Chapter 2

Measurement of Discharge
2.1 Introduction
Streamflow representing the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle is the most important basic data for
hydrologic studies. Streamflow measurement is relatively fairly accurate when compared to
precipitation, evaporation and evapotranspiration that are difficult to measure and involves methods
with severe limitations.

Stream is a flow channel into which the surface runoff from a specified basin drains. Generally there
is a considerable exchange of water between a stream and the underground water. Streamflow
measurement techniques can be broadly classified into two categories: Direct and indirect
streamflow measurement methods.

2.2 Direct Measurement Techniques

Continuous measurement of discharge using direct or indirect measurement methods is time-
consuming and costly procedure. Hence a two-step procedure is followed. First the discharge in a
given stream is related to the elevation of the water surface (stage) through a series of careful
measurements. In the next step, the stage of the stream is observed routinely in relatively
inexpensive manner and the discharge is estimated by a previously determined stage-discharge
relationship. The observation of the stage is easy inexpensive, and if desired, continuous readings
can also be obtained. This method of discharge measurement is adopted universally. In this section,
first the techniques and instruments used to measure stage and velocity will be discussed and
subsequently followed by streamflow measurement techniques.

2.3 Measurement of Stage

The stage of a river is defined as its water-surface elevation measured above a datum. This datum
can be the mean sea level (msl) or any arbitrary datum connected independently to the msl.

The following factors have to be considered in selecting a site for a stream gauging station.

(i) The section should be straight and uniform for a length of about 10 to 20 times the width of
the stream.

(ii) The bed and banks of the stream should be firm and stable so as to ensure consistency of
area-discharge relationship, i.e., the cross section should not be subjected to change by
silting or scouring, during different stages of flow; a smooth rock, shingle or clay bed is
favourable, while a fine sandy bed is unfavourable.

1
 (iii) The bed and banks should be free from vegetal growth, boulders or other obstructions like
bridge piers, etc.

(iv) There should be no larger overflow section at flood stage. The best cross section is one with V-
shape, so that there is sufficient depth for immersing the current meter without being
affected by the bed roughness of the stream.

(v) The part of the reach having the most regular transverse section and steady flow with the
current normal to the metering section and velocities in the range of 0.3–1.2 m/sec should
be selected.

(vi) To ensure consistency between stage and discharge, there should be a good control section
far downstream of the gauging site. This control may be in the form of steep rapids, large
rocky boulders, restricted passages, crest of weirs or anicuts etc.

(vii) The sites above the confluence of rivers are best avoided if the flow is affected by back
water conditions due to the varying discharges in the tributaries.

(viii) The stream gauging station should be easily accessible.

i) Manual Gauges
Manual gauges are simple and inexpensive. They are supposed to be read frequently at defined
intervals to maintain water level (stage) consistency throughout. Staff gauge and wire gauge are two
commonly adopted manual gauges to measure water level in streams and lakes.

Staff Gauges: The simplest of stage measurements are made by noting the elevation of the water
Gauge surface in contact with a fixed graduated staff. The staff is made from durable materials with
a low coefficient of expansion with respect to both temperature and moisture. It is fixed rigidly to a
surface in contact with a fixed graduated staff. The staff is made from durable materials with a low
coefficient of expansion with respect to both temperature and moisture. It is fixed rigidly to a

Fig. 2.1 Staff Gauge

2
structure such as an abutment, pier, wall, etc. The staff may be vertical or inclined with clearly and
graduated permanent markings. Sometimes it may not be possible to read the entire range of water
surface elevations of a stream by a single gauge and in such cases, the gauge is built in sections at
different locations. Such gauges are called sectional gauges.

Wire Gauge: It is a gauge used to measure the water surface elevation from above the surface
such as from a bridge or similar structure. In this system a weight is lowered by a reel to touch the
water surface. A mechanical counter measures the rotation of the wheel which is proportional to the
length of the wire immersed in the water. The operating range of this gauge system is about 25
meter.

ii) Automatic Stage recorders

Automatic stage recorders have the advantage of acquiring continuous and consistent stage data
and find considerable use in streamflow measurements.

