar in composition but contains also
soda-lime feldspar, microperthite, augite, and hornblende. Both rocks
are rich in soda.
Dikes of diorite or quartz keratophyre cut across the ore-body.
The deposit at Gellivare1 has probably a similar origin to that at
Kiruna. This view is supported by the tectonic relationship; the ore-
body is by no means confined to a single horizon in the gneiss. On the
whole the analogy with Kiruna is very striking, though at Gellivare the
rocks are clearly of intrusive origin. At both places the same genetic
relations seem to exist; the earliest rock is rich in soda and of low to
medium acidity, then follows an intrusion of magnetite-apatite rock, and
lastly a quartzose soda-rich igneous rock was intruded.
Gellivare is, then, simply a dynamo-metamorphosed Kiruna.
The hematite deposits at Iron Mountain,12 Missouri, are believed by
Geijer3 to be closely allied to the magnetite of Kiruna. They are
indeed very similar to the magnetite injected in porphyry at Tuolluvaara4
in northern Sweden. He thinks the hematite may have been derived by
alteration from magnetite and points to the association with apatite and
the occurrence as dike-shaped masses in the pre-Cambrian porphyry.
1 Per Geijer, Giillivare malmfalt, P a p e r 22, Geol. Survey Sweden (Eighth sum­
mary), 1930, 115 pp., Stockholm.
2 C. W. Crane, The iron ores of Missouri, Missouri Bur. Geol. and Mines, 2d ser.,
10, 1912, pp. 107-144.
J. E. Spurr, E n g. M in . J o u r.-P ress, Feb. 26, 1927.
3 Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, p. 324.
* Per Geijer, Tuolluvaara malmfalts geologi, Geol. Survey Sweden, ser. C, 2S6.
1920.
794 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The Magnetites of the Ural Mountains.—According to the investiga­
tions of Loewinson-Lessing and Jakowleff, the magnetite deposits of
Wyssokaia Gora and Gorablagodat, in the Urals, are products of differen­
tiation in magmas, although at the former locality contact-metamorphic
deposits also appear to be present. A summary of the Russian literature
has been given by Beck.1 In both places the igneous rocks are augite
syenites; at Gorablagodat12 the ore forms streaks or “schligren” in this
rock; it has a brecciated structure, the magnetite cementing the augites
and feldspar, but these are in part probably of contact-metamorphic
origin. They contain very little apatite, and the ores are not injected
dikes.
The Magnetites of the Adirondacks.3—The eastern part of the
Adirondack Mountains, in northern New York, contains a number of
deposits of magnetite which have been worked since the early part of the
last century and which still possess considerable economic importance.
The total output is estimated at 40,000,000 long tons. The annual mine
production in the last 25 years has varied from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 long
tons. The latter figure was reached in 1917. The more important oper­
ations are carried on in the Mineville district, but the deposits are spread
over a large area. As some of the ores contain much apatite, magnetic
concentration is used. The concentrates contain 60 to 65 per cent of
iron, and a by-product of impure apatite is obtained which is used as a
fertilizer. The ores are extracted through shafts, the deepest of which,
at Lyon Mountain, is 1,500 feet deep on the incline.
The associated rocks include syenitic, granitic, and dioritic gneisses,
garnetiferous schists, amphibolites, and crystalline limestones. The
deposits considered of magmatic type occur in a belt of syenitic gneisses,
in part also massive syenites and their pegmatites. These rocks contain
from 1.5 to 6.5 per cent magnetite.
In the Archean sedimentary rocks, known as the Grenville series, are a
number of smaller deposits, many of which contain pyrite as well as
magnetite; in the rocks graphite, sillimanite, garnet, and scapolite have
been noted. The genesis of these deposits is in doubt; they may be of
sedimentary origin and subsequently metamorphosed.
1 Erzlagcrstatten, 1, 1909, pp. 29-34.
2 Vera de Derwies, Recherches geol. dans la region du Blagodat, Bull. Com.
geol., Leningrad, 1924, p. 1439.
3 J. F. Kemp, Geology of the magnetites near Port Henry, Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., 27, 1898, pp. 146-203.
D. H. Newland and J. F. Kemp, Geology of the Adirondack magnetic iron
ores, Bull. 119, N. Y. State Mus., 1908, p. 182.
D. H. Newland, Sedimentary phases of Adirondack magnetites, Econ. Geol, 18,
1923, pp. 291-296.
W. J. Miller, Magnetite iron ores of Clinton County, New York, idem, 14, 1919,
pp. 509-535.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 795
The magnetites associated with undoubtedly igneous rocks appear as
long lenses or pod-like bodies, often bent, curved, or folded, and have
clearly participated in the general metamorphism of the country; at first
they were probably tabular bodies. The ore lenses range in thickness
from a few feet up to 25 feet or more, especially where curved or folded.
In part the magnetite ore is pure, but more commonly it is mixed with the
minerals that make up the wall-rocks, into which the ores often grade;
these minerals are feldspar, quartz, pyroxene, and hornblende.
Apatite is usually present, and the non-Bessemer grade may contain as
much as 10 per cent of this mineral. While much of the ore yields 60
per cent iron, there are large masses of ore with 50 per cent iron or less
that are suitable for concentration. According to Newland the lowest
grade of workable milling ore carries about 35 per cent iron. An average
analysis of 65 car-loads from pit 21 of the Mineville group of mines gave,
in per cent, iron, 60.03; silica, 4.48; phosphorus, 1.635; sulphur, 0.021;
and titanium, 0.12. The concentration resulted in a first-class product
with 67.34 Fe and 0.67 P and a “high-grade” apatite containing 3.55 Fe
and 12.71 P.
The intimate association and intergrowth of the magnetite with the
feldspar, augite, hypersthene, and hornblende of the augite syenite are
considered by Kemp to prove its origin by magmatic differentiation.
Syenitic pegmatites are also present, and the processes of pegmatitization
are considered to have contributed to the formation of the ore; fluorite and
titanite are often found in the ores.
Newland thinks that conditions in the Mineville region are com­
plicated by the injection of the syenites in the Grenville Series, which is so
metamorphosed that it is difficult to identify. The ores seem to present
an extreme differentiation product of alkaline rocks, with concentration
of iron, titanium, and fluorine.
Similar relations are noted by W. S. Bayley1in regard to the magnetite
deposits of New Jersey, which have long been worked near the town of
Dover. There are no deposits which can be shown to have separated
from the liquid syenitic rock; they are all high-temperature replacements
accompanied by amphibole and biotite, often coarsely crystallized. They
are sometimes veinlike and the flat ore-shoots conform with the elongation
of the minerals in the gneiss. On the other hand, they are not normal
pegmatites; but pegmatites with some magnetite occur in the region.
While some magnetite is of early crystallization, these deposits were
formed by late, iron-rich residual solutions probably after the pegmatites
had developed and certainly after the consolidation of the rock. They
are more nearly related to certain hypothermal deposits than to liquid-
magmatic separations.
1 W. S. Bayley, Iron mines and mining in New Jersey, Geol. Survey New Jersey,
Final Report, 7, 1910, pp. 131-193.
796 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The magnetite “ore vein” of Cranberry, North Carolina, is, according
to W. S. Bayley,1of similar origin. The deposit is continuous for over a
mile and contains a large amount of concentrating ore, averaging about 45
per cent Fe. The enclosing rocks are gneisses. The ore contains much
amphibole, epidote, and garnet. Bayley regards it as “an injected
pneumotectic deposit, related to pegmatite.” Basic, pyroxenic peg­
matites, with magnetite, were followed “by magmas or solutions that
produced pyroxene and magnetite, and finally mainly magnetite.”
Bayley’s description suggests that the ores are in part formed by a high-
temperature replacement.
It looks, therefore, as if the liquid-magmatic orthotectic iron ores were
very scarce. We really only know them as injected dikes, but that they
are derived by differentiation from alkaline magmas seems fairly certain.
CORUNDUM12*
General Mode of Occurrence.—Corundum (A120 3) has long been
known as a product of regional and contact metamorphism; that it may
also result from direct crystallization from a molten magma has been
established by late investigations. Alumina is contained in all magmas,
usually forming about 14 to 17 per cent. Certain syenites, nepheline
syenites, and anorthosites may contain as much as 30 per cent. The
peridotites, on the other hand, contain only from a fraction of 1 per cent
up to 10 per cent of alumina. The corundum of magmatic origin is
chiefly associated with those rocks of exceptionally high or low content of
alumina, in which at the same time the silica is low.
By some observers the corundum of igneous rocks is regarded as due
to recrystallization of included shale fragments. On the whole the
differentiation theory fits the facts better.
Corundum is fusible only at 2250° C. (Moissan), but it by no means
follows that it crystallized from the magma at this temperature; Haute-
feuille and Perrey showed, for instance, that alumina is soluble in a
nepheline or leucite melt and that upon cooling the greater part of it
crystallizes as corundum. Very likely it will be found that similar con­
ditions would exist in melted olivine. Morozewicz has shown that when
1 Bull. 29, Geol. Survey Tennessee, 1923.
2 The blue transparent corundum is called sapphire; the red transparent variety
forms ruby; both varieties are valuable gems. Colorless, yellow, and green varieties
also occur. The ordinary bluish or gray corundum is an inconspicuous mineral with
good basal cleavage and great hardness, whence its principal use as an abrasive.
Mixed with magnetite, mainly in metamorphic rocks, it is termed emery, the name
being derived from Cape Emeri, on the island of Naxos.
J. H. Pratt, Corundum, Bull. 269, U. S. Geol. Survey7, 1906.
A. E. Barlow, Corundum, Mem. 57, Canada Geol. Survey, 1915, p. 377.
G. P. Merrill, The non-metallic minerals, 1904, pp. 69-85; 2d ed., 1910, pp. 73-89.
J. Morozewicz, Tschermak’s min. u. pelr. Mill., 18, 1898, pp. 22-83.
 DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 797
in a silicate melt the alumina is in excess of the ratio R 0 :A1 2 0 3 :: 1 : 1 ,.
corundum, spinel, sillimanite, or cordierite will form.
Corundum in Igneous Magnesian Rocks.—A long belt of magnesian
rocks of probable pre-Cambrian age, mainly peridotites, gabbros, and
norites, extends along the Appalachian region from Alabama to Massa­
chusetts, and in these rocks corundum has been found in commercial
quantities at a number of places.
In North Carolina and Georgia the mineral occurs as vein-like bodies
from a few inches up to 15 feet in width at the contact of peridotite with
gneisses and schists, in part also in the peridotite itself. Chlorite,
enstatite, and spinel are associated with the corundum. Among the
principal localities are the Laurel Creek mine, in Rabun County, Georgia;
Corundum Hill, Macon County, and Webster, Jackson County, North
Carolina. None of the southern localities has been productive in late
years.
Deposits of emery, an impure corundum mixed with magnetite, are
worked by open cuts near Peekskill, Westchester County, New York.
The emery here occurs in the intrusive Cortlandt series of rocks described
by G. H. Williams1 and consisting of peridotites, norites, and diorites.
The corundum and magnetite are, according to Williams, simply segrega­
tions in the norite, the constituent minerals of which occur even in the
present emery. Hercynite—an iron spinel—and garnet accompany the
magnetite and the corundum.
T. L. Watson2 has described the Virginian emery deposits. He
finds that they form lenses and masses in a granite intrusive in highly
altered Cambrian sediments. The emery consists of magnetite and spinel
with more or less corundum and ilmenite. The deposits are regarded
as produced by igneous contact metamorphism; they probably resulted
from the absorption of Cambrian schist xenoliths by the magma.
Regional metamorphism easily changes many of these magnesian
rocks to amphibolites and chloritic schists. During this process the
corundum is apparently little affected. At Chester, Massachusetts,
according to B. K. Emerson,3 emery occurs for a long distance along a
belt of amphibolite contained in sericite schists. The emery-bearing part
of the schist is in places 12 feet wide and has been mined to a depth of
300 feet below the surface.
Corundum of gem quality is occasionally found in these deposits or in
the gravels derived from them, but most of the sapphires obtained in the
United States are derived from a different source. At Yogo Gulch,
Fergus County, Montana, long dikes belonging to the monchiquite-
camptonite series of lamprophyric rocks contain sharply crystallized
1 A m. Jour. Sci., 3(1 ser., 33, 1887, p. 135.
2 Econ. Geol., 18, 1923, pp. 53-76. Probably the last contribution from his pen.
3 Mon. 29, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, pp. 117-147.
798 MINERAL DEPOSITS
rhombohedral sapphires of excellent quality. The decomposed rock is
allowed to slack and is washed in sluice boxes. The deposits have been
described by Weed,1 Pirsson,2 and Sterrett.3
Corundum in Syenite.—The most important deposits of corundum in
Canada were discovered by W. F. Ferrier about 1896. The mineral
occurs as an essential constituent of syenites and nepheline syenites and
their pegmatites in Haliburton, Peterboro, Hastings, and Renfrew coun­
ties, Ontario.4 The rocks form dikes or intrusive masses in gneisses and
contain as much as 12 or 15 per cent of bluish or gray, often roughly
crystallized corundum, many of the crystals being 2 or 3 inches in
diameter. The rock is quarried, crushed, and concentrated on tables.5
The production, formerly great, has now diminished. The value of
corundum is about $100 per ton.
Other Occurrences.—Corundum has also been found in anorthosites—
rocks consisting principally of labradorite, or anorthite feldspar. Accord­
ing to T. H. Holland6 corundum is abundant in India and representatives
of the various classes already described are present.
In a number of occurrences of corundum in “gneiss” we have probably
to deal with igneous rocks, like syenite, made schistose by pressure.
Corundum is, however, unquestionably also developed by the contact
metamorphism of limestone, probably by transfer of alumina from the
magma. The largest known deposits of emery occur on the island of
Naxos, in the Greek Archipelago, and near Smyrna in Asia Minor; they
are contained in metamorphosed limestone.
Production in the United States.—At present little or no corundum is
produced in the United States. In 1929, 924 tons of emery at about $11
per ton represented the domestic output. Imports of corundum and
emery from Canada, Greece, and Turkey, in 1929, had a total value of
about $494,174. In response to a great demand, artificial corundum
(alundum) is now manufactured at Niagara Falls by fusing bauxite in the
electric furnace.
Uses.—Corundum finds its principal use as an abrasive, wheels and
abrading tools of all kinds being manufactured from the crushed material.
SULPHIDE ORES OF IGNEOUS ORIGIN
General Principles.—That sulphide minerals may crystallize from a
magma has been ascertained beyond doubt, but the number of minerals
1 T w en tieth A n n . K ept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1899, pp. 454-460.
2 A m . J o u r. S ci., 4th ser., 4, 1897, p. 421.
3 M in era l Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, pt. 2, p. 816.
4 A. P. Coleman, E ighth R ept., Ontario Bur. Mines, 1899, pp. 250-253.
5 V. L. Eardley-Wilmot, P u bl. 675, Canada Dept. Mines, 1927, 51 pp.
6 A manual of the geology of India, Economic Geology, pt. 1, Corundum,
Calcutta, 1898.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 799

which have this origin is limited to a few species, mainly pyrrhotite,

pyrite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, sphalerite, and pentlandite; arsenides
like niccolite and sperrylite are also known. This view of the igneous
origin of certain ores has been gained largely by the labors of J. H. L. Vogt.1
While it is clear that sulphides are not freely miscible with silicate
magmas,12 Vogt has shown that the monosulphides are soluble to some
extent in dry melts of basic character—that is, with much iron, calcium,
and manganese. Under favorable circumstances, particularly at tempera­
tures of about 1500° C., as much as 6 or 7 per cent of these sulphides may
become dissolved. But it is also to be noted that Vogt found but little
solubility for the sulphides of copper, nickel, lead, and silver. Upon
crystallization the sulphides always separate out first, as oldhamite
(CaS), alabandite (MnS), troilite (FeS), and sphalerite (ZnS). These
experimental results do not correspond with the conditions found in
nature, for of the sulphides mentioned sphalerite is the only one encoun­
tered at all in igneous rocks, and the sulphides of slight solubility, like those
of copper and nickel, are the most abundant. Later investigations by W.
Wanjukoff3have shown that the sulphides of copper, nickel, iron, zinc, and
cadmium are soluble in basic slags to a notable degree and in the order of
abundance indicated. Very likely the presence of mineralizers other
than sulphur would increase this solubility as, in fact, already suggested
by Vogt.
In the surface lavas, which correspond most closely to dry melts, small
grains of primary pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and bornite are
occasionally found.4 The sulphides of economic importance are almost
wholly confined to the peridotites, norites, and gabbros, all rocks of
deep-seated crystallization. The characteristic metallic association is
iron, copper, nickel, platinum, and occasionally a little arsenic.
Many observers have stated that the pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite
which often occurs in basic rocks, more or less intergrown with magnetite,
are of primary magmatic origin. None has treated the subject better
and more convincingly than E. Howe,5 who described the gabbro-norite
and pyroxenite of the Cortlandt series. His conclusions are as follows:
1'he extremely fresh rocks contain small amounts of pyrrhotite, pentland­
ite, and chalcopyrite; there is no post-magmatic alteration. The sul­
phides are as essentially magmatic as the silicates. Although most of the
sulphides separated from solutions at an early stage in the cooling of
the magma, small quantities continued to separate or to redissolve until
1 J. H. L. Vogt, Z eitschr. p ra kt. Geol., 1893.
2 J. H. L. Vogt, Die Sulfid-Silikatschmelzlosungen, Kristiania, 1917.
3 M e ta llu rg y , 9, 1912, pp. 1-48.
4 W. H. Newhouse, B u ll. Geol. Soc. Am. 47 (1), 1936, pp. 1-52.
6 Sulphide-bearing rocks from Litchfield, Conn., E con. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 330-347.
800 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the magma had nearly crystallized. The form and the interstitial rela­
tions of the sulphides seem to show that, although they may have sepa­
rated early from the silicates, they remained liquid until the silicates had
crystallized. The sulphide-bearing rocks are regarded as products of
differentiation from magmas poorer in these substances.
The melting points of some of the sulphides are indicated on Fig.
307, which also shows the lowering of the melting points and the eutectic
points for several binary sulphide systems. The molten sulphides mix

F ig . 307.— Tem perature-com position diagram for some binary sulphide systems. ( A fte r
J. H. L. Vogt.)
in all proportions to a uniform fluid phase. They are extremely liquid
with low viscosity and, perhaps excepting some systems in which ZnS
enters, they crystallize later than the rock minerals. They crystallize
without notable under-cooling. Silicates are not soluble in a sulphide
melt but, according to Vogt, magnetite is slightly soluble and may
separate from the melt upon cooling.
The liquid-magmatic sulphide ores contain magnetite, pyrrhotite,
pentlandite, cubanite, chalcopyrite, and bornite, but no gangue minerals
other than the primary rock-forming minerals. They contain no sericite,
chlorite, garnet, or epidote. The sulphides often corrode and embay the
older silicates but without any indication of secondary substances. One
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 801

often wonders what became of these dissolved portions. There is a certain

succession among the sulphides. Where pyrite is present it is often
octahedral, and etched depressions on its faces are sometimes filled with
chalcopyrite. Pyrrhotite is the most abundant mineral. The usual
succession of minerals, as established by Tolman and Rogers, and other
authors, is as follows: Silicates, magnetite, hematite, pyrrhotite, pentland-
ite, chalcopyrite, and bornite. Nevertheless, it seems certain that, in
these rocks, there is also magnetite which is earlier than the silicates.
It will be remembered that Vogt in his studies on silicate melts frequently
obtained two generations of this mineral. Sperrylite (PtAs2) and millerite
(NiS) have also been reported.
The determination of the succession is often made difficult by the
occurrence of solid solutions and unmixing. Cubanite and pentlandite
both appear to separate from pyrrhotite by slow cooling. According to
Schwartz1 the cubanite is taken up in solid solution when the unmixed
material is heated to 450° C. According to W. H. Newhouse,12 similar
relations apply to pentlandite and pyrrhotite.
At times it becomes extremely difficult to hold closely to the above-
mentioned definitions and rules. Most deposits of magmatic sulphides
are not uniform disseminations but rather marginal concentrations,
quite plainly injected after the surrounding rock had crystallized, or
else they are accompanied by some gangue materials like chlorite, quartz,
garnet, epidote, etc. Such deposits were probably formed by highly-
concentrated sulphide melts with water and other mineralizers. When
the dominating influence is no longer the straight melt but is instead the
concentrated and controlling gases, the mode of deposition grades into
hydrothermal processes.
For the plainly magmatic ores, be they sulphide or oxides, Graton
and McLaughlin3 have suggested the term orthotectic, while for the
slightly later processes in which the strictly magmatic influences were
modified by mineralizers they would use the expression pneumotectic.
Naturally, the boundaries are sometimes indistinct. The Sudbury ores
would be considered pneumotectic.
In the orthotectic deposits the temperature may have been very
high, but in the subsequent, though still magmatic, phases temperatures
as low as 400° to 500° C. may have been reached. We are not well
informed on this subject.
The magmatic sulphide ores have been discussed by W. H. Goodchild
from a physico-chemical standpoint.4
1Earn. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 44-61.
2 Idem, 22, 1927, pp. 288-299.
3 Econ. Geol., 13, 1918, p. 85.
4 Mining Mag. (London), January to June, 1918.
802 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Types of Deposits.—Some of the magmatic sulphide deposits are
simply basic rocks abnormal in containing much pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite,
and pentlandite. Other occurrences are clearly related to contacts and
bear evidence of later magmatic injection. There is still another class in
which the magmatic origin is only dimly perceived on account of the
metamorphic changes which the rocks have undergone. The basic
igneous rocks are easily modified by pressure and more or less schistose
amphibolites are developed, which, besides amphibole, contain garnet,
quartz, epidote, and chlorite. Any primary sulphide segregations
contained in such rocks will be correspondingly affected and a new type of
deposit of metamorphic appearance will result; the sulphides themselves
apparently undergo little change.

F ig . 308.— Thin section of olivine corroded by pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, East Union,
Maine. Magnified 15 diam eters. (A fter E . S . B astin.)
Sulphides in Peridotites and Gabbros.—E. S. Bastin1 has described
a rock from Knox County, Maine (Fig. 308), which shows convincingly
the liquid-magmatic origin of sulphide ores. This rock, which occupies
a small area surrounded by drift, consists of 60 per cent olivine, 21.53
per cent pyrrhotite, some andesine-labradorite feldspar, hornblende, and
magnetite, 1.03 per cent chalcopyrite, and pyrite, biotite, and spinel.
The analysis shows 0.94 per cent nickel sulphide, and the material is
thus practically a low-grade ore. The constituents are intergrown,
showing simultaneous crystallization except that the magnetite, enclosed
in olivine, is the earliest mineral separated; the chalcopyrite is associated
irregularly with the pyrrhotite; the sulphides corrode the silicates. There
has been some later serpentinization but not enough to obscure the
relations. The complete analysis is as shown on page 803.
1Jour. Geol., 16, 1908, pp. 124-138.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 803
Vogt has described the numerous Norwegian occurrences in great
detail. The ore-bearing intrusives are norites or allied rocks, often with
biotite and brown hornblende, and are intruded in pre-Cambrian gneiss.
In part the gabbros are pressed to amphibolites. The nickeliferous
pyrrhotites occur largely along the contacts. They contain little copper
and only 1 to 1.5 per cent nickel. In the amphibolitized deposits con­
siderable migration has taken place. Garnet is formed along the streaks
Si02............................. 28.04 MnO................ .......... 0.24
AlaO,.............. ............ 3.51 Fe7S8................ .......... 21.53
FeO ( .......... 14.95 NiS.................. .......... 0.94
Fe2Oa \ CoS.................. .......... 0.03
M gO.................. ............ 21.97 CuFeS2............ .......... 1.03
CaO............................. 1.78 H20 + ............. .......... 2.54
Ti02............................ 0.20 H20 - ............. .......... 1.48
P A ................ .......... 0.04 C02................... .......... 1.01
k 2o ................ ............ 0.08
Na20 ........................... 0.28 99.65
of pyrrhotite. The hornblende is in part transformed to bluish-green
amphibole.
A similar occurrence is that of Lancaster Gap, Pennsylvania, described
by J. F. Kemp,1where the nickeliferous pyrrhotite lies along the contacts
of a mass of amphibolite, contained in mica schist. Much nickel ore was
mined here up to 1893.
Many copper deposits in amphibolite are really dynamo-metamor­
phosed forms of such magmatic deposits as have been described above.
The examination of several such small deposits in Colorado2 led to this
conclusion. Deposits at Sedalia and Turret, in Chaffee County, are
basic dikes in a pre-Cambrian sedimentary series, contact-metamorphosed
by later granitic intrusion and still later altered to amphibolite. Chalco-
pyrite, sphalerite, and magnetite, are intergrown with bluish-green
amphibole, garnet, spinel, and labradorite. The basic dikes are probably
differentiated offshoots from a neighboring large mass of coarse diabase.
Sudbury, Ontario.3—The nickel deposits of Sudbury now yield the
largest part of the world’s production, and the once preeminent ores
1 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 21, 1894, pp. 622-631.
T. C. Phemister, Jour. Geol., 32, 1924, pp. 498-510.
2 W. Lindgren, Notes on copper deposits in Colorado, Bull. 340, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1908, pp. 157-174.
3 The literature is voluminous; only a few articles are cited here:
C. W. Dickson, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 34, 1904, pp. 3-67.
A. E. Barlow, Report on the nickel and copper deposits of the Sudbury mining
district, Fourteenth Ann. Rept., Canada Geol. Survey, pt. H, 1904.
W. Campbell and C. W. Knight, Econ. Geol., 2, 1907, pp. 350-366.
A. P. Coleman, The nickel industry, Canada Dept. Mines, 1913.
E. Howe, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 505-522.
C. F. Tolman Jr., and A. F. Rogers, A study of the magmatic sulfid ores,
804 MINERAL DEPOSITS
of New Caledonia are of decreasing importance. Minor amounts of
nickel are derived from deposits in Norway and elsewhere. No impor­
tant nickel deposits have been found in the United States. The produc­
tion from Sudbury in 1910 was 18,600 long tons of nickel, while in 1930
the nickel content of the matte reached 61,112 tons and was derived from
several mines, which yielded 2,115,139 tons of ore. Besides nickel the
ores contain an important percentage of copper, with a little gold, silver,
palladium and platinum1 (p. 779). It is not necessary to specify the uses
of nickel; they depend on its properties of toughening, whitening, harden­
ing, increasing the elasticity and preventing the oxidation of certain
alloys. Nickel is extensively used for electroplating. Nickel steels are
the most important of all alloy steels. The ores of the International
Nickel Company are smelted and refined in Canada. The ores of the
Falconbridge mine, opened in 1929, are smelted locally and the matte
exported to Norway for refining.
The geology of the region is complicated. On a basement of Keewatin
greenstone and the Sudbury quartzite of Archean age (Timiskaming) rests
a syncline of Upper Huronian or Animikie rocks including conglomerate,
tuff, and slates. This sycline is 36 miles long and 16 miles wide (Fig.
309). Between the basement and the Animikie there is intruded a thick
sheet of igneous massive rocks which may be of Keweenawan age and is
also referred to as the “nickel eruptive” on account of its unquestionable
connection with the nickel deposits. This sheet is strongly differentiated,
supposedly by gravitative settling of crystals in the magma. It grades
from a norite or hypersthene gabbro in the lower parts to a micropegma-
titic granite in the upper parts. Even in the lower section there is a cer­
tain amount of “ acid extract” of micropegmatite between the other
constituents.
The upper contact with the conglomerate is indistinct in many
places. Lately there has been renewed discussion as to whether the
differences in composition observed are really wholly caused by crystal­
lization differentiation.*12
Stanford Univ., 1916, pp. 21-37.
A. P. Coleman, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917, pp. 427-434; The Sudbury laccolitic sheet,
Jour. Geol., 15, 1907, pp. 759-782.
W. G. Miller and C. W. Knight, Nickel deposits of the world, Rept. Royal
Ontario Nickel Comm., Toronto, 1917.
A. M. Bateman, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917, pp. 391—426.
M. A. Dresser, idem, pp. 563-580.
A. Wandke and R. Hoffman, idem, 19, 1924, pp. 169-204.
Eng. Min. Jour., Special Sudbury number, Nov. 10, 1930.
1 In 1931, 44,700 ounces of platinum, 39,000 ounces of palladium, and 7,600 ounces
of other platinum metals were produced.
2 T. C. Phemister, Jour. Geol., 33, 1925, pp. 819-824.
A. P. Coleman, E. S. Moore, and T. L. Walker, The Sudbury nickel intrusive,
Univ. Toronto Geol. Studies, 28, 1929, 54 pp.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 805
Granitic rocks are intruded in the basement, and there are even some
granite dikes (of Killarney age?) in the norite at the Murray mine and
possibly at the Creighton mine.
The deposits are found (1) as rudely tabular masses at the contact
of the norite with the basement rocks (marginal deposits); they dip 30°
to 60° toward the center of the syncline (Creighton, Gertrude, Murray
mines). (2) As mineralized dikes or “ offset deposits” in the basement
rocks. These are steep, irregular or columnar and have been followed

F ig . 309. — Geological m ap of Sudbury nickel region, Ontario. (After A. P. Coleman.)

to depths of up to 3,000 feet (Copper Cliff, Frood, Levack, and Victoria
mines). The Levack deposit is contained in gneissic granite but lies
only 200 feet away from the norite contact to which it is parallel. It
contains much pyrite as the earliest mineral. The Copper Cliff is a
pipe-like shoot in a quartz diorite. The Frood is a large deposit of
rich ore, and at present the greatest asset of the International Nickel
Company.
The ore minerals are pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite with
occasional magnetite, pyrite, sphalerite, and sperrylite (PtAs2). Among
the probably secondary minerals are marcasite, millerite, and polydymite
(Ni4Ss?). Pyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, and galena begin to appear
in the offset deposits. The order of succession as established by Tolman
and Rogers is silicates, magnetite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and chalco­
pyrite. Pentlandite often forms veinlets in pyrrhotite and can easily
be distinguished from the latter in polished section by etching. The
precious metals seem to follow the chalcopyrite and occur most abun­
dantly in some of the “ offset deposits,” like Victoria and Vermilion.
806 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The ores of the Creighton mine are the richest, containing in per cent
about 3 nickel and 1.4 copper. Other deposits yield poorer ore with
2 nickel and 0.8 copper. The values of the precious metals aggregate
$1 to $2 per ton.
The best-developed marginal deposit is at the Creighton mine where
it has been followed to a depth of 3,500 feet (Fig. 310). It lies between
granite and norite; but, as in other marginal deposits, the ore is a breccia
or mass of subangular or rounded boulders of almost barren norite,
cemented by the ore minerals, which often form a hard crust on the rock.

F i g . 3 1 0 . — Vertical section through Creighton ore-body, Sudbury. (After R. D. Parker,

Eng. and M in. Jour.)
The sulphides also enter norite and granite as veinlets. The massive
ore contains abundant remnants of partly replaced rock minerals, and
in the poorer ores the sulphides have corroded and replaced the rock
minerals. However, the interpretation of the facts observed under the
microscope varies considerably. No gangue minerals are ordinarily
formed. The ore-shoots are from a few feet to 150 feet thick. Note
similarity of Fig. 310 to sections of Norwegian deposits given by Vogt.
In the “ offset deposits” the relations are similar although we find
here more evidence of replacement with various gangue minerals, such as
chlorite, amphibole, biotite, epidote, and quartz, indicating the action
of hydrothermal solutions and lower temperatures.
The Frood mine lies to the south of the main norite contact in meta­
morphosed sediments and greenstones of the Sudbury series (Timiskam-
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 807
ing). It has been known a long time, but rich ore has been disclosed in
depth, carrying about 2 per cent of nickel and 10 to 20 per cent of copper.
It has been opened to a depth of 3,000 feet and still deeper by drilling.
The form is tabular or dike-like narrowing below the 1,200-foot level
and continuing thence to 3,000 feet where it is about 150 feet wide
(Fig. 311). The ore1 contains in order of separation: magnetite, pyrrho-
tite, pentlandite; the remaining solid solution of iron-copper sulphides has
unmixed to chalcopyrite, cubanite, and some pyrrhotite. The rock is a
dark, medium- to fine-grained diorite with rounded or irregular grains

F ig . 311.— Vertical section through the Frood ore-body, Sudbury, O ntario. (After H. J .
M utz, Eng. and M in. Jour.)
of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, which seem to be later than the rock
minerals; the latter consists of abundant lath-shaped, green amphibole,
much biotite, basic feldspar, and quartz, probably also orthoclase. There
are no “ hydrothermal” minerals, like sericite, calcite, epidote, etc.
The ore-body might well be an injected dike.
The earlier view of a gravitative settling of the sulphides in the norite
sheet has given way to the theory of an injection of sulphide magma
more or less charged with mineralizers along certain brecciated or
fractured zones.2 In places the deposits show transitions to high-tem­
perature veins and to the “injected pyritic deposits” (p. 810). In minor
part they may have been formed by direct magmatic segregation from the
■ W. H. Newhouse, Am. Mineralogist, 16, 1931, pp. 334-336.
2 See paper by W. H. Collins and E. D. Kindle, The life history of the Sudbury
nickel irruptive, Trans., Roy. Soc. Can., 28, 29, 1934, 1935.
808 MINERAL DEPOSITS
nickel eruptive, but in greater part they have been formed at the end of the
magmatic period by replacement of the silicates by a very liquid melt
charged with sulphides and developed by differentiation in a magma
reservoir in depth. Among the supporters of the liquid-magmatic
theory of segregation in place are Coleman, Adams, Barlow, Kemp,
Vogt, Goodchild; also Roberts and Longyear. Those who have sup­
ported the theory of sulphide injection are Knight, Tolman and Rogers,
Howe, Bateman, and the staff of the International Nickel Company.
Among those who advocate a hypothermal (hydrothermal) origin are
Dickson, Knight, W andke, and
Hoffman. That the nickel ores are
genetically connected with the norite
admits of no doubt.
Much of the trouble experienced
in explaining the genesis of the
Sudbury deposits is evidently caused
by lack of definition of terms. We
speak of injection, replacement,
corrosion, pneumatolytic stage, sul­
phide melts with or without miner­
alizers, and hydrothermal action
without actually first defining the
terms. In point of fact our knowledge
of fundamentals is insufficient, and
we try to explain our exact observa­
F i g . 3 1 2 . — Polished section of ore tions in terms of more or less hazily
from Creighton mine, Sudbury, Ontario. understood principles which can only
Black, silicates; m , m agnetite; p,
pyrrhotite; pn, pentlandite. M agni­ be elucidated by chemical work at
fied 14 diam eters. (After Tolman and high temperature and pressure. First
Rogers.) of all we do not understand how
water cooperates with sulphide melts. That some water was pres­
ent is clearly shown by the occurrence of biotite, amphibole, epidote,
and chlorite, perhaps also sericite. On the other hand there was
probably very little water compared to that in hydrothermal or
even “ pneumatolytic” solutions. It does not seem possible that
the cases illustrated in Figs. 308 and 313 are simple hydrothermal
replacements. They appear to be drusy openings in the consolidating
magma filled with residual sulphide melt. That there has been some
corrosion of the crystals does not invalidate this conclusion. In most of
the Sudbury ores we find similar relations of silicates and sulphides
(Fig. 312). In other cases again and especially in the offset deposits
there is more evidence of ordinary replacement.
Probably there are deposits which represent liquid-magmatic processes
of differentiation; certainly there are other deposits which are injected
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 809

masses of the products of an earlier differentiation. Probably there are

also diluted sulphide melts, mixed in some way with water and other
mineralizers, which form deposits approaching but not identical with
the hypothermal and pyrometasomatic ores.
South Africa.—A deposit at Insizwa, South Africa, similar to that
of Sudbury, has been described by A. L. Du Toit and W. H. Goodchild.1
Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and pentlandite, with a little bornite and
niccolite, occur in a thick sheet of gabbro or norite, at its contact with
underlying sediments. The rock is intrusive in the sediments of the
Karroo system, thus probably post-Triassic. The ores contain also a

A B
F ig . 3 1 3 .— A .
Thin section of olivine norite, Insizwa mine, Cape Colony. Black areas,
pyrrhotite; ol, olivine; py, pyroxene; bi, biotite; la, labradorite. Magnified 18 diam eters.
{After A. L. DuToit.) B. Drawing showing pyrrhotite (black) in quartz-hypersthene-
norite, Norway. Magnified 20 diam eters. (After J. H. L. Vogt.')
little palladium, osmiridium, gold, and silver. The sulphides separated
from the magma at the end of the period of consolidation and corrode
idiomorphic olivine (Fig. 313A), pyroxene, and feldspar.
In the Merensky platinum region, in the upper part of the norite
sheet, in the Bushveld igneous complex, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and
pentlandite occur, and, according to P. A. Wagner,2 are certainly of
orthomagmatic origin (p. 782).
Bornite Deposits.—Bornite is occasionally recorded as a minoi
constituent of pegmatite dikes and sometimes occurs in the deep vein zone.
A small but remarkable bornite deposit in an igneous rock, described
by E. S. Bastin and J. M. Hill,3 occurs at the Evergreen mine, Gilpin
County, Colorado. Dikes of a monzonitic rock contain, intergrown with
1 Fifteenth Ann. Repl., Geol. Comm., Cape of Good Hope (1910), 1911, pp. 110-142.
W. II. Goodchild, The economic geology of the Insizwa range, Trans. Inst. Min.
Met. (London), 1916.
- P. A. Wagner, Econ. Geol., 23, 1928, pp. 923-927.
3 Econ. Geol., 6, 1911, pp. 465-472.
810 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the primary minerals, bornite and chalcopyrite, also garnet, calcite,
and wollastonite. All these minerals are contemporaneous with the
ordinary rock minerals. This seems to be a case of digestion of material
from calcareous rocks; possibly the sulphides are also of foreign origin.
The remarkable and rich bornite deposits of Ookiep in Namaqualand
have been regarded as magmatic by Stutzer, Kuntz, and other authors.
However, here too, the idea of fractured zones directing or enriching the
ores has been brought forward.1
Tolman and Rogers12 have examined these ores and conclude that
they are of typical magmatic origin. Magnetite, hematite, chalcopyrite
and bornite replace the silicates in hypersthenite and diorite.
The Engels Mine, Plumas County, California, contains disseminated
bornite and chalcocite in a mass of norite and slightly later quartz
diorite. Some authors3have attributed the bornite to strictly magmatic
processes while tho chalcocite was believed deposited by concentrating
thermal waters. Tolman and Rogers4 regarded the bornite as deposited
by the aid of mineralizers at a later magmatic stage.
Graton and McLaughlin5 classified the deposit as of “ pneumatolytic”
(perhaps better, “late magmatic”) origin with amphibole, albite,
tourmaline, and magnetite as gangue minerals and bornite and chalcopy­
rite as ore minerals. This was followed by hydrothermal action pro­
ducing chlorite, sericite, epidote and bornite, and finally, zeolites. The
chalcocite is regarded as a product of descending meteoric waters.
Knopf and Anderson6 found that the ore also occurs in the roof
pendants of the various intrusions; thus it is post-intrusive and “pneuma­
tolytic.” Their conclusion that bornite and chalcopyrite are con­
temporaneous with the magnetite need not be accepted.
I N J E C T E D PYRITIC D E P O S I T S

General Features.—Some deposits in which the ore consists mainly

of solid pyritic minerals present features which can hardly be explained
otherwise than by actual injection of molten sulphides, perhaps to be
considered as residual solutions from adjoining intrusive bodies. A.
Bergeat7 first summarized these peculiar occurrences, among which, it
must be confessed, are some of the most enigmatic of ore deposits.
1 A Schenk, Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesell., Vortr., 53, 4H, 1902, p. 64.
2 A study of the magmatic sulphide ores, Stanford Univ., 1910.
3 H. W. Turner and A. F. Rogers, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 359-391.
1 Op. cit.
5L. C. Graton and D. H. McLaughlin, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917, pp. 1-38.
6Econ. Geol., 25, 1930, pp. 14—35.
See also C. N. Fenner, idem, 25, 1930, pp. 420-425.
7 A. W. Stelzner and A. Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstatten, 2, 1904, pp. 964-987.
DEPOSITS FORMED BY CONCENTRATION IN MOLTEN MAGMAS 811

That fluid sulphides may penetrate silicate rocks in veinlets and

corrode the various primary minerals, like augite, has been shown in
interesting experiments by 0. Stutzer,1 and by previous observations
by von Cotta on the brickwork of old lead furnaces. In Stutzer’s
experiments the sulphide veinlets of pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and galena
penetrated the rocks along minute cracks and along the cleavage planes
of the minerals. In gabbros, the pyroxene grains were corroded in a
manner similar to that noted in the ores of Sudbury. The sulphide
melt would probably be under high pressure and would force its way into
the adjoining rocks. Deposits of this kind are decidedly rare. The
igneous rocks near whose contact injected deposits lie are of many kinds,
not always of basic character.
A study of corroded furnace linings led Phemister12 to conclude that
practically anhydrous melts crystallizing as galena, chalcocite, and
“matte” are capable of effecting replacement in silica bricks.
The minerals of the injected pyritic deposits include magnetite,
pyrrhotite, pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and rarely galena. The
associated gangue minerals surely indicate high temperature and are
present in scant quantity; they are quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase,
amphibole, hypersthene, biotite, and spinel. The various minerals are
practically contemporaneous. Some investigators would place the Sud­
bury deposits in this class.
Norway.—A number of remarkable pyritic deposits are found in
Norway; among them are the well-known localities of Roras, Vigsnas,
and Sulitjelma, all of which have been the subject of extended discussion.
They occur in metamorphic schists, including clay slate, chloritic schist,
amphibolite, and in part certainly in dynamo-metamorphosed gabbro
intrusions. The ores consist of early pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite
and pyrrhotite. A little biotite and magnetite are present.3 Flat
ore lenses prevail, in some places strictly parallel to the schistosity, in
other places, as at Roras, distinctly cutting across it. In large part
they are massive pyritic bodies, but the neighboring rock is usually
impregnated with pyritic ore. One of the flat ore-bodies at Roras
extended along its dip for 1,900 meters and was 100 meters wide, averag­
ing 8 meters in thickness.4 At Sulitjelma the contact phenomena have
been interpreted as injections. The ore brecciates the schist and enters
into it on veins and seams. Feldspar, chlorite, and garnet of the schist
are embayed but not sericitized or otherwise altered.
1Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 16, 1908, pp. 119-122.
2 T. C. Phemister, Jour. Geol., 33, 1925, pp. 278-285.
3 H. Ries and R. E. Somers, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 58, 1918, pp. 244-264.
4 Stelzner and Bergeat, 1, 1904, p. 298.
812 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Quartz, actinolite, garnet, epidote, and biotite accompany the ore
minerals at some places. Th. Kjerulf and J. H. L. Vogt, among others,
consider these deposits as igneous injections, the latter author placing
them in genetic association with the gabbro intrusions.1
1 O. Falkenberg, Geologisch-petrographische Beschreibung einiger siidnonvegischer
Schwefelkiesvorkommen mit besonderer Berucksichtigung ihrer Genesis, Zeilsch.
prakt. Geol., 22, 1914, pp. 105-154.
R. Schreiter, Geologie . . . norwegischer sulfidischcr Erzbezirke, Freiberg Geol.
Ges. Bericht, 15, 1935, pp. 41-52.
 CHAPTER XXXII
OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES1
GENERAL CONDITIONS

The upper part of a mineral deposit, within the zone of weathering,

is usually more or less altered by surface waters containing free oxygen.
The direct effects of this weathering cease in many deposits at the
permanent water level, but in deposits of sulphides the indirect effects,
due to the action of sulphates generated by the oxidation of primary
sulphides, may persist to a considerable depth below the water level.
Generally speaking, the zone above the water level is that of the oxy-salts,
haloid salts, and native metals; underneath this in many deposits lies a
zone of varying depth in which secondary sulphides appear and strong
enrichment has taken place. Finally, beneath these zones of extensive
changes and molecular rearrangements is found the original or “ primary ”
ore.
The oxidation of mineral deposits is naturally a process analogous
to rock-weathering. In deposits free from sulphides the changes are
relatively simple, consisting of disintegration, solution, oxidation, and
hydration. Siderite alters to limonite, carbonates of manganese to
pyrolusite; cal cite is dissolved; the rock minerals change to kaolin. The
final products are likely to be residual quartz, limonite, pyrolusite, and
kaolin. Where native copper is present malachite and cuprite are also
found, if the leaching has not been carried too far.
In deposits which contain sulphides, but no pyrite, the changes are
rather slow and inconspicuous. Galena changes slowly to anglesite
and cerussite, sphalerite to calamine and smithsonite; galena and
enargite often remain unoxidized close to the surface. The presence of
pyrite, which easily gives off one atom of sulphur, changes and com­
plicates the whole trend of the oxidizing processes. During oxidation
the various metals behave very differently and thus many separations
are effected.
1For a fuller treatment of this subject see W. H. Emmons, The enrichment of
ore deposits, Bull. 625, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917.
P. Krusch, Primare und Secundare Erze, etc., Compte Rendu, XII® Congres
gdol. internat., Ottawa, 1914, pp. 275-286; Zeitschr. prakt. Geol. 1907, pp. 130-139;
idem, 1910, p. 165.
H. Schneiderhohn, Die Oxydations und Zementationszone der sulphidischen
Erzlagerstatten, Fortschritte Mineral. Krist. Petr., 1924, pp. 67-160.
813
814 MINERAL DEPOSITS
DEPTH OF OXIDATION

Oxidation is a relatively slow process. Some of the more conspicuous

cases of deep oxidation have required long geological time. Many
copper deposits, where large bodies of oxidized ores are present, were
probably attacked by oxidation in Tertiary time. In glaciated areas,
such as Canada and northern Europe, oxidation has made little progress
since the ice swept away the older accumulations of weathered products,
and sulphide ores are usually found close to the surface. Comparatively
little effect has been produced by an exposure of several thousand
years.
In non-glaciated regions provided with a liberal rainfall the ground-
water level is usually less than 100 feet below the surface and the oxida­
tion is correspondingly shallow. On the other hand, in regions with
deficient rainfall the ground-water may stand several hundred feet below
the surface, and the oxygen has had an opportunity to decompose the
ores to a similar depth. At the copper mines of Butte, Montana, the
sulphides are oxidized to a depth of at most 400 feet; in the silver-gold
veins of Tonopah, Nevada, 700 feet; at Tintic, Utah, in limestone, as
much as 1,600 or 2,220 feet. At Bisbee, Arizona, also in limestone,
oxidized copper ores are found at a depth of 1,400 feet. At the Durango
lead mine, Mapimi, Mexico, the ground-water level is said to stand
2,300 feet below the surface.
In a general way the depth of the water table corresponds to the
depth of the oxidized sulphides, but this is a rule with exceptions and
qualifications. In most districts sulphide ores may be found in local
masses almost or quite at the surface, and, on the other hand oxidation
may penetrate to a depth of several hundred feet below the water level.
In the Cripple Creek district, Colorado, for example, at the Golden
Cycle mine, oxidized ores were found 200 feet below the water level. It
is simply a question of the presence or absence of decided local move­
ment of the oxygen-charged water downward along the fissures. The
changes are, of course, greatest along the fissures, where oxidation is
usually far in advance of the weathering of the general country rock.
Changes in climate or elevation with corresponding changes in the
water level must not be overlooked. In Arizona we find at many
places—Clifton, Globe, and Ray, for instance—zones of secondary
chalcocite which were formed below the water level, but which now lie
high above the permanent water. On the other hand, elsewhere there
is evidence of a depression of the block containing the deposits which
may have the effect of raising the water level high above the position it
formerly occupied. The facts observed in some districts can be explained
only on the supposition of repeated and relatively rapid changes of water
level.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 815

The temperature also plays a part. We may expect a deeper oxida­

tion in warm climates than in cold climates simply because heat acceler­
ates reactions. Frequent alternation of moisture and dryness promotes
oxidation. Porosity and Assuring of the rocks and ores are factors
extremely favorable to oxidation.
In a region of dry climate where mountain ranges are separated by
valleys filled with saline deposits, the winds carry the salt to the oxidizing
outcrops and the development of chloride of silver, for instance, is
facilitated.1
The essential factors entering into the problem of oxidation of ore
deposits are, then, metal; ore; country rock; Assuring; permeability;
climate, water level, and rainfall; topography; geological age and history
of deposit.
OUTCROPS

The outcrops of deposits in glaciated areas are likely to be incon­

spicuous, except where the principal gangue mineral is unusually hard,
like quartz. In non-glaciated regions the outcrop form is determined
by the difference in the rate of erosion of the deposit and the country
rock.2 A thick and hard quartz vein, or a mass of solid silicified rock,
or garnet rocks in contact-metamorphic deposits will remain as little
ridges or series of knobs above the general level of a softer country rock.
The quartz veins of California, for instance, are ordinarily easily trace­
able on the surface. Where the quartz contains much pyrite, a honey­
combed or cellular mass of limonite and quartz remains more or less
conspicuously above the surrounding country rock. Such weathered
outcrops the German miner calls “ eiserner Hut,” the Cornishman a
“gossan,” the Australian “ ironstone.” The Spanish-American gives
these oxidized limonite ores the names “ colorados,” “ pacos,” “ podridos,”
or “quemados,” according to their reddish color, their soft or rotten
character, or their burnt appearance.
Where the minerals of the deposit are softer than the country rock,
a depression, or little gap, or saddle may mark its outcrop. At Butte,
the outcrops of the rich copper veins, which contain little gangue, are
inconspicuous, while the silver veins can be easily followed along the
surface. Along a single vein there may be great variation in the outcrops.
Barren parts tend to stand up prominently, while the ore-shoots, con­
taining softer metallic minerals, may easily become effaced at the surface.
The typical gossan of pyritic bodies, under uniform conditions of
high water level and slow erosion, probably remains without much
change for long periods. When a gradual lowering of the water level
1 C. R. Keyes, Origin of certain bonanza silver ores of the arid region, Trans.
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 42, 1911, pp. 500-517.
2 W. H. Emmons, Outcrop of ore-bodies, Min. and Sci. Press, Dec. 4 and 11, 1909.
816 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and a quickening of the erosion expose new parts of the deposit to the
decomposing influence of oxygenated waters, the transfer of material
downward becomes more active; and in a copper deposit, it may happen
that the surface portion becomes entirely leached of metallic minerals
and consists simply of cellular quartz and the more resistant parts ot
the country rock. Some such outcrops of pyritic copper ores contain
scarcely a trace of iron or copper (Fig. 314).
NOMENCLATURE
The terms primary and secondary as applied to ores are incon­
venient and often misleading. They will, therefore, be avoided as far as
possible.
A great number of ore deposits are formed by ascending waters.
Such waters and such deposits are termed hypogene.1 Most changes
Gossan

F ig . 314.— D iagram showing norm al course of oxidation in pyritic veins and influence of
rapid erosion on exposed secondary sulphide zone. In the deposit to the right the gossan
has been eroded and the upper p art of the secondary sulphide zone leached, causing a thin­
ner b u t richer secondary zone.
during direct and indirect oxidation are caused by descending surface
waters. Such waters and the ores formed by them by the rearrangements
of the hypogene ores are called supergene.
In many cases, valueless but mineralized material has been worked
over by descending surface waters and valuable ore-bodies have been
formed from it. Ransome has proposed the term protore2 to designate
any primary material of too low tenor to constitute ore but which may
be concentrated into ore. Thus, the low-grade pyritic dissemination
underneath the chalcocite blanket at Ely, Nevada, is protore.
PRINCIPLES OF OXIDATION
The powerful reagents of oxidation are oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and sulphuric acid. The last combines with iron to form ferric and
ferrous sulphate, the former being an especially active agent of oxida-
1 F. L. Ransome, Bull. 540, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1912, p. 152.
2 W. H. Emmons, Bull. 625, idem, 1917, p. 68.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 817
tion, while the latter is an important reducing agent. Sodium chloride
and sulphuric acid yield hydrochloric acid, which easily combines with
iron to make the strongly oxidizing ferric chloride. Under the influence
of sulphuric acid the waters change from the calcium carbonate type
characteristic of the normal surface conditions to the calcium sulphate
type. The aluminous silicates are attacked by sulphuric acid and by
carbon dioxide; sulphates, carbonates, and hydrous silicates result.
Insoluble minerals, like cassiterite, wolframite, and often also gold,
remain without change in the outcrops, enrich them upon contraction
of volume, or on their disintegration are concentrated into placers.
Soluble salts, especially sulphates, are carried away. Newly formed
compounds are precipitated, chiefly by reactions between carbonates
and sulphates or between sulphates. Below a certain point, usually
the water level, the free oxygen rapidly diminishes and sulphides are
precipitated by reactions between sulphates and sulphides or by other
processes.
Much of the dissolved material is naturally removed by the running
water of the vicinity, but the greater part of it sinks in the deposit itself
and there becomes re-deposited, thus contributing to the general process
of enrichment by the descending waters. Some enriched deposits are
the product of long-continued descending concentration from a great
thickness of rocks now removed by erosion.
In ore deposits free from great amounts of resistant quartz gangue,
oxidation obliterates structure. Heavy pyritic deposits appear at the
surface as cellular masses of quartz and limonite; the sheeted gold-
telluride veins of Cripple Creek, Colorado, which do not carry much
quartz, appear as brown, clayey bands without visible structure. There
is thorough rearrangement of metal association, and often also segregation
of new minerals in large masses. Limestone country rock especially
favors such changes. Lead and zinc closely associated in galena and
sphalerite part company; the oxidized zinc ores wander farther away
from the original deposit than does the cerussite. Copper and iron, so
intimate in primary ores, separate more or less in the zone of oxidation,
the former exhibiting a centripetal, the latter a centrifugal tendency,1
and arrange themselves concentrically, just as happens in fragments of
sulphide ore subjected to “ kernel roasting.”
Masses of nearly pure kaolin and alunite often form in this zone.
Some sulphates, like anglesite or basic ferric sulphate, are insoluble;
others, like goslarite (Zn), mallardite (Mn), epsomite (Mg), ferrous
sulphate, and aluminous sulphate, are most easily carried away. Gyp­
sum, common as a product of exchange in reactions leading to the
1 W. Lindgren, L. C. Graton, and C. H. Gordon, The ore deposits of New Mexico,
Prof. Paper 68, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 55; see also PI. IV, B.
818 MINERAL DEPOSITS
formation of insoluble carbonates in limestone, is also rather easily
removed in solution. The native carbonates of zinc and copper are
relatively insoluble and may remain for a long time in the gossan. Other
minerals characteristic of the oxidized zone are native metals (copper,
gold, silver, and mercury), chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver,
phosphates, arsenates, antimoniates, molybdates, vanadates, rarely
chromates; also hydroxides and oxychlorides; and a few hydrous silicates,
like calamine and chrysocolla.
There are then, during oxidation, both dissipation and concentrator
of metals. The concentration may take place either in the deposit
itself or may be effected by the precipitating influence of the country
rock on the solutions; bodies of oxidized zinc ores often form in the
limestone surrounding a deposit.
In the zone of supergene sulphides below the direct oxidation n
meet the copper sulphides—mainly chalcocite and covellite, rarely
chalcopyrite and bornite; also, argentite, and complex sulphantimonides
and sulpharsenides, associated with native silver. Pyrite, galena and
sphalerite are seldom found as products of this zone.
Generally speaking, solution prevails near the surface and precipita­
tion and cementation1 in the supergene sulphide zone. In the zone of
direct oxidation enrichment may or may not take place. If there is a
supergene sulphide zone this always involves enrichment. Even in
this zone much material, particularly iron, has been carried away.
The character of the solutions changes gradually in depth. Oxygen
is removed; the free acid decreases; reduction replaces oxidation; gases
like H2S and C02 may be generated. The general character of gangue
and wall rock is of great importance. If carbonates prevail, the minerals
that form may differ from those that are developed in a quartzose gangue.
The results show an infinity of variations and complexity.
TEXTURES AND CRITERIA OF T H E OXIDIZED Z O N E

The action of meteoric waters, aided by sulphuric acid in pyritic

deposits, opens spaces in the zones of oxidation resulting in vuggy,
cellular, honeycombed structures, with clayey masses if silicates are
present. Deposition proceeds in part by replacement without constancy
of volume, in part by crustification in open cavities; mammillary,
concretionary, and stalactitic forms of colloidal origin are common,
alternating with crusts of crystallized minerals and pseudomorphs
stable at the particular moment. Nodular textures are common coupled
with rearrangement of the oxy-salts in shells, so that copper ores may
surround limonite or zinc ores have a core of cerussite. Reticulating
1 P. Krusch, Die Eintheilung der Erze, etc., Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1907, pp. 129-139.
The word “cementation,” used in German literature, is not very apt because the
secondary sulphides do not always cement the primary ore.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 819

fractures are filled with oxidized products. Concentric rings of

the same products surround sulphides. Colloidal solutions and
suspensions are about as common as electrolytes. Solutions change
rapidly in composition so that calcite and even quartz crusts may alter­
nate with limonite, kaolin and oxidized salts of copper, lead, and zinc.
The volume is diminished and enrichment of relatively insoluble con­
stituents follows. Oxidation tends to thorough change of composition
and to obliteration of original texture and structure.

F ig . 315.— Polished section show ing oxidation of enargite, T in tic, U tah. W hite, en argite;
dark, copper arsenate; light gray, chalcocite. M agnified 360 diam eters.
The presence of limonite with other hydrous oxy-salts is one of the
safest criteria of oxidation, but the absence of sulphides is not necessary,
for oxidation proceeds extremely capriciously and residual sulphides
may be found at all levels in the zone of oxidation. To a limited extent
supergene sulphides, like chalcocite, covellite and argentite, may be formed
in the oxidized zone wherever there was a local shortage of oxygen
(Tintic, Utah).
As oxidation usually has destroyed the sulphides at the surface and
often has even carried away the resulting oxy-salts, it evidently becomes
a question of great importance to determine from the aspect of the
outcrops what sulphides may be expected below the oxidized zone.
Oxidation of sulphide ores containing pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and
sphalerite may result in a boxwork of leached cavities separated by
thin walls of secondary jaspery silica. The color and structure of this
cellular mass differ according to the original ore, and useful rules have been
820 MINERAL DEPOSITS
deduced by Boswell and Blanchard,1 though they are not always con­
clusive or easy to summarize in brief.
Locke2 and White3 have done much work on the leached outcrops of
disseminated chalcocite ores in arid regions. These outcrops are often
quite barren at the surface. Such chalcocite ores consist mainly of
disseminated pyrite with a coating of chalcocite. Some of the criteria
are summarized as follows:
The oxidation of pyrite without copper sulphides in an inert gangue
leaves little limonite or results in spreading thin blotches of this mineral.
Surface capping with maroon dots of limonite in more concentrated form
indicates copper sulphides intergrown with pyrite. Similar results
were reached by Boswell and Blanchard. Locke emphasizes the impor­
tance of collapse of leached outcrops; this may result in an apparent
compression or thinning out of the ore-body. Distinction is made
between indigenous and transported limonite.
TEXTURES OF THE SUPERGENE SULPHIDE ZONE
In the zone of supergene sulphides, important in copper and silver
deposits, precipitation and deposition prevail and the textures become
more compact, though in places loose, earthy ores are present. The
so-called “ sooty” chalcocite at Butte and many other places exemplifies
this latter condition. The supergene sulphide ores are permeable and
more or less porous. With increasing compactness replacement becomes
more evident and proceeds volume for volume. The secondary sulphides
replace the primary ore minerals in manifold succession and form.
Reticulating veinlets are mostly formed by replacement; grains and
crystals of pyrite are concentrically replaced by chalcocite (Fig. 319).
Sphalerite is similarly replaced by argentite (Fig. 70). The supergene
sulphides also fill veinlets or vugs or form thin coatings. Regular
“graphic or ‘pseudo-eutectic’ intergrowths” of chalcocite and bornite
similar to eutectic textures in metals are common. They are chiefly
hypogene (possibly also supergene) and are believed to result from
replacement processes. In Fig. 316 hypogene chalcocite replaces bornite.
Thus chalcocite replaces bornite and covellite replaces galena;stromeyerite
replaces chalcopyrite, tennantite, and galena; proustite replaces galena.
Generally speaking, the supergene sulphides replace primary sulphides
but rarely primary gangue minerals, although it is undoubtedly true
that chalcocite may occasionally replace quartz.
1 B. F. Boswell and R. Blanchard, Notes on the oxidation products derived from
chalcopyrite, Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 613-641; Oxidation products derived from
sphalerite and galena, idem, 22, 1927, pp. 419-453.
2 Augustus Locke, Leached outcrops as a guide to copper ores, New York, 1926.
3 C. H. White, Prospecting for disseminated copper by a study of leached croppings,
Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, Mar. 22, 1924.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 821
SOLUTION
In the presence of water oxygen attacks the sulphides and carbon
dioxide the silicates. Alkaline solutions would attack the quartz and
the silicates but under the influence of free sulphuric acid generated by
oxidation of pyrite they are generally absent. Distinction must be
drawn between solution and decomposition; most of the changes in the
oxidized zone involve decomposition. In general oxidation tends to
transform sulphides, sulphosalts, arsenides, tellurides, etc., to oxygen

F i g . 316.- —Intergrow th
of bornite (6) and ehaleocite (cc). W all mine, Virgilina, N orth
Carolina. Magnified 50 diam eters. (A fter Graton and M urdoch.)
salts and native metals, both of which may be further changed or carried
away by surface waters. The silicates in the deposit are changed to a
few stable minerals: kaolin, limonite, manganese dioxide and quartz.
Carbonates of alkaline earths and alkalies are carried away; original
quartz is rarely attacked but new silica from the decomposition of the
silicates may be deposited as jasper, opal, and chalcedony.
The simple sulphides are very slightly soluble in water at 18° C., the
solubility decreasing as follows: Mn, Fe, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cu, Pb, As, Ag,
Bi, Hg.1
In dilute sulphuric acid (3d^o normal), pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite,
galena, sphalerite, and cadmium sulphide are dissolved or readily
attacked. Pyrite, argentite, bornite, arsenopyrite, stibnite, pyrargyrite,
and polybasite are slightly attacked,2 while many others like cinnabar,
molybdenite, realgar, orpiment, bismuthinite, covellite, and chalcocite
are not attacked.
1 Oscar Weigel, Zeilsckr. physikal. Chemie, 58, 1907, pp. 293-300.
2 H. C. Cooke, Jour. Geol., 21, 1913, pp. 1-28.
822 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The decomposition or solution is often hastened if the dilute sulphuric
acid contains ferric sulphate. Few sulphides resist this reagent.1
Some sulphides react with alkaline solutions at ordinary temperature.1
Orpiment, realgar, stibnite, marcasite, and pyrrhotite are strongly
attacked by a 1 per cent solution of NaHC03; many others are slightly
attacked; arsenopyrite, enargite, chalcocite, bornite, light-colored spha­
lerite, and niccolite are practically resistant.
Experiments with pyrite have not given consistent results. A. N.
Winchell123 exposed powdered pyrite for 10 months to the action of dis­
tilled aerated water and obtained a very slow rate of oxidation, the
solution containing Fe2(S04)3 and H2S04. H. A. Buehler and V. H.
Gottschalk4 obtained a much more rapid attack, and in 3 months the
filtrate yielded 2.5 to 3.7 per cent of the original weight of the iron in the
sample. Sphalerite in the same time yielded only 0.2 per cent of its
zinc, galena 0.005 per cent of its lead, covellite 2.7 per cent of its copper,
and chalcopyrite 1 per cent of the same metal. On the other hand,
enargite showed no solubility. When the various sulphides were mixed
with pyrite the action was much more energetic. In the time specified
sphalerite with pyrite yielded 4.2 per cent of its zinc, galena with pyrite
0.7 per cent of its lead, covellite with pyrite 2.7 per cent of its copper,
covellite with marcasite 27.6 per cent, and enargite with pyrite 10 per cent
of its copper. After an exposure of only 7 weeks, pyrite had oxidized
to the amount of 0.1 to 0.28 per cent of its original weight. Walker and
Parsons5 found that a mixture of arsenides was rapidly attacked by
aerated water. Carmichael6 obtained similar results for “ polydymite”
from Sudbury which was extremely rapidly attacked.
In a second paper, Gottschalk and Buehler7 show that while in a
mixture of two sulphides there is a large increase in the solution of one,
there is also a protective action exerted on the other; and further that
there exists a difference of potential between the sulphides, which
can be arranged in a series similar to the electrolytic series of metals.
Acceleration of reaction is due to electric currents generated by contact
of minerals of different potential; the currents flow from the mineral
of the higher potential, and the mineral of lower potential will dissolve
1 For experimental data see G. S. Nishihara, The rate of reduction of acidity of
descending waters by certain ore and gangue minerals, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp.
743-757.
2 F. F. Grout, On the behavior of acid sulphate solutions of copper, silver and gold
with alkaline extracts of metallic sulphides, Econ. Geol., 8, 1913, p. 427.
3 A. N. Winchell, Econ. Geol., 2, 1907, pp. 290-294.
4 Idem,, 5, 1910, pp. 28-35.
5 T. L. Walker and A. L. Parsons, Contributions to Canadian mineralogy, Univ.
Toronto Studies, 20, 1925, pp. 41-48.
6 Ferga Carmichael, idem, 22, 1926, pp. 29-37.
7 Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 15-34.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 823
more rapidly. In mixtures with pyrite the amount decomposed is but
a small portion of that obtained when iron disulphide is treated alone.
From this it follows that the order of oxidation in a mixture of minerals
varies with conditions of mass, aggregate, and character of solution. No
general rule can be formulated. It is known, however, that, for instance,
sphalerite oxidizes before chalcopyrite and the latter before pyrite.
In a pyrite-chalcocite ore the chalcocite is attacked first.
The relative solubility of the various carbonates and sulphates is
important for the distribution of metals in the oxidized zone. The
following data have been determined by Kohlrausch. The low solubili­
ties of the carbonates are considerably increased in the presence of CO2 .
Near the surface in pyritic deposits ferric sulphates and even alu­
minum sulphate and free sulphuric acid may be abundant, but with
increasing depth the ferrous sulphate predominates and the solutions
tend to become neutral. In general, during oxidation there is a great
dissipation of the sulphates of iron, zinc, and calcium.
SOLUBILITY OF SULPHATES AND CARBONATES AT 18° C., IN GRAMS OF
ANHYDROUS SALT PER 100 GRAMS OF H zO

S alt G ram s Salt G ram s

0.00023 PbC03...................... 0.0001

PbSo’........................ 0.0041 0.0013
0.20 a e „c 6 , ......................... 0.0017
0.55 BaC03....................... 0.0023
KjSO,...................... 11.11 0.0047
Na2S04...................... 16.83 MkCO°,...................... 0.100
19.30 FeC03 ...................... 0.073*
FeS0’...................... 23.00 MnCOj......................
AUSOA, ............ 31 301 CuCG3"......................
NiSOj........................ 34 . 202 Na2C03.................... 19.38
MgSOj....................... 35.43 K2C0 “.................... 108.00
Z n S O ...................... 53.18
MnSOj....................... 65.00s

1 With 18 mol. H20 at 0°; 89.1, with 18 mol. H 2O at 100° C.

2 At 15°.
3 At 30°.
4 Sat. with CO2 at 7 atmospheres.
Hydrated sulphates and bicarbonates are more soluble than the normal
salts.
P R E C IP IT A T IO N

Precipitation is effected by reactions between solutions, by hydrolysis,

by coagulation, by gases, and by reactions between the solutions and
solids. The last phase is very important. Many reactions take place
824 MINERAL DEPOSITS
by the action of solutions on sulphides or on gangue minerals or on
country rock of sedimentary or igneous origin. The investigations of
E. C. Sullivan1 have shown that silicates may precipitate oxygen salts
by chemical reactions. Thus cupric sulphate lost its copper when
filtered through kaolin. This was formerly attributed to adsorption—
that is, an accumulation of dissolved substance on the contact between
liquid and solid—but Sullivan shows that a chemical change takes place.
The natural silicates such as kaolinite, albite, orthoclase, amphibole,

F ig . 317.— Photom icrograph of thin section showing azurite crystals replacing kaolin.
Morenci, Arizona. Magnified 15 diam eters.

pyroxene, and mica precipitate the metals from salt solutions, while
at the same time the bases of the silicates are dissolved in quantities
nearly equivalent to the precipitated metals. The latter precipitates
take the form of hydroxides or basic salts (Fig. 317), though silicates
may also be formed to some extent. Thus, by a simple chemical
exchange, the metal may be removed from a solution and fixed in the
solid state and thus concentrated by contact with even the most insol­
uble of silicates.
These experiments elucidate the deposition of brochantite and
chrysocolla in granitic and porphyritic rocks, as well as the deposition
of cuprite and azurite in shale.2 A solution of silver sulphate
yielded its metal completely to a powdered clay gouge, metallic silver
being probably formed. The iron in ferric and ferrous sulphate is easily
retained by kaolin as limonite.
1The interactions between minerals and water solutions, Bull. 312, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1907; Econ. Geol., 1, 1905, p. 67.
2 W. Lindgren, Prof. Paper 43, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, p. 191.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 825
C. W. Correns1 carried these investigations further and concluded
by making a distinction between adsorption and chemical decomposition.
High-grade copper ore, he states, cannot be produced by processes of
adsorption.
The direct oxidation of galena, for instance, yields carbonate and
sulphate of lead. By further reactions with ferric sulphate basic sul­
phates of iron and lead are formed, like plumbojarosite, and in this way
the lead is further distributed. Many other difficultly soluble basic
sulphates form during oxidation; alunite is one of the most common of
these.
The reactions in the oxidizing zone are manifold and complex. Those
minerals tend to form that are most resistant to the prevalent acid
solutions. Kaolin, hydroxides, insoluble carbonates and sulphates, basic
salts, and quartz remain. There is often'a considerable precipitation of
secondary chert mixed with sulphates.2 Ferrous sulphate may form
siderite (“ boxwork siderite in limestone underlying oxidizing sulphide
bodies”)-3
SUPERGENE SULPHIDES
Secondary sulphides are formed by direct precipitation from solutions
by means of hydrogen sulphide or other reducing solutions or gases;
or from a metasomatic interchange between a solution and a solid,
usually another sulphide. Dilute sulphuric acid generated by the
decomposition of pyrite, for instance, attacks a few sulphides, with the
evolution of hydrogen sulphide. This gas is produced in abundance by
the attack on pyrrhotite and, to a less extent, when sphalerite is exposed
to the acid. If copper is present in the solutions, a precipitate of cupric
sulphide (CuS) will be formed, besides some cuprous sulphide (Cu2S).
Sulphides are formed mainly where the supply of oxygen from the surface
becomes nearly exhausted.
Previous to the year 1900 the presence of secondary sulphides as
indirect products of oxidation had been noted by some observers and
had been definitely stated by L. de Launay.4 In the year referred to,
S. F. Emmons, C. R. Van Hise, and W. H. Weed in three notable papers5
formulated the important law of the accumulation of sulphides as a
concentration from the overlying oxidized zone, at or below the water
1 Zeitschr. prakl. Geol., 1925, p. 19; see also P. Krusch, idem, 1921, p. 9; also in
Compte Rendu, XII session, Internat. Geol. Congress.
2 E. S. Simpson, Proc. Roy. Soc. Western Australia, 9(2), 1923, pp. 45-63.
3 C. Trischka, O. N. Rove and D. M. Barringer, Econ. Geol., 24, 1929, pp. 677-686.
4 Les variations des filons metalliferes en profondeur, Revue generate des Sciences,
etc., No. 8, April 30, 1900.
5 S. F. Emmons, The secondary enrichment of ore deposits; C. R. Van Hise,
Some principles controlling the deposition of ores; W. H. Weed, Enrichment of gold
and silver veins, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 1901.
826 MINERAL DEPOSITS
level. It was shown that in copper deposits chalcocite and covellite
were precipitated by pyrite from sulphate solutions and that under
similar conditions in silver deposits argentite, stephanite, polybasite,
and pyrargyrite or proustite might form; it was also shown that sphal­
erite and galena were probably precipitated in a similar manner.
The chemical reasons for these reactions were found in the so-called
Schiirmann’s law,1 which states that in the presence of the sulphides of
certain of the metals the salts of other metals would be decomposed and
the metals precipitated as sulphides. This was thought to indicate that
the metals which were precipitated possessed a greater affinity for
sulphur than the other metals.
Schurmann’s series was as follows: Mercury, silver, copper, bismuth,
cadmium, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, iron, and manganese. The solution
of a salt of any of these metals will be decomposed by the sulphide of
any succeeding metal and the first metal will be precipitated as a sulphide.
Thus from a solution of silver or copper salts the metal would be pre­
cipitated by a sulphide of lead, zinc, or iron. If secondary deposition of
sulphides by reaction of pyritic ores on descending sulphate waters had
taken place in an ore deposit containing silver, copper, lead, and zinc,
these sulphides would theoretically be arranged in the following order:
Argentite, chalcocite, galena, and sphalerite, the last at the lowest
level. It was shown later by R. C. Wells2 that the influencing factor
was the relative solubility of the sulphides rather than the “affinity
for sulphur.”
The farther apart any two sulphides are in Schiirmann's series the
more nearly complete is the replacement. The full series is not repre­
sented by natural sulphides, and in ore deposits the reactions of copper
and silver solutions are the most important. Supergene sulphides of
bismuth and cobalt are not known and supergene cinnabar is rare. On
the other hand chalcocite and covellite replace galena and sphalerite as
well as pyrite, and they may also replace sulphosalts, such as enargite and
tetrahedrite, and iron-copper sulphides like bornite and chalcopyrite;
argentite replaces the sulphides of lead, zinc, and iron; galena replaces
sphalerite though the reaction is of slight economic importance. The
supergene sulphosalts of silver, such as polybasite, replace galena and other
sulphides. Complex sulphosalts of lead, e.g., jamesonite, may replace
simple sulphides as well as galena.
In the German and English literature one may find statements that
tetrahedrite, tennantite, and enargite are supergene products. This does
not accord with American experience. Supergene sulphide deposition is
accompanied by few characteristic gangue minerals; opal, chalcedony,
kaolin, and alunite are occasionally present; quartz is rare.
1 E. Schiirmann, Liebig’s Ann. der Chemie, 249, 1888, pp. 326-350.
2 Econ. Geol., 5, 1910, p. 14.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 827
The role of colloidal solutions may also involve the transportation of
sulphides. It has long been known that sulphides may be transferred
into colloidal solutions by certain dispersing agents. Experiments by
John D. Clark and others1 have shown the extent of this possibility.
Nearly all sulphides, arsenides and sulphosalts may become highly
dispersed as colloids under the influence of hydrogen sulphide in solutions
of mild alkalinity. These minerals are then in condition to migrate with
the solutions. With the escape of H2S or by contact with calcareous and
argillaceous material precipitation and replacement may occur.
Minerals may crystallize directly from colloidal solutions. Upward
migrations may thus occur in connection with repeated invasions of
hypogene solutions. Where H2S is locally developed this process may
be of some importance in the supergene sulphide zone.
A. F. Rogers2 has suggested that enrichment by secondary chalcocite
has taken place by such ascending solutions, specially citing the case of
the Butte deposits.
The temperature during direct oxidation of pyritic ores may in places
rise considerably above 50° C. It is probable that even in the supergene
sulphide zone fairly high temperatures of 30° or 40° C. may obtain at
times.3
It has already been stated that in deep oxidized zones supergene
sulphides may well form together with oxy-salts. Generally, however,
the sulphides begin at the water level and extend for a varying distance
below it thus forming a zone of secondary sulphides, which may be many
hundreds of feet deep or which may occupy a thickness of only a few feet.
Permeability of the primary ore has much to do with this but time and
climatic conditions are also potent factors. The water level may have
changed its position during geologic times and so we may find chalcocite
zones “ marooned” high above the water level and now in active process
of oxidation. In the same way the products of direct oxidation of a
former low water level may now be buried in the underground water.
In such cases physiography may come to the rescue and attempt to
elucidate the changes which have taken place in the configuration of the
ground.4
Such well-defined zones of supergene sulphides are common only in the
case of copper and silver. In the case of silver deposits the products of
direct oxidation and sulphide deposition are greatly mingled. No great
zones of supergene lead or zinc sulphides are known.
1 C. F. Tolman, Jr. and John D. Clark, Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 559-592
John D. Clark and P. L. Menaul, idem, 11, 1916, pp. 37-41.
2 Idem, 8, 1913, pp. 781-794.
3 W. H. Emmons, idem, 10, 1915, pp. 151-160.
4 W. W. Atwood, The physiographic condition at Butte, Montana, Econ. Geol.,
11, 1916, pp. 697-740.
828 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Certain elements like iron, zinc and arsenic, which may be common
in the primary ore, may be completely eliminated in the oxidized ore
and in the supergene sulphides.
C R IT E R IA OF SU PER GEN E S U L P H ID E E N R IC H M E N T

The question whether or not secondary sulphides have been deposited

in an ore-body by descending waters is most important. If the ore
minerals are only a part of a shallow enriched layer and poorer ore is to be
expected at lower levels, knowledge of this fact is greatly to be desired
from the mine owner’s standpoint.
The best geological evidence of enrichment consists in the progressive,
uniform impoverishment of all similar sulphide deposits in a given dis­
trict, coupled with the condition that the change in ore should be depend­
ent upon post-mineral topographic development.1 If the enriched zone
is shallow such evidence may be conclusive. If it is deep there may be
difficulties in arriving at a correct conclusion.
The occurrence of exceptionally rich ores just below the zone of
oxidation is generally suggestive of enrichment. The microscopic
structure of the ore is not always reliable because of the similarity of the
latest hypogene replacements to those of the descending surface waters.
Generally speaking, it is believed that the presence of chalcocite and
covellite in large amounts in the upper levels of a mine is a safe indica­
tion of supergene sulphide enrichment, while in silver deposits, the
occurrence of rich silver sulphantimonides and argentite just below the
zone of oxidation is also, in most cases, a reliable criterion. Replacement
starting from the periphery or from cracks and cleavages often indicates
supergene deposition.
IR O N

In iron deposits with siderite and iron silicates oxidizing conditions

result in abundant limonite. Hematite and magnetite deposits are
very slowly oxidized but ultimately form some limonite. Oxidation
under tropical conditions generates hematite from ferrous silicates in
rocks.2
1 F. L. Ransome, idem, 5, 1910, pp. 205-220.
2 The oxidized iron ores have been discussed in Chap. XXI. A few references
may be added here to indicate the more important foreign literature on the subject.
K. Hummel, Die Eisenerze der Lindener Mark, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1924, pp.
17-23. Residual limonite deposits in limestone.
H. L. F. Meyer-Harrassowitz, Die Verwitterungslagerstatten, idem, 1916, pp.
127-136; idem, 1921, pp. 65-72.
W. Witte, Die Eisen und Manganlagerstatten bei Oberrossbach, Neues Jahrbueh,
Beil. Bd. 53-A, 1926, pp. 271-322. An interesting study of a limonite deposit in
Devonian slates, caused by descending waters and dependent upon impermeable
barriers. Enrichment by colloidal replacement of crushed slates by limonite.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 829
It is known that magnetite may alter to hematite; pseudomorphs
(martite) of hematite after magnetite are not uncommon. The nature
of this alteration is as yet in some doubt. Some authors1 noting the
abundance of hematite near the surface in some magnetite deposits and
the anastomosing veinlets of hematite in the magnetite itself believe
that this slight oxidation of a resistant mineral is caused by descending
surface waters. Undoubtedly the two minerals may form together
independently of oxidation, or hematite may be introduced later than the
magnetite during high-temperature processes (p. 701).
In sulphide deposits pyrite, pyrrhotite, and marcasite are the principal
iron minerals.2
Pyrite is a persistent mineral forming in all deposits and at all tem­
peratures even locally at the surface under reducing conditions. It
may be reproduced in alkaline solutions, or, with marcasite, in slightly
acid solutions.
The oxidation of pyrite is started by oxygen and hastened by the
ferric sulphate developed. At the surface it proceeds as follows:
FeS2 70 -f- H20 = FeS04 -H H2S04
2FeS2 150 T- H20 = Fe2(S04)3 -(- H2S04
This last reaction involves several intermediate stages during which
ferrous sulphate, sulphur dioxide, sulphur, or hydrogen sulphide may
form. The well-known smell from old dumps containing pyrite indicates
the development of sulphur dioxide, according to the equation FeS2 +
60 + H20 = FeS04 + H2S03, and this sulphurous acid is further
oxidized to sulphuric acid. Sulphur is often observed near the surface
in the casts of dissolved pyrite crystals.
Ferrous sulphate easily changes to the ferric salt and to the hydroxide:
2FeS04 + H2S04 + 0 = Fe2(S04)3 + H20.
6FeS04 -(- 30 -|- 3H20 = 2Fe2(S04)3 Fe2(OH)6.
Ferric sulphate hydrolyzes to hydroxide and free acid:
Fe2(S04)3 + 6H20 = 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2S04.
The ferric sulphate is a strong oxidizing agent, which attacks pyrite
and almost all sulphides:
Fe2(S04)3 + FeS2 = 3FeS04 + 2S.
1 W. Lindgren and C. P. Itoss, The iron deposits of Daiquiri, Cuba, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 53, 1916, pp. 40-66.
2 E. T. Allen, J. L. Crenshaw, and John Johnson, The mineral sulphides of iron,
Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 33, 1912, pp. 169-236.
E. Posnjak and H. E. Merwin, The system FcoOj-SOj-fUO, Jour. Am. Chem.
Soc., 44 (2), 1922, pp. 1965-1994.
830 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Sulphur may be oxidized to sulphuric acid. Ferric sulphate changes
easily to various basic sulphates, like coquimbite, copiapite, or jarosite,
often found in the lower part of the oxidized zone. Limonite is usually
the final product. Melanterite (FeS0 4 .7 H 2 0 ) often forms as crusts and
stalactites from dripping mine waters.
Some of the numerous hydrous ferric sulphates are stable up to
temperature well above 100° C. The most common is copiapite (2Fe20j.-
5S03.18H20), stable up to 90° C. Jarosite, in which potassium entere,
is also very common.
Ferrous sulphate and calcite yield limonite and soluble gypsum.
In deposits in limestone this is a most
important reaction.
In the deeper levels of the oxidizing
zone much or all of the sulphate is
likely to be transferred to the ferrous
form.
Marcasite forms only in acid solu­
tions, but may then crystallize together
with pyrite. Above 450° C. it passes
into pyrite. Low temperature and
free acid fav or its development.
Marcasite is thus a relatively unstable
mineral formed mainly near the surface.
A few ore deposits of igneous affiliations
like that at Goldfield, Nevada, contain
318.— Polished section of crys­
marcasite, but it is usually a very late
tal of pyrrhotite replaced m arginally by product forming in fissures and vugs.
F ig .

colloform m arcasite (stippled). In crys­ It is most prominent in the lead-zinc

talline lim estone (white). Magnifica­
tion 350 diam eters. (A fter R. K ukne.) ores of the Mississippi valley type.
Nevertheless it is not found among
the supergene sulphides probably because descending sulphates are
likely to attack it vigorously.
It oxidizes much more easily than pyrite but the reactions are the
same.
Fyrrhotite, regarded as a solid solution of sulphur in FeS, is in nature
a high-temperature mineral not known to occur in ores of shallow or
intermediate depths. Allen and Crenshaw made it, however, by synthe­
sis in slightly acid solutions at temperatures as low as 80° C., and excep­
tionally it might form at even lower temperatures. It is readily attacked
by dilute H2S04 with evolution of H2S, which in copper deposits may
precipitate copper sulphide and prevent the development of deep chal-
cocite zones. It is also easily attacked by oxidation, the H 2 S0 4 formed
accelerating its destruction.
Fe7S8 + 310 + H20 = 7FeS04 + H2S04.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 831

In the lower part of the oxidized zone, pyrrhotite, according to many

recent observations,1 is likely to be transformed into colloform marcasite
Fig. 318. Such marcasite also replaces sphalerite.
Hydrous ferric silicates, like hisingerite and morencite, often form in
the lower part of the oxidized zone and probably also below the water
level.2
COPPER

Minerals.—The most common primary sulphides of copper and

iron include chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and bornite (Cu5FeS4). The pale
yellow mineral cubanite (CuFe2S3)3 is not uncommon and is generally
a product of “ unmixing” of pyrrhotite or chalcopyrite (p. 801). The
soft valleriite4 (Cu2Fe4S7) may have a similar origin. Tetrahedrite
(Cu8Sb2S7) with its arsenical analogue tennantite, and enargite (Cu3AsS4),
are important copper ores in some places. Bournonite (CuPbSbS3)
is sometimes an ore mineral, and there are a number of rare copper and
lead-copper sulphbismuthides. Native copper is an important primary
ore mineral in some districts while the arsenides are rare minerals. Chal-
cocite (Cu2S) is in places of hypogene origin.
The supergene copper minerals are very numerous. Those of some
economic importance include native copper, cuprite (Cu20), several
indefinite minerals of colloidal origin containing CuO, Mn02, ZnO, Si02,
and H20 (copper pitch ores), also the oxychloride atacamite (Cu2Cl(OH)3)
which is found where wind-blown sodium chloride is available.
There are further chalchanthite (CuS04.5H20) with its related min­
erals krohnkite (CuS04.Na2S04 + 2H20) and natrochalcite (Na2S04.Cu4-
(0H)2(S04)2 + 2H20), all important minerals in arid countries like
Chile.5 Phosphates are rare.
Malachite (Cu2(0H)2C03), azurite (Cu3(0H)2(C03)2), and chryso-
colla (CuSi03.2H20) are the most abundant of all the oxidized copper
minerals. Basic sulphates, like brochantite (Cu4S04(0H)6), are locally
abundant as are various arsenates most common among which is olivenite
(C 3A 20 8.C ( 0 H ) 2).
u s u
The secondary sulphides of prime importance are chalcocite (Cu2S)
and covellite (CuS). Bornite and chalcopyrite are rarely supergene.
1 G. Gilbert, Oxidation and enrichment at Ducktown, Tenn., Trans., Am. Inst.
Min. Met. Eng., 70, 1924, pp. 998-1023.
W. H. Newhouse, Paragenesis of marcasite, Econ. Geol., 20, 1925, pp. 54-06.
W. Lindgren, Bull. 782, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1926, p. 140.
2 D. F. Hewitt and W. T. Schaller, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 10, 1925, pp. 29-38.
3 B. L. Johnson, Econ. Geol., 12, 1917 pp. 519-525.
4 P. Ramdohr and O. Odrnan, Geol. For. For., 54, 1932, pp. 89-98.
6 The numerous hydrous copper sulphates have been investigated by E. Posnjak
and G. Tunnell (Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 18, 1929, pp. 1-34). They obtained crystal­
lized brochantite at 100° C. and antlerite (3 CuO.SO3.2 H 2O) from 50° to 200° C.
832 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Solution and Precipitation.—Copper is one of the most easily trans­
ported metals and as it is also easily precipitated its supergene deposits
have great importance. Copper migrates downward by stages through
the oxidized zone and through the supergene sulphide zone so that a
considerable concentration may eventually be reached.
Chalcopyrite is readily attacked by oxygen and by ferric sulphate.
It is slightly attacked by dilute sulphuric acid.
CuFeS2 + 80 = CuS04 + FeS04.
As the ferrous salt is easily transformed into limonite, pseudomorphs
of that mineral after chalcopyrite are extremely common.
Bornite is more strongly attacked by dilute sulphuric acid than
chalcopyrite,1 but like all copper sulphides is easily decomposed by ferric
sulphate.
Cu5FeS4 “l- 2H2S04 -1- 180 = 5CuS04 -|- FeS04 -(- 2H20.
Chalcocite like covellite is very slightly attacked by dilute sulphuric
acid but is decomposed by ferric solutions which transform it to sulphates,
probably also to covellite:
Fe2(S04)3 + Cu2S = CuS04 + 2FeS04 + CuS.
Enargite and tetrahedrite are likewise slowly decomposed by solutions
of ferric sulphate. Normally the antimony remains as insoluble oxide
while the arsenic is carried away unless fixed as arsenates of copper by
carbonate solutions or limestone.
The universally resulting cupric sulphate2 is more or less completely
fixed as malachite, azurite, brochantite, chrysocolla and similar prod­
ucts by solutions containing carbonates or silica. Ultimately even these
minerals will be leached, for they are slightly soluble in water containing
carbon dioxide and easily soluble in dilute sulphuric acid. They may,
however, be reduced to cuprite and the cuprite to native copper which
again may go into solution with H2S04.
The oxidation products of the chalcocite zone are described on page
842.
Supergene Copper Sulphides.—So far we have considered the products
of direct oxidation, in the uppermost part of pyrite deposits; they form
under the influence of acid solutions containing free oxygen and ferric
salts; limonite and oxy-salts of copper result, mixed with residual quartz.
At a certain depth, usually at the water level, if that remains in its
1 E. G. Zies, E. T. Allen, and H. E. Merwin, Some reactions involved in secondary
copper sulphide enrichment, Econ. Geol., 11, 1916, p. 476.
2 Cuprous sulphate may form as an intermediate product in some reactions, but it is
unstable and according to W. H. Emmons has not been discovered in any analysis of
mine waters.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 833

F ig . 319.— Chalcocite (gray) replacing pyrite (white), R ay, Arizona. Magnified 150
diam eters. (A fter L . C. Graton.)

F ig . 320.— Supergene chalcocite (gray) replacing pyrite (white), Ray, Arizona. Magnified
120 diam eters. (A fter L . C. Graton.)
834 MINERAL DEPOSITS
original horizon, the material changes from a brown to gray or bluish
color and copper sulphides begin to appear. At first they form pul­
verulent or sooty masses with little residual pyrite. Their quantity
gradually decreases; we find grains of pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite,
or sphalerite covered by coatings of covellite or chalcocite, and the
microscope gives evidence that the process is a replacement of primary
sulphides by the two minerals mentioned (Fig. 319). Occasionally
secondary chalcopyrite or bornite will appear but no secondary pyrite.
The alteration proceeds from reticulating veinlets (Figs. 320 and 323)
along grain boundaries, or in concentric shells. Below the upper part
of the zone the chalcocite may be compact with dark gray metallic luster.

F ig . 321.— Longitudinal section of a chalcocite zone at Morenci, Arizona.