Float-Gauge Recorders: In this gauging unit a

float operating in a stilling well is balanced by
means of a counter weight over the pulley of a
recorder. Displacement of the float due to the
rising or lowering of the water surface
elevation causes an angular displacement of
the pulley and hence of the input shaft of the
recorder. Mechanical linkages convert this
angular displacement to a linear displacement
of a pen to record over a drum driven by
clockwork. The pen traverse is continuous with
automatic reversing when it reaches the full
width of the chart. To protect the float from
debris and to reduce the water surface wave
effects on the recording,
Fig. 2.2 Float gauge recorder

stilling wells are provided in all float type stage recorder installations. Intake pipes that feed the
stilling well and flushing arrangements to remove sediment and debris off are an integral part of
the measuring unit. The gauge recorder should be located in the highest water level expected in the
stream to prevent it from getting inundated during floods.

Bubble Gauge: In this gauge compressed air or gas is made to bleed out at a very small rate through
an outlet placed at the bottom of the river (Fig. …). A pressure gauge measures the gas pressure

3
which in turn is equal to the water column above the outlet. A small change in the water surface
elevation is felt as a change in pressure from the present value at the pressure gauge and this in turn
is adjusted by a servo-mechanism to bring the gas to bleed at the original rate under the new head.
The pressure gauge reads the new water depth which is transmitted to a recorder.

The bubble gauge has the following advantages over a float operated water stage recorder. It
doesn’t require costly stilling wells; stage level up to 30m can be measured; the recorder assembly
can be far away from the sensing point; constant bleeding of air prevents chocking of inlet pipes.

Fig.2.3 Bubble Gauge

2.4 Measurement of Velocity

The measurement of velocity is an important aspect of many direct streamflow measurement
techniques. Current meter is a mechanical device commonly employed in hydrometery to measure
streamflow velocity. In situations where current meter is not available, an approximate approach of
float method is used.

Current meter consists of a rotating element which rotates due to the reaction of the stream current
with an angular velocity proportional to the stream velocity. Both Vertical and horizontal axis current
meters are commonly used in streamflow velocity measurement.

The vertical axis meter consists of a series of conical cups mounted around a vertical axis. The cups
rotate in a horizontal plane and a cam attached to the vertical axis spindle records generated signals
proportional to the revolutions of the cup assembly. The nominal velocity range varies from 0.15 to
4.0 m/s with accuracy varying from 0.3-1.5 %. The vertical axis current meter has a disadvantage
when there is appreciable velocity difference in vertical profile of the stream. Horizontal axis current
meters consists of a propeller mounted at the end of horizontal shaft. It measures velocity ranging
from 0.15- 4.0 m/s with flow obliquity up to 15o.

4
Fig. 2.4 Vertical and horizontal Current meter

A current meter is so designed that its rotation speed varies linearly with the stream velocity  at
the location of the instrument. A typical relationship is:

  aN s  b …………………..……………………………………………… (2.1)
where  = streamflow velocity
N s = revolution per second of the meter
a, b = constants
The calibration equation described in eqn. (2.1) is unique to each instruments and corresponding
constants (a, b) should be identified before use. A repeated measurement of velocity is undertaken in
specially designed pool of water in a wide tank that maintains constant speed. Successive
measurements are finally fit into best line and the constants of regression defines a, and b.

Thumb rules for field Velocity measurements

- The velocity distribution in a stream across a vertical section is logarithmic in

nature.
- A single point observation can be deployed in shallow streams ( d< 3.0 m) the
velocity measured at 0.6*d is taken as average velocity ( Vavg) in the vertical.
- Two point observation ( at 0.2*d and at 0.8*d depths) is used in deep streams
and the average velocity in vertical is computed as
   0.8
 avg  0.2
2 ……………………………………………………(2.2)
- In rivers having flood flow only the surface velocity (vs) is measured within a depth of about 0.5
m below the surface. The average velocity is obtained using a reduction factor K as

5
 vavg  k s where k = 0.85 - 0.95 ……………...(2.3)
2.5 Area-Velocity Method
It consists of measuring the area of the cross-section of the river at a selected section called the
gauging site and measuring the velocity of flow through the cross-sectional area. The gauging site so
selected with the following considerations.
 It should ensure a reasonably constant stage-discharge relationship over a long period of time.
 The stream should have a well defined cross-section which does not change in various
reasons
 Accessible throughout the year
 The site should be straight, stable reach and free from backwater effects

In order to estimate the discharge in a channel, the cross-section is divided into large number of
subsections by verticals. The average velocity in theses sections are measured by current meters or
floats. The higher the number of sections used for discharge measurement, the more accurate is the
estimated discharge. However, effort required, time and expenditure usually limits the number of
cross sections. The following guidelines could be used in fixing the width of the subdivisions.

1. The segment width should be less than 1/15 to 1/20 of the total width of the river.
2. The discharge in each segment should be less than 10 % of the total discharge.
3. Velocity might vary within the range of 20 % between adjacent segments.

The Mid Section Method

In this method the total width of the river is divided into N widths and N-1 verticals are drawn. The
velocity averaged over the vertical at each section is known. Considering the total area to be divided
into N-1 segments, the total discharge is calculated by the mid-section method.

Fig. 2.5 Mid-section method

6
 N 1
Q   Qi
i 1 (2.4)

w w 
Qi  yi *  i  i 1  * i  for i  2 to ( N  2)
 2 2  (2.5)

Where Qi  discharge in the i th segment

For the first and the last sections, the segments are taken to have triangular areas the area is
calculated as:
2
 w 
 w1  2 
w1  
2 
A1  w1 * y1 where
2w1

2
 w 
 wN  N 1 

2 
AN  wN 1 * y N 1 where wN  1
2wN

Thus Q1   1 * A1 and QN 1   N 1 * AN 1

(2.6)

The Mean Section Method

In this method the mean depth is computed and the width of the subdivision lying between the
adjacent depths is considered. Streamflow velocity is also calculated following similar approach.

Fig. 2.6 Mean-section method

d i  d i 1
di  for corresponding width w i
2

 i   i 1
i  for corresponding width w i
2 …………………………………………..(2.7)

7
 The depth and velocity magnitude for the first and nth section is assumed to be zero.

d1  d n  0 and  1   n  0 ………………………………………………..(2.8)

Moving Boat Method

Discharge measurement in large alluvial rivers is time consuming even under moderate or low
flow conditions. When the river is in full spate it is almost difficult to use the standard current
meter technique due to the difficulty of keeping the boat stationary on the fast moving surface of
the stream. Under this circumstance the moving boat technique works well.

In this method a special propeller type current meter which is free to move about a vertical axis is
towed in a boat at a velocity Vb at right angles to the streamflow. If the flow velocity is Vf, the
meter will align itself in the direction of the reluctant velocity V R making an angle Ɵ with direction
of the boat. Further the meter will register the velocity VR.

If Vb is normal to Vf,

Vb  VR cos  and V f  VR sin 

…………………………….(2.9)

If the time of transit between two verticals is T ,he width between the two verticals is:

W  Vb T …………………………………………………………………………………(2.10)

The flow in sub-area between two verticals i and i+1 where the corresponding depths are yi and yi+1
respectively,

y  yi 1 
Qi   i  Wi 1 . V f substituting for W ,V b and V f we have ,
 2 
y  yi 1 
Qi   i  VR . sin  . cos  . T
2

 2  …..(2.11)

The summation of the partial discharges Qi over the

whole width of the stream gives the total discharge, Q , in
the stream. Q   Qi

A special current meter of the propeller type in which the

velocity and inclination of the meter to the boat direction,
 in the horizontal plane can be measured, is selected.

Fig. 2.7 Moving boat method

8
 The current meter is usually immersed at a depth of 0.5m from the water surface to record surface
velocities. The vertical depths at different sections are measured by echo sounder attached to the
assembly. The surface velocity measured at 0.5m depth is further corrected to obtain mean stream
flow velocity.

Ultrasonic Method

This is an area-velocity method with the average velocity being measured by using ultrasonic signals.
Consider a channel carrying a flow with two transducers A and B fixed at the same level h above the
bed and on either side of the channel. These transducers receive and send ultrasonic signals . Let A
send an ultrasonic signal to be received at B after an elapse time t1. Similarly , let B send a signal to
be received at A after an elapse time t2. If C is the velocity of sounder in water,

L
t1 
C  p
(2.12)

where L = length of path from A to B

 p = component of the flow velocity in the sound path ( =  cos  )
L
Similarly, t2 
C  p
(2.13)
Rearranging eqn. ( 2.12 ) and (2.13)
1 1 2 p 2  cos 
  
t1 t 2 L L (2.14

Fig. 2.8 Ultrasonic method

L 1 1
and      (2.15)
2 cos   t1 t 2 

9
 It should be noted that the  is the average velocity at a height h above the bed and is not the
average velocity Vavg for the whole cross-section. However, for a given channel cross section 
can be related to Vavg and by calibration a relation between  / Vavg  and h can be developed. For
a given setup, as the area of cross-section is fixed , the discharge is obtained as a product of area
and mean velocity , Vavg. the currently available ultrasonic devices have an error of accuracy of 1-
2% while measuring discharge and are could be used for rivers of width up to 500 m. This method
has the following advantages.