Veins of pyrite may be converted to sooty or massive chalcocite with only

a few residual grains of the original mineral. In some deposits large and
rich masses of chalcocite, more rarely covellite, may be formed in this
manner.
Kaolin may form along with the secondary sulphides partly at the
expense of the sericite; other minerals are chalcedonic and opaline
silica, also alunite. Pyrite is unstable in this zone. Deposition of quartz
is very unusual, though silicates are decomposed by the H 2 SO4 present
and much silica is carried off by the acid solutions. 1
The upper limit of the chalcocite zone is usually sharp. In depth,
the secondary sulphides may cease equally suddenly (Fig. 322), but it is
more common to find a gradual decrease. Chalcocite zones of wide extent
are usually explored by churn drilling, and the plotting by graphic
methods of the assays obtained gives a clear idea of the sharp changes or
1 T. S. Lovering, The leaching of iron protores, Econ. Geol., 18, 1923, pp. 523-540.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 835

gradual transitions due to the enrichment. 1 The depth of the chalcocite

zone often reaches 1 , 0 0 0 feet and in exceptional cases considerably more.
On the other hand, the enrichment may be confined to a thin layer with
a thickness of a few feet only (Fig. 322).
The development of the chalcocite zones is dependent on climate and
water level as well as on composition and texture of the primary rocks
and ores. Permeable rocks like sericitized granite, porphyry, or schists
are particularly favorable environments. In compact contact-meta­
morphosed shales and limestones, the secondary sulphides do not readily
develop. In limestone the zone is usually irregular and shallow because

Gossan iron or© Horizon of Low-grade iron and

chaloocite copper sulphides
F ig . 322. — Chaleooitc zone at Ducktown, Tennessee. (A fter W . H. Em m ons, U. S. Geol.
Survey.)

the basic copper carbonates here form so easily. 12 Wherever the chalco­
cite zone is present a marked enrichment has taken place.
Chalcocite zones may develop in primary ores of economic value.
They may also form by enrichment of low-grade material (protore,
p. 816) whether this be contained as heavy pyrite in veins of low tenor
in copper, as at Clifton, Arizona; or as disseminations of pyrite and chalco-
pyrite in larger mineralized areas as at Ely, Nevada, Miami, Arizona,
and many other places. Such enrichments, usually of no greater
thickness than 100 to 300 feet, but of considerable horizontal extent, are
often referred to as “ chalcocite blankets” and rarely contain more than
2 or 3 per cent of copper, except perhaps in their uppermost levels where
progressive enrichment has been proceeding.
1 E. H. Perry and A. Locke, Interpretation of assay curves for drill holes, Trans.,
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 54, 1917, pp. 93-99. See also graphs in copper deposits of
Ray and Miami, F. L. Ransome, Prof. Paper 115, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1919.
2 A. C. Spencer (Prof. Paper 96, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, p. 82) states, however,
that calcite does not precipitate copper carbonates from a solution of cupric and
ferrous sulphate; also that secondary copper sulphides may form on pyrite and chal-
copyrite in the presence of large amounts of calcite.
836 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The secondary copper sulphides are not necessarily confined below
the water level. They may be deposited at any place in the oxidized
zone where there is a deficiency in oxygen and ferric sulphate, as well
shown at Tintic, Utah, and other places. 1 Such supergene sulphides are,
however, likely to be spotted and irregular in occurrence.
A lowering of the water level and resulting oxidation of the chalcocite
causes a progressive enrichment and an enlargement of the zone, for
wherever the cupric sulphate reaches the primary ore, fresh cupric or
cuprous sulphide will form. Sphalerite, galena, and bornite are easily
attacked, galena more easily than any other sulphide; next follows
chalcopyrite, while pyrite is not readily replaced by secondary sulphides
as long as the other minerals are present. The whole process involves
removal of iron on a large scale. Zinc and arsenic are also carried away.
F. L. Ransome2 presents analyses showing the chemical changes in
the rocks during the mineralization of the original material to protore
and during the chalcocitization of this protore.
1 2 3
SiO,.............................................................. 66.84 66.92 70.63
A1203 ............................................................ 17.46 19.23 14.02
Fe 20 3............................................................ 4.88 0.54 2.47
FeO.............................................................. 0.74 0.99 0.95
FeS............................................................... None 1.40 0.52
CU2S ............................................................. None 0.79 2.56
MgO............................................................. 1.14 0.97 0.70
CaO.............................................................. 0.37 0.27 0.13
Na20 ............................................................ 0.53 0.39 0.41
K20 .............................................................. 4.65 5.61 4.93
II.O .......................................................... 0.17 0.24 0.14
h 2o + .......................................................... 2.61 2.45 2.41
TiO,............................................................. 0.67 0.58 0.61
COu............................................................... None
P 20 5............................................................. 0.03 0.08 0.13
MnO............................................................. 0 .0 2 0.01
100.46 100.62
100.11
1 Pinal schist (pre-Cambrian), Miami district, 1,500 feet west of Warrior
mine. George Steiger, analyst.
2 Metallized schist (protore). Inspiration mine. Chase Palmer,
analyst.
3 Chalcocite ore, Miami mine, 420-foot level. Chase Palmer, analyst.
The protore varies widely as to the amount of FeS2 present. It is
difficult to find protore entirely unaffected by chalcocitization. There
1 W. Lindgren, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, p. 236.
2 Prof. Paper 115, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1919, p. 159.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 837
is probably some chalcopyrite in 2. The changes in composition are
surprisingly small; in a measure this is because the Pinal schist is rich in
potash mica and sericite is the mineral predominating in the altered rocks.
Theory of Supergene Copper Sulphides.1—The recent literature on
the subject of sulphide enrichment in copper deposits is voluminous, and

F ig . 323.— Polished section showing supergene chalcocite (light) replacing sphalerite (dark),
Tsum eb mine. Magnified 80 diam eters. (A fter H . Schneiderhohn.)
it is not possible to follow it in detail in this place. The deposition is
governed by Schiirmann’s reactions (p. 826) so that in general the simple
sulphides of copper replace the simple sulphides of iron, lead, and zinc
(Fig. 323). They also replace the copper-iron sulphides like chalcopyrite
1 H. N. Stokes, On the solution, transportation and deposition of copper, silver
and gold, E con. Geol., 1, 1906, pp. 644-650. Also, idem , 2, 1907, pp. 14-23.
E. Posniak, E. T. Allen, and H. E. Merwin, The sulphide ores of copper, idem ,
10, 1915, pp. 491-535.
E. G. Zies, E. T. Allen, and H. E. Merwin, Some reactions involved in secondary
copper sulphide enrichment. Contribution No. 7. Secondary enrichment investiga­
tion, idem , 11, 1916, pp. 407-503.
C. F. Tolman, Jr., Observations on certain types of chalcocite, etc., T ra n s., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 54, 1917, pp. 402-442.
L. C. Graton and J. Murdoch, The sulphide ores of copper, idem , 45, 1914, pp.
126-181.
A. C. Spencer, Geology and ore deposits of Ely, Nevada, P rof. P a p e r 96, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1917, pp. 76-91. Excellent review of subject.
W. H. Emmons, The enrichment of ore deposits, B u ll. 625, idem , 1917, pp. 154-
249. Excellent and complete review. Bibliography on pp. 20-33.
838 MINERAL DEPOSITS
and bornite and the sulphantimonides like tetrahedrite and the sulpharse-
nides like tennantite and enargite. There is not much evidence of deposi­
tion of copper sulphides by precipitation by hydrogen sulphide or by
alkaline sulphides though no doubt such reactions may also take place,
especially when pyrrhotite is one of the primary minerals.
Near the surface the mine waters are solutions of sulphuric acid and
ferric sulphate; in depth their acidity decreases and ferrous sulphate
increases; at greater depth the waters become neutral and finally alka­
line. 1 Cupric sulphate is present all along but the secondary sulphides
are evidently not readily precipitated in the presence of much ferric
sulphate though they are normally found in the presence of ferrous sul­
phate of slight acidity. In 1906 Stokes had established quantitatively
the reaction of chalcocite with pyrite. In the notable paper by E. G.
Zies, E. T. Allen, and H. E. Merwin of the Geophysical Laboratory all
of the various reactions were quantitatively determined at temperatures
of 40° C. and 2 0 0 ° C.
The reaction with sphalerite is as follows:
ZnS + CuS0 4 = CuS + ZnS04.
The presence of sulphuric acid accelerates the reaction. When cupric
sulphate and galena react at 35° C. cupric sulphide is first formed which
is further attacked by cupric sulphate yielding cuprous sulphide. The
attack on chalcopyrite at 40° C. and at 2 0 0 ° C. is expressed by the
equation
CuFeS2 + CuS0 4 = 2CuS + FeS04.
In this reaction the cupric sulphide again alters to cuprous sulphide on
further attack by CuS04. The presence of sulphuric acid does not
retard the reaction.
The action between bornite and cupric sulphate at the same temper­
ature is expressed by the equations
5Cu5 FeS4 T HCuS0 4 T 8 H 2 O = I 8 CU2 S T 5FeS0 4 T 8 H 2 SO.1.
Cu6 FeS4 + CuS0 4 = 2Cu2S + 2CuS + FeS04.
Bornite is attacked by H 2 S0 4 resulting in CuS and Cu2 S, and FeS04,
hydrogen sulphide developing at the same time. These products will
react and form secondary chalcopyrite.
Pyrite alters to chalcocite and covellite according to Stokes’ reaction:2
5FeS2 + 14CuS0 4 + 12H20 = 7Cu2S + 5FeS0 4 + 12H2 S04.
1 G. S. Nishihara, The rate of reduction of acidity by descending waters, etc.,
Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, pp. 743-757.
F. F. Grout, On the behavior of cold, acid solutions, etc., idem, 8 , 1913, p. 429.
2 Stokes verified this reaction at 180° and 100° C. with neutral solution. Some
CuS was also formed, less at 100 ° than at 180°. Cuprous sulphate also forms as an
intermediate product. Cupric and ferrous sulphate mix in all proportions without
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 839
The formation of covellite is expressed by the following reaction:
4FeS* + 7CuS0 4 + 4H20 = 7CuS + 4FeS0 4 + 4H 2 S04.
Sulphuric acid exerts a markedly retarding influence on these reactions.
According to Zies, Allen, and Merwin pyrrhotite alters to chalco-
pyrite and probably later to bornite when attacked by cupric sulphate
but the reaction was not followed quantitatively. Most observers have
assumed that covellite is earlier than chalcocite and Zies, Allen, and
Merwin confirm this experimentally:
5CuS + 3CuS0 4 + 4H20 = 4Cu2S + 4H 2 S04.
It is probable that this reaction is reversible for in many cases covellite
is an alteration product of chalcocite.
Cupric sulphide is formed when cuprous sulphide is treated with
dilute acid solution in the presence of oxygen. This probably explains
the development of covellite in oxidizing chalcocite and its occasional
crystallization together with products of oxidation like anglesite.
The Crystallization and Relations of Chalcocite, Bornite, and Covel­
lite.—According to Posnjak, Allen, and Merwin*1 chalcocite crystallizes
in the orthorhombic system, in striated prisms, up to a temperature of
91° C. By far the greatest number of crystals found in nature (they
are not common) have this form. Above 91° C. chalcocite crystallizes
in the isometric system usually in octahedral form. As isometric
chalcocite passes through the inversion point a rearrangement of the
molecules occurs and the crystal becomes an aggregate of orthorhombic
grains. Chalcocite may hold covellite in solid solution; more or less is
frequently present. When the amount exceeds 8 per cent there is no
inversion point. Pure chalcocite is white in reflected light but when
admixed with CuS it appears bluish. In some cases this “ solid solution”
is resolved into a mixture of covellite and chalcocite, when examined
under high-powered objectives.
At first glance the inversion point would appear to be a suitable ther­
mometric point for the distinction of supergene and hypogene chalcocite.
It is admitted that all supergene chalcocite must have been formed below
91° C.; but it is not at all certain that all hypogene chalcocite must be
isometric. The hypogene chalcocite is always developed at the latest
stages of mineralization by ascending waters and, conceivably, well below
91° C.
change, except at high temperatures (200° C.), when according to Stokes, cuprous
sulphate and ferric sulphate form; the latter hydrolyzes to ferric hydrate and H 2SO4,
while cuprous sulphate deposits copper upon cooling. This reaction is not likely to
take place at temperatures ordinarily existing in the oxidized zone.
1 Op. cit.
840 MINERAL DEPOSITS
The distinctly supergene chalcocite develops by peripheral replace­
ment or along reticulating cracks (Figs. 319 and 320) and etching shows
it to have always a granular texture, each grain being striated in one
direction probably that of (001) (Fig. 324).
The merit of having recognized that chalcocite may be primary
belongs to F. B. Laney1 and to Reno Sales. 12 From a mineralogical
standpoint the same has been proved by H. Schneiderhohn, 3 at Tsumeb;
by A. M. Bateman and D. H. McLaughlin, 4 at the Kennecott mines; by

F ig. 324.— Photom icrograph of polished section showing etch pattern of rhombic (super­
gene) chalcocite, Tsum eb mine. Magnified 96 diam eters. (A fter H . Schneiderhohn.)

Bateman, 5 at Bristol, Connecticut; and by A. Locke, D. A. Hall and

M. N. Short, 6 at Butte. Certainly the conditions at Butte are con­
vincing. In smaller amounts hypogene chalcocite intergrown with
bornite occurs in the deep levels of the United Verde mine. The question
is now; of what nature is this hypogene chalcocite? It always occurs
with bornite and is usually plainly later than the bornite. It shows a
freedom of control by obvious channels; it includes corroded relics of
older sulphides; it shows “ graphic” or “ eutectic” intergrowths; bornite
1 Econ. Geol., 6 , 1911, pp. 399-411.
2 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 46, 1914, pp. 3-106.
3 Senckenbergiana, Bd. 2, Fasc. 1, Frankfurt a. M., 1920. Metall und Erz, 17
(13, 16, 19, 24), 1920; 18 (10, 11), 1921.
4 Econ. Geol., 15, 1920, p. 63.
6 Idem, 19, 1923, pp. 122-166.
6 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 70, 1924, pp. 933-963.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 841

is often minutely intermixed with it; obvious replacement relations with

bornite are common.
Now Schneiderhohn appears to have proved that chalcocite with
octahedral cleavage occurs at Tsumeb, below the supergene zone
(Fig. 325). This chalcocite is lamellar parallel to (111) and the individual
lamellae show rearrangement into etch figures indicative of the ortho­
rhombic system. This would show that it was formed above 91° C.
but became orthorhombic after passing the inversion point.
At Kennecott, Merwin found several octahedral twins which con­
tained over 8 per cent dissolved covellite. At Butte the distinctly

F ig . 325. — Photom icrograph of polished section showing triangular etch pattern of chalco­
cite, Tsum eb mine. Magnified 60 diam eters. {A fter H . Schneiderhohn.)
orthorhombic crystals so far found are probably hypogene. Much of the
chalcocite in the lower levels shows a lamellar structure which is inter­
preted by Locke, Hall and Short as a structure inherited from bornite.
The idea that the lamellar structure is inherited from bornite is vigorously
combated by Schneiderhohn; and still the same author shows photo­
graphs of chalcopyrite in bornite, so controlled; this intergrowth is
explained as a result of “unmixing.”
On the whole, the present writer believes that hypogene chalcocite
exists; that it may be either orthorhombic or isometric; and that it is
generally formed by replacement of bornite, or in rarer cases as separate
free crystals. At Kennecott both isometric and orthorhombic chalcocite
appear to exist, che latter as a product of supergene action. There is
842 MINERAL DEPOSITS
also another kind to which attention was first directed by Tolman (from
Bingham); that is, the metacolloidal chalcocite; showing no etch figures
but contraction cracks (Fig. 326). This is believed to be a product of the
precipitation of colloidal copper sulphide by H2S in copper solution.
L. C. Graton, 1 J. C. Ray, 2 and others have also held that covellite
may be of hypogene origin because it replaces, in crystal form, other sul­
phides like pyrite, enargite, and sphalerite. However, covellite formed
by undoubtedly supergene solutions always shows an exceedingly strong
tendency to develop blades and crystals. Covellite has not yet been
proved a primary or hypogene mineral in sulphide deposits of hypogene

F ig . 326.— Polished section of “ soo ty ” chalcocite etched to show “ cracked porcelain”

structure believed to indicate colloidal origin. Magnified 75 diam eters. (A fter Bateman
and M cL aughlin, “ Econom ic Geology ”)
origin, though there is really no valid reasons why it could not be formed
in this manner.
Oxidation of Chalcocite Zones.—Where erosion and water level
have been stationary for a long time no changes take place in the chalco­
cite zone except by the gradual increase due to continued slow leaching
of the oxidized zone. But when erosion is quickened or the water level
subsides, the reactions of oxidation may invade the chalcocite zone. The
gossan may be entirely removed and then oxidation will be working on
enriched sulphide ore in which there will be comparatively little iron as
pyrite. Other elements like arsenic may also have been removed during
chalcocitization. The oxidation of such materials may result in almost
complete leaching of copper and a residual outcrop consisting of quartz
with some sericite in which even copper stains may be lacking. Such
1 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 45, 1914, p. 51.
2 Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, p. 473.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 843
conditions exist at Clifton, Miami, and many other places in Arizona.
The outcrops at Butte represent also a leached chalcocite zone and con­
tain little copper.
The course of the oxidation depends largely on the amount of residual
pyrite. Where much of this is present the chalcocite is decomposed to
cupric sulphate while pyrite protected by the chalcocite remains a little
longer until finally decomposed into iron sulphate. When there is little
or no pyrite the chalcocite normally changes by oxidation to covellite
and cuprite; the small amount of sulphuric acid and ferric sulphate
NW Probable Croppings SE

F ig . 327.— Secondary zones in copper veins in contact-m etam orphic rocks, Clifton, Arizona.
available seems to be sufficient to dissolve these (Fig. 327). Again, the
chalcocite may change to brochantite which seems to be particularly
common in oxidizing supergene sulphide zones, or more rarely to mala­
chite and chrysocolla.
2 C 2S + 0 = 2CuS + Cu 2 0.
u
2 C 2S + 100 + 4H20 = H 6 Cu 4 SOio(brochantite) + H 2 SO4 .
u

The cuprite is often reduced by ferrous sulphate to native copper, and

this may again be dissolved by sulphuric acid. At times chalcocite is
directly reduced to native metal which may preserve the structure of the
black sulphide. 1 This might have been effected by ferric sulphate
according to the following reaction, and probably in many other ways.
Cu2S + 3Fe2 (S0 4) 3 + 4H20 = 2 Cu + 6FeS0 4 + 4H 2 S04.
In the chalcocite blankets it is not common to find much native metal,
but at Chino, New Mexico, much of the secondary sulphide appears to
1 W. Lindgren, Prof. Paper 43, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, p. 101.
844 MINERAL DEPOSITS
have been converted to copper.1 At Chino there are several ore-bodies
in quartz monzonite and quartz diorite within an area 2 miles in diameter.
The areas also occupy parts of the intruded Carboniferous limestone and
Cretaceous quartzites. The greatest depth of the chalcocite bodies is
800 feet.
EXAMPLES OF OXIDATION OF COPPER DEPOSITS
General Features.—The study of the various modes of enrichment
in copper deposits is a subject full of difficulties. We find the most
diverse development even in a region of uniform general climate. Take,
for instance, the Sonora-Arizona province, where the rainfall is small
and the climate warm. At Los Pilares, Sonora, near Nacozari, a gossan
of barren hematite 100 feet deep is underlain by an ill-defined zone with
bornite and chalcocite, changing below the 500-foot level to primary
chalcopyrite-pyrite ore. In other parts of Sonora, according to Fin-
layson,2 are gossan and chrysocolla ores extending to a depth of 200 to
400 feet; below this is a shallow zone of secondary sulphides. Again,
at Clifton, Arizona, there are in the contact-metamorphic deposits in
limestone strong gossans, sometimes rich in copper, underneath which no
secondary sulphides are found. Pyritic veins in porphyry at the same
place have a barren siliceous outcrop without gossan and perhaps 150
feet thick, below which lies a rich chalcocite zone that in a few hundred
feet or less changes to lean primary sulphides. Other veins nearby show
chrysocolla from the surface down to a shallow chalcocite zone at 100 feet.
At Ajo,3 Arizona, a region of excessive aridity, disseminated ores and
veins occur in a mass of monzonite. The ore-body occupies an area of
55 acres and has a maximum depth of 600 feet. Here there is apparently
no chalcocite zone, but a great tonnage of carbonate and chrysocolla ore
underlain by disseminated chalcopyrite and bornite, both said to be
primary.
In the normal course of oxidation a gossan must form and the three
zones should be distinct; if the gossan is not present, it has been eroded
and the barren upper zone has then been formed by leaching of the zone
of sulphide enrichment, the copper solution descending to further enrich
the deposit in depth. In regions of deep erosion it is exceedingly rare
to find a strong chalcocite enrichment in deposits exposed in the lower
1L. C. Graton, Prof. Paper 68, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1910, p. 316.
Sidney Paige, Econ. Geol., 7, 1912, pp. 547-559; Silver City folio, Geol. Atlas 199,
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1916.
T. A. Rickard, The Chino enterprise, Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, particularly, Dec. 8,
1923.
Guidebook 14, 16th Internat. Geol. Congress, 1932, p. 35.
2 A. M. Finlayson, Economics of secondary enrichment, Min. and Sci. Press, July
16 and 23, 1910.
3 J. B. Joralemon, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 49, 1915, pp. 593-609.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 845
parts of the canyons. In glaciated or rapidly eroded regions almost all
enrichments may be lacking.
Rio Tinto.—The pyritic deposits of Rio Tinto, southern Spain,1 are
situated in a country of sub-tropical climate, with an annual rainfall of
about 25 inches and mature topography, where erosion makes slow head­
way. The primary deposits are thick lenses of pyrite containing less than
1 per cent of copper. There is a heavy gossan of massive hematite, 45
to 90 feet thick, containing no copper, over 50 per cent iron, and 10 to 15
per cent of siliceous and argillaceous matter. The depth of oxidation
has everywhere been determined by the ground-water level. The lower
limit of the gossan is sharp and the line is often marked by a thin earthy
zone with notable quantities of gold and silver,12 believed to represent
an enrichment caused by leaching of the gossan by solutions containing
chlorine and ferric sulphate. The top of the sulphide zone for a thickness
of a few feet is composed of leached pyrite with a trace of copper, resem­
bling the upper part of the chalcocite zone of Morenci, Arizona. Below
this begins the zone of enriched sulphides, containing in the upper part
3 to 12 per cent copper, gradually becoming poorer downward and passing
into lean pyritic ore assaying 1 per cent or less of copper. The depth at
which the unaltered ore is reached ranges from 200 to 1,500 feet below the
outcrop. The enriched pyrite contains mainly chalcocite. The bulk
of the Rio Tinto copper production to-day is derived from enriched ore.
Mount Morgan. 3—The great gold and copper deposit of Mount
Morgan, in Queensland, which since 1886 has yielded about $65,000,000
in gold, shows the peculiar feature of great gold enrichment with almost
entire absence of a zone of secondary copper ores. The region has a
tropical climate and moderate rainfall; the topography is of the moder­
ately mature type. The water level is probably deep. The irregular
deposit is apparently a replacement in Carboniferous rocks, surrounded
on both sides by intrusive granite.
At the outcrop there was an extremely rich zone with free gold in
kaolin, limonite, and black manganese. Below this was found a zone of
a cellular, almost pumiceous, siliceous mass, resulting from the removal of
pyrite; this was poorer in gold, but the kaolin that was in places associ­
ated with it was rich in silver. The sharply defined lower limit of the
oxidized ore was met at 180 to 300 feet below the surface, and the primary
ore consisted at first of pyrite, then of pyrite with chalcopyrite, carrying
1 For literature see p. 622.
2 J. H. L. Vogt, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1899, p. 250.
3 J. M. M aclaren, Gold, London, 1908, pp. 333-337.
W. F. Gaby, Petrography of the M t. M organ mine, Trans., Am. Inst. M in. Eng.,
55, 1917, pp. 263-283.
J. F. Newm an and J. F. C. Brown, Trans., Austral. Inst. M in. Eng., 15, pt. 2,
1910.
846 MINERAL DEPOSITS
2 to 3 per cent copper and $1 to $8 in gold to the ton. It is difficult to
account for the lack of a chalcocite zone. Unquestionably there has been
concentration of gold on a large scale at the surface, probably caused by
the presence of unusual amounts of chlorine. It is noteworthy that
the gold has been precipitated mainly at the surface and could not be
carried down into lower levels.
Ely.—An important deposit of secondary chalcocite is now being
worked on a large scale at Ely, Nevada,1 by the Nevada Consolidated
Copper Company.
The ore production for 1929 was 5,200,000 tons, containing from 1.5
to 2 per cent of copper. The ore carries also, in ounces per ton, 0.018
in gold and 0.088 in silver.

Nevada Consolidated Copper Co.)

The geological relations are similar to those of the Arizona deposits.
Intrusions of monzonite porphyry in Paleozoic limestone caused contact
metamorphism of the limestone, silicification of both rocks, and some
development of copper deposits, few of which are of economic importance.
After intrusion, the porphyry became impregnated with disseminated
pyrite with a little chalcopyrite, the silicates being replaced by sericite
and pyrite. When the intrusive masses became exposed by erosion to the
action of oxidizing waters, a downward migration of copper sulphate,
either from the porphyry itself or from the overlying contact deposits,
effected a chalcocitization over wide areas.
The leached zone is from 50 to 200 feet in depth and forms an iron-
stained soft mass, in places containing oxidized copper ores; below this
lies the chalcocite zone, consisting of white earthy porphyry with dis­
seminated grains and flakes of chalcocite and a little pyrite. This zone
has a maximum depth of about 500 feet, the copper minerals gradually
diminishing downward to the pyritic valueless protore; the upper limit
of the chalcocite is rather sharply defined. The general water level in the
porphyry is said to be 385 feet below the surface (Fig. 328).
Bingham.—Relations similar to those at Ely exist at Bingham, Utah,2
in a region of much sharper relief and medium aridity. A small mass of
1 A. C. Spencer, Prof. Paper 96, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917.
2 J. M . Boutwell, Prof. Paper 38, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
J. J. Beeson, The dissem inated copper ores, Bingham Canyon, Utah, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. Eng., 54, 1917, pp. 356-401.
B. S. Butler et al., Ore deposits of U tah, Prof. Paper 111, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1920,
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC OREL 847
monzonite is here intruded into Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) quartzite
and limestone, and has apparently caused the rich mineralization of the
Bingham deposits. A large part of the monzonite, 1 mile in length and
Yi mile in width has been subjected to hydrothermal metamorphism
resulting in the development of disseminated pyrite, chalcopyrite, and
bornite. This “ protore,” which contains less than 1 per cent copper, has
been enriched by supergene solutions, depositing chalcocite and, in its
upper part, also covellite, resulting in a low-grade ore containing (1918)
1.5 per cent copper and, in ounces per ton, 0.018 (37 cents) in gold and

F ig , 3 2 9 . —Longitudinal section through central portion of ore-body of the U tah Copper

Company, Bingham Canyon, U tah.

0.25 in silver. Below a leached surface zone (with some oxidized ore)
about 70 feet in depth, lies the chalcocite blanket. The total thickness
of the enriched zone is not fully determined (Fig. 329).
Beeson has shown that some supergene chalcopyrite may be formed
as an intermediate product between pyrite and chalcocite, and bornite
as an intermediate mineral between chalcopyrite and chalcocite. The
supergene sulphides replace the sulphides of the protore.
B. S. Butler has shown that the protore also contains hypogene
biotite and orthoclase. This property of the Utah Copper Company
is now the greatest copper-producing mine in the United States. It is
worked as a gigantic open cut, and the ore is concentrated by flotation
in plants near the Great Salt Lake. In 1929, 17,724,100 tons were
mined by electrically operated steam shovels, a capacity of about 50,000
tons per day. About 148,000 tons of refined copper was obtained
together with 116,087 ounces of gold and 1,050,075 ounces of silver.
The ore reserves amount to 640,000,000 tons, believed to average a trifle
over 1 per cent copper; 194,000,000 tons have been mined to 1926. The
848 MINERAL DEPOSITS
per ton operating cost was 87 cents; the per pound cost 6.65cents. The
copper content was 19.89 pounds per ton; the recovery was 17 pounds
per ton. Since 1930 the production, owing to market conditions, has
been curtailed.
The Southwestern Chalcocite Deposits.—In the arid country of
southern Arizona and New Mexico we find an interesting group of
secondary sulphide deposits similar to the last two examples given.
They are sometimes called chalcocite blankets or disseminated chalcocite
deposits, and excellent representatives of them are found at Clifton,
Globe, Ray, Santa Rita, and in the Burro Mountains. In brief, the
concentration has been proceeding in porphyry, granite, or schist con­
taining disseminated pyrite with a little chalcopyrite. Enrichment
through replacement of pyrite by chalcocite has in places occurred along
fissures or fissured zones, or still more commonly in irregular areas of frac­
tured and brecciated rocks. The result is a chalcocite ore containing
1 to 4 per cent copper and also some residual pyrite; this zone is from 100
feet or less up to several hundred feet in thickness. Above it lies a
barren oxidized and leached zone reaching to the surface and from 50
to 1,000 feet in thickness; in places this zone contains some oxidized ore.
Below the chalcocite, the primary pyritic dissemination extends to an
unknown depth, the rock containing but a fraction of a per cent of
copper. The upper limit of the chalcocite zone is sharply defined; the
richest ore is found here, gradually decreasing in tenor as depth increases.
The water level usually lies at or below the lower limit of the chalcocite
zone, and the zone itself, or at any rate the top of it, is for the most part
high above the present drainage level.
Evidently the secondary sulphides could not have been formed in
their present places under present conditions, for their upper parts are
now being actively oxidized. They give evidence of having been accumu­
lated during a long period, probably beginning in the late Tertiary,
when the climate was damp and the water level high, before erosion had
cut to its present depth. The overlying lean porphyry was leached of its
scant copper content, the copper descending as sulphate to become pre­
cipitated as chalcocite on the primary pyrite in depth.
These deposits are then old—marooned, as it were, high above their
normal position and in an unstable condition. Probably they were
once thicker and poorer than now and covered by a gossan. Erosion has
carried away the surface gossan, and the scant rain waters have leached
the upper part of the underlying chalcocite zone—now the barren zone—
and driven the copper downward to replace the remaining pyrite at the
level where the oxygen of the descending water became exhausted.
Thus is explained the richness near the top, and it follows as a corollary
that chalcocite may be deposited above the permanent water level,
provided not much oxygen is present.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 849
Ray and Miami. 1—A few miles from Globe, in a region of moderate
relief, there is an area of granite (Schultze granite) intrusive into the
pre-Cambrian Pinal schist; in the latter, near the contact, several dis­
seminated chalcocite deposits have been discovered.
At the Miami mine, the leached zone is about 200 feet deep and con­
tains in places oxidized ores; a sharp line of demarcation separates it from
the underlying chalcocite. The deposit forms a flattened mass which in
depth gradually increases in extent. On the 270-foot level the chalcocite
area occupies 1 acre; on the 370-foot level, 3 acres; on the 470-foot level,
16 acres. The average tenor of the ore is over 3 per cent of copper near
the top of the chalcocite zone, but falls to 2.65 per cent on the 570-foot
level. At greater depth the percentage of copper in the ore changes

r ftm te P o rp h yry Ore, H 7. o' higher (Ore./et*

F ig . 330.-*—Section of chalcocite blanket a t Inspiration, Arizona. (After F. L. Ransome,
U. S. Geol. Survey.)

abruptly from 2 to 1 per cent or less. The mine produces a little water
on the 450-foot level. In 1929, 5,000,000 tons of ore were mined.
Somewhat similar conditions obtain at the neighboring Inspiration
mine (Fig. 330). At one place the chalcocite zone reaches to a depth of
1,200 feet below the surface. At the present time (1933) both these
mines produce ore averaging about 1 per cent of copper.
These deposits are thought to have been formed during the last part
of the Tertiary period. Their oxidation is now in progress, with enrich­
ment and concentration of the underlying chalcocite.
At Ray, Arizona, about 25 miles southwest of Globe, a similar but
more extensive chalcocite blanket has been discovered and developed by
churn drills. The Ray mines are situated in a basin at an elevation of
about 2,200 feet. The deposits are in an area of pre-Cambrian schist,
cut by dikes of granite porphyry and diabase. The upper leached zone,
containing some oxidized copper ore, is from 50 to 150 feet thick. The
chalcocite, disclosed by drilling and underground operations, extends
over a large area, probably more than 100 acres; its thickness is from
20 to 300 feet and in a considerable part of the area averages 60 feet
(Fig. 331). The chalcocite zone is richest at the top and gradually
1 F. L. Ransome, The copper deposits of R ay and M iam i, Pro}. Paper 115, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1919; also R ay folio, Geol. Allan 217, idem, 1923.
850 MINERAL DEPOSITS
becomes poorer in depth. The ore-body is said to contain about 100,-
000,000 tons, averaging above 1 per cent copper. The region had long
been known as copper bearing, and futile operations on small masses of
oxidized ore along diabase dikes had been undertaken. In 1929,
3,600,000 tons of ore were mined averaging about 20 pounds of copper
per ton. Water begins to come in at the lower limits of the ore-body,
which lies below the level of the creek.
Chuquicamata.—The great copper lode at Chuquicamata, in which
the developed ore is estimated to be over 300,000,000 tons carrying an
average of a little less than 2 per cent copper, is situated in northern
Chile. Its production is now rivaling that of the Utah Copper Company.
The climate is exceedingly arid. The deposit consists of a series of lodes
in granitic rock, intrusive in Jurassic strata; from these lodes supergene
mineralization has spread until it now occupies a large area, in which the
ore is mined by open-cut methods. The mass of the ore so far developed
H u m b oH~

F i g . 3 3 1 . — Section of chalcocite blanket at Ray, Arizona. (After F. L. Ransome, U. S.

Geol. Survey.)
is oxidized and carries mainly brochantite, near the surface also ataca-
mite, the latter formed by aid of windblown sodium chloride. The
primary ore, as shown by borings and by adjacent smaller deposits, con­
tains mainly quartz, pyrite, and enargite. The present great oxidized
body is formed by the oxidation of a deep chalcocite-covellite zone of
which the lower part only now remains. This is in part mixed with
oxidized ore, and these ores are somewhat richer than those of the oxidized
zone. During the chalcocitization the arsenic was removed and the
oxidized zone now contains only traces of that element. During oxi­
dation in the now nearly rainless climate very little copper has been
carried downward. The brochantite, which contains 62.42 per cent
copper (chalcocite 79.8 per cent), has evidently simply replaced the super­
gene sulphides. Further alteration of brochantite results in the poorer
sodium-copper sulphates, krohnkite, and natrochalcite. Close to the
surface is an irregular and shallow zone of leaching, in which the copper
is partly removed and basic iron sulphates, hematite, and gypsum have
formed. Regarding Cananea, Mexico, see page 722.
Relation of the Disseminated Chalcocite Ores to Intrusives.—In a
recent thoughtful paper W. H. Emmons1 concludes that the protores of
1 Relations of the dissem inated copper ores in porphyry to igneous intrusives,
Trans., Am. Inst. Min. M et Eng., 75, 1927, pp. 797-815.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 851

these deposits are of the acrobatholithic type; in other words they occupy
domes or cupolas of the intrusive mass—the high points of larger under­
lying masses. They occur either in the small areas of the (usually
quartz monzonitic) intrusive or along or near the axes of not yet exposed
ridges of the intrusive. The distribution of the disseminated ores on the
cupolas is controlled by fracturing. The rising solutions that metallized
the fractured rocks moved upward from the deeper parts of the batholith
to the cupolas and particularly to the ridges on the cupolas. Descending
cupric sulphate later enriched the upper part of this protore.
ZINC
Minerals.—Sphalerite (ZnS) may be said to be the only important
primary ore mineral of zinc. It is almost universally present in sulphide
ores and is a persistent mineral ranging from deposits of magmatic origin
to deposits formed practically at the surface where reducing conditions
obtain. Wurtzite, the hexagonal modification of zinc sulphide, is ques­
tionable as to its hypogene origin. The absence of zinc sulpharsenides and
sulphantimonides is remarkable and the small quantities of zinc reported
in analyses of sulphosalts may well be caused by mechanically admixed
zinc sulphide. Zinc spinel or gahnite (Zn0.Al20 3) occasionally occurring
in high-temperature deposits is of no economic importance. The
minerals zincite (ZnO), franklinite (Zn0.Fe20 3), willemite (Zn2Si04),
troostite (Zn2(Mn)2Si04), and several rare silicates are almost exclusively
confined to the unique deposits at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey.
The oxidized ores of supergene origin comprise the most common
smithsonite (ZnC03), the calamine (ZnH2SiOs) and the hydrozincite
(ZnC03.2Zn(0H)2). Willemite may also be formed during oxidation, as
at Tres Hermanas, New Mexico, and Pioche, Nevada. There is also the
rarer aurichalcite, a basic carbonate of copper and zinc, and several still
more infrequent arsenates and vanadates. Goslarite (ZnS04.7H20)
forms efflorescences but is of principal interest as the form in which zinc
is usually transported in solution. Monheimite ((ZnFe) C03), the iron
rich variety of smithsonite, is not uncommon.
Solubility and Mineral Development.—The sulphate and chloride of
zinc are very easily soluble, whereas the carbonate and the silicates are
difficultly soluble. Sphalerite is attacked by oxygenated water and the
carbonate forms slowly. In sulphuric acid sphalerite is fairly easily
soluble with development of H2S and hence the oxidation of the mineral
proceeds most rapidly in pyritic deposits. Unless limestone or some
other precipitant is available the zinc of the oxidized zone is rapidly
dispersed as sulphate, and many examples are known of zinc-bearing
sulphide deposits from the oxidized part of which the metal has wholly
disappeared. Zinc is, in fact, the most mobile of the common metals in
852 MINERAL DEPOSITS
ore deposits. Like galena, sphalerite is also readily attacked by ferric
sulphate,
ZnS + 4Fe2(S04)3 + 4H20 = ZnS04 + 8 FeS0 4 + 4 H 2 S0 4 ,
and the resulting free acid starts the decomposition again.
Smithsonite is supposed to form according to the reaction
ZnS04 + CaC03 = ZnC03 + CaS04,
but there is reason to believe that where the replacement of limestone
is effected by equal volumes, the dilute solution of zinc carbonate is rather
the reagent than the sulphate. It is not uncommon to find limestone
replaced by smithsonite with perfect preservation of structure. The
oxidized zinc ores are often inconspicuous earthy or admixed with clay
and ferric hydroxide, and, therefore, easily escape attention. Zinc
sulphate is often found in mine waters.
Supergene Shoots of Zinc Ore—In
calcareous rocks the descending zinc solu­
tions are easily arrested and there it is
common to find secondary zinc shoots below
the primary ore (Fig. 332). In case of the
extremely common combination of zinc
and lead the latter metal remains in its
original place as residual galena or cerus-
site while the smithsonite is found lower
down or along convenient paths used by
the downward moving waters. G. F.
F ig . 332.— Diagram illustrating Loughlin1 has described many cases of
developm ent of oxidized zinc ^ore ^ k in d f r o m T m tiC ) U ta h > a n d other
in limestone below prim ary 1
of lead-zinc ore, M ay D ay mine, places. Usually smithsonite forms first and
Loughlin) Utah’ t' Af ter G- F- hydrozincite, calamine, and aurichalcite
are distinctly secondary after smithsonite.
At the important zinc deposits of Goodsprings, Nevada, D. F.
Hewett2 found that hydrozincite is by far the most important ore.
Originating from the oxidation of sphalerite, the mineral frequently
replaces dolomite (Mississippian). Its formation is held to be favored
by the arid climate, and it is shown that the mineral is much less common
in more humid regions.
According to experiments by Y. T. Wang,3 the following reaction
appears to explain its formation:
3CaC03 + 4H20 + 3ZnS04 = 3CaS04 + 2H2C03 + ZnC03.2Zn(0H)2.
1 Econ. Geol., 9, 1914, p. 1.
2 D. F. H ew ett, Geology and ore deposits of Goodsprings, Nevada, Prof. Paper
162, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1931, 172 pp.
0 Y. T. Wang, Form ation of oxidized ores of zinc from the sulphide, Trans., Am.
Inst. Min. M et. Eng., 52, 1915, pp. 657-710.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 853

Smaller amounts of calamine and smithsonite occur. Near the

surface considerable masses of supergene chert occurred with which much
plumbojarosite was intergrown.
Supergene Zinc Sulphide.—Zinc is not as a rule deposited as a
secondary (supergene) sulphide and no case has been recorded where it
replaces pyrite, as chalcocite so often does. Many cases have, however,
been described showing that zinc sulphide may form below the oxidized
zone. W. H. Weed describes such an occurrence at Neihart, Montana,
and H. F. Bain regards a certain red variety of sphalerite at Joplin,
Missouri (p.429) as of secondary origin. White amorphous zinc sulphide
has been found precipitated by hydrogen sulphide from mine waters.
Crystals of sphalerite have been observed in old workings opened after
having been flooded for many years.1
Wurtzite, the hexagonal form of zinc sulphide, which, except by its
optical qualities, is almost indistinguishable from sphalerite, has been
discovered at several places in the United States, particularly at Joplin,
at Butte, at the Hornsilver Mine, Utah, at Goldfield, Nevada, and at
the Era district, Idaho.12
Allen and Crenshaw3 have shown a remarkable analogy between
pyrite and marcasite on one hand and sphalerite and wurtzite on the
other. While pyrite and sphalerite may crystallize from alkaline or from
acid solutions, the presence of free acid is essential for the formation of
marcasite and wurtzite. It is believed that either wurtzite develops
from sphalerite under the influence of acidic solutions or that both
crystallize together from such solutions. Butler believed that the
wurtzite which has formed abundantly in the lower levels of the oxidized
zone at the Hornsilver mine4 is of secondary origin. Occurrences of
“ Schalenblende ” or concentric colloform intergrowths of sphalerite and
wurtzite are known from Vieille Montagne, Belgium, and other places,
but they are probably not of supergene origin. There is, as yet, much
uncertainty as to the conditions under which wurtzite develops in nature.
LEAD

Minerals.—Among the primary lead minerals galena (PbS) is by far

the most common; bournonite (PbCuSbS3), jamesonite (Pb2Sb2S5), and
a host of other lead sulphantimonides, such as boulangerite, geocronite,
etc., are of little economic importance.
1 C. R. Keyes, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 31, 1901, p. 611.
W. P. Jenney, idem, 33, 1903, p. 470.
2 For a review of these occurrences see J. B. Umpleby, Prof. Paper 97, U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1917, pp. 87-89.
3 Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 34, 1912, pp. 341-396; idem, 38, 1914, pp. 393-431.
4 B. S. Butler, Prof. Paper 80, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913, p. 154.
854 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Far more numerous are the oxidized lead minerals. They comprise
the red oxide, minium (Pb 3 0 4), the yellow massicot (PbO), and the dark,
colloform plattnerite (Pb02). All these are comparatively rare, as are
the chloride and the oxy-chloride. The really abundant oxidized lead
minerals are anglesite (PbS04) and especially cerussite (PbC03). Of
considerable importance are also a series of hydrous basic sulphates of
lead with copper and iron, including the blue linarite ((Pb,Cu)S04.-
(Pb,Cu)(OH)2), the yellow plumbojarosite (Pb0.3Fe20 3.4S03.6H20),
the microscopic foils of which cling to the finger like graphite, and several
other yellow, earthy lead-copper sulphates of varying composition.
Lead chloro-phosphate, called pyromorphite (PbsP30 i2Cl), and the
corresponding arsenate (mimetite) and vanadate (vanadinite) are not
uncommon and may be considered ore minerals. The same applies to
wulfenite (PbMo04), crocoite (PbCr04), and stolzite (PbW04).
Silicates of lead with several other oxy-salts, like antimoniosilicate of
manganese, are found sparingly at the two abnormal deposits of contact-
metamorphic type, Franklin Furnace, New Jersey and L&ngban, Sweden.
Reactions in the Oxidized Zone.—Lead, in contrast to zinc, shows
slight mobility in the oxidized zone. All the salts are difficultly soluble,
particularly the carbonate. The sulphate is very slightly soluble.
Most soluble is the chloride1by means of which some transportation may
be effected. Galena' is slightly attacked by dilute H2S04 and especially
by the same solvent together with ferric sulphate.2 The first change in
galena is usually to anglesite (PbS + 40 = PbS04). Residual nodules
of galena are surrounded by dark concentric rings of anglesite, the
color being caused by the remaining, finely disseminated lead sulphide.
Anglesite is also seen well crystallized. Cerussite appears to form easily
from anglesite and usually predominates (PbS04 + H2C03 = PbC03+
H2S04); it appears as beautiful crystal groups but is more commonly
earthy, white or yellowish and of sandy texture (sand carbonate).
Once formed these two minerals are exceedingly stable. If there is
free sulphuric acid or ferric sulphate or chlorides present, however, the
lead may be rendered more mobile.3 Soluble chloride and oxy-chlorides
form, and a whole series of basic yellow lead-iron sulphates may be
developed. Plumbojarosite, one of this series, has been used as an ore.4
Considerable migration of lead in oxidized ore has been carried on by the
aid of the two reagents just referred to.
“ Steel galena” owes its fine-grained texture either to mechanical
deformation of larger crystals or to a beginning transformation to
1 At 15° C., 0.909 gram in 100 grams H20; at 100° C., 3.340 grams.
2 H. C. Cooke, Jour. Geol., 21, 1913, p. 11.
3 One liter of water dissolves only 4.4 milligrams PbS04 while the same amount of
saturated NaCl solution dissolves 660 milligrams, slowly decomposing it to chloride.
4 B. S. Butler, Prof. Paper 80, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913, p. 109.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 855
anglesite. It is supposed to be rich in silver but this is by no means
always true. Oxidized lead ores are usually poor in silver, but here again
there may be many exceptions noted.
Wulfenite is formed from the oxidation of galena and molybdenite;
the latter is often present only in microscopic particles. The enrichment
of lead in the oxidized zone is generally a consequence of the solution of
associated minerals and the resulting reduction of volume of the ore.
Supergene Sulphides.—Well-defined zones of supergene lead sulphide
have never been observed. According to its position in Schiirmann’s
series lead should be deposited as sulphide ore on sphalerite and pyrite.
Examples are known of galena formed as well-defined crystals on
iron spikes from old workings of a lead mine in Missouri. Thin films
of galena are sometimes deposited on sphalerite; this has been observed
by Irving and Bancroft at Lake City, Colorado; by Boutwell at Bingham,
Utah; and by Ransome at Breckenridge, Colorado.
Oxidation in the Coeur d’Alene District.—In the Coeur d'Alene
district,1 northern Idaho, the precipitation is heavy, the topography is
accentuated, and the water level stands near the surface of the ground.
The veins, which are enclosed in quartzite country rock, contain galena,
sphalerite, and siderite. Little pyrite is present. The lower limit of
oxidation is very irregular. Complete oxidation is confined to the
vicinity of the surface, but cerussite occurs in vugs and fractures several
hundred feet below the surface, while the galena may in places occur in
the outcrops. The minerals first attacked are pyrite and sphalerite,
while the solid galena is very resistant. The chief products of oxidation
are limonite, occurring as great masses at the outcrops, and cerussite, to
which as the latest products pyromorphite, also plattnerite (Pb02) are
added. Owing to the prevalence of siderite, cerussite is the predomi­
nating oxidized lead mineral; anglesite is absent. The quantity of silver
contained in the galena is small and there is no evidence of enrichment
either in the oxidized zone or below it.
Oxidation in the Mississippi Valley District.—The effects of oxidation
on the lead and zinc deposits of the Ozark region have been described by
Bain,2Siebenthal and Smith,3and Buckley and Buehler.4 The oxidation
is mostly confined to the zone between the surface and the water level,
which is rarely as much as 100 feet below the surface. The oxidized ore
is, to a considerable degree, a product of the residual weathering of lime-
1 F. L. Ransome and F. C. Calkins, P rof. P a p e r 62, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908,
p. 132.
2 H. Foster Bain, Lead and zinc deposits of the Ozark region, T w en ty-secon d A n n .
R ept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901, pp. 155-162.
3 C. E. Siebenthal and W. S. Tangier Smith, Joplin folio, Geol. A lla s 148, idem ,
1907.
4 E. R. Buckley and H. A. Buehler, Geology of the Granby area, Missouri Bur.
Geol. and Mines, 2d ser., 4, 1906.
856 MINERAL DEPOSITS
stone and chert and thus consists of a confused mass of red residual clay,
with layers and fragments of white chert, in which are found galena and
the oxidized ores of lead and zinc. Galena is the only sulphide found in
quantity above the water level.
Sphalerite alters either to calamine or to smithsonite, and nodular
masses of each sometimes hold a kernel of the sulphide. During oxidation
the solutions are probably acid only where considerable amounts of
marcasite are present. A frequently occurring association is that
of calamine surmounted by crystals of dolomite, which could not have
been deposited from solutions containing free sulphuric acid.
In the upper Mississippi Valley (p. 436), according to C. R. Van Hise,1
smithsonite and galena occur above the level of ground-water, which lies
close to the surface. Encrusting the galena are some cerussite and less
anglesite; with the smithsonite is some sphalerite. The smithsonite may
extend 15 to 30 feet below water level, but at greater depth the oxidized
products almost wholly disappear and sphalerite with much marcasite
forms the principal ore-bodies. Above the water level, then, the iron
sulphide has been dissolved, as well as much of the sphalerite, leaving a
richer concentrate of galena.
GO LD

Gold shows slight mobility in ore deposits; it is less easily transported

than silver, and, compared to copper and zinc, it is almost stationary.
The solubility of gold has been discussed briefly in the chapter on placers.
Gold usually occurs native, in coarse or in fine distribution.
Excepting some alloys, like amalgam, maldonite (Au2Bi), and palla­
dium gold, the tellurides form the only definitely known combinations
of gold with other elements. Among them are calaverite and the less
common sylvanite and krennerite, all with the general formula of (Au,
Ag)Te2, and petzite ((Au, Ag)2Te). The tellurides are apparently able
to form under widely differing conditions, though they are generally
absent from the magmatic and the pyrometasomatic deposits. They
decompose easily above the water level, the tellurium is in part carried
away as soluble compounds, in part fixed as tellurite (Te02) or tellurites
of iron, like emmonsite and durdenite. The gold remains in minute
brownish grains (mustard gold). In most cases there is little evidence of
solution and transportation of this gold.
Certain deposits formed by hot ascending waters near the surface
contain selenium, either alone or together with tellurium (Republic,
Washington; Tonopah, Nevada; Radjang Lebong, Sumatra), and prob­
ably they carry a selenide of gold, though its existence has not been
definitely proved. Little is known about the oxidation products of
selenium.
1 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 1900, pp. 102-109.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 857
Much more commonly the gold occurs in native form, in gold-quartz
veins with small amounts of sulphides. In such deposits there is little
evidence of solution and transportation of the gold. Enrichment often
takes place in them, but rather by reduction of volume of the ore than by
solution of gold. The sulphides in these veins are usually rich in finely
distributed gold which remains behind upon oxidation. The oxidation of
a crystal of pyrite will generally result in a pseudomorph of limonite
which contains flakes of native gold, indicating that within the crystal
a certain amount of transportation of gold has taken place.
Very common also are the deposits in which the sulphides abound
and which contain no visible free gold.1 The Gilpin County veins,
Colorado; Mount Morgan, Queensland; and the Haile Deposit, South
Carolina, may serve as examples. It is in these deposits that most
evidence is found of the solution and transportation of gold.
Gold has undoubtedly been transported in the form of chloride, though
its migration in colloidal suspension derived by solution processes from
native gold is probably much more common than has been suspected.
Now, while chloride of gold is easily soluble in water, it is also most easily
precipitated by reducing reagents, such as organic matter, ferrous
sulphate, metals or sulphides, like pyrite. In the older literature ferric
chloride and ferric sulphate were frequently given as solvents of gold,
and the question had previously been discussed by Pearce, Don, and T.
A. Rickard. H. N. Stokes2 and J. R. Don3 showed that ferric sulphate
is ineffective, and the recent work of W. H. Emmons4and A. D. Brokaw5
has shown that gold is insoluble in ferric chloride also and goes into
solution only when nascent chlorine is present. The metal is precipitated
easily and completely by ferrous sulphate.
In deposits containing much pyrite, oxidation results in the liberation
of sulphuric acid. Sodium chloride is present in some degree in all mine
waters and is abundant in some. Reaction between sulphuric acid and
sodium chloride results in hydrochloric acid, and it should be recalled
that Don actually found free HC1 in a number of superficial mine waters
from New Zealand.6 If dioxide of manganese is present in the deposit,
nascent chlorine will be generated according to the reaction:
Mn02 + 4HC1 = 2H20 + MnCl2 + 2C1.
1 Very careful polishing of a section often makes such gold visible.
2 Econ. Geol., 1, 1906, p. 650.
3 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 27, 1898, p. 599.
4 The agency of manganese in the superficial alteration and secondary enrichment
of gold deposits in the United States, Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 40, 1910, pp. 767
837.
sjour. Geol., 18, 1910, p. 322; 21, 1913, pp. 251-267.
c J. It. Don, op. cil.
858 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Ferric and cupric salts have similar power, but chlorine develops
very slowly, if at all, in the cold. It should be expected, according to
Emmons, that auriferous deposits which contain manganese would show1
the effect of solution and migration of gold more clearly than non-
manganiferous ores. According to experiments by A. D. Brokaw,
quoted by Emmons, gold is not dissolved in hydrochloric acid, ferric
sulphate, or ferric chloride.1 It is dissolved at 38° C. in a concentrated
solution containing both ferric sulphate and hydrochloric acid; also at
the same temperature in a concentrated solution of cupric chloride and
hydrochloric acid; the dilute solutions are not effective. Brokaw’s
experiments verified the solubility of gold by nascent chlorine in the
presence of manganese as outlined above.
Where much M n02is present, ferrous sulphate is almost immediately
transformed to ferric sulphate and the precipitation of the gold is delayed.12
The gold dissolved in the presence of Mn02 and held in solution by
the absence of FeS04 moves downward until the excess of acid is reduced,
and simultaneously the iron and manganese compounds tend to hydrolyze
and deposit oxides. At this stage FeS04 becomes increasingly promi­
nent and effective as a precipitant. The transportation of gold is thus
dependent upon the oxidation of ferrous sulphate by manganese dioxide.
In the presence of Mn02 gold may even be carried down and deposited
below the water level.
The greater enrichment in gold will be found in the lower part ofthe
oxidized zone. A slight enrichment is sometimes found in the upper part
of chalcocite zones. In zones of deep oxidation as at Tintic,3 Utah,
supergene concentrations of gold may be found at all levels. Manganese
is apparently always present here. The supergene gold is deep yellow
and 900+ fine.
Many examples of actual redeposition of gold are mentioned in the
literature, such as films of gold in fissures and on other minerals—for
instance, on sphalerite at mines in Lake City, Colorado.45
Organic matter, hydrogen sulphide, carbon, sulphides, tellurides, and
carbonates6 precipitate gold from chloride solution. Palmer and Bastin'
have shown that most sulphides easily precipitate gold; pyrite and galena,
which do not precipitate silver, readily bring down the gold. With
dilute solutions a protective colloid may inhibit precipitation.7
1 Don in 1897 had already stated that, in the absence of free chlorine, gold is
insoluble both in FeCfi and Fe2(S04)3.
2 W. H. Emmons, op. cit. (Experiment 20).
3 W. Lindgren, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, p. 237.
4 J. D. Irving, Oral communication.
5 V. Lenher, Econ. Geol., 13, 1918, pp. 161-184.
6 Idem, 8, 1913, pp. 140-170.
7 E. S. Bastin, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 1916, p. 64.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 859

A peculiar feature in certain gold deposits where extensive kaolini-

zation has taken place near the surface is the occurrence of white kaolin
extraordinarily rich in gold so fine that it is scarcely visible when the
material is washed in the pan.1 This is undoubtedly an effect of oxidation,
but the mode of this enrichment is not fully explained. Possibly the
gold has been precipitated in this extremely finely divided form from
colloidal solutions.
Examples of Oxidation of Gold Deposits.—In the Blue Mountains
of Oregon,2 a region of heavy precipitation but dry summers and rather
high topographic relief, gold-quartz veins are contained in Paleozoic
argillites and in intrusive diorite. The ores, which in places carry much
free gold, are oxidized down to a depth of 100 to 300 feet. At the Sanger
mine, on Eagle Creek, the uppermost 100 feet showed a narrow vein,
caused by collapse of outcrops, yielding $25 per ton, while farther down
the vein widened and its gold was reduced to $12 per ton.
In the formerly highly productive gold veins of the Cracker Creek and
Granite districts, the sulphides and arsenopyrite are in fine distribution
and much of the ore is rather hard. The water level is high, but on the
steep hillsides the oxidized zone is in places 250 feet deep. The oxidation
to this depth is only partial, but there is a surprisingly slight difference in
tenor between the surface ore and the primary ore. In the latter the
gold is contained mainly in the sulphides; free gold is present in the
oxidized ore, but there is not enough to convert the material into free-
milling ore. No great reduction of volume has taken place, and weather­
ing has only slightly increased the tenor of gold, while the small silver
content has been slightly leached.
The gold-telluride lodes of Cripple Creek, Colorado,3 are mainly
sheeted zones in which the seams are filled with quartz, fluorite, and
calaverite [Au(Ag)Te2J. These deposits oxidize to brownish clayey
material in which the original vein structure is no longer apparent. As
quartz is not abundant, the main product of the oxidation is kaolin, with
some limonite. The fluorite is carried away, while the tellurides are
very easily reduced to dark-brown powdery gold. The tellurium is
partly carried away in solution but to some extent remains as colorless
tellurite (Te02) and green ferric tellurites like durdenite and emmonsite.
The oxidation extends to the water level, which is from 300 to 900
feet below the surface, and in places the ore is oxidized for some distance
below the water level. There has been little or no enrichment of gold in
the oxidized zone, but a decided leaching of the small amount of primary
1 W. Lindgren, T w en tieth A n n . R ep t., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 1900, p. 171.
F. Guitermann, P roc., Colorado Sci. Soc., 3, 1891, pp. 264-268.
2 W. Lindgren, The gold belt of the Blue Mountains of Oregon, T w en ty-secon d A n n .
R ept., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901.
3 W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, P rof. P a p e r 54, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
860 MINERAL DEPOSITS
silver originally contained as telluride or tetrahedrite. No secondary
silver sulphides were detected, nor is there evidence of secondary depo­
sition of tellurides.
At Creede, Colorado,1 and in the Tomboy and the Camp Bird mines,
Colorado, as well as in the Granite-Bimetallic mine, Montana, in the
Tintic mines,12Utah, and in the Mount Morgan mine, Queensland (p. 845)
examples are found of the deposition of supergene gold in the lower part
of the oxidized zone.
SILVER
Minerals.—Of the primary silver minerals argentite (Ag2S) is easily
the most important. Hessite (Ag2Te) is not uncommon in gold-quartz
veins but plays no great part as an ore mineral, and naumannite (Ag2PbSe)
is a rarity. Native silver may under some circumstances—as in the Lake
Superior copper mines, and in the deposits of the Cobalt type—appear
as a hypogene mineral. Electrum is of hypogene origin. Of more
importance are tetrahedrite (Cu8Sb2S7) and tennantite (Cu8As2S7) for
they usually contain silver sulphide in chemical combination. Finally we
have a long series of sulphantimonides, sulpharsenides, and sulphobis-
muthides of silver or silver-lead. All of these are invariably of late
though not necessarily of supergene origin.
Galena and silver are particularly frequently associated, and it is now
known that this silver is contained in galena as minute inclusions of
argentite,3 easily made visible by etching a polished surface with HC1.
The argentite is believed to have been separated by “unmixing,” during
slow cooling of a solid solution of the two sulphides. Occasionally
tetrahedrite is also included in galena. It is probable that the argentite
is also contained in other of the common sulphides and sulpho-salts.
Galena and argentite form a eutectic at 77 per cent Ag2S at 630° C.,
but this is not developed where there is less than 2.70 per cent Ag2S,
and it has not been observed in nature. Silver sulphide may exist in
solid solution in slowly cooled PbS but the limit of this lies below 0.2
per cent Ag2S.
The distinctly supergene silver minerals comprise native silver,
argentite, cerargyrite (AgCl), embolite (Ag(ClBr)),bromyrite (AgBr),and
iodyrite (Agl), also argentojarosite. The first four are of common
occurrence.
Stromeyerite ((Ag,Cu)2S), closely allied to chalcocite, occurs supergene
or hypogene.
1 W. H. Emmons and E. S. Larsen, Geology and ore deposits of the Creede dis­
trict, Colorado, Bull. 718, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1923, 198 pp.; idem, Bull. 811, 1930,
pp. 89-112.
2 W. Lindgren, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, p. 237.
3 A. E. Nissen and S. L. Hoyt, Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 172-179.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 861

Of the group of sulpho-salts, referred to above, the following are surely

hypogene though they may also develop as a result of supergene enrich­
ment. Stephanite and pearceite are frequently supergene.
Pyrarg3'rite Ag3SbS: Proustite AgjAsS,
Miargyrite Ag SbS:
Stephanite Ag5SbS,
Polybasite Ag9SbS( Pearceite Ag9AsS6
Dyscrasite is really an alloy of silver and antimony with varying com­
position ; it has formed important ore at Broken Hill and Chanarcillo and
is also known from Cobalt. It appears to be both hypogene and supergene.
Solubility and Mineral Development.—Argentite is oxidized to cerar-
gyrite (horn silver), probably by way of the fairly soluble silver sulphate,
as follows: Ag2S + 40 = Ag2S04; Ag2S04 + 2NaCl = 2AgCl + Na2S04.
Pseudomorphs of cerargyrite after argentite are well known.
Argentite is very slightly attacked by dilute sulphuric acid, but is
much more rapidly decomposed by ferric sulphate or by a mixture of the
two solvents.1 Pyrargyrite and polybasite are also decomposed by sul­
phuric acid, silver and a little antimony going in solution. The reaction
is increased by ferric sulphate.
It is thus evident that the presence of oxidizing pyrite will greatly
facilitate the movement of silver in ore deposits, and while the metal is not
as mobile as copper or zinc it is transported much more easily than gold.
The universal presence of chlorine in waters, particularly in those of arid
climates, and the insolubility of the silver chloride account for the com­
mon occurrence of the latter mineral in the oxidized zones of ore deposits.
Though both cerargyrite and argentite are easily reduced to native
silver they are very slightly soluble in solutions usually occurring in
nature.
The solubility of the various silver salts is as follows, in grams of
anhydrous salt per 100 grams of water: Ag2S04at 25° C., 0.83; at 100° C.,
1.46. Ag2C03 at 25° C., 0.003; in water saturated with C02, at 15°
C., 0.08. AgCl at 13° C., 0.00014; at 43° C., 0.0004. AgBr at 25° C.,
0.00001. Agl is still less soluble than the bromide. It will be noted that
the solubility of AgCl increases rapidly with the temperature.2
Silver also enters at times into the composition of jarosite,3 a basic
ferric sulphate probably formed by decomposition of silver sulphides by
ferric sulphate.
Another way to facilitate transportation of silver, which seems to
have escaped general attention, is by colloidal solutions or suspensions.
1 H. C. Cooke, Jour. Geol., 21, 1913, p. 13.
2 A. G. Melcher, The solubility of silver chloride, etc., Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 32,
1910, pp. 50-56.
3 W. T. Schaller, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 13, 1923, p. 233.
862 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Such solutions of AgCl, AgBr, Agl, and Ag2S have been prepared by
methods which might easily be used by nature, and by adding protective
colloids like silica they may be made very stable. The possibilities of
such transportation are evident.1
Precipitation.—Native silver is easily attacked by ferric sulphate;
the silver salts are easily reduced by ferrous sulphate.12
The reaction with ferric sulphate is reversible silver being dissolved on
heating and reprecipitated on cooling. It may be written as follows:
2 Ag T Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3 <
I±Ag2 SO4 -f- 2 FeS0 4 .
Silver is further precipitated from its solutions by organic matter as
well as by copper, cuprite, and various sulphides.3 The precipitation by
sulphides and arsenides has been investigated by C. Palmer and E. S.
Bastin4 and also by F. F. Grout5 who found that alabandite, chalcocite,
covellite, and enargite precipitate silver rapidly while pyrite, chalcopyrite,
galena, and sphalerite are comparatively inactive. All simple arsenides
are also very effective precipitants while the sulpharsenides do not react.
Silver is further precipitated by many silicates such as kaolin and
orthoclase.6 Whether important deposits are produced by such a
reaction is doubtful; calcite, siderite and rhodochrosite do not precipitate
silver from weak solutions.7
Silver sulphide is precipitated by hydrogen sulphide which may result
from the attack of H2SC>4 on pyrrhotite, sphalerite, or galena.
Supergene Sulphide Enrichment.—According to Schumann's
table (p. 826) silver sulphide should replace many other sulphides
such as those of copper, lead, zinc, and iron, following the reaction
Ag2SC>4 + ZnS = Ag2S + ZnSC>4. Such replacements are not uncom­
mon (Fig. 68A), but the sulphides generally precipitate native silver (in
places with some Ag2S). Almost all of the common hypogene sulphides
as well as tetrahedrite, tennantite, and enargite are easily replaced by the
silver sulphantimonides,8 or sulpharsenides, and to this action much of the
supergene sulphide enrichment is due. These rich silver minerals as well
as secondary argentite are also found in druses, veinlets, and crusts in
which form they do not represent replacements but are perhaps precipi­
1 See E. S. Bastin, Experiments with colloidal gold and silver, Jo u r. Washington
Acad. Sci., 5, 1915, p. 64.
2 H. N. Stokes, E con. Geol., 1, 1906, p. 649.
H. C. Cooke, J o u r. Geol., 21, 1913, pp. 1-28.
3 J. H. L. Vogt, Ueber die Bildung des gediegenen Silbers, Z eilschr. prakt. Geol.,
1899, p. 113.
4 E con. Geol., 8, 1913, pp. 140-170; C. Palmer, idem , 12, 1917, pp. 207-218.
5 Idem , 8, 1913, pp. 407-433.
6 E. C. Sullivan, B u ll. 312, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, pp. 37-64.
7 L. G. Ravicz, E con. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 368-389.
8 F. N. Guild, idem , 12, 1917, pp. 297-352.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 863
tated by hydrogen sulphide or by complex reactions between solutions.
Enargite, tennantite, and tetrahedrite (including freibergite) are never
supergene.
According to the investigations of F. F. Grout1 and L. G. Ravicz,12
the silver sulphantimonides and the less common sulpharsenides are
formed where the descending solutions have become alkaline through the
neutralizing reactions going on all the time during their downward travel.3
Grout made a product of the approximate composition of stephanite
by adding silver sulphate to a solution obtained by digesting stibnite in a
1 per cent solution of sodium carbonate. At higher temperatures of 250°
and 300° C., de Senarmont and Doelter obtained proustite, pyrargyrite,
and stephanite by treating alkaline sulpharsenite or sulphantimonite with
alkaline carbonates.
It is a difficult task to separate sharply the effects of supergene alkaline
waters from those of the ascending hypogene solutions. Both may yield
argentite and sulpho-salts. In all silver deposits there is a progressive
hypogene series beginning with arsenopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, galena,
and tetrahedrite, the later replacing the earlier; then follows a series of
richer silver minerals, such as pyrargyrite and proustite, which may replace
any and all of the earlier sulphides4 besides filling druses and veinlets.
These may be of either supergene or hypogene origin.
In a long series of investigations, E. S. Bastin5has examined the ques­
tion of hypogene versus supergene deposition of silver sulphides. He
arrives at the conclusion that these minerals as a rule are hypogene. In
some cases they may be of supergene origin.
Zones of Supergene Deposition.—Zones of the regularity of those of
copper deposits are rarely found in the case of silver ores. Still there is a
more or less marked succession, dependent on the association of minerals.
Silver enrichment apparently necessitates ferric sulphate as an active sol­
vent; this may be furnished by pyrite or by arsenopyrite. In the gossan
and down to the water level we find mainly cerargyrite, sometimes as large
masses, though even here there may be local accumulations of native silver
and argentite. At Lake Valley, New Mexico,6 100 tons of silver was
obtained from cerargyrite in a comparatively small stope, called the Bridal
Chamber; it was contained in Paleozoic limestone, and within 100 feet of
1 E con. Geol., 8, 1913, pp. 407-433.
2 Idem , 10, 1915, pp. 378-484.
3 G. S. Nishihara, The rate of reduction of acidity of descending waters, etc., idem ,
9, 1914, p p . 7 4 3 -7 5 7 .
4 F. N. Guild, idem , 12, 1917, pp. 297-352.
6 E. S. Bastin and F. B. Laney, P rof. P a p e r 104, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1918.
E. S. Bastin, B u ll. 735, idem , pp. 65-129 (San Juan, Colo.); pp. 41-63 (Com­
stock, Nev.); B u ll. 750, idem , pp. 17-39 (Kingman, Ariz.); pp. 41-62 (Aspen, Colo.).
6 Ellis Clark, T ran s., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 24, 1895, p. 148.
864 MINERAL DEPOSITS
the surface. Below the chloride zone we may find the chlorobromides and
below this a horizon where the iodyrite is precipitated.1 It would be
expected to find the most difficultly soluble salt at the top instead of at the
bottom, but according to W. H. Emmons12the explanation is that if in the
solution containing the three halogens chlorine is in vast excess silver
chloride though most soluble will be precipitated first. A. Knopf3
suggests that the reason lies in the chemical relations of iodine and iron
salts: no iodide ion can be precipitated until the ferric iron has been
reduced to the ferrous state. The three halogens are probably of wind­
blown origin, from the salt pans of the desert or from the sea.
Below the chloride zone we usually find native silver, and this may
extend to considerable depths, in fact many hundred feet below the water
level. The deposition of this native silver may, like that of argentite and
sulpho-salts, be accompanied by calcite, barite, and other gangue minerals
usually deposited by the ascending waters. Theoretically the zone of the
argentite and the sulpho-salts should begin at the water level, but in silver
deposits this transition line is far less sharply marked than in copper
deposits. The bulk of the supergene argentite usually lies above the
sulpho-salts.
The secondary silver sulphides may descend to considerable depths, in
places 500 to 1,000 feet below the surface. Poorer ore of hypogene origin
will be found below the enriched zone. In many cases the oxidized ore
and the supergene sulphides appear inextricably mixed.
Enrichment at Granite-Bimetallic Mine.—The Granite-Bimetallic
vein, in Montana, described by W. H. Emmons,4 is contained in granite
and has been opened to a depth of 2,600 feet. The early production
amounted to $32,000,000 in gold and silver. The strong, steep fissure has
a filling from 1 to 20 feet wide, of simple structure, and remarkable
horizontal and vertical persistence. The primary ore consists of quartz
and rhodochrosite with much pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, and tetrahe-
drite, some galena and sphalerite, and specks of pyrargyrite. The ore
is of comparatively low grade, containing 20 to 30 ounces of silver and
about $2 in gold per ton (Fig. 333).
The uppermost, oxidized zone, from 50 to 300 feet deep, contains a
poor iron-stained quartz, with little silver and a trace of gold. The
material, which is so poor that many of the claims along the vein were
abandoned during its early history, also carries some cerussite, malachite,
etc., as well as remnants of unoxidized sulphides. Emmons considers
1F. A. Moesta, Ueber das Vorkommen der Chlor-, Brom- und Jodverbindungen
in der Natur, Marburg, 1870, 57 pp.
J. A. Burgess Econ. Geol., 6, 1911, p. 13; idem, 12, 1917, p. 590.
2 Bull. 625, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, p. 257.
3 Econ. Geol., 13, 1918, p. 622.
4 Prof. Paper 78, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1913, p. 202.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 865
that this leached zone is derived by incomplete oxidation of the lower
zone of enriched sulphides.
Below this leached zone lies the zone of enriched oxidized ore; it is
for the most part between the 100- and 400-foot levels. This ore is com­
posed of quartz, stained by iron and manganese, but contains much
cerargyrite and native silver as thin seams. There are also some argentite,
galena, etc. This ore contains much silver and from $5 to $16 in gold per
ton. Its value is generally less than that of the ore in the next lower
zone.
The zone of enriched sulphides extends in the main from 300 to 800
feet below the surface. It is extremely rich in silver and yields from $4

F ig . 333.— Longitudinal vertical projection of Granite-Bim etallic vein, Philipsburg,

M ontana, showing zone of enrichm ent. (After Em m ons and Calkins.)
to $8 in gold per ton. Quartz and rhodochrosite are the gangue minerals;
there are much argentite, pyrargyrite, and proustite, as well as abundant
remains of primary ore minerals.
There are then here a distinct leached zone, a zone of moderate gold
enrichment, and a zone of strong silver enrichment.
While it cannot be asserted that all of the primary ore was poor it is
very unlikely that its value reached the high figures shown in the zone
of secondary sulphides, which for a vertical distance of 300 to 400 feet
averaged from 100 to 175 ounces of silver to the ton. Emmons concludes
that the silver and gold from the upper parts of the vein, now eroded,
have been carried down and that a successive enrichment has thus taken
place. The moderate gold enrichment in the lower part of the oxidized
zone is, according to Emmons, due to solution of gold by free chlorine
(p. 857) and precipitation by ferrous sulphate.
866 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Enrichment at Georgetown.—In the Georgetown district, Colorado,1
argentiferous veins cut pre-Cambrian granites and schists. The climate
is rigorous, the relief strong, the water level high. The zone of complete
oxidation, in which the ores are rich in silver, extends at most 40 feet
below the surface. Below this are friable black sulphides and galena rich
in silver and with more gold than occurs at greater depth; the primary
sulphides, which contained about 25 ounces of silver per ton, are here
enriched and carry more than 200 ounces per ton. Below the zone where
the soft secondary sulphides occur and irregularly overlapping the lower
portion of this zone are rich ores containing polybasite, and ruby silver,
better crystallized and more massive than the pulverulent sulphides, but
also subsequent in origin to the primary galena-sphalerite ore. These
richer ores diminish in quantity as depth increases, although gradually
and irregularly. The best silver ore in most veins has been found in the
uppermost 500 feet, although good ore extends locally down to 700 or 800
feet, and in one case 1,000 feet below the surface.
Enrichment at Tonopah.—At Tonopah, Nevada,2a series of rich silver-
gold-quartz veins (Au:Ag = 9:1 by weight), containing hypogene gold,
argentite, polybasite, pyrite, etc., with rhodonite, adularia, and carbon­
ates, cut across Tertiary andesites. The climate is exceedingly dry,
and the veins are situated in a group of hills rising from the desert. The
deposits are oxidized down to a depth of about 700 feet; ground-water is
lacking, but from 1,000 feet downward tepid and hot waters, containing
mainly alkaline sulphates, are met. The oxidation is irregular and
incomplete; the pyrite is changed to limonite, and much chloride of silver,
with some bromide and iodide, has formed. In general, cerargyrite is
found in the upper part of the oxidized zone; bromyrite in the middle,
and iodyrite in the lower part. Other minerals of the oxidized zone are
kaolin, hyalite, gypsum, limonite, hematite, jarosite, and wulfenite. On
the whole the oxidized ore contains more silver than the primary
ore.
Below the oxidized zone the fissures and cracks in the hard quartzose
ore contain some secondary argentite, polybasite, pyrargyrite, and also
chalcopyrite. Even the oxidized zone contains some veinlets filled with
pyrargyrite. There is no well-defined zone of sulphide enrichment;
secondary pyrite, sphalerite, and galena are absent. Spurr believes that
“the secondary sulphides in the oxidized zone originated from descend­
ing surface waters, and probably part but not all of the sulphides in
druses in the sulphide ore have a similar origin. ” Manganese is present
but no evidence of transportation of gold has been found.
1 J. E. Spurr and G. H. Garrey, Prof. Paper 63, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908, p. 144.
- .1. E. Spurr, Prof. Paper 42, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905.
J. A. Burgess, Econ. Geol., 6, 1911, pp. 13-21.
E. S. Bastin and F. B. Laney, Prof. Paper 104, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1918.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 867

Analyses show that the carbonates were removed from the primary
ore and with them most of the lime and magnesia; iron, manganese,
copper, lead, and zinc have been largely removed, likewise most of the
selenium, arsenic, and antimony. The argentite has largely remained
unaltered, while polybasite and the selenides have been decomposed.
Bastin and Laney believe that most of the rich silver sulphide minerals
are of hypogene origin, but list as supergene some argentite, polybasite,
and pyrargyrite.
Enrichment at Chanarcillo.—The exceedingly rich silver veins of
Chanarcillo, in the arid region of central Chile, have been described by F.
A. Moesta1 and by W. L. Whitehead.2 The veins intersect Mesozoic
limestone with associated volcanics. At a depth of from 500 to 1,000
feet, the primary ore appears. It consists of calcite and barite as the
earliest minerals; a second stage is represented by pyrite, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, and galena; a third stage by arsenopyrite, cobalt arsenides,
and quartz; and a fourth stage in which tetrahedrite, pearceite, proustite,
polybasite, and pyrargyrite were deposited. The sulphide enrichment,
in which processes of replacement predominate, occupies a vertical interval
of 300 to 600 feet.
During the first stage of enrichment stephanite, pearceite, polybasite,
stromeyerite, and argentite replace earlier sulphides. In a later stage
silver and dyscrasite develop on a large scale mainly by replacing sulpho-
salts and sulphides but also by replacing calcite and by filling.
The zone of oxidation is from 150 to 600 feet deep and is marked by the
rich development of iron oxides, cerargyrite, embolite, and iodyrite, the
last being mostly found in depth. The halides replace silver and
dyscrasite, but also sulphides and calcite; to a minor extent they are
deposited in open space. The succession is closed by a development of
argentite and native silver in local enrichment due to a reversal of oxida­
tion reactions; these minerals again replace the halides.
Silver Enrichment in Bolivia.—The celebrated tin-silver veins of
Potosi, Bolivia, carry quartz, cassiterite, pyrite, stannite, sphalerite,
andorite, and pyrargyrite as primary minerals (p. 580). The bulk of the
great wealth was extracted from the oxidized parts of the veins. From
old accounts it seems that the principal ore minerals in this zone were
cerargyrite, argentite and native silver, though ruby silver is often men­
tioned also. Recent examination3 of the Potosi ores failed to show any
evidence of notable sulphide enrichment below the oxidation. Pyrar­
gyrite persists in small amounts to the deepest levels.
At the Porvenir mine,4 Huanuni, a silver-bearing vein containing
primary arsenopyrite, sphalerite, galena, and cylindrite is enriched in the
1 Op. cit., p. 974.
2 Econ. Geol., 14, 1919, pp. 1-45.
3 W. Lindgren and J. G. Creveling, Econ. Geol., 23, 1928, pp. 233-262.
4 W. Lindgren, Unpublished observations.
868 MINERAL DEPOSITS
upper levels to a remarkable degree by silver-bearing jamesonite and
franckeite, accompanied by a late generation of marcasite and pyrite.
Jamesonite, in tiny needles and larger masses, replaces sphalerite and
galena—very evidently this is a low-temperature process, and it has the
appearance of having been effected by descending waters, though absolute
proof of this was not obtained.
In conclusion, it seems that the present tendency is to minimize
the importance of the silver sulpho-salts in supergene enrichment; argen-
tite is of course admitted. Is it fully realized that this implies a zoning,
which then must be hypogene? The supposedly hypogene sulpho-salts
in many cases ceased to be deposited some distance below the level now
occupied by the water table, which is curious to say the least. The
distribution of ruby silver, if hypogene, should have no relation to the
present topography. The literature gives evidence that no entirely
reliable criterion has been found by which supergene sulpho-salts can be
distinguished from the hypogene minerals.
OTHER METALS
Platinum and Palladium.—The main source of platinum metals is in
peridotites or in placers derived from them. Some sulphide deposits of
the high-temperature types contain sperrylite (PtAs2) and usually also
more palladium than platinum; it is not known in what form the palladium
appears. Platinum minerals are highly resistant to oxidation.
Sperrylite is not attacked by meteoric waters and this leads to con­
centration by reduction of volume. At Sudbury the shallow oxidized
zone is richer in the platinum minerals than the primary ore.
The occurrence described on page 779, from southern Nevada, shows
that oxidized ores with much plumbojarosite (basic plumboferric sulphate)
contain finely divided gold as well as metallic platinum-palladium. It is
probable that the metals have been precipitated from colloidal solutions
or suspensions.
Palladium with some platinum is found in the blister copper from cer­
tain smelters, especially from some treating ore from disseminated chal-
cocite deposits. The Ely deposits, Nevada (p. 846), yield more palladium
than others. Selenium, common in all blister coppers, is here also present
in unusual amounts.
A. Eilers1 showed that this copper contained in per cent: 0.0004 Pt,
0.00016 Pd, and 0.055 Se, but that there is no tellurium. This suggests
a concentration of palladium and platinum, possibly as selenides, during
the supergene chalcocite enrichment.
Mercury.2—Cinnabar, the principal ore mineral of mercury, is stable
up to its sublimation point (680° C.). It is practically insoluble in water
1 Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 47, 1913, p. 217.
2 E. T. Allen and J. I.. Crenshaw, The sulphides of zinc, cadmium and mercury,
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 869
(p. 821), but is soluble in alkaline sulphides forming the compounds
HgS.2Na2S and HgS.Na2S (p. 473). From such solutions the mineral is
easily formed as shown by Allen and Crenshaw. Cinnabar is not attacked
by dilute solutions of sulphuric acid or by a mixture of ferric and ferrous
sulphate, but it is dissolved by dilute hydrochloric acid and is readily
attacked by nascent chlorine. The rare selenides tiemannite (HgSe) and
onofrite (Hg(SSe)) are probably primary.
It is apparent that the enrichment by oxidation of cinnabar deposits
is not easily accomplished. The secondary minerals are usually confined
to a little native metal, which is often found in drops on cinnabar and
probably is reduced by hydrocarbons common in many deposits; and
occasionally to a little mercurous chloride or calomel. It is not
impossible that some of the mercury may be of primary origin, for G.
F. Becker in some of his experiments1 obtained precipitates of mixed
sulphide and native metal. The oxidized products of cinnabar consist,
besides native metal and calomel (HgCl), of the red montroydite (HgO)
and a number of oxychlorides, such as terlinguaite (Hg2C10) and eglesto-
nite (Hg4Cl20). They are generally found in the deposits occurring in
arid, wind-swept regions, where sodium chloride abounds. Large masses
of oxy-salts occurred at Terlingua,*12 Texas, but even here cinnabar is the
principal mineral. According to Hill,3 pyrolusite and pyrite are quite
abundant in the deposits. All the conditions are thus present for the
development of nascent chlorine so that the cinnabar can be transformed
into HgCl2, which again by reaction with the abundant calcite would
produce oxychlorides.4
The mercurous sulphate is only slightly soluble in water (0.058 gram
per liter), and the mercurous chloride HgCl is still less soluble (0.002 gram
per liter), while HgCl2 is easily soluble.
It has been observed that when mercurial tetrahedrite occurs in a
deposit, cinnabar may be found in the oxidized products. This is shown,
for instance, in several mines near Sumpter, Oregon.5 It is not known
by what reactions this is accomplished.
K. Hummel6has described a case from Germany where cinnabar, with
chalcocite, has developed as a supergene sulphide. The cinnabar is
4th ser., 34, 1912, pp. 367-383.
A m . J o u r. S c i.,
W. H. Emmons, Enrichment of ore deposits, B u ll. 625, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917,
pp. 392-398.
F. F. Grout, E con. Geol., 8, 1913, p. 427.
T. M. Broderick, Some experiments bearing on the secondary enrichment of mer­
cury deposits, idem , 11, 1916, pp. 645-651.
1 A m . J o u r. S ci., 3d ser., 33, 1887, p. 199.
2 W. F. Hillebrand and W. T. Schaller, B u ll. 405, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909.
n B. F. Hill, The Terlingua quicksilver deposits, B u ll. 15, Univ. Texas, 1902.
4 T. M. Broderick, op. cit.
5 W. Lindgren, T w en ty-secon d A n n . R epl., U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1901, p. 708.
6 Z eitsch r. p ra kt. Geol., 1925, pp. 154-167.
870 MINERAL DEPOSITS
derived from tetrahedrite and the age of the oxidation is determined as
pre-Variscian. The deposit itself is of Lower Carboniferous age.
Supergene Sulphide of Quicksilver.—From the position of quick­
silver in the table of Schiirmann’s reactions it would appear that in the
absence of oxygen the deposition of secondary sulphide should be easily
effected. Broderick’s experiments showed, however, that the sulphide
was not precipitated from chloride solutions by marcasite, pyrite, or real­
gar. A precipitate was obtained with stibnite and chalcopyrite. Cinna­
bar replacing sulphides has not, however, been observed in nature. There
exists a black amorphous modification of HgS, known as metacinnabarite,
which has been found in the oxidized zone of many deposits. Allen
and Crenshaw have ascertained that this is an unstable form and have
obtained it artificially by precipitating dilute, acid solutions of mercuric
salts by sodium thiosulphate, a reaction which might well take place in
nature. Cinnabar was obtained only from alkaline solutions. At
100° C. the black sulphide changes into cinnabar.
Cadmium.—Cadmium is commonly contained in sphalerite, probably
as an isomorphous mixture. The cadmium sulphate is as easily soluble
as zinc sulphate, and it is present in some mine waters of Joplin, Missouri,
and Butte, Montana (p. 62). The yellow cadmium sulphide,
greenockite,1 is often found as coating on sphalerite in agreement with
Schurmann’s rule, and it occurs in this way even in the zone of oxidation.
J. H. Muller12 discovered germanium to the extent of 0.01 per cent
Ge02 in smithsonite from the Hudson mine, Kentucky; and also in the
mine waters from the same place. It is widely distributed in silicates,
and in many Bolivian minerals, also in coal.
Nickel and Cobalt.—Nickel contained as silicate in basic igneous rocks
is concentrated during oxidation to hydrous nickel silicates like garnierite.
Under similar conditions the cobalt separates as asbolite, a black earthy
hydrous oxide with manganese. Both are colloidal precipitates.
The primary nickel ores consist of niccolite (NiAs), pentlandite
((FeNi)S), polydymite (Ni4S5), chloanthite (NiAs2), and minerals allied
to the last form. Millerite (NiS) is of little economic importance.
The nickel sulphides are easily attacked by oxygen, sulphuric acid, and
ferric sulphate. Pyrrhotite with which they usually occur is also easily
decomposed.
Nickel sulphate (NiSCL) is easily soluble and does not hydrolyze like
iron sulphate to form the trivalent oxide. Therefore, nickel and iron are
separated during oxidation. Much of the iron remains in the gossan
1 E. T. Allen and J. L. Crenshaw, The sulphides of zinc, cadmium and mercury,
Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 34, 1912, p. 341.
2 Indust, and Eng. Chemistry, 16, 1924, p. 604. See also J. Papish, Econ. Geol., 23,
1928, pp. 660-673.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 871
while the nickel is carried away in solution.1 Pyrrhotite ores are likely
to lose nickel if exposed to oxidation in stopes and piles. Morenosite and
bieberite are soluble sulphates.
If arsenic is present stable arsenates may be formed in small quantities,
in the oxidized zone; like the apple-green annabergite (Ni3As20 8 + 8H20)
and the pink erythrite (Co3As20 8 + 8H20). Basic sulphates of nickel
are not known. There is some evidence that millerite and violarite
(polydymite) may be locally precipitated as supergene sulphides.12 Both
nickel and cobalt are often found in acid mine waters.
The more common cobalt arsenides and sulphides include smalt
ite (C oA s 2), cobaltite (CoAsS), and linnaeite (Co3S4). These minerals are
easily attacked by reagents and, the sulphate being very soluble, the metal
is readily dissipated during oxidation. The sulphate and the carbonate
also occur as products of oxidation. The hydrous oxide, asbolite, seems
to be a stable mineral.
Chromium.—The primary chromite of igneous deposits is very insolu­
ble and often remains in detrital deposits. Chromium mica (mariposite
and fuchsite) is known in sulphide deposits where they traverse serpentine
or peridotite. Chromates such as the red crocoite (PbCr04) may be
found in the oxidized zone of similar occurrences, and are probably derived
from the decomposition of mariposite. Chromium sulphates of green or
purple color have been found in quicksilver veins traversing serpentines.
Manganese.—The important primary manganese minerals in ore
deposits are manganosiderite [(MnFe)C03] and manganiferous ankerite,
more rarely rhodochrosite (MnC03) or rhodonite (MnSi03) and bement-
ite (H6Mn5(Si04)4), still more rarely alabandite (MnS). Hausmannite
(Mn30 4) occurs with franklinite, tephroite and spessartite in some
deposits of igneous metamorphism but may also be a supergene product.
Manganese is more soluble than iron and less easily precipitated.
Calcite which readily precipitates iron has little effect on manganese solu­
tions. These facts explain the separation of iron and manganese in
oxidized deposits. Manganese is easily transported as sulphate or
bicarbonate.
The universal products of oxidation are pyrolusite (Mn02) or
its hydrated derivatives like psilomelane and wad. Manganite
(Mn20 3.H20) and braunite (3Mn20 3.MnSi03) in places accompany
pyrolusite. Many of the hydrated forms of manganese dioxide contain
in chemical combination the oxides of lead, copper, zinc, cobalt, barium,
and potassium and are probably hardened colloidal precipitates.3
1 W. H. Emmons, Bull. 625, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917, p. 460.
2 W. Lindgren and W. M. Davy, Econ. Geol., 19, 1924, pp. 309-319.
M. N. Short and E. V. Shannon, Am. Mineralogist 15, 1930, pp. 1-15. Authors
find that violarite from Sudbury has composition (NiFe)3S4 and that it is hypogene.
3 The supergene manganese minerals are sometimes difficult to diagnose, even in
872 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Tin.—In tin deposits cassiterite is ordinarily the most abundant ore
mineral and exhibits great resistance to solution and transportation.
Frequently it remains after other constituents have been dissolved, the
outcrops appearing enriched in tin. Some of the outcrops of the
Freiberg veins are reported to have contained considerable amounts of
cassiterite, probably, according to Stelzner, released from the sphalerite
in which it was disseminated as minute crystals. Above the water level
the Cornwall veins contained mainly tin, the accompanying copper having
been leached. The-occurrence of pebbles of wood tin—a colloform phase
of cassiterite—is reported from placers in Saxony, Cornwall, several
places in the Western states (as at Wood’s Creek, Montana), and from
Bolivia. Stelzner regarded the Bolivian pebbles as derived from stannite
(Cu2FeSnS4) by processes of oxidation.
The solubility of cassiterite and enrichment of tin deposits have been
repeatedly discussed. F. R. Koeberlin1 asserts that supergene enrich­
ment is important in Bolivian deposits. G. U. Greene*12 described
instances of enrichment at Llallagua. He notes that the cassiterite in
the Llallagua veins contains 5 per cent Fe and mentions the common
occurrence at the same place- of vivianite, a hydrous phosphate of iron.
Gruner and Lin3 found cassiterite practically insoluble in dilute sulphuric
acid (5 to 8 parts Sn per million) and thought enrichment unlikely.
Fink and Mantell4 conducted a long series of experiments finding con­
siderable solubility in ferric sulphate, in dilute sulphuric acid with sodium
chloride, and in sodium sulphide (solubility up to 890 parts per million).
In most of the reagents used, the solubility was up to 130 parts per
million. In a later paper Singewald5 discussed the whole question and
concluded that the dissolving of cassiterite in supergene waters was
improbable. Most of those who have studied the Bolivian deposits
agree with him. All find stannite easily attacked by acid waters.
It is certain that hypogene cassiterite can be deposited in crystalline
and in colloidal form. It is also extremely probable that stannite, on
oxidation will yield colloidal Sn02solutions.
Tungsten.—Scheelite (CaW04) and wolframite ((Fe,Mn)W04) are
common in many deposits, especially in those formed at high tempera­
tures. These primary minerals are resistant and are found in eluvial
polished sections; see G. A. Thiel, Econ. Geol. 19, 1924, pp. 107-145; W. V. Smither-
ingale, idem, 24, 1929, pp. 481-505; H. Schneiderhohn, Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd. 64,
1931, pp. 701-726; W. S. Savage, Solution, transportation and precipitation of man­
ganese idem, M ay, 1936.
1 Eng. Min. Jour.-Press, Apr. 17 and N ov. 20, 1926.
2 Idem, Sept. 11, 1926.
3 Idem, June 5, 1926.
4 C. J. Fink and C. L. M antell, idem, Feb. 4, 1928, pp. 201-206.
6 J. T. Singewald, Jr., The problem of supergene cassiterite, Econ. Geol., 24, 1929,
pp. 343-364; idem, 25, 1930, pp. 211-218.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 873
placers but rarely occur in alluvial deposits. A sulphide of tungsten
(WS2), looking like molybdenite, has been discovered in Utah.1 Tungsten
minerals are slightly attacked by dilute sulphuric acid.2 The solutions
are easily hydrolyzed to insoluble oxides, which also are precipitated by
ferric salts, acids, etc. Tungstite3 (W03.H20) usually results and forms
a canary yellow coating.
Vanadium.—Few primary vanadium minerals are known. Igneous
rocks, according to F. W. Clarke, contain an average of 0.018 per cent
vanadium and many pyroxenes and micas carry notable amounts.
Roscoelite is found in many gold-quartz veins. The metal is also widely
transported in inorganic and organic cycles and thus found in sediments,
clays, coal, etc. It is poorly represented in hydrothermal and pyro-
metasomatic deposits.
Vanadates, like vanadinite (PbClPb4 (V0 4 ) 3 ) or descloizite (4(Pb,Zn)-
O.V2O5.H2O), are present in the oxidized zone of many lead-zinc deposits
of igneous affiliations and may occasionally be of value for the vanadium
contained, which probably is derived from the country rock. Important
deposits are found near Tsumeb, Southwest Africa, and at Broken Hill,
northern Rhodesia.
Regarding the complex vanadium oxy-salts in deposits in sandstone and
the rare vanadium sulphide patronite, see pages 409-414. The former
include vanadium sulphates, calcium vanadyl vanadates, uranium vana­
dates, and vanadium mica (roscoelite). These are undoubtedly deposited
by meteoric waters, but the history of derivation and succession is
imperfectly known. An extensive series of supergene vanadium minerals'1
is recorded from Mina Ragra, in Peru, where they are derived from
patronite. The colors are red, green, yellow, orange, blue, and black.
Uranium. 5—The principal uranium mineral is the isometric uraninite;
this is probably originally U02 but always contains more or less U03;
it is isomorphous with the dioxides of cerium and thorium; it contains
many other rare-earth metals, also lead, and always more oxygen than the
formula U02 demands. Since its formation, it is subject to continuous
radioactive changes, the ultimate product of which is lead. Uraninite
with many other rare-earth minerals, like samarskite, occurs in pegmatite
dikes. Pitchblende is a colloform uraninite of undoubted gel origin found
1 R. C. W ells and B. S. Butler, Tungstenite, a new mineral, Proc., W ashington
Acad. Sci., 7, 1917, pp. 596-599.
2 R. W. G annett, Econ. Geol., 14, 1919, pp. 68-78.
3 F. L. Hess, Tungsten minerals and deposits, Bull. 652, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1917,
p. 34.
J. Morrow-Campbell, Tungsten deposits of Burma, Econ. Geol., 15, 1920, pp.
511-534.
4 W. Lindgren, Charles Palache and L. F. H am ilton, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 3,
1922, pp. 195-203.
5 G. Kirsch in Doelter, Handbuch der M ineralchemie, 4 (2), 1929, pp. 870-953.
874 MINERAL DEPOSITS
in veins (Joachimsthal, Bohemia; Gilpin County, Colorado; Great Bear
Lake, N. W. Territory, Canada); it is here one of the earlier minerals.
Uraninite is easily decomposed, and oxidation gives rise to many uranyl
vanadates, phosphates, silicates, and arsenates of yellow or green colors;
also oxides like gummite. Many of the recently discovered oxidized
uranium compounds come from the rich uraninite deposit at Kasolo,
Belgian Congo. Regarding carnotite and allied minerals, see page 410.
These secondary minerals, of which the phosphates (uranium micas) are
most common, are widely spread, even in oxidized veins from which no
uraninite has been reported. They also occur in sandstones (Bolivia)
and peat (Madagascar) and in coal and bitumens. It is probable that
uranium enters into the biochemical reactions of vegetable life.
Molybdenum.—From molybdenite, the common primary ore mineral,
molybdite (Mo03) or molybdic ocher1 (Fe20 3.3Mo03.7^H 20) is formed
as secondary yellow powder. The lustrous orange plates of wulfenite
(PbMoCL) are common in the oxidized zone of deposits containing galena
and molybdenite, and it is in places, as at Mammoth, Arizona, of economic
importance; rarely it is accompanied by powellite (CaMoCb). W. H.
Emmons states that molybdenite is not attacked by H2S04 or HC1, and
not even by ferric sulphate. The metal is not very mobile and is not
commonly concentrated in the oxidized zone; neither does it appear in the
supergene sulphide zone. The readily soluble blue ilsemannite, which by
later investigations2appears to be molybdenum sulphate, is found in some
mine waters to which it may give a deep blue color.
Most probably ilsemannite has been formed from molybdite or
molybdic ocher by colloidal solution methods. Attention is also directed
to the presence of molybdenum in vanadium deposits in sandstone,
which probably were formed by meteoric waters and to the reported
existence of a colloidal sulphide.3 F. L. Hess doubts the derivation of
ilsemannite from molybdenite but the probability is that it is at least
indirectly formed from this mineral.4
Bismuth.—Among the primary bismuth minerals, bismuthinite
(Bi2S3), the native metal and various lead-bismuth sulphides are the most
important. The principal oxidized minerals of bismuth are bismite
(Bi20 3.3H20), bismutite (Bi20 3.C02.H20), both of yellow color, and
several arsenates, for instance, arsenobismite (2 Bi2 0 3 .As2 0 5 .2 H 2 0 ). In
general, the bismuth salts are difficultly soluble in water and the metal is in
this respect like lead. They do not show great mobility and bismuth is
not found abundantly in the supergene sulphide zone. Nevertheless it
seems certain that bismuth has been concentrated in places in the zone of
1 W. T. Schaller, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 22, 1907, p. 297.
2 W. T. Schaller, Jour. W ashington Acad. Sci., 7, July 19, 1917.
3 F. Cornu, Zeitschr. Chem. Indust. Kolloide, 4, 1909, p. 190.
4 F. L. Hess, Bull. 761, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 875
direct oxidation as shown by masses of bismutite and hydrous bismuth
arsenate found at Tintic1 and elsewhere. Other observations point the
same way: At the Great Cobar2 copper mine (p. 688), in New South
Wales, the smelting records show bismuth to have been abundant in the
zone of oxidation while there is very little of it in the primary ore.
Another evidence of transportation of the metal is its occasional
presence with lead in basic iron sulphates like jarosite.
Arsenic.—The primary arsenical minerals in ore deposits are arseno-
pyrite (FeAsS), lollingite (FeAs2), smaltite (CoAs2), chloanthite (NiAs2),
niccolite (NiAs), tennantite (CusAs2S7), enargite (Cu3AsS4), proustite
(Ag3AsS3), and many rarer sulpharsenides of copper, silver, and lead.
Supergene minerals of arsenic include, arsenolite (As20 3), mimetite
(PbCl.Pb4As30 i2), olivenite (Cu3As20 8.Cu(0H)2), and many other com­
pounds of similar type, realgar (AsS), orpiment (As2S3), scorodite
(FeAs04.2H20), pharmacosiderite (basic, hydrous, ferric arsenate),
proustite, and pearceite (Ag9AsS6). The arsenate minerals tend to collo-
form development.
Arsenic acts as an acid-forming compound similar to phosphorus.
The reactions in the zone of supergene waters are probably carried out by
means of arsenates and arsenites of sodium and potassium. The sul­
phides, which are almost insoluble in dilute H2S04, easily form soluble
double salts with alkaline sulphides, e.g., Na3AsS3. On the whole, arsenic
is fairly mobile in the oxidized zone, much more so than antimony.
Arsenopyrite oxidizes to ferrous sulphate and arsenic trioxide:
2FeAsS + 110 = 2FeS04 + As20 3.
Finally scorodite and pharmacosiderite are formed. Arsenopyrite is
attacked by ferric sulphate and sulphuric acid. Smaltite oxidizes to
arsenates:
3 C A 2 T 140 = Co3As20 3 T 2As20 3.
o s

Enargite is very resistant to oxidation but yields arsenate, sulphate and

sulphuric acid:
2 C 3A S 4
u s 350 T 5H20 = Gu3As20s -{- 3CuS04 -1- 5H2S04.
If there is not sufficient oxygen present, some chalcocite or covellite may
form. T. L. Walker and A. L. Parsons (p. 822) found that a mixture of
arsenides was rapidly oxidized by agitation in aerated water. Ram-
melsbergite was most easily attacked. As20 3 and an acid arsenate,
H2Ni2As20 3, were found in the filtrate.
1 W. Lindgren, Prof. Paper 107, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1919.
A. H. M eans, Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 41, 1916, p. 125.
2 E. C. Andrews, Report on the Cobar copper and gold field, Min. Res.. 17. Geol.
Survey N . S. W., 1913, p. 113.
876 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Native arsenic in concentric shells clearly indicating colloform deposi­
tion is not uncommon. Fine concentric intergrowths of arsenic and
antimony (allemontite) occur at the Engineer gold mine, Yukon Terri­
tory. Native arsenic1is probably a hypogene mineral.
Realgar and orpiment are in most cases supergene sulphides, but they
are not found in the secondary zones of copper deposits. They are rather
more characteristic of the oxidized zones, and often are derived from
arsenopyrite. The chemistry of their deposition is uncertain. H. G.
Ferguson2 believes that realgar may be of hypogene origin.
Sulpharsenides of silver are characteristic of the supergene zone of
many silver deposits.
In limestone the basic arsenates of copper are easily fixed; calcium,
iron and zinc also enter in their composition.
In non-calcareous rocks the arsenates are scarce and, in fact, in many
oxidized zones and supergene sulphide zones the arsenic of the primary
enargite ore is almost wholly removed. This is the case at Chuquicamata,
Chile, and at Butte, Montana.
Antimony.—The hypogene minerals of antimony in ore deposits are
stibnite (Sb2S3) and a considerable number of sulphantimonides, in part
of copper like tetrahedrite (4Cu2S.Sb2S3), and famatinite (3Cu2S.Sb2S5);
in part of lead like jamesonite (Pb2Sb2S5), and many others; in part of
silver like pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3).
The supergene minerals comprise, cervantite (Sb2C>4), senarmontite
(Sb20 3), and valentinite (Sb20 3); further, oxy-salts like bindheimite
(Pb3Sb20 8.H20) and stibiconite (2Sb02.H20); finally many silver sul­
phantimonides of which stephanite (AgsSbS4) and polybasite (Ag9SbS6)
are the most important. Antimony is often associated with gold, silver,
and lead. Pyrargyrite is mostly late hypogene but may be supergene.
The same applies to the members of the jamesonite and boulangerite
group (see p. 750).
Antimony is considerably less mobile than arsenic during oxidation
and as the salts hydrolyze in water there is a strong tendency to form
insoluble white or yellowish oxides. To these stibnite usually alters
and once formed they are difficultly moved. When, as often happens,
lead is present in antimony deposits insoluble compounds like bindheimite
are likely to develop. Native antimony is rare and probably of hypogene
origin.
Stibnite is very slightly attacked by dilute sulphuric acid and by
ferric sulphate, but reacts readily with alkaline solutions and, like mercury
and arsenic, forms soluble alkaline sulpho-salts.
1 Edward Sam pson, Pamphlet 31, Idaho Bur. M ines and Geol., 1928. Occurs at
Freiberg, Saxony; W ashington Camp, Arizona; Pend Oreille, Idaho; and many other
places.
2 Bull. 723, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1924, pp. 100-104.
 OXIDATION OF METALLIC ORES 877

Though according to Schiirmann’s series antimony sulphide would be

expected to replace various other sulphides no examples of this have been
found. Stibnite is, however, often found as hairlike crystals in vugs
where the mineral certainly is of very late origin.
Stibnite is said to be deposited at the present time in the West Gore
mine, Nova Scotia;1 also a “red sulphide” perhaps kermesite (Sb2S20),
both probably from alkaline water. Colloidal red sulphide (metastibnite)
containing some lead occurs in the upper levels of the Socavon mine,
Oruro, Bolivia,2 as a product of supergene waters. The colloidal red
sulphide and stibnite also are forming now in hot ascending waters at
Steamboat Springs, Nevada (p. 66).
1 W. M alcolm, Mem. 20-E, Canada Geol. Survey, 1912, p. 296.
2 W. Lindgren and A. C. Abbott, Econ. Geol. 26, 1931, p. 468.
 CHAPTER XXXIII
METALLO GENETIC EPOCHS1
INTRODUCTION
Wherever universal geological processes are in operation—weathering,
sedimentation, metamorphism, deposition by underground waters, and
volcanism—there mineral deposits may be forming as they have done
during the long ages of the earth’s history. Over larger or smaller areas
the conditions may at a given time be favorable for the deposition of
useful minerals. Such areas are called minerogenetic or metallogenetic
provinces. The Jurassic iron ores of England and France, the bauxite
deposits of the southern Appalachian States, the salt deposits of Kansas,
the gold-quartz veins of California occupy minerogenetic provinces.
The provinces may widen into minerogenetic regions: Thus the Cordil­
leras of the Americas form such a region marked by gold and silver
deposits of igneous genetic affiliations. The South African plateau con­
tains large and unusual occurrences of chromite, platinum, and diamonds,
likewise of igneous origin. In the same way the Paleozoic of the whole
Mississippi Valley region is a metallogenetic region characterized by lead
and zinc deposits.
The time intervals favorable for the deposition of certain useful
substances are called minerogenetic or metallogenetic epochs. Usually
speaking, they are short and transitory but they likewise may widen into
periods and eras. Weathering and sedimentation may go on for periods,
but the mineral deposits due to these processes commonly represent a
comparatively brief time. The Clinton hematites, for instance, though
widely spread, were formed during a limited period of littoral sedimen­
tation and are covered and underlain by heavy Carboniferous and
Ordovician limestones.
1 This conception was first developed by L. de Launay who has contributed much
to the study of this subject (Gites mdtalliferes, 1, 1913, pp. 241-288).
W. Lindgren, M etallogenetic epochs, Econ. Geol., 4, 1909, pp. 409-420; Gold and
silver deposits in N orth and South America, Trans., Am. Inst. M in. Eng., 55, 1917,
pp. 883-909.
J. E. Spurr has also called attention to this subject and has especially brought
out the theory of “ ore channels,” certain lines or areas distinguished by similar metal­
lization (Ore magm as, New York, 1922).
Of late years m any other authors have taken up this general line of study. P.
Niggli, Versuch einer naturlichen Klassifikation ,etc. Abhandl. z. prakt. Geologie, etc.,
1, 1925, pp. 40-68. Translated by H. C. B oydell under title “ Ore deposits of
m agm atic origin,” London, 1929, 93 pp.
878
 METALLOGENETIC EPOCHS 879
This applies even more to deposits of igneous affiliations which often
were formed during a very brief interval when the emanations of each
igneous phase found opportunity for escape and transportation. Each
igneous province usually includes many smaller elements in which suc­
cessive intrusions and effusions were followed by short epochs of various
metallizations.
Each mineral deposit has usually a well-marked paragenetic history
due to the cooling or changing of solutions. In any older deposit sub­
sequent epochs of mineralization may have left their imprints, or geologic
processes like metamorphism and weathering may have modified them.
The minerogenetic development of the several continents is outlined
in briefest form in the following paragraphs. It is a fascinating subject
for it connects in logical order the science of general geology with that of
mineral deposits.
Main Epochs.—In the nature of the case metallogenetic epochs
of weathering, sedimentation and erosion are not confined to any par­
ticular geological period. On the other hand the deposits genetically
connected with igneous rocks and metamorphism are most abundantly
formed during the great periods of such disturbances which are more or
less closely affiliated with folding and mountain building. In his studies
on European deposits, de Launay divides them into those of: (1) pre-
Cambrian age; (2) Hercynian age; and (3) Tertiary age.
It is necessary to realize, however, that the pre-Cambrian deposits,
though generally formed at high temperature and great depth, include
many ages far apart. The Hercynian deposits were formed during the
great orogenetic disturbance, which falls between the end of the Paleozoic
and the beginning of the Trias and which was accompanied by many
intrusions. To this period belong such deposits as the tin veins of
Cornwall and the silver-lead veins of Freiberg. “Hercynian” is a term
that has been applied rather loosely and even metallogenetic epochs of
distinctly Paleozoic or of Triassic age have been included in it. The
“Hercynian” folds may be divided in a western, or Armorican, and an
eastern, or Variscian arc. , The Tertiary deposits are those which were
formed during or following the great Alpine foldings and subsequent
igneous activity. Folding is, however, a process not necessarily con­
nected with the much more deep-seated sources of volcanism, and, there­
fore, we shall place less emphasis than de Launay has done on the
connection between such tangential thrusts and mineral deposition.
E U R O PE 1
Pre-Cambrian Epochs.—We find the pre-Cambrian deposits mainly
in the great shield of Fenno-Scandia, in Sweden, Norway, and Finland.
1 G. Berg, Zonal distribution of ore deposits in Central Europe, Econ, Geol., 22,
1927, pp. 113-132. (Footnote continued on following page.)
880 MINERAL DEPOSITS
They carry mainly iron and copper, much more rarely lead and zinc, or
tin. Gold, silver, arsenic, antimony, and mercury are very scarce.
A few gold deposits with pyrite or arsenopyrite are worked. Deposits
of contact-metamorphic or magmatic or hypothermal type prevail with
structural and mineralogical features indicating depth and high temper­
ature. Dynamic metamorphism frequently has been superimposed.
Iron deposits of sedimentary origin in part similar to those of North
America are present.
Paleozoic Epochs.—Sedimentary ores of hematite and iron silicates
are rather widespread in Europe. We find them in the metamorphosed
Cambro-Silurian of northern Norway, in Great Britain, France, Germany,
Bohemia, and Spain. Among the deposits of igneous origin we note the
ores of copper, nickel, titanium, and chromium of northern Norway, con­
nected with gabbros intrusive in the Cambro-Silurian complex, and with
the Caledonian folding. Some siderite deposits of Rhenish Prussia,
in the Siegerland, appear to be of Devonian age.
Hercynian Epochs.—The Hercynian movements fell between the
Carboniferous and the Trias and resulted in great mountain chains
extending east and west across Europe. Intrusions of granitic rocks of
that age are laid bare by erosion which has also truncated the deposits
so that the veins which form the dominant type present the high-temper-
ature or intermediate types. Tin, lead, zinc, copper, and silver prevail
among the metals; antimony and arsenic begin to appear. Iron deposits
are also found but do not attain the importance of those of Fenno-Scandia.
In this age were formed the tin deposits of England,1 France, Saxony,*12
and Spain all connected with late Carboniferous granitic intrusives.
The majority of the deposits of the Iberian Peninsula (including those
of Rio Tinto and the Mesa Central), of the Central Plateau of France,
and of central Germany belong to this age.
The Ural Mountains are also regarded as a Hercynian range truncated
by erosion and at least many of its deposits of platinum, iron, copper,
and gold are considered as induced by Hercynian intrusives. The
deposits are generally of a deep-seated type.
Permo-Triassic Epochs.—Between the Hercynian ranges extended
desert plains and saline lakes or bays. The salt deposits of central
L. de Launay, op. c i t La m6tallog6nie de l’ltalie, Internat. Geol. Congress,
M exico, 1906.
1 The zonal arrangement of m etals in the Cornish lodes, dependent upon a series of
(tooling solutions from central intrusives, has been well described by E. H. Davison,
Econ. Geol., 22, 1927, pp. 475-479, by H. D ew ey, Special R epts. Min. Res., Mem. 21,
Geol. Survey Great Britain 1921, and by H. B. Crenshaw, Bull. 204, Inst. Min. Met.
(London), 1921.
See also R. H. Rastall, M etallogenetic zones, Econ. Geol., 18, 1923, pp. 105-121,
2 K . Dalmer, Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., 1896, p. 148.
 METALLOGENETIC EPOCHS 881
Germany, the sedimentary copper ores of the Mansfeld basin, the copper
ores disseminated in sandstone in Germany and Russia belong to these
epochs.
Jurassic and Cretaceous Epochs.—Broad transgressions of the seas
with widespread formation of oolitic iron ores mark the Jurassic in
England and on the continent. Glauconitic sands and chalk accumu­
lated in the Cretaceous seas. The igneous forces were quiescent. Per­
haps we do not err in attributing a Jurassic age to the concentrations of
lead-zinc ores in the Paleozoic of Belgium and in the Trias of Silesia.
Tertiary Epochs.—Few mineral deposits of northern Europe date
from the Tertiary but southern Europe was the scene of great activity
mainly in connection with the igneous outbursts which culminated south
of the great Alpine arches and overthrusts.
1. In the areas occupied by the Mediterranean seas, we find wide­
spread sulphur deposits and phosphates, both in the sedimentary
beds.
2. The great Alpine intrusions of granitic rocks originated replace­
ment deposits of siderite and magnesite in the Triassic and Paleozoic
limestones together with many minor metal deposits. Among the latter
should probably be placed the widespread lead-zinc deposits of the
Alpine Trias.
3. Farther south, in Italy, we note the contact-metamorphic specu-
larite deposits in Elba in connection with intrusive granite. The mag­
netite deposits of the Banat, likewise of contact-metamorphic origin,
also belong to this class.
4. The Eocene intrusion of greenstones (peridotites, gabbro, etc.)
in the Alpine region and throughout the Mediterranean resulted in mag­
matic copper deposits, zeolitic copper deposits (Monte Catini), magmatic
chromite deposits (Greece and Asia Minor), and contact-metamorphic
emery deposits.
5. In Hungary and Transylvania, inside of the Carpathian arches,
intrusions and effusions of andesite and dacite took place in the Miocene.
Accompanying these was a metallization of gold and silver very similar
to the Cordilleran (Pacific) types. These veins are of the type formed
near the surface.
6. The last metallization, of cinnabar, accompanied the late Tertiary
(and perhaps the present) igneous outbursts in Italy, Austria, and
Serbia. It is throughout of the type formed near the surface.
Some effects of the Tertiary metallization is noted in connection with
eruptives in Bohemia, Saxony, and the Harz as well as in the Central
Plateau of France. Lead, silver, nickel, cobalt, antimony, and uranium
are the principal metals supplied in these regions. Fluorite and barite
are common. There has been much discussion regarding the age of the
silver-lead veins of the Harz region. It is held by some that the metal­
882 MINERAL DEPOSITS
lization is of Hercynian age, while others consider it later, perhaps
Tertiary.
It is believed that there was also a Tertiary metallization in Spain.
Intrusions of diabase appear to be connected with deposits of iron
(Bilbao) and mercury (Almaden).
ASIA1
The mineral deposits of Asia have been described by de Launay,
who in his work cited below, has collected a vast mass of data in the
correlation of which there are still many blanks. According to Obruts-
chew, we find the pre-Cambrian deposits represented by gold-bearing
veins in the great shield extending on both sides of Lake Baikal and in
Korea. Again we meet them in the great Indian platform. Here are
deposits of gold-bearing quartz (Mysore), of iron, of manganese, and of
graphite; also copper.
The greater part of the gold production of Siberia is derived from the
“Eozoic” (late pre-Cambrian) formations of sedimentary rocks, intruded
by granodiorite, which extend south and west of Lake Baikal and else­
where. Here belong the rich placers of the Lena gold fields and many
other districts.
Deposits of Hercynian or late Paleozoic age are found in many
ranges in central Asia, such as the Ural, the Altai, and the trans-Baikalian
mountains. They are mostly well-defined veins carrying gold, lead,
silver and other metals. There are also many contact-metamorphic iron
deposits. To the same age are referred the tin and wolfram deposits of
Malaya, Burma, Siam, and China, many of which are accompanied by
much later placers. Copper deposits in Permian sandstone occur in
northern Turkestan.
Wong recognizes in China two periods of metallization: (1) pre-
Cambrian with gold, tungsten, and molybdenum; and (2) Hercynian
with parallel belts of tin and zinc; zinc and antimony; antimony and
mercury. These three zones are said to be genetically related to granite
intrusions.
1L. de Launay, Richesses minerales de l’Asie, Paris, 1911, 816 pp.
P. P. Goudkoff, New aspects of the geology of the principal ore-bearing provinces
of Siberia, Econ. Geol., 17, 1922, pp. 260-273.
W. A. Obrutschew, D ie m etallogenetischen Epochen und G ebiete von Siberien,
Halle, 1926.
Manjiro W atanabe, The geological distribution of ore deposits in Japan, Econ.
Geol., 18, 1923, pp. 173-189.
W. W ong, Les provinces m etallogeniques de Chine, Bull. 2, Geol. Survey China,
1920.
T. K ato, The last stage of m agm atic differentiation as represented by Tertiary
gold-silver veins, Fifteenth Internal. Geol. Congress, Comptes Rendus, 2, 1929, pp. 9-12.
 METALLOGENETIC EPOCHS 883
The deposits post-dating the Himalayan and Alpine systems are
apparently rare. A few of them occur in the Caucasus. The Tertiary
mineralization accompanying the igneous outbursts bordering the
Pacific is, however, well represented in eastern Asia. We find gold-
bearing veins of the Cordilleran type in the island arcs, Sumatra, Celebes,
Borneo, the Philippines, and Japan. In the last country there is also
a more varied mineralization of the same date including veins of copper,
antimony, and quicksilver.
In Japan, Watanabe describes the distribution of deposits in the
Northeastern Islands as follows: (1) the inner zone of Tertiary sediments
and effusives. Epithermal veins occur here in rhyolite and other
effusive rocks. They carry gold and silver, or zinc-lead with fluorite, or
copper. A peculiar feature is the “black ore,” a fine-grained mixture of
sphalerite, galena, and barite, with some copper. (2) The outer zone.
This is a dissected plateau of Paleozoic and Mesozoic beds with intrusives;
here occur replacement deposits with pyrite, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite
(Hitachi).
In the Southern Islands there are (1) An inner zone of late Tertiary
filled fissure veins with gold and silver; silver and copper; and copper.
(2) A middle zone occupies a dissected plateau with granite intrusions of
Paleozoic or Mesozoic age. Contact-metamorphic deposits characterize
this area. (3) An outer zone of Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks, with few intrusives. Here we find bedded replacement deposits
of post-Jurassic (?) age.
AFRICA
In the main, Africa consists of a vast platform of ancient rocks.
Arabia, India, and Madagascar have the same structure and were no
doubt once connected with the African continent. Archean crystalline
rocks are overlain by sediments, folded in places, of pre-Cambrian and
Paleozoic age; there are granite intrusions of various ages and vast sheets
of basic intrusive rocks (Bushveld laccolith); in the south these older
rocks are covered by Karroo beds (Permo-Triassic). In the north, in
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis, there are Tertiary folds of the Alpine
system with scant amounts of igneous rocks. Here we find a weak
metallization with deposits of lead, zinc, antimony, and quicksilver; also
siderite and hematite. An extensive deposition of sedimentary phos­
phates took place during the Eocene.
Tertiary and recent eruptives are absent from the main part of
Africa except along a zone from Abyssinia to the Great Rift Valley where
volcanoes rise above the old plateau.
The old pre-Cambrian land mass contains abundant gold deposits,
usually of the high-temperature type as in Madagascar, in Rhodesia, and
in Swaziland, and gold, probably of placer origin, is likewise found in wide
 884 MINERAL DEPOSITS
distribution in the old conglomerates of pre-Cambrian age overlying the
Swaziland crystalline rocks. Most famous among these conglomerates
are those of the Witwatersrand, Transvaal, which furnish the larger part
of the world’s gold production. Somewhat later are perhaps the bed
veins of Pilgrims Rest and other places in the Transvaal.
Liquid-magmatic platinum deposits are widespread in the basic rocks
of the Bushveld complex, probably of pre-Cambrian age.
Other deposits of deep-seated origin in Rhodesia and Namaqualand
carry chromite and copper ores of magmatic origin.
Tin deposits of pegmatitic or deep-seated vein type, with accom­
panying placers, are found in the Transvaal and in Nigeria.
The important copper deposits of the Belgian Congo are found in
sandstone, shale, and limestone of pre-Cambrian or early Paleozoic age.
Some regard them as formed by meteoric waters, while others explain
their genesis by emanations of deeply buried intrusives. Similar large
copper deposits in sedimentary beds have been opened in northern
Rhodesia.
The latest mineralization in South Africa appears to be represented
by the diamond-bearing peridotite pipes which are intrusive in the
Karroo series. They are probably of Cretaceous age.
The metallization of South Africa is marked by widespread occurrence
of siderophile elements, platinum, chromium, and diamond, and by high-
temperature tin and gold deposits the latter accompanied by placer
deposits of pre-Cambrian age.
AUSTRALASIA1
On the old plateau of Australia no ore deposits (except gold placers)
appear to have been formed since the beginning of Mesozoic time.
The pre-Cambrian era is marked by a widespread metallization of gold
in Western Australia centering in Kalgoorlie and Pilbarra; this is appar­
ently associated with intrusive granites. In New South Wales, we find
the exceptional high-temperature lead-zinc deposit of Broken Hill. In
South Australia are the iron deposits of Iron Knob and the copper
deposits of Wallaroo, Moonta, and Burra Burra, all of liquid-magmatic
or pegmatitic origin.
In Victoria and adjacent parts of New South Wales, also in Tasmania,
a rich metallization of gold, in quartz veins, marked the period between
1 E. C. Andrews, Geographical distribution of ore deposits in Australia, Econ.
Geol., 18, 1923, pp. 1-25.
F. L. Stillwell, Correlation of ore deposits in Australia, Austral. Inst. Min. Eng.,
1924, pp. 796-804.
A. G. M aitland, Ore deposits of W estern Australia, Federal Handbook, Brit.
Assoc. Adv. Sci., Australasian m eeting, 1914.
E. F. Pittm an, M ining fields of eastern Australia, idem.
 METALLOGENETIC EPOCHS 885
the close of the Ordovician and the close of the Devonian;1it followed the
intrusion of granitic rocks. The copper-gold ores of the Great Cobar, in
western New South Wales, are probably also of early Paleozoic age, but
the deposits are isolated among sediments far from outcropping igneous
rocks. Gold-quartz veins of a similar age appear in the South Island of
New Zealand. Tin, copper, lead, and platinum metals appear in Tas­
mania besides some gold-quartz veins.
South and west of the New England region, in the northern part of
New South Wales, numerous intrusions accompanied by vein formation
took place in the Devonian, while in New England and Queensland,
deposits of tin, tungsten and bismuth were formed during and after
Permo-Carboniferous granitic irruptions. To this age belong also, most
probably, the gold, stibnite-scheelite veins of Hill Grove, and the gold-
quartz veins of Gympie, Mt. Morgan, and Charters Towers.
Rich deposits of gold and silver of the Cordilleran type, also deposits
of quicksilver, are found on the North island of New Zealand. They occur
in the lavas of Tertiary age which form a part of the igneous girdle of the
Pacific.
SOUTH AMERICA12
In South America, as in the northern part of the continent, we must
differentiate the eastern part, in which strong mountain building forces
have rested since the close of the Paleozoic era, from the western margin,
which is marked by the great Cordilleran ranges, in which, since early
Mesozoic times, the scenes have been set for a tremendous display of
volcanism and orogenic movements.
In the eastern part iron and gold are the principal metals. The former
occurs in Brazil as sedimentary deposits of hematite of great extent and
probably “ Algonkian” age.
A little later than these and connected with intrusive pegmatites are
the gold-bearing quartz veins of Brazil, mainly in Minas Geraes, in the
Guianas, and in eastern Venezuela; all of these are of the high-tempera­
ture type. Many minor deposits occur in the pampean ranges of
Argentina.
Along the Pacific Coast the pre-Cambrian is largely lacking and
practically all of the deposits are of Tertiary age. A few of them, in
1Stillwell says these deposits are of post-Silurian and pre-Permo-Carboniferous age.
2 J. T. Singewald Jr. and B. L. Miller, Ore deposits of South America, 1919.
G. Steinmann, Gebirgsbildung und Massengesteine in der Kordillere Siid-
amerikas, Geol. Rundschau, Bd. 1, 1910. fiber gebundene Erzgange in der Kordillere
Stidamerikas, Internationaler Kongress, Dtisseldorf, 1910; Geologie von Peru, Heidel­
berg, 1929, 442 pp.
R. Beder, Los Yacimientos de la Republica Argentina, etc., Revista, Univ. de
Cordoba, 14, Nos. 1 and 2, 1927.
886 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Colombia, Peru, and Chile, are of the type formed near the surface and
carry gold and silver. The great majority are of the mesothermal or
hypothermal type and have suffered considerable erosion. They stand
in genetic connection with smaller masses of intrusive granite or
diorite, as well as with rhyolitic and andesitic porphyries. The principal
metals are copper and silver. Great lead and zinc deposits are not com­
mon. Gold is widely spread but even the greatest of the gold districts,
in Colombia, do not compare with those of California and Australia.
Tin, with silver, occurs in a belt extending through the eastern
Cordillera of Bolivia. The tin veins as well as the tin-silver veins stand
in genetic connection with intrusions of quartz monzonite, their por­
phyries and rhyolitic and dacitic flow rocks. Some of the South Ameri­
can geologists believe that the first mentioned group is of pre-Tertiary
age. Tungsten deposits occur in Peru and Bolivia, mainly associated
with cassiterite. Quicksilver deposits are found in Peru.
Among the many districts which have yielded great treasures of silver,
we note particularly Cerro de Pasco, in Peru, and Potosi, in Bolivia; at
both places supergene enrichment has played an important part. A
widespread mineralization of copper often accompanied by tourmaline
is found in the central and northern parts of Chile. Enargite charac­
terizes many copper deposits in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Few
contact-metamorphic deposits have been described.
A later epoch of mineralization verging upon the Recent has yielded
superficial deposits of borax and nitrates probably derived from volcanic
exhalations. Gold placers of Quaternary age have been worked at many
places.
CENTRAL AMERICA
In Honduras, Nicaragua, San Salvador, and Costa Rica—a region
in which volcanoes and effusive rocks abound —we find many representa­
tives of gold-silver veins of Tertiary age which were formed near the
surface.
THE ANTILLES
A feeble mineralization of copper and gold is observed in the greater
Antilles and in most cases it accompanied Cretaceous or Eocene intrusions
of basic rocks. During the late Tertiary, superficial deposits of iron ores
were formed by weathering of serpentine rocks.
NORTH AMERICA
In describing the metallogenetic epochs of North America it will be
convenient to separate the eastern and western parts of the continent
for, with the exception of their earliest history, they have little in com­
 METALLOGENETIC EPOCHS 887
mon. The western or Cordilleran part, including also almost the whole
of Mexico and Alaska, contains few deposits older than the Cretaceous.
The eastern part contains few that are more recent than that age and
most of them are of pre-Cambrian age.
In the eastern part we distinguish the following metallogenetic epochs:
1. The Pre-Cambrian Epochs.—The pre-Cambrian era embraces a
long time and many epochs of ore formation. Ages of deep weathering
and sedimentation alternated with times of violent igneous action.
The deposits of igneous affiliations are largely of the deep-seated, high-
temperature types. Those connected with the latest pre-Cambrian
(Keweenawan) igneous rocks are in part of mesothermal or even
epithermal character. The metals contained are iron, copper, nickel,
gold, and silver. Lead, zinc, antimony, and quicksilver are rare. Nat­
urally the deposits are best exposed in the great ice-polished Canadian
shield and adjacent parts of the United States, but many are also found
along the Appalachian ranges, where the pre-Cambrian may be exposed.
Most ancient among the pre-Cambrian deposits are the “iron forma­
tions” contained in the sedimentary rocks associated with the Keewatin
greenstones. At Vermilion, Minnesota, and many other places, hematite
ores have developed by the oxidation of these iron formations. At
Michipicoten, Ontario, siderite ores appear.
But little more recent are the many magmatic and contact-meta-
morphic deposits connected with granitic intrusions in the Grenville
series of sedimentary rocks, in the Adirondacks and in Ontario. Among
them we find titanic iron ores, magnetite, corundum, molybdenite, apatite,
and phlogopite. The iron ores occur in large deposits. The great zinc
and manganese deposits of Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, should perhaps
be correlated with these concentrations.
Iron formations with large concentrations of hematite were repeatedly
laid down during the Huronian sedimentations in the Lake Superior
region, but epochs of intrusions of granite and porphyry intervened.1
The majority of the gold-quartz veins of Ontario, Quebec, and Manitoba
appear to have been formed in connection with widespread intrusions of
granite, syenite, and porphyry accompanying or following the Temiskam-
ing sedimentation. They are thus of pre-Huronian age. Though they
are found in many districts, they have been most successfully worked in
the Porcupine and Kirkland Lake regions of central Ontario.
The pre-Cambrian epochs close with the great Keweenawan intrusions
and effusions of basic rocks, like gabbro, norite, diabase, and basalt.
These magmas were rich in copper, silver, nickel, cobalt, and arsenic and
many deposits of these metals were formed during this epoch. They are
1 W. G. Miller and C. W. Knight, Metallogenetic epochs in the pre-Cambrian of
Ontario, Twenty-fourth Ann. Rept., Ontario Bur. Mines, 1915, pp, 243-248.
888 MINERAL DEPOSITS
distributed over a wide area in the Lake Superior region1and include the
native copper deposits, the silver-cobalt veins of Cobalt, and the magmatic
nickel-copper deposits of Sudbury.
2. Paleozoic Sedimentary Epochs.—During the long period of
Paleozoic sedimentation in the Appalachian region, at least three epochs
were characterized by deposition of iron ores. We find oolitic hematite
of Ordovician age in Newfoundland, and similar oolites in the widespread
Clinton formation in the Silurian, the latter reaching their maximum
development in Alabama. Less important siderites were deposited as
“ black bands” during the Carboniferous. The phosphate beds of
Tennessee also belong here.
3. Paleozoic Intrusives.—From Nova Scotia to Alabama granitic
intrusions took place during the early Paleozoic and some of them even
extended into the Carboniferous. A moderately strong metallization of
gold-quartz veins followed these. We find these veins in Nova Scotia,
at various places in New England, and particularly in the Southern states
from Maryland to Alabama. Probably the majority of them are of
Cambrian or Silurian age. Many deposits of pyrite and chalcopyrite
in this region appear to date from the same period.
4. Paleozoic Epochs of Saline Deposits.—Epochs of arid climates
with accompanying development of deposits of evaporation recurred at
several times during the Paleozoic era. Thus there are deposits of
gypsum and salt in the Silurian of New York, in the Carboniferous of
Michigan, and in the Permian of Kansas and Texas.
5. Epochs of Triassic Copper Deposits.—The important period of
the history of the igneo-genetic ores in the eastern part of the continent
closed in the late Paleozoic. A feeble recurrence of ore formation took
place during the early Mesozoic when the Triassic traps of New Jersey,
Connecticut, and the Bay of Fundy were injected as sheets or overflowed
as lava streams. Copper ores of various types and some contact-
metamorphic iron and copper ores developed in places.
6. Cretaceous and Later Periods of Lead and Zinc Concentration.—
Since the Triassic, volcanism has rested and in the eastern part of the
continent metal deposits have formed only by the concentrating power of
flowing surface waters, or of ground-water in decaying rocks, or of ascend­
ing waters of meteoric origin.
In the Mississippi basin and in the Appalachian valleys, the Paleozoic
beds have been searched by saline and carbonate waters containing carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. This solution and deposition have
resulted in the many lead and zinc deposits which we find in the limestones
of that region. It is believed by some geologists, however, that these
lead-zinc deposits are of magmatic origin.
1 C. R. Van Hise and C. K. Leith, The geology of the Lake Superior region, Mon.
52, U. S. Geol, Survey, 1911, p. 591,
 METALLOGENETIC EPOCHS 889
7. Tertiary and Recent Periods of Rock Decay.—For a long time, in
fact since the end of the Paleozoic, large parts of this continent have been
land areas and their rocks have been exposed to weathering and decay.
Such periods have indeed not been absent during any extended time
interval, and in the iron ores of the Lake Superior region as well as in
certain manganese ores of Arkansas, we find indications of long pre-
Cambrian and shorter Paleozoic epochs of weathering and oxidation.
The mild climate which prevailed in the southern Appalachian region
during the Tertiary favored the development of deposits caused by such
agencies. The ores contain limonite, manganese dioxide, phosphates,
and bauxite.
In the Western or Cordilleran part of the continent we distinguish the
following metallogenetic epochs:
1. The Pre-Cambrian Epochs.—The western part of the Cordilleran
region is lacking in great exposures of the pre-Cambrian but wherever
they are present we find deposits of gold, iron, and copper, rarely other
metals. The correlation of these with the eastern epochs is often difficult
but on the whole they are connected with late pre-Cambrian intrusions of
granite and subsilicic rocks. As may be expected, the deposits are of
the high-temperature type and consist mainly of veins and lodes. Among
them may be mentioned the gold lodes of the Black Hills of South
Dakota, the lenticular gold-quartz veins and copper deposits of Wyoming,
many smaller deposits in New Mexico;1the gold, iron, and copper depos­
its of certain parts of southern California and Arizona (near Yuma and
Parker), the copper deposits of the Jerome district in Arizona, and many
others.
2. The Early Mesozoic Epoch.—Throughout the Paleozoic and the
larger part of the Mesozoic the great interior province, now occupied by
the Rocky Mountains, was the scene of almost uninterrupted sedimen­
tation. The phosphate beds of Idaho date from this period. Not so
along the Pacific Coast; for here we find in places evidence of intrusions
and lava flows dating back to the early Paleozoic, and during the Trias
and early Jurassic great effusions of subsilicic lavas took place. Copper
deposits are found in these igneous rocks and many of these were doubtless
formed shortly after this igneous activity. Among them we may proba­
bly count many minor deposits in California, the Kennecott deposit in
the Copper River district, Alaska, and the ores of the Prince William’s
Sound in the same territory. In the Jurassic lavas of Vancouver Island,
C. H. Clapp has found indication of a mineralization of the type formed
near the surface.12
1 W. Lindgren, L. C. Graton, and C. H. Gordon, The ore deposits of New Mexico,
Prof. Paper 68, 1910, pp. 48-51.
2 Econ. Geol., 10, 1915, pp. 70-88.
890 MINERAL DEPOSITS
3. The Late Mesozoic Epochs.—The third and much more important
ore-forming period followed and accompanied the great batholithic
intrusions of the Pacific coast, to which an age from late Jurassic to early
Cretaceous is generally assigned.
These intrusions of intermediate quartz-monzonitic or granodioritic
character took place upon an immense scale and extended from Alaska to
Baja California. The large batholiths of the Sierra Nevada and of British
Columbia are the most striking features, but innumerable intrusions of
smaller volume broke through the crust along both sides of the great
batholiths and throughout Oregon, Idaho, California, southern Arizona,
western Nevada, Washington, and Alaska. One of the largest of these
is exposed in the great granitic area of central Idaho. But throughout
this revolution and during the birth of mountain ranges on the coast the
Cretaceous was being quietly deposited at sea level all over the eastern
Cordilleran region from Canada to southern Mexico.
An epoch of intense metallization followed these intrusions, within the
areas indicated. The great interior masses of the batholiths are usually
free from deposits, as shown in the High Sierra, in the Clearwater region,
and in British Columbia. But along their margins mineral deposits
formed in abundance, as along the gold belt of California, and along the
two contacts of the batholith of the Canadian and Alaskan coast regions.
The great placer fields of Alaska derived their gold from deposits of this
epoch. Gold, primarily, and copper, secondarily, are the characteristic
metals. Along the Pacific coast, where there is little limestone in the
intruded sediments, lead is practically absent, but in the interior, as in
Nevada and Arizona, where the intrusions came into contact with Paleo­
zoic limestone, this metal, with zinc, begins to appear. Silver is every­
where present, but scarcely ever important, except where lead appears.
Arsenic and antimony are not abundant, mercury is nowhere present in
commercial quantities.
The metal-bearing belts are well marked on both sides of the great
granodiorite batholith of British Columbia. Schofield1 distinguishes a
belt along the western contact characterized by high-temperature copper
deposits and another on the east side where gold, silver, and lead appear
in mesothermal deposits. The northwest trending fissures carry mainly
copper, the fissures with northeast trend carry chiefly lead, silver, and
gold. Buddington2makes a more elaborate division into five belts. Lead
1 S. J. Schofield and George Hansen, Geology and ore deposits of the Salmon
River district, Mem. 132, Canada Geol. Survey, 1922, pp. 65-66.
S. J. Schofield, The fissure systems of British Columbia, Trans., Canadian Inst.
Min. Eng., 28, 1926, pp. 428-433.
2 A. F. Buddington, Coincident variations in types of mineralization, Econ. Geol..
22, 1927, pp. 158-179.
A. F. Buddington and T. Chapin, Geology and mineral deposits of southeastern
Alaska, Bull. 800, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1929, 356 pp.
 METALLOGENETIC EPOCHS 891
deposits are said to occur on both sides of the batholith and their presence
does not seem to be dependent upon limestone country rock. Gold'
quartz deposits follow the western batholithic contact in Alaska.
4. The Early Tertiary Epoch.—By the end of the Cretaceous, the
intrusions had gradually spread eastward, toward the region where the
Cretaceous sea had deposited a plastic mantle of sediments, resting on
Paleozoic rocks. About the beginning of the Eocene, the igneous activ­
ity had reached the eastern margin of the Cordilleran region.
The predominating magmas were again of intermediate character,
and solidified as granular or porphyritic rocks, standing between the
granites and the diorites; they contrast markedly with the potassic and
acidic magmas of pre-Cambrian times. While it is not necessary to limit
strictly this igneous activity to a certain time, there is little doubt that
most of it took place in the Eocene. The eruptions mainly took the form
of intrusions and largely that of laccoliths, undoubtedly because, unlike
the conditions of the shattered rocks of the Pacific coast, they were
covered by this heavy, tough and still yielding mass of Cretaceous sedi­
ments. We find an enormous number of these intrusions at various
horizons between the Cambrian and the Cretaceous or as dikes or stocks
that break through the underlying pre-Cambrian. They are not com­
parable in extent to the great batholiths of the coast. They extend from
British Columbia, through Montana, Utah, Nevada, Colorado, New
Mexico, eastern Arizona, and eastern Mexico. For reasons already
indicated many, perhaps most, of these intrusives never reached the
surface. Only in a few cases, as in Montana and in Colorado,
near Denver, do the strata of Laramie or Eocene age contain volcanic
detritus.
The fourth Cordilleran epoch of metallization followed these intrusions
and really represents the unbroken continuation of the third. Contact-
metamorphic deposits and veins were formed in abundance around their
margins. The characteristic metals are silver and gold with much lead
and zinc, especially where the intrusions cut the limestones. Copper
and iron are also present at such limestone contacts. Arsenic and anti­
mony are far more in evidence than during the second epoch, but mercury
is still absent. Rossland, Coeur d’Alene, Butte, Bingham, Tintic, and
Leadville are representative districts. The deposits are mesothermal or
hypothermal.
5. The Late Tertiary Epoch.—Orogenic disturbances followed or
accompanied the intrusions; the whole Cordilleran region was lifted high
above sea level, warped, and faulted. These disturbances may have
facilitated sub-aerial eruptions; at any rate it is certain that the middle
and close of the Tertiary witnessed outflows of lavas upon a magnificent
scale. This represents the last phase of the igneous activity which
began along the Pacific Coast.
892 MINERAL DEPOSITS
These eruptions spread over large areas of the western part of the
continent; less pronounced in British Columbia and Alaska, they are
abundantly represented in California, Washington, Idaho, Colorado,
Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona and attained their greatest develop­
ment in Mexico. Andesites and rhyolites are the predominating rocks.
In some places the flows attained such thickness that during the later
part of the volcanic epoch intrusions of magmas consolidated in them
with granular structure.
During these eruptions, not strictly contemporaneous throughout, a
fifth metallization took place, of which the characteristic metals are gold
and silver. These epithermal deposits were often of great richness which
is further accentuated by secondary processes; in fact most of the “bonan­
zas” belong to this class. Lead and zinc are not conspicuous except
where the metallization took place in limestone. Copper is not abundant.
Tellurium and antimony are common.
Representative districts are: Bodie in California: Tonopah, Goldfield,
the Comstock, Tuscarora and Jarbidge in Nevada; the Black Mountains
in Arizona; and De Lamar in Idaho; the San Juan and Cripple Creek in
Colorado; Pachuca, El Oro, and Guanajuato in Mexico.
Large areas of volcanic rocks are barren. The metal deposits seem
to have formed only near or at the foci of igneous activity, where con­
nection could be established with underlying magmas. The most recent
eruptions were mainly basalts, which, as a rule, were not affected by
metallization.
Later studies by W. S. Burbank,1 in the San Juan Region in the
vicinity of Ouray and Rico, have shown that the deposits which were
formerly held to be late Tertiary include an earlier mineralization
formed after largely laccolithic intrusions of late Cretaceous or early
Eocene age. These earlier deposits are often of the replacement type
and tend to spread laterally on favorable sedimentary contacts. They
contain lead-zinc-silver ores or pyritic gold ores, related to the fourth
epoch.
A marked period of erosion separates them from the late Tertiary
deposits, which are mainly gold-bearing veins, formed after the San
Juan tuff was laid down.
6. The Post-Pliocene Epoch.—The youngest metallogenetic province
is that following the Pacific Coast line. It is of very late age—post-
Pliocene apparently—and is characterized by mercury accompanied by
few other metals. It developed in the Coast Ranges of California,
also to some extent in Nevada, Texas, and Mexico following volcanic
eruptions and contemporaneous with it was a great development of hot
springs. In part the deposition goes on at the present time.
1 Revision of structure and stratigraphy in the Ouray district of Colorado and
its bearing on ore deposition, Proc. Colorado Sci. Soc., 12, 1930, pp. 151-232.
 METALLOGENETIC EPOCHS 893

An active circulation of atmospheric water was undoubtedly estab­

lished in the Coast Ranges long before the quicksilver deposits were formed.
7. Cretaceous or Later Epochs of Copper Concentration in Sedi­
mentary Rocks.—In addition to these six classes, whose connections
with igneous rocks are indubitable, the disseminated copper ores of the
southwest should find mention. They occur in sandstones, shales, or
conglomerates ranging from the Carboniferous to the Cretaceous, and,
in most cases, chalcocite is the original ore; frequently small amounts of
silver are present. New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and Texas
offer numerous examples of this class. While their origin is not wholly
clear, many observers believe that they represent concentration by
ground-waters of small amounts of copper originally derived from the
pre-Cambrian deposits and since distributed through late sedimentary
beds. In similar deposits we find ores of uranium, vanadium, and radium.
Summing up we have then in the Cordilleran region:
Principal metals Principal rocks
associated
1. Deposits of the pre- Gold and copper. Granites.
Cambrian period: Diorites, gabbro.
2. Deposits of the early Copper. Basalt, diabase.
Mesozoic epoch: Gabbro.
3. Deposits of the late Gold. Granodiorite.
Mesozoic epoch: Quartz-monzonite, gab­
bro.
Granodiorite.
4. Deposits of the early Gold, silver, copper, VQuartz-monzonite.
Tertiary epoch: lead, zinc. <Monzonite, with corre-
I sponding porphyritic
\ rocks.
5. Deposits of the late Gold, silver. j Andesite, latite.
Tertiary epoch: / Rhyolite.
6. Deposits of the post- Quicksilver. Basalt, andesite.
Pliocene epoch:
7. Cretaceous or later Copper, vanadium, \ Sandstone, shale, con-
concentrations in uranium, radium, f glomerate.
sedimentary rocks.
In deposits that are clearly connected with igneous rocks metallization
is certainly a function of varying pressure and temperature; these factors
being dependent upon depths below the surface, proximity of igneous
bodies, and other conditions; metallization is also dependent on the
relative solubility cf the components of the ore-forming solutions and on
the nature of the rocks in which deposition takes place. Primarily,
however, it is probably a consequence of magmatic differentiation in
batholithic magmas, and in the deeper magma basins which supplied
the effusive rocks.
894 MINERAL DEPOSITS
It is well established that magmas of different types contain different
associations of the rare metals. For instance, tin and tungsten charac­
terize acidic rocks, while nickel and cobalt are found chiefly in magmas
rich in ferromagnesian constituents. At the same time rocks of a given
general composition may, in different localities, vary considerably in the
quantity of rarer metals contained.
Ore deposits formed after the eruption of an igneous rock will contain
the rare metals characteristic of it. It may be true that for each differen­
tiated rock type there are corresponding types of deposits, varying with
the conditions of deposition.
As periods of long continued differentiation may materially modify
the composition of a magma, it is conceivable that this might find
expression in a progressive change in the character of ore deposits
successively formed during these periods. The quicksilver deposits of
California, for instance, may be the ultimate result of such long-continued
differentiation.
As we look back over the wide domain of mineral deposits, we perceive
the strong tendency to concentration of common or rare elements, by
magmatic differentiation, by solution, or by mechanical transportation;
we perceive also cycles of transformations, based on the laws of stability
of chemical compounds. Even when deeply buried, the deposits may
suffer many changes. Near the surface they are constantly subject to
transmutations involving both concentration and dispersion. A few
stable compounds are formed while the rest of the elements are scattered
by mechanical and chemical transportation. Some constituents are
carried down into the earth by the underground circulation of water,
perhaps to form new deposits in other rocks. Ultimately erosion sweeps
away the wreckage of the old deposits into basins of sedimentation where
the elements may be reconcentrated, be it by direct precipitation or by
the aid of living matter. The sediments may again be lifted and corru­
gated, again destroyed by erosion, and new eras of concentration begin.
In one aspect the science of mineral deposits is frankly utilitarian, but
from the viewpoint of pure knowledge it records the principles governing
the cycles of concentration of the elements. It traces the processes by
which the primeval gases and magmas have become differentiated into
the manifold complexity of the earth’s crust.
 INDEX OF LOCALITIES
Boldface type indicates principal references
A Ammeberg, Sweden, 751
Amur River region, Siberia, 239, 684
Abe Lincoln mine, New Mexico, 40 Anaconda, Montana, 615
Abilena well, Abilene, Kansas, 50 Andes Mts., Argentine, 380
Abiquiu, New Mexico, 407 Bolivia, 579
Abitibi, Ontario, 663 Chile, 324, 325, 380
Abosanobori mine, Hokkaido, Japan, 380 Andreasberg, Germany, 451, 600, 601
Abosso district, Gold Coast, Africa, 24G Angels Camp, Calaveras Co., California, 533,
Abyssinia, 778, 883 550, 551
Adalbert vein, Przibram, Bohemia, 575 Angola, Africa, 250, 777
Adirondack region, 284, 731, 789, 794, 887 Anna Lee vein, Cripple Creek, Colorado, 195
Admiralty Island, Alaska, 671 Annaberg, Saxony, 602
Adriatic region, 466 Antilles, 886
Africa, 332, 366, 629, 883 Antiochia, Asia Minor, 785
Agrigento, Sicily, 381 Antioquia province, Columbia, 47
Aix-la-Chapelle, Rhenish Prussia, 405 Antofagasta province, Chile, 324
Ajo, Arizona, 712, 844 Anvil Creek, Nome, Alaska, 230
Akenobe, Japan, 658 Appalachian Mts., 368, 392, 394
Akmolinsk district, Russia, 405 Appalachian region, 154, 656, 797, 888
Alabama, 272, 356, 376, 731, 758, 888 southern, 220, 271, 345, 351, 366, 366, 642, 660
Alabama Coon mine, Joplin, Missouri, 62 Apsheron, Russia, 100
Alacran vein, Mexico, 169 Arabia, 883
Alaska, 196, 219, 230, 234, 475, 671, 673, 67B, Arendal, Norway, 787
686, 700, 890, 891 Argentina, 327, 329, 685, 885
Alaska Juneau mine, Alaska, 14, 672 Argentine district, Colorado, 593
Alaska-Treadwell mine, Alaska, 14, 39, 672, 673 Argonaut mine, Amador Co., California, 547, 548
Alatau region, Siberia, 684 Arizona, 311, 323, 395, 402, 406, 465, 669, 697,
Albany, Maine, 754, 765 712, 717, 848, 890
Albemarle Co., Virginia, 350 Arkansas, 85, 214, 258, 365, 376, 429, 436, 442,
Aldan River region, Siberia, 240 471, 474
Alderley Edge, England, 405 Arqueros, Chile, 600, 602
Algeria, 68, 284, 287, 474 Arrowhead Spring, California, 51
Alibert mines, Siberia, 732 Asbestos Hill, Thetford, Quebec, 396
Alleghany district, Sierra Co., California, 230, 552 Ashio, Japan, 499
Alleghany Springs, Virginia, 51 Asia, 262, 882
Alma district, Colorado, 593, 594 central, 315, 322, 332
Almaden, Spain, 464, 467, 882 Asia Minor, 390, 785, 798
Almeria, Spain, 342 Aspen, Colorado, 179, 531, 589
Alps, 36, 610, 881 Associated mine, Western Australia, 680
Austrian, 392, 428, 576, 683 Atacama Desert, Chile, 324
French, 46, 611 Atlantic, Wyoming, 669
Tyrolean, 683 Atlas Mts., Morocco, 377
Alsace, 339 Atlin, British Columbia, 388
Alta mines, Helena, Montana, 121, 691 Atolia, Kern Co., California, 597
Altai Mts., Russia, 404, 466, 882 Auburn, California, 547
Altar, Sonora, Mexico, 475 Aurora, Missouri, 429, 432
Altavilla-Irpina mine, Italy, 382 Austin, Texas, 402, 762
Altenberg, Saxony, 648, 664 Australasia, 884
Alum Well, Versailles, Missouri, 51 Australia, 466, 544, 557, 645, 717, 884
Amador Co., California, 101, 647 Austria, 389, 429, 466, 683, 881
Amazon region, 28 Auvergne, France, 85
American Hill mine, Nevada Co., California, 239
American Nettie mine, Ouray, Colorado, 199, 200 Avala, Serbia, 466
American River, California, 224 Avery Island, Louisiana, 334
Amherst Co., Virginia, 760 Awavatz Mts., California, 402
896 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Ayrshire, Scotland, 266 Bird-Dog mine, Oklahoma, 442
Aztec Spring, New Mexico, 43 Birmingham district, Alabama, 271, 357
Bisbee, Arizona, 363, 700, 719, 814
B Bissell, San Bernardino Co., California, 388
Biwabik, Minnesota, 304
Badger mine, Butte, Montana, 616 Black Hills, South Dakota, 200, 218, 248, 564,
Bagot, Ontario, 402 656, 766, 761, 889
Bahia, state of, Brazil, 250, 774 Black Mts., Arizona, 483, 892
Baja, California, 890 Black Sea, 28, 261, 384
Baker City, Oregon, 515 Blaine Co., Idaho, 538
Balaklala mine, Shasta Co., California, 620 Blandford, Massachusetts, 393
Balcones mine, Hidalgo, Mexico, 598 Bleiberg, Carinthia, 428, 576
Ballarat, Victoria, Australia, 229, 557, 560 Bleischarley mine, Silesia, 427
Baltic mine, Michigan, 522 Blue Canyon, Placer Co., California, 551
Baltimore, Maryland, 785 Blue Diggins mine, Rosiclare, Illinois, 634
Banat province, Hungary, 697, 713, 740, 881 Blue Dike mine, Utah, 408
Banka Island, 248, 645, 646, 667 Blue Hill, Maine, 745
Bannock, Montana, 726 Blue Mts., Oregon, 686, 869
Baraboo district, Wisconsin, 296, 300 Bodaibo, Siberia, 240
Barberton district, Transvaal, 396 Bodenmais, Bavaria, 633, 744
Baringer Hill, Texas, 762 Bodie, California, 544, 892
Barstow, California, 327, 402 Bogoslow.sk, Russia, 697
Bassick mine, Custer Co., Colorado, 159, 499 Bohemia, 55, 218, 269, 417, 654, 770, 880
Batagol Mts., Irkutsk, Siberia, 732 Boise Co., Idaho, 538
Batesville, Arkansas, 365 Boise Hot Springs, Idaho, 55
Bathurst, N.S.W., Australia, 561 Boliden, Sweden, 689
Baux, France, 378 Boling, Texas, 382
Bavaria, 258, 633, 744 Bolivia, 114 , 327 , 579, 644 , 647, 655, 659, 685,
Bawdwin mine, Burma, 576 867, 886
Baxter Springs, Kansas, 430 Bonanza district, Colorado, 456, 457, 500
Bay City, Michigan, 99 Bonanza mine, Alaska, 250, 418
Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, 514, 888 Bonanza mine, Sonora, California, 552
Bear Creek, Newmire, Colorado, 411 Bonanza Valley, Yukon, Alaska, 232
Beatrice mine, Kinta, Malaya, 658 Bor, Serbia, 613
Beatson mine, Alaska, 688 Borax Lake, Lake Co., California, 326
Beatty, Nevada, 470, 4S6 Borneo, 362, 466, 883
Beaver Co., Utah, 53 Bosnia, 319, 466
Beaver Creek, Utah, 127 Boulder, Colorado, 539
Beaver Lake district, Utah, 639, 690 Boulder Batholith, Montana, 531, 691
Beaver mine, Cobalt, Ontario, 607 Boulder belt, Kalgoorlie district, Western Austra­
Belgian Congo, 250, 415, 629 lia, 079
Belgium, 423, 426, 881 Boulder Co., Colorado, 593, 596, 635, 659
Belle Isle, Louisiana, 333 Boulder Hot Springs, Montana, 70
Bellefountain mine, Nevada City, California, 534, Boundary district, British Columbia, 735
535 Bourbon-1’Archambault, France, 74
Belmont mine, Marysville, Montana, 450 Bourbonne-les-Bains, France, 70
Belowda Beacon, Cornwall, 649 Br&d, Transylvania, 476
Bendigo, Victoria, Australia, 59, 101, 148, 196, 559 Braden mine, Chile, 685
Bennet mine, Virginia, 400 Bradshaw’ Mts., Arizona, 619
Berekei, Caucasus, 100 Brainerd, Minnesota, 302
Beresowsk, Ural Mts., Russia, 146, 683 Branchville, Connecticut, 755
Bergen Hill, New Jersey, 453 Brandenburg, Kentucky, 258
Berggieshiibel, Saxony, 707, 713, 727 Brazil, 220, 249, 294, 314, 368, 660, 671, 675, 762,
Berlin mine, Nevada, 141 779, 885
Berners Bay, Alaska, 671, 673 Brazos River, Texas, 384
Berry mines, Victoria, Australia, 231 Breckenridge, Colorado, 640, 593, 598
Bersbo, Sweden, 744 Breece and Wheeler mine, Placer Co., California,
Bertha mines, Virginia, 369 231
Bessemer, Michigan, 302 Breece Hill, Leadville, Colorado, 592
Besshi, Japan, 619 Bridge River district, British Columbia, 553
Beuthen, Silesia, 427 Brinton, Virginia, 633
Bilbao, Spain, 358, 882
Bilin, Bohemia, 55 Briseis mine, Tasmania, 248
Billiton Island, 248, 645, 667 Bristol, Conn., 188, 453, 840
Bingham, Utah, 12, 539, 614, 708, 723, 730, 846, Bristol, England, 403
891 Britannia mine, British Columbia, 619, 621
 INDEX OF LOCALITIES 897
British Columbia, 126, 465, 537, 686, 712, 770, 890 Carline, Louisiana, 334
British tunnel, Last Chance mine, Bingham, Carlsbad, Bohemia, 55, 66, 69, 71, 86
Utah, 537 Carlsbad, New Mexico, 320, 341
Brodbo, Sweden, 762 Carn Brea, Cornwall, 653
Broken Hill, N. S. W., Australia, 121, 633,691,861 Carpathian Mts., 332
Broken Hill, llhodesia, 442 Carson Hill, Mother Lode, California, 231, 552,
Brussa, Asia Minor, 785 554
Bryanmound, Texas, 382, 384 Cartersville district, Georgia, 370, 376, 399
Buchans, Newfoundland, 576 Casa Grande, Arizona, 712
Buckingham, Quebec, 733 Casapalca, Peru, 509
Buda-Pest, Hungary, 99 Casey mine, Cobalt, Ontario, 609
Buffalo, New York, 526 Cashin mine, Placerville, Colorado, 406, 421
Bulawayo district, Rhodesia, 396 Caspar, Wyoming, 396
Bull-Domingo mine, Silver Cliff, Colorado, 499 Caspian Sea, 320
Bullah Delah, N. S. W., Australia, 342 Cass Co., Texas, 355
Bullion district, Nevada, 695 Castlemaine district, Australia, 557, 559
Bully Hill mine, Shasta Co., California, 620 Cauca province, Colombia, 47
Bunker Hill and Sullivan mine, Idaho, 571, 573 Caucasus Mts., 883
Bunker Hill vein, Amador Co., California, 549 Celebes, 883
Bunny mine, St. Austell, Cornwall, 652 Central America, 368, 886
Burma, 645, 657, 660, 882 Central City, Colorado, 158, 540
Burra Burra, South Australia, 884 Central Eureka mine, California, 548
Burro Mts., New Mexico, 848 Central mine, Broken Hill, N. S. W., 692
Bushveld, Transvaal, 725, 786 Central Plateau, France, 55, 74, 880
Butte, Montana, 39, 162, 532, 615 Central tunnel, Comstock, Nevada, 61
Butte Co., California, 225 Cerro de Cacheuta, Argentina, 496
Cerro de Pasco, Peru, 613, 886
C Ceylon, 249, 260, 732
Chacaltaya, Bolivia, 656
C and C mine, Comstock, Nevada, 61, 489 Chaffee Co., Colorado, 803
Cabeza de Pasto mine, Rio Tinto, Spain, 625 Chambishi mine, Rhodesia, 629, 631, 632
Cable mine, Montana, 725 Champion mine, Michigan, 522
Cactus mine, Utah, 686 Champion Reef mine, Mysore, India, 197
Cala, Spain, 626 Chaflatcillo, Chile, 861, 867
Calais, Maine, 770 Chandler mine, Vermilion range, Minnesota, 306
Calaveras Co., California, 421, 533, 547 Charmoy, Creusot, France, 100
Calcasieu parish, Louisiana, 382 Charters Towers, Queensland, 561, 885
Caldas district, Brazil, 763 Cherolque, Bolivia, 232
Caledonian mine, Thames, New Zealand, 451, Cherry Creek, Yavapai Co., Arizona, 669
479 Chester, Massachusetts, 797
Calico Mts., California, 328 Chewelah, Washington, 389
California, 56, 218, 230, 232, 234, 238, 327, 351, Chiapas, Mexico, 712
365, 468, 546, 659, 778, 785 Chibian, Russia, 754
gold veins, 14, 156, 173, 196, 202, 464, 535, 544, Chihuahua, Mexico, 599, 694
551, 555, 890 Chile, 324, 327, 684, 886
California Hill, Terlingua, Texas, 470 Chiltern valley, Victoria, Australia, 229
Calistoga, California, 464 China, 248, 466, 474, 882
Callie mine, Virginia, 358 Chino, New Mexico, 843, 844
Caltanissetta, Sicily, 381 Chisos mine, Terlingua, Texas, 470
Calumet and Arizona mine, Bisbee, Arizona, 722 Chocaya, Bolivia, 580, 655
Calumet and Hecla mine, Michigan, 59, 519, 621 Choco district, Colombia, 246
Camaguey province, Cuba, 359 Chojflacota, Bolivia, 656
Camerons Bath, Roturoa, New Zealand, 51 Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, 285
Camp Bird mine, Silverton, Colorado, 454, 505 Chuquicamata, Chile, 613, 860, 876
Camp Hedley, British Columbia, 707 Cincinnati, Ohio, 46
Camp Verde, Arizona, 323 City Deep mine, Rand, South Africa, 102
Campiglia Marittima, Tuscany, 727 Clausthal, Germany, 71, 574
Campo Decho, Calaveras Co., California, 421 Clay Co., Alabama, 731, 734
Canada, 297, 396, 733, 759, 779, 890 Clear Creek Co., Colorado, 539, 593, 696, 697
Cananea, Sonora, Mexico, 63, 712, 722 Clear Lake, California, 468
Canyon, Oregon, 556 Clearwater River, Idaho, 735, 890
Cape Colony, South Africa, 775, 776 Cleveland Hills, England, 269, 274, 275
Cape Emeri, Naxos, Greece, 796
Caracoles, Bolivia, 648, 655 Cliff mine, Michigan, 518, 522
Carguaicollo, Bolivia, 580 Clifton, Arizona, 47, 689, 717, 718, 848
Carinthia, 428 Climax, Summit Co., Colorado, 770, 771
898 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Coahuila, Mexico, 599, 600 Cumberland, England, 398
Coast Range, Chile, 324, 325 Cumberland, Rhode Island, 787
Coast Ranges, California, 77, 326, 388, 465, 892 Cumberland Co., Nova Scotia, 408
Cobalt, Ontario, 463, 604, 633, 636, 888 Cuprite, Esmeralda Co., Nevada, 380
Cobar, N.S.W., Australia, 688 Custer Co., Colorado, 159, 635
Cody, Wyoming, 380 Cuylerville, New York, 331
Coeur d’Alene district, Idaho, 164, 371, 421, 475, Cuyuna district, Minnesota, 296, 30t), 302, 310
570, 751, 855, 891 Cyprus, 396
Cokeville, Wyoming, 286 Czuchow, Silesia, 99
Collahuasi, Chile, 613
Colombia, South America, 465, 766, 778, 886 D
Colorado, 14, 406, 409, 600, 537, 539, 635, 755,
790, 803, 891, 893 Daghardy mine, Asia Minor, 785
Colorado River, 332, 406, 483 Dahlonega, Georgia, 220, 661, 662
Colorado Springs, Colorado, 492 Dallas, Indiana, 51
Columbia River, 225, 249, 418 Dannemora, Sweden, 741
Commern, Rhenish Prussia, 405 Dartmoor, England, 727
Comstock Lode, Nevada, 61, 62, 76 , 100, 451, 488, Darwin, Inyo Co., California, 724
892 De Lamar, Idaho, 68, 449, 486
Concepcion del Oro, Zacatecas, Mexico, 702, 712 Dead Sea, 316, 317
Congo, 776, 777 Death Valley, California, 327, 328, 402
Congo River, Africa, 629 Decatur Co., Georgia, 216
Congress Spring, Saratoga, N.Y., 46 Deccan, India, 250
Conneautville, Pennsylvania, 46 Deep River district, North Carolina, 397
Connecticut, 38, 514, 712, 758, 761 Deer Park district, Washington, 660
Conrad vein, Ophir, California, 535 Delta Co., Colorado, 72
Cooper, Maine, 770 Denver, Colorado, 53, 891
Copper Cliff mine, Sudbury, Ontario, 805 Derbyshire, England, 401, 635
Copper Mt., Alaska, 724 Detroit, Michigan, 332
Copper Queen mine, Bisbee, Arizona, 722 Detroit mine, Clifton, Arizona, 719
Copper River region, Alaska, 250, 418, 889 Devil’s Inkpot, Yellowstone National Park, 51, 52
Coral Spring, Yellowstone National Park, 48 Devil’s Lake, North Dakota, 317
Cordillera, North America, 55, 76, 260, 422, 565, Devonshire, England, 727
669, 685, 711, 889, 893 Dharwars, India, 294
Cordillera, South America, 55, 685, 885 Dillon, Montana, 731
Cordillera Real, Bolivia, 579, 655 District of Columbia, 345
Cordilleran region, 315, 322, 580, 581, 613 Djebel Hamimat, Algeria, 475
Cornwall, England, 39, 75, 121, 198, 354, 644, Dochida River, Russia, 514
646, 651, 703, 879 Dognacska, Banat, Hungary, 713
Cornwall, Pennsylvania, 702, 712, 716 Dolcoath, Cornwall, 101, 653, 727
Coro-Coro, Bolivia, 527 Dolcoath mine, Elkhorn, Montana, 726
Coromandel, New Zealand, 479 Dolores, Colorado, 412
Coronado vein, Clifton, Arizona, 148 Dolores, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, 694, 703
Cortez, Nevada, 582 Dome mine, Porcupine, Ontario, 664
Corundum Hill, North Carolina, 797 Dos Estrellas lode, El Oro, Mexico, 481
Coso Range, Inyo Co., California, 472 Douglas, Arizona, 714
Costa Rica, 886 Douglas Island, Alaska, 159, 671, 672
Cote Carline, Louisiana, 333 Dover, New Jersey, 795
Cove Creek, Beaver Co., Utah, 51, 380 Drumlummon lode, Marysville, Montana, 463
Cowee valley, North Carolina, 768 Drummondville, Quebec, 264
Cracker Creek district, Oregon, 859 Ducktown, Tennessee, 63, 284, 641, 736, 835
Cranberry, North Carolina, 796 Dunderland, Norway, 314
Crawford Mts., Utah, 291 Durango, Colorado, 507
Creede, Colorado, 114, 148, 447, 608, 860 Durango, Mexico, 599, 712
Creighton mine, Sudbury, Ontario, 805, 806, 808 Durango mine, Mapimi, Mexico, 814
Cresson mine, Cripple Creek, Colorado, 492, 494 Durham, England, 635
Cresson Spring, Pennsylvania, 43 Dutch Flat, Nevada City, California, 231
Creswick district, Victoria, Australia, 223
Crimea, 391 E
Crimora mine, Virginia, 365, 366, 367
Cripple Creek, Colorado, 38, 85, 148, 158, 195, Eagle Creek, Oregon, 859
449, 462, 491, 817, 869 Eagle River, Alaska, 671
Croesus vein, Hailey, Idaho, 537, 538 East Indian Islands, 444, 645
Crown King, Arizona, 185 East Union, Maine, 802
Crystal Falls district, Michigan, 298, 301, 307 Ebner mine, Gold Creek, Alaska, 675
Cuba, 177, 369, 368, 786 Eddy Co., New Mexico, 341
 INDEX OF LOCALITIES 899
Ederveen, Netherlands, 262 Fierro, New Mexico, 712, 724
Egeln, Germany, 337 Finbo, Sweden, 762
Eger, Bohemia, 55 Finland, 263, 638, 745, 779, 879
Egersund, Norway, 787, 788 Ffin-Flon mine, Manitoba, 687, 750
Eifel, Germany, 85 Florence mine, Judith Mts., Montana, 183
Eisenerz, Styria, 636 Florida, 284, 230, 352
Ekaterinburg, Ural Mts., Russia, 766 Floyd Co., Georgia, 378
El Oro, Mexico, 163, 481, 892 Forest Hill divide, Placer Co., California, 231,
El Paso, Texas, 656 238, 547
El Paso tunnel, Cripple Creek, Colorado, 62 Fraction vein, Tonopah, Nevada, 448
El Portal, California, 400 France, 270, 276, 287, 343, 373, 880
Elba, Italy, 649, 714, 753, 881 central, 84, 474, 475
Eldorado Co., California, 220, 237, 785 Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, 367, 641, 730, 737,
Elizabethtown, New York, 789 851, 854
Elizabethville, Katanga, Belgian Congo, 630, 631 Franklin mine, Georgia, 661
Elk City, Idaho, 231 Franklin Mts., Texas, 656
Elkhorn, Montana, 183, 581, 726 Franz Josef Land, 105
Elkhorn mine, Wood River, Idaho, 250 Fredericktown, Missouri, 439
Ely, Minnesota, 305 Freiberg, Saxony, 75, 100, 198, 201, 453, 677, 636
Ely, Nevada, 705, 707, 711, 816, 846, 868 Freirina, Chile, 694
Ely, Vermont, 39, 750 Fremont Co., Colorado, 406
Emery Co., Utah, 411 Frodingham district, England, 269
Emma mine, Butte, Montana, 367 Front Range, Colorado, 422, 597
Empire mine, Grass Valley, California, 551 Frood mine, Sudbury, Ontario, 805, 806
Empire mine, White Knob, Idaho, 702 Funeral Range, Inyo Co., California, 328
Empire vein, Waihi, New Zealand, 460 Furnace Creek, Inyo Co., California, 328
Ems, Germany, 75, 83, 86
Engels mine, Plumas Co., California, 186, 188, 810 G
Engineer mine, Yukon, Alaska, 876
England, 257, 266, 274, 425, 881 Gadsden Co., Florida, 216
Enterprise mine, Rico, Colorado, 596 Gaffney, South Carolina, 248, 760
Eolian Islands, 112 Gafsa, Tunis, 290, 291
Era district, Idaho, 853 Galena, Kansas, 430
Erzgebirge, 55, 453, 577, 647 Galicia, 332, 339
Esch, Luxemburg, 276 Gallup, New Mexico, 127
Eski-Shehr, Asia Minor, 390 Garland County, Arkansas, 214
Esmeralda Co., Nevada, 380, 470 Garrison mine, Cortez, Nevada, 582
Essex Co., New York, 731 Gate City, Oklahoma, 332
Ethiopia, 247 Geary Well, Pennsylvania, 35
Etta mine, South Dakota, 754, 761, 764 Gedang, Uir, Sumatra, 498
Euboea, Greece, 389 Gellivare, Sweden, 793
Eureka, Nevada, 581 Gelsenkirchen, Germany, 100
Eureka Consolidated mine, Mother Lode, Cali­ George mine, Stewart, British Columbia, 126
fornia, 552 Georgetown, Colorado, 540, 595, 866
Eureka-Idaho vein, Grass Valley, California, 194 Georgetown Canyon, Idaho, 128
Europe, 262, 315, 683, 717, 879 Georgia, 216, 341, 351, 356, 369, 376, 378, 758, 79‘,
Eustis mine, Quebec, 750 German West Africa, 768
Evelith, Minnesota, 304 Germany, 47, 266, 334, 869, 880
Evergreen mine, Gilpin Co., Colorado, 809 central, 83, 320, 327, 336, 401, 421, 880
Gertrude mine, Sudbury, Ontario, 805
F Geton, Sweden, 742
Geyser mine, Silver Cliff, Colorado, 43, 55, 68, 76
Faeroer (Faroe Islands), 514 Giants Range, Minnesota, 298, 304
Fairbanks, Alaska, 227, 239 Gila Bend, Arizona, 402
Fairmont, West Virginia, 101 Gila River, New Mexico, 391
Fairplay, Colorado, 593 Gilpin Co., Colorado, 64, 543, 594, 596
Fairport Harbor, Ohio, 342 Glenwood Hot Springs, Colorado, 47, 66
Falun, Sweden, 496, 744 Globe district, Arizona, 421, 814, 848
Faywood Spring, New Mexico, 55 Goff Well, Clarksburg, West Virginia, 35, 99
Feather River, California, 228 Gogebic district, Michigan, 298, 301, 302
Federal Loan mine, Nevada City, California, 43 Golconda, Nevada, 728
Federated Malay States, 645, 658, 761 Gold Circle, Nevada, 486
Feltrick, Cornwall, 653 Gold Coast, Africa, 368, 377
Fenno-Scandia, 683, 879 Gold Creek, Alaska, 671, 674
Ferghana, Russian Turkestan, 466 Gold Hill, Utah, 768
Fergus Co., Montana, 797 Gold Road, Arizona, 447, 483
900 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Gold Spring district, Utah, 447 H
Golden Cycle mine, Cripple Creek, Colorado, 492,
494, 814 Habersham Co., Georgia, 394
Goldenville, Nova Scotia, 562 Hachita, New Mexico, 694
Goldfield, Nevada, 342, 447, 451, 453, 510 Haile mine, South Carolina, 661, 857
Goodsprings, Nevada, 851 Hailey, Idaho, 537, 567
Gora Magnitnaja, Ural Mts., Russia, 713 Halcyon mine, Thames, New Zealand, 459
Goroblagodat, Ural Mts., Russia, 794 Haliburton Co., Ontario, 798
Goslar, Germany, 626 Halsbriicker Spat, Freiberg, Saxony, 164
Gotthard, France, 99 Hammam Meskoutine, Algeria, 66, 68
Goudreau, Ontario, 663, 667 Hancock, Michigan, 46
Gouverneur, New York, 393 Hancock Co., Maine, 770
Govermine, Mother Lode, California, 552 Hannans mine, Western Australia, 681
Gowganda, Ontario, 605, 610 Hanover, New Mexico, 712, 724
Granby, British Columbia, 618 Hargraves, Australia, 561
Granby, Missouri, 430 Harmony Channel, California, 232
Grand Grille Spring, Vichy, France, 54 Harney Peak mine, South Dakota, 760
Grandview, Arizona, 406 Harrisburg district, Utah, 407
Granite-Bimetallic vein, Montana, 566, 860, 864 Hart, California, 485
Granite district, Oregon, 859 Hartville district, Arizona, 311
Graniteville, California, 238 Harz Mts., Germany, 148, 164, 336, 496, 881
Graphic mine, New Mexico, 724 Hastings, Ontario, 633, 798
Grass Valley, California, 151, 195, 535, 547 Hauraki Peninsula, New Zealand, 459, 472, 478
Great Basin region, United States, 545 Hawaii, 81, 112, 375, 418
Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territory, Canada, Hecla mine, Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, 570, 573
415, 603, 874 Helena, Montana, 251, 531
Great Boulder Proprietary mine, Australia, 59, Helena-Frisco mine, Idaho, 181, 573
680 Henderson Co., North Carolina, 763
Great Cobar mine, N.S.W., Australia, 875, 885 Hercules mine, Idaho, 573
Great Eastern mine, California, 469 Hereroland, South Africa, 690
Great Falls, Montana, 615 Heroult, California, 715
Great Fingall mine, Western Australia, 678 Hibbing, Minnesota, 304
Great Geyser, Iceland, 48 Hidalgo, Mexico, 598, 725
Great Gossan lead, Virginia, 386 Hidden Treasure vein, Neal, Idaho, 555
Great Northern mine, Canyon, Oregon, 556 Highland Boy mine, Bingham, Utah, 618, 723
Great Plains, 35, 565 Hilt End, N.S.W., Australia, 230, 661
Great Rift Valley, Africa, 883 Hill Grove, N.S.W., Australia, 561, 885
Great Salt Lake, Utah, 257, 317, 323 Hillsborough, New Brunswick, 281
Great Salt Lake Desert, Utah, 342 Hillsborough Co., Florida, 290
Great Slave Lake, Canada, 429 Hitachi, Japan, 619
Great Valley, California, 38 Hittero, Norway, 762
Great Work mine, Cornwall, 653 Hogback mine, Alabama, 661
Greece, 786, 798, 881 Hohen Tauern, Austria, 683
Greeley, Colorado, 53 Hokkaido, Japan, 380, 498
Green Mt. mine, Butte, Montana, 62 Holgol mine, Korea, 707, 718
Green River, Henderson Co., North Carolina, 763 Holland, 263
Green River, Wyoming, 322 Hollinger mine, Porcupine, Ontario, 664, 665
Greenland, 729, 765, 784 Homburg, Germany, 47
Greenwood, British Columbia, 735 Homebush placers, Victoria, Australia, 236
Grenville township, Quebec, 389, 733 Homer mine, Idaho Springs, Colorado, 133
Griffith mine, Georgetown, Colorado, 595 Homestake mine, Lead, South Dakota, 669, 677,
Griqualand West, Cape Colony, 368, 394 692
Guadalcazar, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, 463 Honduras, 886
Guanajuato, Mexico, 444, 451, 490, 496 Hoole Canyon, Yukon, Alaska, 784
Guerrero, Mexico, 463 Horne mine, Quebec, 688
Guiana, British, 221, 250, 377, 777 Hornsilver mine, Utah, 853
Dutch, 221, 377 Horseshoe mine, Australia, 680
French, 221 Hoskins Mound, Texas, 384
Guianas region, South America, 219, 221, 262, Hot Springs, Arkansas, 44
885 Houghton, Michigan, 518, 519, 521
Gulf Coast, United States, 333, 335, 381 Houghton Co., Michigan, 518
Gunflint Lake district, Canada, 296 Howard vein, Cripple Creek, Colorado, 159
Gunnison River Springs, Colorado, 72 Huancavelica, Peru, 465
Gympie, Queensland, Australia, 194, 198, 533, Huanuni, Bolivia, 680, 751, 867
885 Hudson mine, Kentucky, 870
 INDEX OF LOCALITIES 901
Huelva, Spain, 622 Jarilla, New Mexico, 712
Huitzuco, Guerrero, Mexico, 463 Java, 326
Humble, Texas, 334 Jerome, Arizona, 619
Humboldt Co., Nevada, 380, 470, 472 Joachimsthal, Bohemia, 414, 603, 874
Humboldt Range, Nevada, 728 Johannesburg, South Africa, 101, 241
Hunan province, China, 476 Joplin, Missouri, 63, 155, 171, 429, 440, 632, 853,
Hungary, 338, 444, 476, 881 870
Hunter Hot Springs, Livingston, Montana, 70 Jordan Alum Springs, Virginia, 52
Hurley, Michigan, 302 Judith Mts., Montana, 183
Jugoslavia, 474
I Jumbo mine, Alaska, 418, 419
Jumbo mine, Hart, California, 485
Ibex mine, Leadville, Colorado, 692 Juneau, Alaska, 674
Iceland, 83, 84, 112
Idaho, 249, 288, 407, 464, 531, 637, 555, 566, 735, K
890
Idaho Basin, Idaho, 238, 249 Kaibab Plateau, 406
Idaho City, Idaho, 231 Kalahari Desert, South Africa, 776
Idaho-Maryland vein, California, 551 Kalgoorlie, West Australia, 59, 678, 681, 682
Idaho Springs, Colorado, 55, 71 Kambove mine, Katanga, 631
Idria, Italy, 100, 466, 471 Kamtschatka, Siberia, 514
Illimani, Bolivia, 655 Kandy, Ceylon, 251
Illinois, 216, 429, 436, 636 Kanowna, West Australia, 237
Imperial Co., California, 332 Kansas, SO, 321, 332, 425, 429, 442, 888
Imperial mine, Utah, 707 Karaboghaz Gulf, Caspian Sea, 320
Imsbach, German Palatinate, 453 Karangahake, Waihi, New Zealand, 479
Independence mine, Cripple Creek, Colorado, Karkarlinsk district, Russia, 404
493, 495 Kasaan Peninsula, Alaska, 724
India, 249, 250, 368, 754, 759, 762, 883 Kasejovic, Bohemia, 683
Indiana, 250, 386 Kasolo, Belgian Congo, 874
Ingersol mine, Black Hills, South Dakota, 764 Katahdin, Maine, 265
Insizwa mine, Cape Colony, South Africa, 809 Katanga, Belgian Congo, 415, 629, 630, 632, 636
Inspiration mine, Miami district, Arizona, 836, Katmai, Alaska, 112, 113
849 Kearns-Keith mine, Park City, Utah, 584
Interstate-Callahan mine, Idaho, 573 Keeley mine, South Lorraine, Ontario, 608
Inverell, N.S.W., Australia, 647 Keltz mine, Tuolumne Co., California, 553
Inyo Co., California, 327, 728 Kennecott mine, Alaska, 418, 841, 889
Inyo Range, California, 397 Kennecott Range, Alaska, 418
Iowa, 321, 429, 436 Kennedy mine, Mother Lode, California, 547, 551
Iowa Hill, California, 354 Kentucky, 44, 266, 272, 425, 635
Irkutsk, Siberia, 732 Kern Co., California, 328, 475, 597
Iron Blossom mines, Tintic, Utah, 586, 599 Ketchikan district, Alaska, 400, 723, 779
Iron Knob, South Australia, 884 Kettleman Hills, California, 9
Iron Mt., California, 620 Keweenaw peninsula, Michigan, 518
Iron Mt., Michigan, 301 Keweenaw Point, Michigan, 518
Iron Mt., Missouri, 249, 793 Keystone mine, Meadow Lake, Nevada Co.,
Iron Mt., Utah, 715 California, 180, 551
Iron Mt., Wyoming, 192, 787, 789 Khirgiz Steppes, Russia, 404
Iron River district, Michigan, 296, 301 Kilauea, Hawaii, 81
Iron Springs, Utah, 711, 715 Kimberley, South Africa, 250, 775
Ironwood, Michigan, 302 Kingman, Arizona, 578
Isle Royale, Michigan, 518 King’s Mineral Spring, Indiana, 51
Istria, Italy, 377 Kingston, Ontario, 764, 770
Italy, 341, 377, 381, 396, 881 Kinta Valley, Federated Malay States, 658
Itos vein, Bolivia, 580 Kipushi mine, Katanga, 631
Ivanhoe mine, Western Australia, 680, 681 Kirkland Lake, Ontario, 102, 194, 662, 887
Ivigtut, Greenland, 765 Kiruna, Sweden, 791, 793
Kirunavaara, Sweden, 792
J Kissingen, Germany, 47
Klackberg, Sweden, 740
Jackson Co., North Carolina, 797 Klondike, Alaska, 230, 231, 233
Jacksonville, Alabama, 376, 378 Knapp Well, Belle Isle, Louisiana, 333
Jagerfontein, South Africa, 775 Knox Co., Maine, 802
Japan, 380, 458, 466, 475, 658, 883 Knoxville, Tennessee, 437
Japan vein, Silverton, Colorado, 172 Kochbrunnen, Wiesbaden, Germany, 46
Jarbidge, Nevada, 450, 455, 485, 892 Kokand, Turkestan, 405
902 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Kokomo, Colorado, 593 Leonard mine, Butte, Montana, 162
Kola Peninsula, Russia, 754, 764 Lerbach, Harz Mountains, 498
Kolar, India, 40, 197, 674 Les Challanches, France, 748
Kolar River, Siberia, 240 Levack mine, Sudbury, Ontario, 805
Kolim River, Siberia, 240 Liberty Bell mine, Telluride, Colorado, 502
Komodor Islands, 514 Lichtenburg placers, Transvaal, 250
Kongsberg, Norway, 198, 463, 600, 747, 748 Lightner mine, Angels Camp, California, 534
Kootenay district, British Columbia, 693 Ligonia, Pennsylvania, 101
Korarfvet, Sweden, 762 Lincoln, Placer Co., California, 535
Korea, 717, 734, 882 Little Rocky Mts., Montana, 565
Kostainik, Serbia, 475 Livingston, Montana, 70
Kramer, California, 328 Livonia, New York, 331
Kran mine, Persberg, Sweden, 741 Livorno, Italy, 526
Kreutznach, Germany, 47, 75 Llallagua, Bolivia, 656, 872
Kristiania, Norway, 514, 706, 711, 753 Llamero vein, Caracoles, Bolivia, 647
Kutais, Georgian Republic, 281 Llano Co., Texas, 367
Kyschtim, Russia, 619 Llano region, Texas, 311
Lofoten Islands, Norway, 313
L Lomo de Toro mine, Mexico, 598
London shaft, Silverton, Colorado, 504
La FerriSre-aux-Isltangs, France, 277 Long Canyon divide, Placer Co., California, 230
La Junta, Colorado, 53, 54 Long Island, New York, 32
La Paz, Bolivia, 655, 656 Long Point, Texas, 382
La Plata, Colorado, 500, 508 Longbeach, California, 101
La Rose vein, Cobalt, Ontario, 604 Longfellow mine, Clifton, Arizona, 719
La Sal Valley, Colorado, 411 Longmont, Colorado, 101
La Sirena mine, Zimapan, Hidalgo, Mexico, 725 Longwy-Briey, France, 276, 277
La Tolfa, Italy, 342 Lorraine, 276, 405
Lahn Syncline, Germany, 743 Los Angeles Co., California, 328
Lahontan basin, Nevada, 342 Los Piiares mine, Nacozari district, Sonora,
Lake Baikal, Siberia, 882 Mexico, 499, 844
Lake City, Colorado, 602, 855, 858 Lost Packer vein, Idaho, 612
Lake Co., California, 77, 326 Lost River, Alaska, 727
Lake Erie, 342 Lot, France, 287
Lake Luossajarvi, Sweden, 791 Lot-et-Garonne, France, 287
Lake mine, Michigan, 518 Louisa Co., Virginia, 387
Lake of the Woods, Ontario, 663 Louisiana. 320, 333, 381, 382
Lake Ontario, 321 Lower California, Mexico, 531
Lake Poopo, Bolivia, 655 Lilderitz Bay, German West Africa, 250
Lake Sanford, New York, 787, 789 Luishia mine, Katanga, 631
Lake Shore mine, Kirkland Lake, Ontario, 665, Luxembourg, 275, 426
667, 6G8 Luxeuil, France, 70
Lake Superior region, 296, 604 Luzon, Philippine Islands, 613
copper district, 14, 145, 617, 888 Lyndenburg district, South Africa, 782, 783
iron district, 13, 269, 296, 367, 887 Lyon Mt., New York, 794
Lake Valley, New Mexico, 581, 683
Lake View Consolidated mine, Australia, 680, 681 M
Lake Well, Fairmount, West Virginia, 35
Lamalou, France, 75 McClelland Well, Cass Co., Missouri, 54
Lancaster Gap, Pennsylvania, 803 McIntyre mine, Porcupine district, Ontario, 664
Lands End, Cornwall, 647 Mace mine, Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, 573
Lftngban, Sweden, 739, 741, 854 Macholles, France, 99
Larder Lake, Ontario, 663 Macon Co., Georgia, 797
Las Condes, Chile, 685 Madagascar, 732, 766, 768, 883
Las Vegas Springs, New Mexico, 55 Madame Berry mine, Victoria, Australia, 239
Lassen Peak, California, 112, 114 Madras, India, 389
Last Chance mine, Bingham, Utah, 537, 639 Madrid, New Mexico, 732
Laurel Creek mine, Georgia, 797 Magdalena, New Mexico, 712, 724
Lead, South Dakota, 669 Magdalena Range, New Mexico, 724
Leadville, Colorado, 39, 367, 540, 690 Maine, 766, 758, 765, 766
Leadville-Boulder Belt, Colorado, 112, 693 Malaga, Spain, 785
Leadville vein, Bingham, Utah, 121 Malay Peninsula, 248
Leeds anticline, Utah, 408 Malaya, 645, 657, 882
Leghorn, Italy, 526 Malayan province, 644
Lena River district, Siberia, 239, 882 Mammoth, Arizona, 60, 874
Lenox, Massachusetts, 130 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, 145
 INDEX OF LOCALITIES 903
Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone National Minnesota, 295, 341, 618, 789
Park, 65 Minnesota vein, Ontonagon Co., Michigan, 522
Mammoth mine, Shasta Co., California, 620, 621 Minnie Moore mine, Wood river district, Idaho,
Mammoth mine, Tintic, Utah, 586, 587 569
Mancayan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, 613 Mission Range, Montana, 422
Manchester, England, 405 Mississippi, 266
Manchuria, 389 Mississippi Delta, 253
Mandy mine, Manitoba, 664, 750 Mississippi River, 41, 438
Manganese Blue mine, Clifton, Arizona, 719 Mississippi Valley, 429, 436, 440, 636, 866
Manhattan, Nevada, 454 Missouri, 267, 351, 399, 425, 429, 440
Manitoba, 687, 764 southeastern, 14, 60, 438, 440
Mansfeld, Germany, 415, 496, 881 Missouri River, Montana, 251
Mapimi, Durango, Mexico, 599, 814 Mizpah mine, Tonopah, Nevada, 462
Maricunga, Chile, 325 Moa district, Cuba, 359, 360
Marienbad, Bohemia, 55 Moccasin Creek, Tuolumne Co., California, 551
Marietta, West Virginia, 99 Moccasin district, Montana, 563
Mariposa Co., California, 547 Modum parish, Norway, 748
Marquette district, Michigan, 298, 301, 307 Mogok, Burma, 261, 766
Martha lode, Waihi, New Zealand, 479 Mogollon district, New Mexico, 148, 608
Martincourt, France, 99 Mohawk mine, Goldfield, Nevada, 512
Mary Creek mine, Virginia, 357 Mohawk-Jumbo lode, Goldfield, Nevada, 511
Mary mine, Ducktown, Tennessee, 736, 737 Mojave Desert, California, 328
Maryboro, Victoria, Australia, 235, 236 Mojave River, California, 328
Maryland, 265, 266 Mollie Gibson mine, Aspen, Colorado, 590
Marysvale, Utah, 342, 463 Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, 279, 362
Marysville, Montana, 463, 704, 711 Mono Lake, California, 317
Mason Co., Texas, 367 Mont Cenis, 99
Mass Copper mine, Michigan, 59, 522 Montana, 398, 566, 691, 712, 891
Massa Marittima, Tuscany, 689 Monte Blanco, Bolivia, 656
Massachusetts, 216, 797 Monte Catini, Italy, 526, 881
Matachewan, Ontario, 663 Monteponi, Sardinia, 429, 464
May Day mine, Tintic, Utah, 852 Montezuma district, Colorado, 593, 594
Mayari, Cuba, 369, 374 Montgomery Co., Virginia, 51
Mazaruni River, British Guiana, 250 Montpelier, Idaho, 128, 288
Meadow Lake, California, 648, 686 Montreal mine, Gogebic Range, Michigan, 302
Mechernich, Rhenish Prussia, 405 Monumental mine, Sierra Co., California, 230,
Mediterranean, 381, 881 552
Meggen, Germany, 269, 401 Moonta, South Australia, 884
Meissen, Saxony, 354 Moravicza, Banat, Hungary, 713
Melones mine, Angels Camp, California, 534 Morbihan, France, 649
Mendenhall Glacier, Alaska, 674 Morenci, Arizona, 708, 719, 824, 834
Mendocino Co., California, 55 Moresnet district, Belgium, 426
Mendota vein, Silver Plume, Colorado, 132 Moretown, Vermont, 396
Mendota working, Smuggler vein, Telluride, Morning mine, Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, 39, 573,
Colorado, 503 751
Menominee district, Michigan, 298, 301 Morning Star dyke, Woods Point, Victoria, 146
Mercur, Utah, 12, 563 Morocco, 284, 287, 883
Mesabi district, Minnesota, 298, 304, 309 Morococha, Peru, 613
Metcalf, Arizona, 719 Morro Velho, Brazil, 197, 676
Mexican mine, Goldenville, Nova Scotia, 562 Mother Lode, California, 101, 151, 647, 551,
Mexico, 316, 455, 698, 659, 694, 712, 717, 892 554
Miami, Arizona, 629, 836, 849 Mottram St. Andrews, England, 405
Miask, Russia, 787 Mt. Baldy district, Utah, 450
Michigan, 39, 45, 68, 295, 321, 331, 342, 618, 520 Mt. Bischoff, Tasmania, 248, 646, 656
Michipicoten district, Canada, 298, 310, 518, 663 Mt. Bohemia, Michigan, 420
Middle Park Springs, Colorado, 55 Mt. Lyell, Tasmania, 618, 622
Milan mine, New Hampshire, 750 Mt. Margaret, West Australia, 678
Mill City, Nevada, 728 Mt. Morgan, Queensland, 845, 857, 885
Mina Ragra, Peru, 412, 873 Mufulira mine, Northern Rhodesia, 629, 631
Mina Rica vein, Ophir, California, 535 Murchison, West Australia, 678
Minas Geraes, Brazil, 250, 314, 368, 885 Murfreesboro, Arkansas, 775
Mindanao, Philippine Islands, 362 Murray mine, Sudbury, Ontario, 805
Mine Hill, Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, 738
Mine La Motte, Missouri, 439 Murray Plains, Australia, 557
Mineral Co., Colorado, 635 Muso, Colombia, 766
Mineville district, New York, 794 Mysore, India, 197, 674, 882
904 MINERAL DEPOSITS
N Noranda mine, Quebec, 688
Norberg, Sweden, 741
N ’Changa mine, Northern Rhodesia, 629, 631 Nordmark, Sweden, 741
N’Kana mine, Northern Rhodesia, 629, 631 Norris geyser basin, Yellowstone Park, 66
Nacimiento, New Mexico, 407 North America, 262, 315, 406, 717, 886
Nacozari district, Sonora, Mexico, 499, 844 North Carolina, 249, 289, 393, 661, 758, 766, 797
Naeverhaugen, Norway, 314 North Staffordshire, England, 266
Namaqualand, South Africa, 765, 810, 884 North Star mine, Grass Valley, California, 165,
Nankat, Turkestan, 405 648, 551
Nantahala Valley, North Carolina, 393 Northampton, Massachusetts, 398, 401
Napa Soda Spring, California, 56 Northumberland, England, 398, 401
Naples, Italy, 382 Norway, 312, 313, 386, 767, 758, 771, 811, 879
Natas mine, German West Africa, 768 Norway, Michigan, 301
National district, Nevada, 486 Northwest Territory, Canada, 415, 707
Nauheim, Germany, 47, 80 Nottely River, North Carolina, 393
Navajo Reservation, Arizona, 777 Nova Scotia, 131, 320, 321, 409, 661
Navassa Island, West Indies, 285 Novaja Semlja, Russia, 514
Naxos Island, Aegean Sea, 796, 798 Nye Co., Nevada, 470
Neal district, Idaho, 555
Nebraska, 342 O
Nederland, Colorado, 121, 696 0. K. mine, Beaver Lake district, Utah, 090
Needle Mts., Colorado, 500, 508 Oatman, Arizona, 449
Needles, Arizona, 483 Oberstein a. d. Nahe, Germany, 514
Negaunee, Michigan, 301 Ocean Island, South Pacific, 286
Neihart, Montana, 853 Ogden, Utah, 288
Nelson Co., Virginia, 760 Ogilby, California, 397
Netherlands, 262, 263 Ohio, 250, 266, 335, 402
Neu Hoffnung vein, Freiberg, Germany, 201 Ojo Caliente, New Mexico, 54, 66, 70, 84
Nevada, 326, 327, 465, 470, 473, 474, 486, 646, Oklahoma, 320, 365, 406, 425, 429, 441
659, 890 Okufo mine, Japan, 707
Nevada City, California, 38, 192, 196, 647, 664 Old Faithful geyser, Yellowstone Park, 48
Nevada Co., California, 238, 421 Olinda 96 Well, Fullerton field, California, 99
New Almaden, California, 469 Omapere Lake, New Zealand, 472
New Almaden Vichy Springs, California, 56 Omui Hokkaido, Japan, 498
New Brancepeth colliery, England, 398 Ontario, 386, 392, 429, 603, 662, 770, 887
New Brunswick, 320, 321 Ontonagon Co., Michigan, 518, 522, 523
New Caledonia, 372, 768, 804 Ookiep, Namaqualand, South Africa, 810
New Chum reef, Victoria, 560 Opalite, Oregon, 472
New England, United States, 265, 750, 888 Ophir, California, 198, 547
New England district, Australia, 648, 760, 769, Ophir mine, Comstock, Nevada, 490
885 Ophir vein, Thames district, New Zealand, 459
New Guinea, 236, 514 Oquirrh Range, Utah, 563
New Hampshire, 758, 765, 766 Orange Free State, 775
New Haven, Connecticut, 35 Orange River, South Africa, 250
New Idria, California, 469 Oravicza, Hungary, 713
New Jersey, 268, 341, 616, 796 Oreana, Nevada, 397
New Mexico, 70, 320, 340, 407, 635, 659, 711, 718, Oregon, 226, 247, 327, 464, 515, 784, 785
764, 848, 891 Oriente Province, Cuba, 359
New North Pool, Cornwall, 653 Orijarvi, Finland, 658, 746
New Orleans, Louisiana, 333 Oroville, Butte Co., California, 225, 227, 234
New South Wales, 218, 248, 660, 647, 688, 771, Oroya-Brownhill mine, Western Australia, 680
884 Oruro, Bolivia, 680, 877
New York, 311, 321, 331, 370, 393, 730, 734 Osceola mine, Lake Superior, 521
New Zealand, 48, 68, 83, 779, 885 Oscura Range, New Mexico, 407
Newfoundland, 39, 281, 888 Otjizongati, South Africa, 690
Newlands mine, Transvaal, 776 Ottawa, Illinois, 213
Newmire, Colorado, 411 Ottawa, Ontario, 733, 759
Newport mine, Gogebic district, Michigan, 59, Ouray, Colorado, 182, 499, 509, 892
301, 303 Ovifak, Greenland, 729, 784
Niagara Falls, New York, 378, 734, 798 Owens Lake, California, 322, 342
Nicaragua, 886 Ozark region, 440, 855
Nickel Plate mine, British Columbia, 702, 725
Nicopol, Jekaterinoslaw, 282 P
Nigeria, 247, 645, 884
Nipissing mine, Cobalt, Ontario, 607 Pachuca, Hidalgo, Mexico, 451, 490
Nome, Alaska, 226 Pacific Congress Spring, California, 56
 INDEX OF LOCALITIES 905
Pacific region, 444, 453, 466, 531, 883, 889 Portland Canal, British Columbia, 566
Pahang mines, Malaya, 657 Portland mine, Cripple Creek, Colorado, 492, 493,
Pala, California, 756, 764, 766 494
Palangana, Texas, 382 Portugal, 386, 660
Palestine, Texas, 334 Porvenir mine, Huanuni, Bolivia, 751, 867
Paradox Valley, Colorado, 411 Postmasburg, Griqualand, West South Africa, 368
Paris, France, 321 Potgietersrust, South Africa, 782
Park City, Utah, 584 Potosi, Bolivia, 580, 604, 655, 867, 886
Park Co., Colorado, 539 Prague, Bohemia, 575
Parker, Arizona, 889 Premier mine, British Columbia, 186, 566
Parral, Chihuahua, Mexico, 509 Premier mine, Transvaal, 775, 776
Paruschowitz, Silesia, 100 Pretoria, South Africa, 775, 782
Pasco Province, Peru, 412 Prince Edward Island, Alaska, 779
Paso Robles Springs, California, 50 Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, 724
Passagem lode, Brazil, 677, 684, 769 Prince William Sound, Alaska, 688, 889
Passau, Bavaria, 733 Providence Hill, Plumas Co., California, 236
Pecos River, New Mexico, 686 Provo, Utah, 715
Peekskill, New York, 797 Prussia, 318, 427
Peerless mine, Black Hills, South Dakota, 764 Przibram, Bohemia, 39, 675, 649
Pelican vein, Georgetown, Colorado, 595 Pueblo, Colorado, 80, 714
Pennine region, England, 577 Puerto Mexico, Mexico, 334
Pennsylvania, 61, 266, 351, 429, 712 Puget Sound, 225
Penokee district, Michigan, 298, 302 Pulaski Co., Arkansas, 376, 378
Peralillo, Santiago, Chile, 685 Put-in Bay, Ohio, 402
Pereta, Tuscany, 475 Puy de Dome, France, 66
Persberg, Sweden, 741 Pyrenees, 46, 56
Perseverance mine, Western Australia, 680
Pershing Co., Nevada, 470 Q
Persia, 334 Quebec, 386, 396, 687, 770, 785, 887
Perth, Western Australia, 678 Queensland, Australia, 232, 560, 771, 885
Peru, 285, 329, 363, 465, 886 Quelites Spring, New Mexico, 45
Peterboro Co., Ontario, 798 Queretaro, Mexico, 474
Petite Anse, Louisiana, 333 Questa, Taos Co., New Mexico, 770
Pfal, Bavaria, 164 Quimsa Cruz, Bolivia, 655
Philippine Islands, 362, 883 Quincy, Massachusetts, 757
Phillipsburg district, Montana, 367, 704, 714 Quincy mine, Hancock, Michigan, 46, 59, 522, 525
Phoenix, British Columbia, 735 Quiruvilca, Peru, 613
Pibara, Western Australia, 680 Quisque, Pasco, Peru, 412
Picher, Oklahoma, 434, 440, 441
Piedmont region, 36, 366, 367 R
Pike Co., Arkansas, 775
Pikes Peak, Colorado, 492 Rabbit Hole mines, Humboldt Co., Nevada, 308,
Pilares mine, Nacozari, Sonora, Mexico, 149 472
Pilbara, West Australia, 884 Rabun Co., Georgia, 797
Pilgrims Rest, Transvaal, 245, 884 Radjang Lebong, Sumatra, 496, 498, 856
Pinal Co., Arizona, 60 Radnor, Quebec, 264
Pinetree vein, Ophir, Placer Co., California, 182 Ragadera mine, Ceylon, 732
Pioche, Nevada, 851 Ragtown Lakes, Nevada, 322
Piru, Ventura Co., California, 328 Raibl, Austria, 428, 576
Pitkaranta, Finland, 700, 727 Rainy Lake, Ontario, 663
Pitsfield mines, Victoria, Australia, 229, 236 Rambler mine, Wyoming, 779
Placer Co., California, 421, 785 Rammelsberg, Germany, 626, 750
Placerville, Colorado, 411, 412 Rand, Transvaal, South Africa, 40, 241, 780
Plantz vein, Ophir, California, 535 Raton, New Mexico, 732
Plombi&res, Vosges, France, 70, 74 Rawhide, Nevada, 447, 485, 486
Plumas Co., California, 546 Rawhide mine, Angels Camp, California, 551
Plymouth Consolidated mine, California, 551 Ray, Arizona, 814, 833, 849
Poland, 427, 633 Rea vein, Cobalt, Ontario, 665
Polish Silesia, 190 Real del Monte, Mexico, 490
Polk Co., Florida, 290 Red Cliff district, Colorado, 594
Pomeroy, Ohio, 335 Red Gulch, Fremont Co., Colorado, 406
Poncha Springs, Colorado, 55 Red Lake, Ontario, 663
Popocatepetl, Mexico, 380 Red Mt., Colorado, 456
Porcupine district, Ontario, 662, 664, 887 Red Mt., New Zealand, 784
Port Arthur, Ontario, 604 Red Point channel, Placer Co., California, 239
Port Snettisham, Alaska, 671 Red Rose mine, South Dakota, 758
906 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Redington mine, California, 469 Sahara Desert, 315
Redruth, Cornwall, 75 St. Austell, Cornwall, 652
Rehoboth, South Africa, 690 St. Francis Mts., Missouri, 431
Reichenstein, Silesia, 726 St. Joe River, Idaho, 735
Renfrew Co., Ontario, 798 St. John del Rey mine, Brazil, 40, 101
Republic, Michigan, 301 St. Lawrence Co., New York, 387
Republic, Washington, 454, 497 St. Lawrence crosscut, Butte, Montana, 62
Republic iron mine, Michigan, 59 St. Lawrence River, Canada, 249
Republic mine, Republic, Washington, 497 St. Louis, Missouri, 438
Revenue tunnel, Ouray, Colorado, 501 St. Michaels Mount, Lands End, Cornwall, 647
Reynolds Mt., Virginia, 366 St. Nectaire, Puy de Dome, France, 66
Rhenish Prussia, 405, 426, 880 St. Urbain, Quebec, 787, 788
Rhine River, 47 Salem, India, 389
Rhode Island, 787 Saline Co., Arkansas, 214, 376
Rhodesia, 475, 883, 884 Salt Chuck mine, Alaska, 779
Rhodesia, Northern, 442, 629, 631, 636 Salt Lake City, Utah, 585, 723
Rhodesia, Southern, 396, 781, 785 Salton, Imperial Co., California, 332
Rice Lake, Manitoba, 663, 669 San Benito Co., California, 469
Rich Hill mine, Virginia, 356 San Bernardino Co., California, 327, 388, 402
Rico, Colorado, 163, 606, 509 San Bernardino Valley, California, 51
Riddarhyttan, Sweden, 745 San Diego Co., California, 55, 545, 766
Riddles, Oregon, 372 San Dionisio mine, Rio Tinto, Spain, 624, 625
Ridgeway mine, Silverton, Colorado, 503 San Felipe district, Cuba, 359
Rifle, Colorado, 411 San Francisco, California, 468, 469
Rio Tinto, Spain, 386, 622, 646 San Francisco Bay, California, 224
Riverside, California, 656 San Francisco district, Utah, 706, 707
Roan Antelope mine, Northern Rhodesia, 629, 631 San Francisco Range, Utah, 686
Rochester, Nevada, 768 San Francisco Volcano, Arizona, 112
Rock Run, Alabama, 376 San Giuseppe mine, Sonora, California, 552
Rockbridge Alum Springs, Virginia, 51 San Jose, Tamaulipas, Mexico, 712
Rockbridge Co., Virginia, 52 San Juan, Freirina, Chile, 694
Rocky Mts., 36, 315, 406, 889 San Juan Capistrano Spring, California, 56
Rodaito, Chile, 600, 602 San Juan Co., Colorado, 503
Rohitch, Styria, 388 San Juan Mts., Colorado, 199, 500
Romaine, Quebec, 770 San Juan region, Colorado, 199, 454, 499, 508, 637
Rooiberg, Transvaal, 658 San Luis Potosi, Mexico, 465, 712
Roosevelt tunnel, Cripple Creek, Colorado, 492 San Miguel Co., New Mexico, 407
Ror&s, Norway, 811 San Pablo, Florida, 763
Rosebridge, England, 100 San Pedro, New Mexico, 712, 718
Rosiclare, Illinois, 634 San Rafael lode, El Oro, Mexico, 481
Rosita district, Colorado, 456 San Rafael Swell, Utah, 411
Rosita Hills, Colorado, 342 San Saba Co., Texas, 367
Rossland, British Columbia, 39, 686, 891 San Salvador, 886
Roswell, New Mexico, 50 Sanger mine, Eagle Creek, Oregon, 859
Rothschonberger tunnel, Freiberg, Saxony, 62, 63 Santa Barbara Co., California, 260
Roturoa, New Zealand, 48, 51, 68 Santa Barbara district, Mexico, 694
Roudny, Bohemia, 683 Santa Cruz Co., California, 230
Roumania, 332, 476 Santa Eulalia, Mexico, 598, 599, 694
Round Mt., Nevada, 486 Santa Fe, Chiapas, Mexico, 712
Routivare, Sweden, 788 Santa Maria, California, 100
Rouyn, Quebec, 663, 664, 687 Santa Maria, Sonora, Mexico, 732
Ruashi mine, Katanga, 631 Santa Rita, New Mexico, 848
Russia, 369, 373, 417, 881 Santander, Spain, 428, 633
Russian Turkestan, 401, 466 Santiago, Chile, 685
Rustenburg district, Transvaal, 782, 783 Santiago district, Cuba, 359
Ruth mine, Ely, Nevada, 64 Santo Domingo pipes, Santa Eulalia, Mexico, 599
Rutherglen, Victoria, Australia, 229 Santorini, 112
Ryepatch mine, Unionville, Nevada, 583 Sao Paulo, Brazil, 514, 763
Saratoga Co., New York, 731
S Saratoga Springs, New York, 45
Sardinia, 429, 464
Saarbriicken, Germany, 266 Saskatchewan, Canada, 323
Saarlouis, Lorraine, 405 Sauce, Cordova, Argentina, 660
Sacramento Hill, Bisbee, Arizona, 720, 722 Saugus, Los Angeles Co., Calif., 328
Sacramento Valley, California, 224 Savage mine, Comstock, Nevada, 61
Saddle Mt., Arizona, 712 Saxony, 602, 636, 644, 647, 651, 654, 872, 881
 INDEX OF LOCALITIES 907
Scandinavia, 36, 294, 762 Solomon River, Alaska, 227
Schemnitz, Hungary, 499 Solowioff Mt., Ural Mts., Russia, 778
Schladebach, Merseberg, 99 Sombrero Island, West Indies, 258
Schladming, Styria, 748 Sonoma Co., California, 52
Schlegelmilch vein, South Carolina, 160 Sonora, California, 552
Schmiedeberg, Silesia, 713 Sonora, Mexico, 844
Schneeberg, Saxony, 603, 636 Sons of Gwalia mine, Western Australia, 678, 679
Schwarzenberg, Saxony, 727 South Africa, 240, 250, 683, 776, 781, 809, 878
Scotland, 266, 514 South America, 250, 613, 885
Searles Marsh, California, 327, 342, 343 South Australia, 734, 884
Sedalia, Colorado, 803 South Carolina, 248, 249, 289, 352, 661, 760
Sekondi, Gold Coast, Africa, 377 South Dakota, 660, 758
Selukwe, Southern Rhodesia, 785 South Lorraine, Ontario, 605, 607
Sennewitz, Halle, Germany, 99 South Pass, Wyoming, 669
Serbia, 475, 613, 881 South Varanger, Norway, 313
Seven Devils Mts., Idaho, 515, 697 Southern Republic mine, Republic, Washington,
Seward Peninsula, Alaska, 238, 727 461, 602
Shamva mine, South Rhodesia, 683 Southwest Africa, 415, 777
Shannon Mt., Arizona, 709, 719 Spain, 218, 339, 386, 880
Shasta Co., California, 421, 620, 715 Sperenberg, Berlin, Germany, 99, 131
Shaw mine, Eldorado Co., California, 551 Spindletop, Texas, 334
Sheep Creek, Alaska, 671 Sprudel, Carlsbad, Bohemia, 54, 86
Sherritt-Gordon mine, Manitoba, 664, 687 Stanley Basin, Idaho, 464
Siam, 645, 657, 882 Star of Colac mine, Western Australia, 681
Siberia, 239, 732, 882 Stassfurt, Germany, 337
Sicily, 381, 384, 403 Steamboat Springs, Nevada, 48, 66, 84, 471
Siegen, Germany, 187, 636 Sterling Hill, Franklin, New Jersey, 738
Siegerland, Rhenish Prussia, 880 Stewart, British Columbia, 126
Sierra Co., California, 547 Stirling, Scotland, 514
Sierra de Cordova, Argentina, 660 Stratton’s Independence mine, Cripple Creek,
Sierra de Umango, Argentina, 496 Colorado, 60, 494
Sierra Famatina, Argentina, 613 Striegau, Silesia, 753
Sierra Mojada, Coahuila, Mexico, 599, 600 Styria, Austria, 388, 636, 748
Sierra Nevada, 38, 223, 229, 421, 645, 554, 890 Success mine, Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, 547
Silesia, 427, 633, 881 Sudbury, Ontario, 618, 779, 803, 868
Silver Bell, Arizona, 712, 722 Sulitjelma, Norway, 811
Silver City, Idaho, 447 Sullivan mine, British Columbia, 633, 693
Silver Cliff, Colorado, 76, 499 Sulphur, Calcasieu Co., Louisiana, 382
Silver Crown lode, Silverton, Colorado, 157 Sulphur Bank, California, 55, 77, 472
Silver Islet, Lake Superior, 604 Sulphur mine, Beaver Valley, Utah, 51
Silver Peak, Nevada, 768 Sulphur Springs, Arkansas, 72
Silver Plume, Colorado, 132 Sulz, Wurttemberg, 99
Silver Reef, Harrisburg district, Utah, 407 Sumatra, 498, 644, 725, 883
Silver Wreath vein, Willow Creek, Idaho, 537 Summit Co., Colorado, 770
Silverton, Colo., 148, 164, 457, 503 Sumpter, Oregon, 869
Simplon, France, 99 Sunnyside mine, Silverton district, Colorado, 563
Sinbad Valley, Colorado, 411 Susanville, Oregon, 464
Singhbum, India, 398 Swazie township, Ontario, 663
Singkep Island, 645, 657 Swaziland, 883
Siskiyou Co., California, 545 Sweden, 263, 312, 414, 688, 739, 744, 790, 879
Skaggs Springs, California, 56 Switzerland, 392, 611
Skrikerum, Sweden, 496 Sylvanite mine, Kirkland Lake district, Ontario,
Skutterud, Norway, 748 667
Slocan, British Columbia, 569, 628
Smuggler Hill mine, Aspen, Colorado, 590 T
Smuggler-Union mine, Telluride, Colorado, 187,
502 Taberg, Sweden, 741, 789
Smyrna, Asia Minor, 785, 798 Tacoma, Washington, 225
Snake River, Idaho, 225, 567 Talcville, New York, 393
Snake River canon, Oregon, 515 Tamarack mine, Houghton, Michigan, 519, 521
Snarum, Norway, 748, 787 Tamaulipas, Mexico, 712
Snowy Peaks, Alaska, 419 Tamaya mines, Chile, 684
Socavon de la Virgen, Oruro, Bolivia, 580, 877 Taos Co., New Mexico, 770
Soden, Germany, 47
Solenhofen, Bavaria, 258 Tarapaca province, Chile, 324
Solikamsk, Russia, 339 Tarkwa, Gold Coast, Africa, 246
908 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Tarnowitz, Silesia, 427 Tuxpamfield, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 99
Tasmania, 247, 666 , 884 Twin Buttes, Arizona, 712
Tavoy district, Burma, 660 Tyee, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, 619
Tech-Hughes mine, Kirkland Lake district, Tyrol, 332, 611
Ontario, 193, 667, 668
Tecolote district, New Mexico, 407 U
Tehuantepec isthmus, Mexico, 334 Ukiah Vichy Spring, California, 56
Telemarken, Norway, 146 Uncia, Bolivia, 121, 656
Telluride district, Colorado, 602, 605 Union of South Africa, 775, 777, 786
Temescal Mts., California, 656 Unionville, Nevada, 583
Teniente, Chile, 685 United Eastern mine, Arizona, 483
Tenmile district, Colorado, 594 United Verde mine, Jerome, Arizona, 39, 620, 840
Tennessee, 272, 286, 352, 369, 386, 437 Upper Silesia, 423
Teplitz, Bohemia, 55, 71 Ural Mts., Russia, 239, 246, 396, 683, 778, 780,
Terlingua district, Texas, 465, 470, 869 794, 880
Texas, 80, 320, 333, 339, 362, 406, 892 Utah, 288, 410, 474, 486, 531, 537, 891
Thames district, New Zealand, 114, 469, 479 Utah Hot Springs, Ogden, Utah, 46
Thermopolis, Wyoming, 380 Utica mine, Angels Camp, California, 534
Thetford, Quebec, 396
Thorn Mt. mine, North Carolina, 759 V
Three Rivers district, Quebec, 264
Thuringia, Germany, 269 Vaal River, South Africa, 250
Tibet, 326 Valenciana mine, Guanajuato, Mexico, 446
Ticonderoga, New York, 730, 731 Vallalta-Sagron, 466
Tiger-Poorman mine, Idaho, 573 Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska, 113
Tillingerode, Harz Mountains, 498 Vanadium, Colorado, 410
Tilly Foster mine, New York, 743 Vancouver, British Columbia, 621
Timiskaming district, Ontario, 606 Vancouver Island, British Columbia, 510, 707, 889
Tintic, Utah, 40, 175, 176 178, 686, 819 Veitsch, Styria, 389
Tintic Standard mine, Utah, 588 Vekol, Arizona, 712
Tinton, Black Hills, South Dakota, 760 Velardefia, Durango, Mexico, 703
Toledo, Ohio, 402 Venezuela, 294, 885
Toliman Canyon, Hidalgo, Mexico, 598, 599 Ventura Co., California, 328
Tom Reed mine, Arizona, 449, 483 Vera Cruz, Mexico, 9, 99
Tomboy mine, Telluride, Colorado, 602, 860 Vermilion district, Minnesota, 298, 305, 307
Tombstone, Arizona, 363 Vermilion mine, Sudbury, Ontario, 805
Tonopah, Nevada, 76, 142, 447, 461, 486, 866 Vermont, 393, 396
Tonopah-Belmont mine, Tonopah, Nevada, 488 Vesuvius, 113
Tonopah Extension mine, Tonopah, Nevada, 488 Vichy, France, 55, 86
Tonopah mine, Tonopah, Nevada, 488 Victoria, Australia, 228, 230, 248, 544, 556, 884
Toronto, Ontario, 604 Victoria mine, Sudbury, Ontario, 805
Tower, Minnesota, 305 Victoria Reef, Bendigo, Australia, 60, 560
Townsite mine, Cobalt, Ontario, 609 Vieille Montagne, Belgium, 426, 853
Trabia-Tallarita basin, Sicily, 381 Vigsnas, Norway, 811
Trail batholith, British Columbia, 686 Vila Apacheta, Bolivia, 580
Transbaikalian provinces, Russia, 514, 754 Village Deep mine, Rand, South Africa, 241, 244
Transvaal, South Africa, 219, 389, 683, 781, 783, Villeder, Morbihan, France, 649
884 Vindicator mine, Cripple Creek, Colorado, 494
Transylvania, 332, 334, 444, 475, 881 Vipond mine, Porcupine district, Ontario, 664
Travancore, India, 249, 787 Virgilina district, Virginia, 612, 821
Treadwell mine, Alaska, 14, 39, 672 Virginia, 358, 369, 386, 393, 400, 437, 527, 661,
Tres Hermanos, New Mexico, 851 758, 761
Trinity Co., California, 545 Virginia, Minnesota, 304
Tri-state district, 429, 441 Virginia City, Nevada, 444
Tsumeb, South West Africa, 689, 841, 873 Virginia Hot Springs, Virginia, 44
Tuceon, Arizona, 722 Virginia Range, Nevada, 488
Tulameen district, British Columbia, 247, 779 Virginius vein, Ouray, Colorado, 501
Tully, New York, 330 Vitim river, Siberia, 240
Tunis, 284, 287, 883 Volterra, Italy, 526
Tuollavara, Sweden, 793 Vosges Mts., France, 70, 74
Tuolumne Co., California, 547 Vulcano, Eolian Islands, 112
Turkestan, 405, 882
Turkey, 329, 798 W
Turret, Colorado, 803
Tuscany, Italy, 326, 466 Wabana, Newfoundland, 270, 277, 310
Tusc&rora, Nevada, 444, 447, 892 Wagon Wheel Gap, Colorado, 71, 635
 INDEX OF LOCALITIES 909
Waihi, New Zealand, 447, 469, 479 Wieliczka, Galicia, 332
Wales, 266 Wiesbaden, Germany, 46, 47, 75
Walhalla, Victoria, Australia, 560 Wilberforce, Ontario, 763
Wall mine, Virgilina, North Carolina, 821 Wilkinson Co., Georgia, 378
Wallapai district, Arizona, 578 Willow Creek, Idaho, 538
Wallaroo, South Australia, 884 Wind River Range, Wyoming, 422
War Eagle mine, Rossland, British Columbia, 686 Windham Bay, Alaska, 671
Wardner mines, Idaho, 60, 573 Wisconsin, 296, 345, 386, 436, 441, 518
Warren, Idaho, 464 Witwatersrand, South Africa, 101, 240, 884
Warren Co., New York, 731 Wolcott, Wayne Co., New York, 273
Warrior mine, Miami, Arizona, 836 Wood River district, Idaho, 560, 667
Wasatch Mts., 288, 584 Woods Creek, Montana, 872
Washington, 225, 465, 890 Woods Point, Victoria, Australia, 146, 560
Washington, Arizona, 712 Wrangell, Alaska, 400
Washington, California, 238, 547 Wrangell Range, Alaska, 419
Washington Co., Maine, 770 Wright-Hargraves mine, Kirkland Lake, 667, 668
Washington Co., Missouri, 369, 399, 441 Wyoming, 311, 316, 322, 380, 406, 889
Washington Co., New York, 731 Wyssokaja Gora, Russia, 713, 794
Waterberg, Transvaal, 783
Webb City, Missouri, 430 Y
Webster, Jackson Co., North Carolina, 797
Webster Co., South Carolina, 352 Yauli district, Peru, 465
Weeks Island, Louisiana, 334 Yavapai Co., Arizona, 669
Wellington mine, Breckenridge, Colorado, 540, Yellow Pine District, Idaho, 470
541 Yellow Pine District, Nevada, 779
Wermland, Sweden, 741 Yellowstone Park, 49, 66, 69, 83
West Columbia, Texas, 333 Yogo Gulch, Montana, 797
West End mine, Tonopah, Nevada, 487 Yorkshire district, England, 274
West Gore mine, Nova Scotia, 877 Ytterby, Sweden, 762
West Indies, 258, 368 Yuba Co., California, 421
West Point, California, 547 Yuba River, Placer Co., California, 230
West Virginia, 266, 272, 335 Yukon region, 219, 768
Westchester Co., New York, 797 Yuma, Arizona, 889
Western Australia, 221, 294, 677, 761 Yunnan Province, China, 645
Westphalia, Germany, 72, 266, 403, 635
Westralia— Mt. Morgan mine, Western Australia, Z
678
Whakerewarewa Springs, Roturoa, New Zealand, Zacatecas, Mexico, 604, 712
68 Zambesi River, Africa, 629
Wheal Vor mine, Cornwall, 653 Zeehan, Tasmania, 657
Wheeling, West Virginia, 35 Zeile mine, Mother Lode, California, 552
White Channel, Klondike, Alaska, 230, 233, 239 Zillerthal, Tyrol, 611
White Horse, Northwest Territory, 707 Zimapan, Mexico, 696, 711, 725
White Knob, Idaho, 702, 706 Zinnwald, Saxony, 146, 664
White River region, Alaska, 515 Zirconia, North Carolina, 763
Wickes, Montana, 281 Zuni Mts., New Mexico, 407
 SUBJECT INDEX
Principal compounds and uses of elements in ita lic s.
A Analyses, phosphates, 291
rock alteration, epithermal, 459, 460, 462
Absorption of water in rocks, 33 hypothermal, 665, 675, 681
Acrobatholithic deposits, 851 mesothermal, 535, 537, 541, 624
Adularia salts, oceanic, 317
alpine veins, 610 sea waters, 37, 317
epithermal, 446 sediments, 253
spring deposits, 73 sodium carbonate waters, 54
Algae, 270 soil colloid, 348
Alkalinity of waters, 58 spring deposits, 69
Alpine type veins, 610 spring water, 262
Alteration (see Rock alteration) sulphate waters, 50
Aluminous deposits, 397 sulphide-bearing peridotite, 803
alunite, 398 weathering changes, 350
anhydrous silicates, 397 zinc concentrates, 432
dumortierite, 397 Anamorphism, 313
pyrophyllite, 397 Andalusite, 397
Aluminum Anhydrite deposits, 320
b a u x ite (r e fra c to ry , o re), 373 formation, 318
c o r u n d u m (a b ra sive, r e fra c to r y ) , 796 Anticline, 127
cryo lite (ore, flu x ) , 765 Antimony
r u b y a n d sa p p h ir e (g e m s), 250, 777 minerals, 876
tenor of ore, 15 production, 474
Alunite s tib n ite a n d s u lp h a n tim o n id e s (m eta llic ore), 473
deposits, 398, 510 Apatite deposits, 763
origin, 341 Apomagmatic, 121
replacement, 458 Argentite-gold-quartz veins, 486
Amygdaloids, 144, 521 Argentite veins, 490
Anaerobic bacteria, 385, 440 Arsenic
Analyses m e ta llic a rse n id e s a n d s u lp k a rse n id e s (m a n u ­
bauxite, 378 fa c tu r e o f A siO z , etc.), 633, 769
“blue ground,” 775 minerals, 875
bog iron ores, 263 production, 634
brines, 71, 335 Arsenopyrite-gold deposits, 725
calcium carbonate waters, 43 Asbestos, 394
chloride and silicate waters, 48 amphibole, 394
chloride waters, 46 serpentine, 395
clay, 352 uses, 396
Cleveland Hills iron ores, 275 Assay, valuation table, 18
Clinton iron ores, 274 walls, 164
copper protores, 836 Atmosphere
cupriferous shales, 417 composition, 26
disseminated lead-zinc ore, 439
"dry ores," 312, 313 B
gold ore, Goldfield, 512
greisens and granites, 648 Bacteria, 261, 270, 385
ilmenite ores, 789 Banded texture, 184, 294
interpretation water, 57 Bar theory, salt deposition, 319
iron ores, Adirondacks, 795 Barite deposits, 398
Cuba, 360 Barium
Sweden, 741 b a rite, 398
iron silicates, anhydrous, 268 w itk e rite , 400
Lake Superior iron ores-, 300 Barrel quartz veins, 131, 562
manganese ore, 367 Barriers, impermeable, 200
mine waters, 59, 61, 525 Base metal veins, epithermal, 498
nitrate, 325 Bauxite deposits, 373
911
 912 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Beach placers, 226 Calcium carbonate
Bed veins, 160 relation to ore deposits, 259
Bentonite, 216 spring deposits, 65
Beryl deposits, 765 underground waters, 41
Beryllium, b eryl (B e s a lts , ore), 765 Calcium chloride
Biochemical deposits, 335
mineral deposits, 254 in underground waters, 44
processes, 11, 257, 270, 386 Caliche, 257, 324
Bismuth Capillary openings in rocks, 32
minerals, 874 Carbon
n a tive , su lp h id e , a n d su lp k o -a a lts {m eta llic d ia m o n d {gem , a b ra siv e ), 250, 774
o re ), 512, 769 g ra p h ite {refra cto ry, lu b r ic a n t), 729
Black band ores, 266 Carbonaceous matter, precipitant, 198
Black sand, 249 Carbonate waters, 42, 53, 60
Blanket deposits spring deposits, 65
chalcocite, 196, 628, 835 Carbonatization, definition, 174
lead-zinc, 431 Carnotite, 410
Blocky ground, 152 Cassiterite placers, 247
Bog Cassiterite veins
iron ores, 262 alteration, 647
manganese ores, 280 hypothermal, 643
Bonanzas, 451, 452 metasomatic processes, 645
Book structure, 170 mineral association, 643
Borate deposits, 326 origin, 649
marine, 327 paragenesis, 644
marsh, 327 pyrometasomatic, 727
occurrence, 326 rhyolite flows, 659
origin, 328 Caves, origin, 145
Tertiary lake beds, 327 Cavities in rocks, 144
Borate minerals, 326 Celestite, 382, 402
Bornite Cementation
magmatite deposits, 809 definition. 92
quartz veins, 612 zone of, 94, 818
Boron Centrifugal replacements, 185
b o ra cite, 327 Centripetal replacements, 184
sa sso lite , 114 Cerium
s o d iu m a n d c a lc iu m borates {v a rio u s in d u s tr ia l m o n a zite , etc., 248, 761
u s e s), 326 Chalcedony
springs, 53, 84 colloidal origin, 189
to u r m a lin e , d a to lite , etc. {g em s), 515, 643, 701, in springs, 69
766 Chalcocite
Brecciation blanket deposits, 196, 628, 835
collapse, 149 colloidal, 420, 842
fault, 134 hypogene, 839
origin in veins, 170 ores, relation to intrusives, 850
Brines, 335 origin, 837
bromine in, 335 sandstone deposits, 406
potassium in, 342 zones, 842
Broken ground, 431 oxidation, 842
Bromine Chalcophile elements, 8
a lk a lin e b ro m id e s, 335, 342 Chalcopyrite deposits, pyrometasomatic, 717
production, 335 Chalk, 257
Buried placers, 227 Chambered veins, 163
Chamosite, 269
C Chapeau de fer, 164
Chemistry of
Cadmium bauxite formation, 374
m e ta llic ores, 632 biochemical processes, 254, 270, 285, 384
oxidation, 870 gold solution, 236, 857
Calaverite, 493 graphite formation, 730
Calcium metasomatism, 455, 533, 649
native copper deposition, 523, 843
ca lcite, 256-260 native silver deposition, 601, 862
g y p s u m a n d a n h y d r ite , 320 oxidation of ores, 821
p h o sp h a tes {fe rtilize r), 282-292 sedimentation, 253
 SUBJECT INDEX 913
Chemistry of, serpentinization, 387 Colloids, kaolin, 350
supergene sulphides, 825 lead-zinc, 427, 431
underground waters, 58 magnesite, 388
vanadium and uranium ores, 409 manganese, 871
Chert mineral solutions, 24, 125
deposits, 260 molybdenum, 874
lead-zinc ores, 431 nickel-cobalt, 610, 870
Chimneys (see Pipes) oolites, 267
Chloride waters platinum and palladium, 868
analyses, 46, 48 replacement, 189, 610
in igneous rocks, 47 silica, 66, 180, 189
mine, 59 silver, 610, 861
in sedimentary rocks, 44 soil, 347
Chlorine, alkaline chloride {soda, HCl, etc.), 329 tin, 659, 872
Chloritization, definition, 174 uranium, 410, 873
Chromite Coloradoite, 463
deposits, 782, 784 Colorados, 164
tenor of ore, 15 Columbite deposits, 761
Chromium Columbium, tantalum, etc.
chromite {refractory, metallic ore), 371, 782, 784 columbates, tantalates, 761
oxidation, 871 Comb structure, 168
production, 786 Composite veins, 158
tenor of ore, 15 Composition of
Chrysotile asbestos, 396 earth, 2
Cinnabar deposits, 463 earth’s crust, 4, 6
Circulating atmospheric waters, deposits formed fumaroles, 113
by, 209, 379 hydrous iron silicates, 268
Clay igneous rocks, 4, 6
analyses, 352 magmas, 103
definition, 350 oceanic salts, 27
minerals, 353 sea waters, 27
properties, and uses, 350 underground waters, 41
Clay deposits vein-forming solutions, 123
detrital, 215 volcanic sublimates, 112
diaspore, 358 Compressive stress, openings produced by, 150
hydrothermal, 351 Concentration processes, 10
origin, 353 Concretions
residual, 350 cassiterite, 659
transported, 351 galena, 405
Clinton iron ores, 271 iron, 265, 357
analysis, 274 manganese, 281, 364
tenor, 14 origin, 167
Cobalt structure, 167
deposits {metallic ore, pigment), 602, 632, 636, Conglomerates
694 copper-bearing, 519
minerals, 608, 636, 870 gold-bearing, 240
oxidation, 870 Conjugated fractures, 151
production, 636 Connate water, 30, 45
Cobalt-tourmaline veins, 694 Contact deposits (see Pyrometasomatic)
Cockade structure, 170 Contact metamorphism {see Pyrometamorphism)
Colloform, 25 Contact veins, 163
Colloidal processes Conversion table, weights, 19
in mineral solutions, 24, 125 Copper
in ore deposits, 189, 236, 264, 279, 427, 431 deposits {metallic ores), 403, 415, 514, 612,
in oxidation, 819 619, 628, 684-689, 735, 809, 844
in sulphide enrichment, 827, 842, 861 minerals, 831
in weathering, 95, 346, 347 oxidation, 832
Colloids production, 16, 526, 615, 620—623, 685-689,
antimony, 877 736, 845-850
arsenates, 875 tenor of ore, 14
. copper, 842 Copper-molybdenum veins, 690
definition, 24
gold, 237, 857 Copper, native
iron oxides, hydrous, 264 deposits, 514
iron silicates, hydrous, 268 Copper in supergene enrichment, 831
914 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Copper, crystallization and relations of sulphides, Detrital deposits, mon&zite placers, 248
839 origin, 213
deposits, 844 placers, 217
minerals, 831 platinum placers, 246
oxidation, 842 precious stones, placers, 250
precipitation, 832 quartz, 213
solution, 832 Deuteric minerals, 88, 185, 703
sulphides, 832 Diamond deposits
theory of, 837 magmatic, 774
Copper-titanium veins, 690 placer, 250
Copper-tourmaline veins, 684 Diatomaceous earth, 260
Copper veins Differentiation of magmas
hypothermal, 689 by fractional crystallization, 10, 110
mesothermal, 612 by gas transfer, 111
pyrometasomatic, 717 pegmatitic stage, 115
Cordierite type deposits, 743 pneumatolytic stage, 116
Cornubianite, 647 by unmixing, 10
Corundum deposits, 796 Diffusion
Country rock formula, 176
effect on replacement, 174 principle of Soret, 109
on veins, 162 in replacement, 176
inclusions in veins, 171 Dip
Cretaceous metallogenetic epoch, 881, 888, 893 fault, 136
“Critical level,” 90 mineral deposits, 155
Critical temperature, 20, 117 shift, 138
Crust of earth, 4 slip, 137
composition, 4, 6 slip faults, 139
minerals, 7 throw, 139
Crustification, 168, 171 Disintegration of rocks, 89, 344
Cryolite deposits, 765 Dislocations
Crystalline minerals, 24 definition, 135
Crystallization relation to veins, 164
copper sulphide, 839 Disperse phase, 24
force of, 153, 170, 642 Dispersion medium, 24
fractional, 10, 110 Displacement, 136
law of, 96 Disseminated deposits, 423, 628, 730, 746, 848
magmatic, 104 Dissemination, 92
metamorphic, 96 Dolomite deposits, 259
power of, 175 Dolomitization, 147
process of, 24 Domes
replacement, 92 salt, 333, 382
Crystalloblastic series, 177 sulphur, 382
Crystalloids, 24 Downthrow, 135
Crystals, mix, 106 Drag, 132
Cyanite, 397 folds, 131
D Drusy structure, 168
Dry iron ores, 312
Daubr6es experiment Dumortierite, 397
on tin chloride, 651 Dynamic metamorphism, 91
on tortional stress, 147, 151
on water flow, 37 E
Decomposition
metamorphic, 92 Earth
minerals, 89, 346 composition, 3
rocks, 89, 344 crust, 4
in weathering, 94, 344, 813 interior of, 2
Deep circulating waters, deposits formed by, temperature, 98
definition, 209 zones, 2
Detrital deposits, 213 Eclogite zone, 3
cassiterite placers, 247 Economic geology
clay, 215 definition, 9
definition, 207 scope, 1
Fuller’s earth, 216 Eiserner hut, 164
gold-bearing conglomerates, 240 Elements
gold placers, 218 circulation, 10
 SUBJECT INDEX 915
Elements, concentration, 10 F
distribution, 2
relative abundance, 6, 6 Fahlbands, 747
Eluvial deposits, 221 Fault
Elvans, 652 breccia, 134
Emanations dip, 134
igneous, 86 line, 134
magmatic, 116, 699, 752 plane, 134
volcanic, 112 space, 134
Emery deposits, 797 strike, 134
Emulsoids, 25 surface, 134
Enargite-pyrite veins, 614 Faults
Enrichment (see also Supergene; Hypogene) classification, 135, 139
phosphates, 287 closed, 134
Eolian deposits, 221 complex, 141
Epigenetic deposits definition, 134
definition, 155, 204 dip, 136
form, 155 dip-slip, 139
ore-shoots, 192 longitudinal, 136
texture, 168 mineralization of, 141
Epimetamorphic zone, 95 nomenclature, 134, 135
Epithermal deposits, 444 normal, 140
alteration in, 455 oblique, 136
argentite, 470 oblique-slip, 140
argent! le-gold-quartz veins, 486 open, 134
base metals, 498 parallel displacement, 135
definition, 210 reverse, 140
depth, 453 rotatory, 135
general features, 444 in stratified rocks, 136
genesis, 455 strike, 136
gold-alunite, 510 strike-slip, 139
gold-quartz in andesite, 475 transverse, 137
in rhyolite, 484 vertical, 140
gold selenide, 496 Feldspar deposits, 758
gold telluride, 491 Fertilizers, 284, 337
metasomatism, 455, 459, 46 Filling
mineral succession, 122, 450 colloids in, 189
mineralization, successive phases, 497 Fineness, placer gold, 233
minerals, 122, 445 Fissures
older representatives, 453 compressive, 150
conjugated, 151
ore-shoots, 451 effect of rocks, 162
origin, 444 epithermal, 445
oxidation, 451 faults, 132
paragenesis, 450 hypothermal, 642
quicksilver, 463 lode, 158
secondary processes, 451 mesothermal, 530
stibnite, 473 open, 152
temperature, 210, 454 pyrometasomatic, 700
types, 452 supergene ores, 814
zeolitic replacement, 451 tensile, 146
torsional, 147
Equal volume, law of, 92 Flamboyant structure, 170
Equilibrium Flats, 437
diagram, 107 Flow of underground water, 32
pressure effect, 21 Flowage, zone, 94
Eurite, 740 Fluid inclusions, 170, 646, 657,
611f 711, 753,
Eutectic 766

definition, 106 Fluorine

intergrowths, 840 c ry o lite (a lu m in u m ore, flu x ) , 765
flu o rite (flu x , etc.), 70, 634
magmatic, 106 in springs, 69, 88
pseudo, 184, 820 in sublimates, 112
Evaporation causing precipitation, 22, 317 in underground waters, 53
Expansion joints, 147 Fluorite deposits, 634
916 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Fluviatile placers, 226 Gold, conversion table, 19
Folds deposits (m e ta llic ore), 218, 240, 475-490, 491-
anticlinal, 127 498, 610, 544-565, 660-684, 686, 725, 859
classes, 127 fineness, 233, 858
drag, 131 oxidation, 859
monoclinal, 127 placers, 218
overturned, 128 production, 16, 238, 241, 488, 491, 510, 551,
pitch of, 128 557, 662, 664, 667, 669, 678, 687
quaquaversal, 128 in rocks, 8
synclinal, 127 in sea water, 7
Footwall, 134 solution, 236, 858
Force of crystallization, 153, 170 in springs, 73, 76
Form of mineral deposits, 154 supergene enrichment, 856
classification by, 203 tenor of ore, 14
ore-shoots, 191 volume and weight, 17
pyrometasomatic, 700 Gold-alunite deposits, 510
veins, 155 Gold-arsenopyrite deposits, 725
Fractional crystallization, 10, 110 Gold-copper deposits, 686
Fracture, zone of, 94 Gold placers, 218
Fractures buried, 227
conjugated, 151 classification, 226
effect on water flow, 36 distribution, 218
modes of origin, 146 economic notes, 238
Free water eluvial, 219
amount in earth’s crust, 40 eolian, 221
definition, 32 fineness, 233
Frozen veins, 156 grade of water courses, 234
Fuller's earth, 216 marine, 226
Fumaroles origin, 219
composition, 113 pay streak, 235
ore deposits, 454 Rand conglomerate, 240
relation to bed rock, 233
G to primary deposits, 237
solution and precipitation, 236
Galena-siderite veins, 570 stream, 221
Gangue Gold-quartz veins
definition, 13 epithermal, 475, 484
minerals, spring deposits, 69 hypothermal, 683
Ganister, 215 mesothermal, 544
Garnet deposits, 734 metasomatic processes in, 535, 673
Garnetization Gold selenide veins, 496
hypothermal, 691 Gold telluride veins, 491, 677
pyrometasomatic, 702, 706 Gossan, 164, 815
Garnierite, 25, 371 Gouge, 134
Gas transfer, differentiation by, 10, 111 clay, 155
Gases in Gradients, geothermal, 98
fumaroles, 113 Granulites, 313, 740
magmas, 111, 124 Graphite deposits, 729
volcanic springs, 85 Gravels
Gash veins, 145, 160 auriferous, 223, 238
Gel bar, river, 224
definition, 25 Greenalite, 269
minerals, 25, 610 Greensands, 268
Gems (see Precious stones) Greisen
Genesis (see Origin) definition, 645
Genetic classifications, 204 replacement, 181, 645, 727
Geologic body, definition, 9 Ground water
Geological thermometer, 640 composition, 41
Geological thermometry, 207 in crystalline rocks, 34, 37
Geothermal gradient, 98 depth, 37, 40
Geysers, 48, 52, 68 in gravels, 33
Glauconite, 268 level, 40
Gold movements, 31
assay value, 18 in sedimentary rocks, 35
colloids, 237, 857 zones, 34
 SUBJECT INDEX 917
Guano, 285 Hypothermal deposits, gold-bearing veins, Brazil,
Gypsum deposits, 320 675
occurrence, 320 gold-copper, 680
precipitation, 317 gold-quartz veins, 660, 683
salt domes, 334, 382 gold-telluride veins, 677
stability and solubility, 321 high-temperature minerals, 637
sulphur in, 384 lead-silver-zinc, 691
metasomatism, 639 , 645, 673, 680
H mineral succession, 122, 643
physical conditions, 210, 640
Hade, 134, 155 wolframite, 659
Hammock structure, 158
Hanging wall, 134 I
Hartsalz, 338
Heave. 138 Igneous
Helium in underground fluids, 80 emanations, 86
Hematite ores metamorphism, 91
Brazilian, 314 ore deposits, texture, 166
brown, 355 Igneous rocks
Lake Superior, 295 average composition, 4
lateritic ore, 359 contraction joints in, 146
oolitic, 271-280 corundum in, 747
Hercynian metallogenetic epoch, 880 influence of composition, 701
High-temperature minerals, 637, 694 origin, 103
Hornfels, 647 porosity, 32
Horses, 134, 163 rarer elements in, 6
Horsetail structure, 162 relation to ore deposits, 209, 444, 514, 529, 637,
Hot springs 695, 772
carbonate, 42, 53 springs, 81
chloride, 47 underground waters, 34, 42, 47, 52, 53
deposits, 65 Ilmenite deposits, 786
relation to cinnabar deposits, 123, 471 Immiscibility, liquid, in magmas, 109, 773
to ore deposits, 123, 454 Impervious
sulphate, 49, 52 barriers, 200
sulphide, 56 basements, 201
Hydrology, 31 Impregnation, 92
Hydrosphere, 27 Imprisoned fluids, 29
composition, 26 Inclusions in veins, 153, 171
Hydrostatic level, 31 Incongruent melting, 110
Hydrothermal Indicators, 198
metamorphism, 91 Injected pyritic deposits, 810
minerals, 807 Intergrowths
replacements, 185 pseudoeutectic, 184, 820
Hypogene, definition, 816 Interior of earth, 2
Hypogene deposits Interpretation of water analyses, 57
epithermal, 444 Intersections of veins, effect on ore deposition,
hypothermal, 637 201
magmatic, 772 Intrusive magmas, relation to ore deposits, 114
mesothermal, 529 Intrusive rocks (see Igneous rocks)
pyrometasomatic, 695 alteration, 702
Hypogene enrichment Iodine
processes, 196 a lk a lin e io d id es a n d c a lc iu m io d a te, 325
Hypometamorphic zone, 96 production, 325
Hypothermal deposits, 637 Iridium, palladium, rhodium, and osmium
cassiterite, 643, 658, 659 m e ta llic ores, 246, 778-784
classes, 643 production, 247, 780, 804
cobalt-tourmaline, 694 Iridosmine, 246, 780
copper, 684, 689 Iron
copper-molybdenum, 690 deposits 0m eta llic o re), 261, 293, 354, 713, 739,
copper-titanium, 690 786
copper-tourmaline, 684 formations, 299
definition, 210
depth, 641 minerals, 264, 268, 829
Assuring and filling, mode of, 642 native, 784
general features, 637 oxidation, 828
918 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Iron, production, 16, 272, 274, 276, 296, 301, Lead-silver veins, 574
356, 716, 791, 793, 794 Lead-silver-zinc deposits, 691
tenor of ores, 13 Lead in supergene enrichment, 853
Iron hydroxide minerals, 853
minerals, 264 reactions, 854
spring deposits, 65 oxidation, 855
Iron silicates, hydrous, 263 sulphides, 855
Ironstone, 164 Lead-tourmaline veins, 691
Lead-zinc deposits in sedimentary rocks, 423
J Le Chatelier’s law of pressure, 21
Length of veins, 164
Jasperoids, definition, 181 Lenticular ore deposits, 159, 194
Joints Leptites, 312, 740
contraction, 146, 147 Leptothermal, 210
definition, 143 Liesegang rings, 190
expansion, 147 Lime silicates {see Silicates)
origin, 146 Limestone
Jurassic iron ores chalk, 257
England, 274 definition, 256
Lorraine, 275 deposits, 256
Jurassic metallogenetic epoch, 831 hydraulic, 258
Juvenile lime, 258
gases, 29 lithographic, 258
waters, 29, 81 origin, 256
replacement deposits, 563
K r61e in ore deposits, 259
Limoni te
Kainite, 338 colloidal, 25
Kaolin, origin of deposits, 262, 354
epithermal, 182, 457 oolitic, 269, 275
hypothermal, 647 spring deposits, 65
weathering, 347, 363 Linked veins, 158
Kaolin minerals, 353 Liquid immiscibility, 109
Karst topography. 430 Liquid magmatic deposits (see Magmatic)
Katamorphism, 94 Liquidus, 106
Killas, 652 Lithium
Kimberlite, 775 a m b ly g o n ite , s p o d u m e n e , etc. {L i salts, g e m s), 764
Kupferschiefer 415 production, 764
in springs, 86
L in sublimates, 112
Lithographic stone, 258
Ladder veins, 159 Lithophile elements, 8
Lake waters, 28 Lit par lit injections, 691
Laterite Lodes, 158
bauxite, 374 Longitudinal fault, 136
definition, 374 Luxullianite, 645
iron ores, 359
Lavas M
basic copper-bearing, 417
relation to ore deposits, 112 Magma
Law of basins, 108, 111
crystallization, 96 constitution, 103
equal volumes, 92, 175 crystallization, 104
pressure, 21 definition, 103
solubility, 22, 826 liquid immiscibility in, 109
temperature, 21 relation to mineral deposits, 103, 114, 698
Lead Magmatic
deposits (m e ta llic o re ), 403, 423, 498, 666, differentiation, 108, 110, 772
581, 598, 691, 724 emanations, 116, 699, 752
minerals, 853 eutectic, 106
oxidation, 854 gases, 111, 124
production, 16, 429, 434, 436, 438, 508, 570, products, 109
584, 588, 691, 599, 691 waters, 29, 81
tenor of ore, 14 Magmatic deposits, 772
Lead-silver replacements, 598 chromite, 782, 784
 SUBJECT INDEX 919
Magmatic deposits, corundum, 796 Mesothermal deposits, arsenic, 633
diamonds, 774 cadmium, 632
general features, 772 cobalt, 636
ilmenite, 786 copper, 612, 628, 629
iron and nickel, 784 definition, 210
magnetite, 790 depth, 210, 529, 531
platinum and palladium, 778 fluorite, 634
precious stones, 777 general, 529
sulphide ores, 782, 798 gold-quartz veins, 544, 545, 555
temperature, 773 gold replacements, 563, 565
types, 774 lead-silver replacements, 598
Magnesian deposits, 387 lead-silver veins, 574
magnesite, 388 metasomatism, 532—543
meerschaum, 390 mineral succession, 122, 544, 616
serpentine, 387 native silver, 600
talc and soapstone, 391 paragenesis, 543
Magnesite, 388 pyritic copper, 619
Magnesium pyritic galena-quartz veins, 577
chloride and sulphate (industrial uses, ore), 336 pyritic replacements, 618
magnesite (refractory , ore), 388 siderite, 635
production, 390 silver-lead replacements, 581
Magnetite deposits, magmatic, 790 silver-lead veins, 565
pyrometasomatic, 713, 739 silver-tin veins, 579
Manganese temperature, 210, 529, 531
deposits (ore, chemical uses), 280, 303, 362, 737 tungsten, 596
minerals, 362, 871 wall rock alteration, 533, 537, 541
oxidation, 871 zeolitic, 610
primary sources, 363 Mesozoic metallogenetic epochs, 889
production, 282, 303, 369 Metacolloids
tenor of ore, 15 definition, 25
Maps minerals, 25
Australia, east, 557 Metacrystic series, 177
Australia, Western, 679 Metal deposits in sandstones and shales, 403
California and Nevada, 546 copper, 415
Colorado, 500 genesis, 408
Cornwall, England, 652 origin, 404
Cuba, east, 359 vanadium and uranium, 409
Geton, Sweden, 742 Metallization, definition, 92
Katanga-Northern Rhodesian copper belt, 630 Metallogenetic
Lake Superior region, 296 elements, 8
mercury deposits, United States, 468 epochs, 878
Michigan copper region, 520 provinces, 878
Ontario, 605 Metals
South Africa, 781 assay units, 16
Texas-New Mexico potash area, 340 in classes of ore deposits, 118
Tri-state region, 430 concentration processes, 10
Marcasite, 25, 427, 830 in ocean, 27
Marine prices, 15
borates, 327 production in United States, 16
manganese, 281 relative abundance, 5, 8
oolitic iron ores, 266 Metamorphic, regional
placers, 226 minerals, 95
siderites, 265 ore deposits, 97, 211, 293, 746
Marshes, borax, 327 Metamorphic zones, 89
Meerschaum, 390 definition, 93
Mercury relation to mineral deposits, 89, 97
deposits (metallic ore), 463 Metamorphism
minerals, 463, 869 classes, 91
oxidation, 868 definition, 90
production, 466 Metamorphosed deposits
in spring deposits, 66, 68, 77, 471 class, 209
tenor of ore, 15 form, 155
Mesometamorphic zone, 95 minerals, 95, 700
Mesothermal deposits, 529 post-mineral reactions, 750
alpine, 610 sedimentary iron ores, 293
920 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Metamorphosed deposits, sulphide, 746 Mineral deposits, mechanical processes, 213
Metasomatic processes, 173 mesothermal, 529
alunitization, 458 native copper, 514
in cassiterite veins, 181, 645 ore-shoots, 191
development of kaolin, 457 orthomagmatic, 782, 809
diffusion, 176 orthotectic, 773, 801
epithermal, 182, 455 oxidation of, 813
in gold-quartz veins, 673 pegmatite, 752
hypothermal, 180, 639 perimagmatic, 121
mesothermal, 181, 532 pneumatolytic, 638, 810
prophylitization, 457 pneumotectic, 774, 801, 807
sericitization, 458 pyrometasomatic, 695
silicification, 456 regionally metamorphosed sulphide, 746
Metasomatism (see Replacement) relation to igneous rocks, 209
Metasome, 177 to magma, 103
Metastibnite, 66, 877 to springs, 74
Meteoric fluids, 79 to volcanoes and lava flows, 112
Meteoric waters, 29, 31, 79 residual, 208, 344
deposits formed by, 379 saline, 315
aluminous, 397 sedimentary, 207, 256
asbestos, 394 sedimentary iron ores regionally metamor­
barite, 398 phosed, 293
celestite and strontianite, 402 supergene, 844
copper-bearing shale, 415 surface enrichment, 211
copper, lead, vanadium, and uranium, 403, syngenetic, 154
409 technical utility of, 12
copper sulphide veins, 417, 420 telemagmatic, 121
magnesian, 387 texture, 166
magnesite, 388 volcanic, 114
meerschaum, 390 zonal theory of, 119
serpentine, 387 zones of, 120, 210
sulphur, 380 Mineral formation, 20
talc and soapstone, 391 character of solutions, 123
Meteorites, diamondiferous, 777 methods, 20
Mica deposits, 758 Mineralization
Micro-organisms (see Bacteria) colloid, 125
Mine temperatures, 101 definition, 92
Mine waters faults, 141
analyses, 59, 61, 62, 63 replacement, 173, 642, 699
carbonate, 60 solutions, 123
chloride, 58, 525 zones, 119
depth, 38, 525 Mineralizers, 118, 752, 799
hot, 62 effects, 753
molybdenum, 64 pegmatites, 752
sulphate, 60 replacement, 180, 645, 709
Mineral deposits Minerals
apomagmatic, 121 aluminum, 373
biochemical processes in, 254 antimony, 473, 876
character of solutions, 123 arsenic, 875
chemical concentration, 252 asbestos, 394
classification, 203, 211 bauxite, 373
colloidal phenomena, 125, 189 bismuth, 874
concentrated by meteoric waters, 209, 379 borax, 326
definition, 9, 12, 155 cassiterite veins, 643
detrital, 207, 213 clay, 215, 353
epigenetic, 155 cobalt-nickel, 608
epithermal, 444 colloid, 24, 125, 190
form of, 154 copper, 831
hypothermal, 637 crystalline, 24
importance of calcium carbonate in, 259 decomposition, 346
Lake Superior copper ores, 517 definition, 20
Lake Superior iron, 295 deuteric, 703
lead and zinc in sedimentary rocks, 423 epithermal, 445
magmatic, 772 Etta mine, 765
magmatic affiliations, review of, 114 formation, 20
 SUBJECT INDEX 921

Minerals, gem, 767 Nickel, tenor of ore, 15

gold, 856 Nitrate deposits, 323
high temperature, 637 Nitrogen
iron hydroxide, 264 sodium , potassium, and calcium nitrates (fertiliz­
iron silicate, hydrous, 268 ers, explosives), 232
kaolin, 353 underground waters, 80
lead, 853 Normal
liquid, 20 fault, 140
magmatic deposits, 772 shift, 138
manganese, 362 Novaculite, 214
metamorphic, 95, 700 Nuggets, 231
molybdenum, 874
nickel, 371, 608 O
pegmatitic, 756
persistent, 90 Oblique
phosphates, 282 fault, 136
plastic deformation of, 749 slip fault, 140
potash, 338 Ocean
pyrometasomatic, 700 composition, 27
quicksilver, 463 infiltration of water from, 45
rare earth, 761 metals in, 27
relative power of crystallization, 175 Ochers
replacement, 180 deposits, 370
silver, 860 springs, 65
skarn, 705 Ochsenius and Walther theory, 319
solid solutions, 186, 801, 860 Offset, 136, 138, 139
in spring deposits, 73 Onyx, 257
stability of, 89 Oolites
succession in ores, 122 colloidal, 267, 280
supergene, 825 definition, 167, 266
vanadium, uranium, 410 form, 266
zinc, 851 origin, 167, 270
Minerogenetic provinces. 878 Oolitic
Mix crystals, 106 limestone, 257
Mode of replacement, 174 marine iron ores, 266
Molybdenum hematite, 271, 277
mine waters, 64 hydrous iron silicates, 268
minerals, 874 limonite, 269, 275
molybdates, molybdenite (metallic ore), 690, 717, micro-organisms, 270
769 origin, 267, 270, 279
oxidation, 874 pyrite, 269, 275, 278
production, 771 siderite, 274
Monazite placers, 248 phosphates, 283, 286
Monocline, 127 texture, 168, 267
Mountain iron ores, 357 Opal
Mylonitization, 91 colloidal, 25
spring deposits, 69
N Openings in rocks, 144
classification by size, 32
Native copper deposits in lavas, 514 origin, 144, 150
Cacotin type, 527 persistence in depth, 33, 94
Coro-Coro, Bolivia, 527 Orbicular structures, 700, 727
Lake Superior, 517 Ore
mineral association, 515, 522 assay units, 16
Monte Catini, 526 definition, 13
source of copper, 517 production, 16
Native iron, 784 tenors, 13
Native silver deposits, 600 Ore-bodies
Necks (see Pipes) form, 154, 301
Nernst’s law of solubility, 22 nomenclature, 155
Nickel Ore deposition
deposits (metallic ore), 371, 602-610, 803 biochemical, 254
minerals, 371, 608, 870 causes, 196
oxidation, 371, 870 colloidal, 189
production, 372, 804 *evaporation, 315
922 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Ore deposition, impermeable barriers, 200 Oxidation of metallic ores, zinc, 851
intersection, 201 zones, 813
solutions, 123 Oxidized deposits, 344, 813
supergene, 823, 825 colloidal processes, 189, 346, 819
zones, 119 copper, 844
Ore deposits (see Mineral deposits) gold, 859
Ore magma, 109, 441, 704 iron, 354
Ore-shoots, 191 lead, 855
causes, 196 manganese, 362
depth, 194 mercury, 869
epithermal, 451 nickel, 371
form, 191, 195 ochers, 370
length, 195 origin, 11, 208, 346, 816
primary, 191 outcrops, 815
relation to country rock, 198 silver, 864
to impermeable barriers, 200 texture, 168, 818
to intersections, 194, 201 vanadium, 409, 415
secondary, 195 zinc, 369, 852
structural conditions, 199
successive mineralization, 195 P
supergene, 195, 852
terminology, 193 Paleozoic metallogenetic epoch, 880, 888
Oriskany iron ores, 358 Palladium (see Iridium)
Orthotectic deposits, 773, 782, 801 Paragenesis of minerals (see Succession)
Osmium (see Iridium) epithermal veins, 450
Outcrops, 815 mesothermal veins, 543
character, 164, 815 Parallel displacement faults, 135
Overthrust faults, 141, 143 Paystreak, 235
Overturned folds, 128 Pegmatite deposits, 752
Oxidation character, 754
colloidal processes, 346 economic features, 757
copper sulphides, 842 mineralizers, 752
gold, 859 occurrence, 754
lead, 854, 855 origin, 117, 753
pyrite, 60, 829 types, 756
rock weathering, 94, 344 Pegmatites, 10, 118, 752
underground waters, 52, 60 acidic, 7o6
Oxidation of metallic ores, 813 action of mineralizers in, 752
antimony, 876 basic, 757
arsenic, 875 origin, 117, 753
bismuth, 874 solutions, 117, 124
cadmium, 870 syenitic, 757
chemistry, 821, 823 texture, 166
chromium, 871 Perimagmatic, 121
copper, 844 Permo-Triassic metallogenetic epoch, 880
criteria, 818 Persistence of ore deposits in depth, 164, 196
depth, 814 Persistent minerals, 90
gold, 855 Petrogenic elements, 8
lead, 853 Petroleum, 29
manganese, 871 in salt domes, 334, 382
mercury, 868 Phosphate deposits, 283
molybdenum, 874 analyses, 291
nickel-cobalt, 870 minerals, 282
nomenclature, 816 occurrence, 287
outcrops, 815 origin, 285
platinum and palladium, 868 production, 284
principles, 816 residual, 371
pyritic, 829 sedimentary, 282
silver, 860 Phosphorus
supergene sulphides, 825 calcium phosphate (fertilizer) , 282, 371, 763, 791-
texture, 818, 820 795
tin, 872
tungsten, 872 minerals, 287
uranium, 873 monazite (thorium salts), 248, 761
vanadium, 873 turquoise (gem), 283
 SUBJECT INDEX 923
Physical chemistry of Platinum, placer, 246, 778
colloids, 24, 189 production, 247, 780, 783, 804
evaporation, 317, 321, 338 Playas, 326, 332
magmas, 104, 108, 773 Plunge, 155
mineral formation, 20 Pneumatolytic
ore genesis, 114, 640 deposits, 638, 810
ore solutions, 123 stage, 116
pegmatites, 117, 523 Pneumotectic deposits, 774, 801, 807
pyrite, marcasite, 829 Porosity of rocks, 32
replacement, 92, 174, 708, 710 Potash deposits, 336
sulphide melts, 798 Potassium
weathering, 346, 353 a lu n ite , 341, 398, 510
Physical conditions of ch lo rid e a n d s u lp h a te , 336, 342
colloidal deposition, 25, 126, 189 o la u co n ite , 268, 341
epithermal deposits, 453, 454 orth o cla se, le u c ite , etc., 341, 758
hypothermal deposits, 637, 640 Pre-Cambrian
lead-zinc deposition, 424 metallogenetic epoch, 879, 887, 889
magmas, 103 stratigraphy, 297
magmatic deposits, 773 Precious stones
mesothermal deposits, 529, 531 classification by origin, 767
metamorphism, 89 magmatic, 774, 777
ore deposition, 196, 210 pegmatites, 766
ore genesis, 114 placers, 250
oxidation, 813 Precipitants
pegmatites, 117 hypogene, 22
pyritic deposits, 618 organic, 198, 254
pyrometasomatism, 696, 710 supergene, 823
replacement, 174 Precipitation
saline deposition, 315 causes, 20, 196, 198, 201
weathering, 344 colloidal, 125
zeolitic copper deposition, 516 evaporation, 22, 317
Pipe factors in ores, 123
deposits, 149, 598, 658, 760, 775 gold. 236
ore-shoots, 193 native copper, 524
veins, 145, 159, 445, 469, 690 organic, 198, 254, 384
Pitch of rhythmic, 190
fold, 128 spring, 65
ore-body, 155 sulphide, 825
ore-shoot, 194 supergene, 823, 832, 862
Pitch length, 193 Pressure
Pitchblende, 596, 873 effects, 21, 196
Pitches, 437 law of, 21
Placer deposits, 217 ore deposition, 196
buried, 227 replacement, 92, 174
cassiterite, 247 temperature diagram, 115
classification, 226 Price of metals, 15
definition, 217 Primary (sec Hypogene)
eluvial, 219 Processes
eolian, 221 biochemical, 254
gems, 250 chemical, 253
gold, 218 detrital, 213, 217
marine, 226 evaporation, 315, 319
monazite, 248 magmatic, 104, 108
origin, 219 mechanical, 213
platinum, 246 metal concentration, 10, 221
processes of concentration, 221 metamorphic, 91
relation to primary deposits, 233 oxidation of ores, 816
stream, 221 replacement, 173
tenor, 238 rock alteration, 455, 532, 639, 645, 673
various minerals, 249 supergene, 821, 823
Plastic deformation of minerals, 749 weathering, 344
Platinum Production (see a lso each element)
deposits (m e ta llic ores), 246, 778—784, 804 asbestos, 397
magmatic, 778-784, 804 barite, 401
oxidation, 868 bauxite, 377
924 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Production, beryl, 765 Pyrometasomatic deposits, physical conditions,
borax, 329 696, 710
calcium chloride, 335 scheelite, 728
clay, 351 solutions, 118, 699, 704, 707, 709
corundum, 798 types, 713
cryolite, 765 volume relations, 708
diamonds, 250, 777 zinc and lead, 724
fluorite, 635 zinc-manganese, 737
fuller's earth, 216 Pyrophyllite, 397
gems, 768 Pyrrhotite, oxidation, 830
graphite, 734
gypsum, 321 Q
lime, 259
lithium minerals, 764 Quaquaversal, 128
magnesite, 389 Quartz
mica, 759 alpha and beta, inversion, 207, 640
monazite, 249, 762 colloidal origin, 125, 189
nitrate, 324 detrital deposits, 213
phpsphates, 284, 288, 290 pegmatites, 758
potash, 336, 339, 343 tetrahedrite-galena veins, 565
salt, 329 Quicksilver (see Mercury)
soda, 323, 335 Quicksilver deposits, 463
sulphuric acid, 386 distribution, 465
talc, 393 genesis, 471
zircon, 763 minerals, 463, 870
Propylitization, 457, 523 oxidation, 868
Protore, 628, 816 relations, 473
Pseudomorphic texture, 173
Paeudophenocrysts, 177 R
Pyrite
oolitic ore, 269 Radium
oxidation of, 60, 829 deposits, 409, 414, 761, 873
sulphur ore, 386 minerals, 410, 761, 874
Pyritic galena-quartz veins, 577 oxidation, 873
Pyritic replacement deposits production, 414—415
classification, 618 Rake, 155
hypothermal, 684 Rare earth deposits, 761
injected, 810 Rare elements
magmatic, 802 in igneous rocks, 6
mesothermal, 618 in volcanic springs, 86
pyrometasomatic, 717, 735, 744 Reaction pair, 110
regionally metamorphosed, 746 Reaction series, 110
sulphur ores, 386 continuous, 110
Pyritization, definition, 174 discontinuous, 110
Pyrometamorphism, 698 in replacements, 185
definition, 91 Reactions
Pyrometasomatic deposits, 695 post mineral, 693, 750
cassiterite, 727 precipitation, 22, 823
chalcopyrite, 717, 735, 744 replacement, 23, 174
contact metamorphism, 698 supergene, 825, 829, 832, 838,843, 852, 854,857,
cordierite type, 743 861, 875
definition, 210, 696 in weathering, 94
depth, 711 Recrystallization
distribution, 712 gold, 236, 245
form and texture, 700 metamorphic, 90
garnet, 734 oolites, 168
general features, 695, 698 pyrometasomatic, 700, 704
gold, 725 replacement, 180
graphite, 729 saline deposits, 338, 382
magnetite, 713, 739 serpentine, 395
metasomatism, 118, 180, 701 Regional metamorphism, 209
mineral succession, 122, 703, 706 Regionally metamorphosed
minerals, 696, 700 sedimentary iron ores, 293
mode of transfer, 709 sulphide ores, 746
origin, 710 Relict texture. 177
 SUBJECT INDEX 925
Replacement Rock alteration
centrifugal, 185 analyses (see Analyses)
centripetal, 184 definition, 92
colloidal, 189 epithermal, 455
criteria, 184 hypothermal, 639, 645, 673, 680
definition, 91 mesothermal, 533
diffusion in, 176 pyrometasomatic, 701
epithermal, 182, 451, 455 replacement, 177
hypothermal, 180, 639 serpentine, 361
mesothermal, 181, 532 syenite, 375
mode of, 174 Rock disintegration, 344
processes (see Metasomatic processes) Rock fiowage, 628
pyrometasomatic, 180, 708 Rocks
reaction series in, 185 cavities in, 144
repeated, 185 phosphate, 287
sulphide, 176 potassium in, 341
supergene, 826, 837, 852, 862 stability of, 89
texture, 177 Role of colloids in ore deposits, 189
volume relations, 92, 175, 708 Roscoelite, 410
zeolitic, 451 Rosenbusch rule of crystallization, 105
Replacement deposits Rotatory faults, 135
character, 177 Runs, 423
country rock, 199 Rutile deposits, 760
form, 155
hypothermal, 687, 693 S
mesothermal, 563, 565, 581, 598, 618
by meteoric waters, 388, 395, 400, 420, 423 Saddle reefs, 148, 559
minerals, 180 Salic extracts, 10, 414
origin, 173 Saline deposits, 315
pyritic, 618 borates, 326
pyrometasomatic, 696 bromine, 335
Residual deposits, 344 calcium chloride, 335
barite, 369 chemistry, 22, 317
bauxite, 373 gypsum and anhydrite, 320
clay, 350 iodine, 325
diaspore clays, 378 nitrate, 323
iron, 354 normal succession of salts, 317
manganese, 362 origin, 315
mineral decomposition, 346 potash, 336
nickel, 371 salt, 329
ochers, 370 soda, 322
phosphates, 371 solution, 44
processes, 344 structural features, 319
texture, 168 types of waters, 316
zinc, 369 Salinity, 58
Residual iron ores, 354 Salt deposits (see Saline deposits)
classification, 355 Salt domes, 333, 382
distribution, 361 Sand deposits, 213
origin, 354 Sandstone
Residual manganese ores, 362 metallic deposits in, 403
minerals. 362 Schalenblende, 426, 853
origin, 363 Scheelite deposits, 728
primary sources, 363 Schlieren, 773, 784
Residual weathering processes, 344 Schorl, 647
Rest-magma, 105, 753 Schurmann’s series, 123, 826
Reverse faults, 140 Scorodite, 66
Rhodium (see Iridium) Sea water
Rhythmic composition, 27, 317
banding, 177, 190 gold and silver, 7
replacement, 177 Secondary
Ribbon structure, 171 chert, 431
Riecke’s law of crystallization, 96
Rivers hypogene processes, 191, 196, 201
composition of water, 28 saline processes, 338
gravels, 226 supergene processes, 171. 195, 821, 823
 926 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Sedimentary deposits, 266 Silicification, hypothermal, 684
copper, 408 mesothermal, 533, 587
form, 154 pyrometasomatic, 706
iron, 261 replacement, 177, 180
manganese, 280 Silicon
organic, 254 quartz (abrasive, flux, refractory, etc.), 213, 260,
origin, 11, 252, 254 758
phosphate, 282 Sillimanite, 397
sulphides, 260 Silt analysis, 253
texture, 167 Silver
Sedimentary rocks conversion table, 17
alteration by tin veins, 647 deposits (metallic ore), 407, 486-491, 499-510,
opening in, 32 565, 593, 598-610, 691, 864
origin, 252 minerals, 860
water composition, 42, 44, 49, 53 oxidation, 860
water content, 35 production, 488, 570, 588, 591, 604, 722, 847,
Sedimentation 864
changes during, 252 in sea water, 7
concentration by, 11 tenor of ore, 14
Selenium Silver-cobalt-nickel veins, 602
metallic selenides (rubber, coloring, electrical Silver-lead replacement deposits, 581
instruments ), 485, 488, 496-498 Silver-lead veins, 565
minerals, 496 Silver in supergene enrichment, 600, 860
production, 496 deposits, 864
in sublimates, 112 minerals, 860
Separation, stratigraphic, 139 precipitation, 862
Sericitization solubility, 861
definition, 174 sulphides, 862
epithermal, 458 zones, 863
hypothermal, 639 Silver-tin veins, 579
Serpentine, 387 Silver-zeolite veins, 600
asbestos, 395 Sink holes, 145, 430
Serpentinization, 387 Sinter, 65
Shale Skarn rocks, 312, 705, 740
copper-bearing, 415 Slip, 135, 137
deposits in, 403, 409 throw, 138
effect on ore-shoots, 200 Soapstone, 391
Shear zones (see Sheeted zones) Sodium
Shearing stress, openings by, 148 borate, carbonate, chloride, and sulphate, 322-335
Sheet ground, 430 Sodium carbonate
Sheeted zones, 134, 158 deposits, 322
Shift, 136, 137 underground waters, 53
normal, 138 Sodium chloride
vertical, 138 deposits, 329
Shoots (see Ore-shoots) underground waters, 44, 47
Siderite deposits, 265, 635 Sodium nitrate
Siderophile elements, 8, 114, 118 deposits, 323
Sieve texture, 177 Sodium sulphate
Silica deposits, 322
colloidal, 25, 189 in underground waters, 49
deposits, 213, 758 Sodium sulphide, in underground waters, 56
replacements, 180 Soffiont, 454, 638
spring deposits, 65 Soil
in underground waters, 49 colloids, 348
Silicates, lime-magnesium-iron formation, 347
hypothermal, 638 Sol, 24
pyrometasomatic, 701 Solid solutions, 20, 186, 801
stability, 90, 346, 532, 641 Solidus, 106
Silicatization Solubility
hypothermal, 639 barite, 399
pyrometasomatic, 704, 710 gypsum, 321
Silicification law of, 22
colloidal processes, 125, 189, 587 minerals, 348
definition, 174 sulphates and carbonates, 823
epithermal, 457 sulphides, 821
 SUBJECT INDEX 927
Solution Stratigraphy, German Permian, 336
copper, 832 Lake Superior, 297
gold, 236, 857 Leadville, Colorado, 591
iron, 263 Mexican plateau, 598
manganese, 280, 871 Mississippi valley, 436
in replacement, 174 R and,241
silver, 861 Stream deposits, 221
supergene, 821, 832, 861, 871 Stress
Solution cavities, 144, 423, 432 compressive, 150
Solutions in metamorphism, 91, 94, 96
epithermal, 123, 455 shearing, 148
hypothermal, 124, 637 tensile, 146, 161
lead-zinc deposits, 442 torsional, 147
mercury, 472 Strike
mesothermal, 543 fault, 136
ore forming, 123, 455, 543, 637, 699 shift, 137, 138
pegmatite, 117, 124, 753 slip, 137
pyrometasomatic, 124, 699, 708 slip faults, 140
replacement, 174 Stringer lead or lode, 159
sandstone deposits, 409, 413 Strontianite, 402
supergene, 821, 832, 851, 857, 861 Strontium
underground, 29, 41, 74 celestite, s tro n tia n ite , 402
zeolitic copper, 516, 523 production, 402
Soret's principle of diffusion, 109 Structure of deposits, 154
Source of metals in ores, 123, 404, 413, 424 banded, 168, 173
Spring deposits, 65 book, 170
calcium carbonate, 65 breccia, 170
composition, 69 cockade, 170
gangue minerals, 69 comb, 168
Iimonite, 65 drusy,168
minerals, 73 flamboyant, 170
ocherous, 65 hammock, 158
silica, 66 horsetail, 162
Springs ladder 159
alkaline, hot, 114 lenticular, 159
calcium carbonate, 42 lode, 158
chloride, 44, 47 ribbon, 171
hot, 42, 47, 49, 52, 65, 74 sheeted, shear, 173
in mines, 75 Structural relations of ore deposits, 199
origin, 81 Sublimates, composition, 112
relation to mineral deposits, 74 Succession, mineral (see Paragenesis)
silica, 48 cassiterite veins, 644
sodium carbonate, 53 epithermal ores, 122, 450
sodium sulphide, 56 evaporated salts, 317
sulphate, 49, 52 hypothermal, 122, 644
in volcanic regions, 83 magmatic ores, 801
water, types, 56 mesothermal ores, 122, 544, 602, 616
Stability minerals in ores, 122
gypsum, 321 Mississippi Valley lead-zinc deposits, 431
iron oxides, 361 pegmatite, 757
minerals, 89, 348, 813 pyrometasomatic, 122, 703, 706
potash minerals, 338 supergene ores, 826
rocks, 89 Sulphate waters
silicates lime-iron-magnesia, 90, 346, 532, 641 analyses, 50, 61
zeolites, 348, 516 in igneous rocks, 49
Static metamorphism, 91 mine, 60
Stibnite deposits, 473 in sedimentary rocks, 52
Stock works, 159 Sulphide deposits
Stope length, 194 disseminated, 423, 628
Stratigraphic separation, 139 in limestone, Mississippi Valley type, 423
Stratigraphy magmatic, 798
Appalachian region, 271 meteoric water concentrations, 403, 415-421
Congo-Rhodesian region, 629 in pegmatites, 768
English Jurassic, 274 pyritic, 618, 810
Florida Tertiary, 290 regionally metamorphosed, 746
928 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Sulphide deposits, sedimentary, 260 Temperature, mineral deposits, 207, 212
supergene, 844 native copper deposits, 514
Sulphur native silver deposits, 601
native (H iSO i, etc.), 114, 380 ore deposition, 196
production, 382, 386 pegmatites, 117, 754
pyrite and pyrrhotite (H 2 SO 4 ), 386, 618, 736 pyrometasomatic, 696, 710
Sulphur deposits, 380 replacement, 180, 710
in gypsum, 384 saline deposition, 318, 321, 338
salt domes, 382 solid solutions, 801
volcanic, 114, 380 supergene processes, 827
Sulphuric acid, manufacture, 386 underground, 98
Supergene zeolite formation, 516, 601
definition, 750 Tenor of ores, 13
zone, 820 Tensile stress
Supergene enrichment joints, 146, 148
copper, 617, 831 veins, 161
criteria, 828 Tertiary
gold, 855 gravels, 227
iron, 828 lake beds, 327
lead, 853 metallogenetic epoch, 881, 889, 891
mercury, 868 Tetrahedrite-galena-siderite veins, 566
platinum and palladium, 868 Texture
processes, 195, 821, 823 banded, 168
silver, 600, 860 colloform, 189
textures, 171, 820 crustification, 168
zinc, 851 drusy, 168
Surface waters, concentration by, 11 epigenetic deposits, 168
Suspensoids, 24 eutectic, 166
Syenite filled deposits, 168, 171
alteration of, 375 igneous deposits, 166
corundum in, 798 lamellar, 173
pegmatites, 757 metasomatic rocks, 177
Syncline, 127 mineral deposits, 166
Syngenetic deposits, definition, 154 oolitic, 168, 267
oxidized deposits, 168, 818
T pegmatites, 166
pseudo-cutectic, 184
Taconite, 294, 304 pseudomorphic, 173
Tactite, 728 relict, 177
Talc deposits, 391 residual deposits, 168
Tangential forces, 151 sedimentary deposits, 167
Tantalite deposits, 761 sieve, 177
Tantalum (see Columbium) supergene, 820
Telemagmatic, 121 Thermal springs (see Hot springs)
Telescoped veins, 121 Thorium (see Cerium)
Tellurium Throw, 136, 138
in sublimates, 112 dip, 139
metallic tellurides , 491, 512, 596, 663, 677, 725, slip, 138
869 Tin
minerals, 680, 856 cassiterite, sulpho-salts (metallic ore), 247, 579,
oxidation, 856 643-669, 727, 760
Temperature minerals, 580
alpine type veins, 611 oxidation, 872
colloid formation, 126, 189 placers, 247, 644
composition diagrams, 107, 115, 800 production, 248, 644
critical, water, 98, 117, 650 tenor of ore, 14
effects, 21, 105, 121 Titanium
epithermal, 210, 454 ilmenite and rutile (pigment, ore), 249, 690, 760,
fumaroles, 113 786
gradient, 98 Torsional stress, joints, 147
graphite formation, 730 Tourmaline
hypothermal, 210, 640 cobalt veins, 694
inversion, 207, 640, 705, 710, 839 copper veins, 684
magmatic, 773, 788, 799 gem, 766
mesothermal, 210, 529, 532 lead veins, 691
 SUBJECT INDEX 929

Tourmalinization Vanadium, production 414

definition, 174 Vanoxite, 410
hypothermal, 647 Van’t Hoff’s law of reaction, 21
Transfer of material, 709 Vapor tension, 116
Transition temperature (see Temperature, inver­ Vein systems, 162
sion) Veins
Transportation barrel quartz, 200
colloid, 126, 236, 857, 873 bed, 160
gold, 236, 857 brecciation in, 170
iron, 263 chambered, 163, 464
manganese, 280, 871 composite, 158
of metals in solution, 123, 409 contact, 163
in pyrometasomatism, 709 definition, 155
supergene, 832, 851, 854, 857, 861, 871, 875 depth, 120, 164, 196
Transverse fault, 136 dip, 155
Travertine, 65 effect of country rock, 198
Tufa, 65 of intersections, 201
Tungsten fissure, 141, 146, 156
minerals, 872 form, 155
oxidation, 872 gash, 145, 160
production, 660 inclusions in, 153, 171
sch eelite, 728 ladder, 146, 159
w o lfr a m ite , etc., 596, 659, 761 length, 164
Tungsten deposits lenticular, 159
hypothermal, 659 linked, 158
mesothermal, 596 lode, 158
pyrometasomatic, 728 ore-shoots, 193
outcrops, 164
U pipe, 145, 159
radial distribution, 148
Underground temperatures, 98 relation to country rock, 162
Underground waters to springs, 70
calcium carbonate, 42 sheeted, shear, 158
chemical work, 89 sp&cial relations, 155
chloride, 44, 47 stockworks, 146, 159, 464
composition, 41 telescoped, 121
depth, 38 textures, 168
effect of fractures, 36 walls, 163
of volcanism, 37 zonal arrangement, 120
flow, 31, 37 Vertical
gases, 80, 85 faults, 140
mine, 58, 525 range, ore deposition, 97, 120, 164, 196
mineral deposits, 10, 65 shifts, 138
origin, 41, 79 Volatile components of magmas, 103, 112, 699,
sodium carbonate, 53 703, 752
sodium sulphide, 56 Volcanic ore deposits, 114
sulphate, 49. 52 Volcanic pipes, relation to ore deposits, 149,
total amount in crust, 40 492, 685
zones, 34 Volcanic rocks
Underlie, 155 origin, 108
Unmixing, 20, 122, 186, 801, 841 relation to mineral deposits, 112, 475, 484, 659
Upthrow, 135 to springs, 47, 52, 53, 81
Uranium temperature effects, 83
deposits, 409, 414, 761, 873 Volcanic springs
minerals, 410, 761, 873 gases in, 85
oxidation, 873 rarer elements in, 86
production, 414—415 salts, 83
Volcanism
V causes, 108
Valley iron ores, 356 effect on water flow, 37
Vanadium emanations, 86, 112
deposits 0m eta llic o re), 409, 442, 873 relation to mineral deposits, 112
minerals, 410, 412, 873 to springs, 83
oxidation, 873 Volcanoes, relation to mineral deposits, 112
930 MINERAL DEPOSITS
Volume “Wood tin,” 114, G44, 872
changes causing joints, 147 Wurtzite, 25, 426, 853
law of equal, 92, 175
relations in pyrometamorphism, 708 Z
specific, of gold and silver, 17
Zeolites
W occurrence, 451, 615, 623, 600, 610, 757
origin, 516, 602, 612
Walls of veins, 163 replacement, 451
alteration of, 533 stability, 348, 516
character, 198 succession, 517
effect on ore deposition, 198 Zeolitic deposits
Water alpine type veins, 610
amount in earth’s crust, 40 epithermal, 451
analyses, 57 native copper, 514, 517
in closed basins, 316 native silver, 600
connate, 30 Zeolitization, 516, 602
free, 32 Zinc
ground, 31 deposits (m e ta llic ore), 369, 423-442, 498-
imprisoned, 29 510, 570, 581-596, 598, 691-694, 724,
juvenile, 29, 81 737, 751
lake, 28 minerals, 851
level, 31 oxidation, 851
magmatic, 29, 81, 699 production, 427, 429, 434, 436, 570, 591,
meteoric, 29 615, 737
mine, 58, 525 tenor of ore, 14
ocean, 27 Zircon deposits, 763
river, 28 Zirconium
in rocks of uniform texture, 34 zirc o n (re fra c to ry , g em , ore), 250, 763
in sedimentary rocks, 35 Zonal theory, ore depsoits, 119
table, 31 Zones
underground, 29 cementation, 94
Water courses, auriferous, grade of, 234 chalcocite, 842
Water level discharge, 34
definition, 31 earth, 2
depth, 40 epi-metamorphic, 95
relation to supergene enrichment, 195, 814 flowage, 94
Weathering fracture, 94
chemical changes, 349 gathering, 34
mineral decomposition, 346 hypo-metamorphic, 96
residual, 208, 344 meso-metamorphic, 95
zone of, 94 metamorphism, 89
Weights, conversion tables, 16 mineral deposits, 210
Wells oxidation, 818
artesian, 35, 50 saturation, 34
brine, 331 shear, 134
deep, 35, 99 sheeted, 134
Witherite, 400
Wolframite static, 34
in pegmatites, 761 underground waters, 34
veins, 659 weathering, 94, 345, 813