 The method is rapid and gives high accuracy

 Suitable for automatic recording of data
 It handles rapid changes in flow magnitude and direction; useful for tidal rivers.
 The size of installation is independent of the size of the river.

However, unstable cross0sections, weed growth, high suspended loads, air entrainment, salinity and
water temperature are some of the limiting factors that affect the accuracy of ultrasonic method.

2.6 Dilution Technique

The dilution method of flow measurement uses the continuity principle applied to a tracer which is
allowed to mix completely with the flow. The tracers used should have the following properties to
minimize measurement errors.

 Tracers should not react chemically or absorbed by with bed and bank materials of the stream
and water as well.
 It should be non-toxic.
 It should be capable of being detected in distinctive manner in small concentrations.
 It should not be expensive.

Chemical tracers (common salt or sodium dichromate), fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine-WT and Sulpho-
Rhodamine B) radioactive materials (Bromine-82, Sodium-24 and Iodine-132) are commonly used in
dilution techniques. Two approaches of dilution techniques are known in stream flow measurement.
These are ‘sudden injection’ and ‘constant rate injection’ methods.

Sudden injection (Integration) method: let Co be a small initial concentration of tracer in the
streamflow. At section 1 a small quantity ( 1 ) of high concentration (C1) of this tracer is added as
shown in Fig. 2.9. At sufficiently far distance downstream of section 1, section 2 is selected where the
tracer can thoroughly mixes with water due to the fluid turbulence in the reach. The concentration
will have a base value of Co and increases from time t1 to a peak value and gradually reaches the base
value of Co at time t2. The streamflow is assumed to be steady.

10
Applying the continuity principle for tracer material, mass of
tracer added at section 1 ,

M1  1C1

1
t2 t2

  Q C 2  Co  dt   C  Co  dt
t 2  t1
2
t1 t1
….(2.16)

Neglecting the second term as it is very small,

1C1
Q  t2

 C
t1
2  C o dt Fig. 2.9 Sudden injection method
…………………………(2.17)

Constant Rate Injection Method: in this method, a tracer of concentration C1 at a constant rate of
Qt is injected at section 1. At section 2 the concentration gradually rises from the background value
of Co at time t1 to a constant value of C2 (Fig. 2.10).

At steady state the continuity equation for the tracer is :

Qt C1  QCo  Q  Qt  C 2

Qt C1  C 2 
Q 
C 2  Co  …(2.18)

Fig. 2.10 Constant rate injection method

2.7 Electromagnetic Method

The electromagnetic method is based on the Faraday’s principle that an emf is induced in the
conductor (water) when it cuts the normal magnetic field. Large coils buried at the bottom of the
channel carry a current I to produce a controlled vertical magnetic field. Electrodes provide at the
sides of the channel section measure the small voltage produced due to flow of water in the channel.
It has been found the signal output E will be of the order of millivolts and is related to the discharge
Q as

11
 n
E 
Q  K1  d  K 2  …………………………………………………………………………………….(2.19)
 I 

where d= depth of flow; I = current in the coil ; K1, K2 and n are constants. This method is applicable
for varying channel cross-section as a result of weed growth, sedimentation etc and in tidal rivers. It is
useful for channel width of less than 100 m and detects flow velocity of 0.005 m/s.

2.8 Indirect Measurement Techniques

An indirect method of streamflow measurement develops a relationship between measured flow
depth and accompanying discharge at specified location. Measured flow depth is associated to
discharge through experimentally established equations. The field measurement is restricted to the
measurement of these depths only. In this section, two broad classes of field measurements
techniques, i.e; using flow measuring structures and slope- area method will be introduced.

2.8.1 Flow Measuring Structures

Flow measuring hydraulic structures such as weirs, notches, flumes and sluice gates are included in
this category. The use of such conventional structures is limited by the range of head, debris or
sediment load of the stream and the backwater effect produced by the installations. To overcome
these limitations a wide variety of flow measuring structures with specific advantages are in use.

The basic principle governing the use of flow measuring structures is that these structures produce a
unique control section in the flow. The discharge, Q is the function of the water-surface elevation
(H)measured at a specified upstream location,

Q  f H  ……………………………………………………………….…(2.20)
For free flow weirs the above relationship takes the form
Q  KH n  CLH 3 / 2 …………………………………………………………(2.21)
where Q = stream discharge, C = coefficient of weir, L = length of weir (or anicut), H = head (depth of
flow) over the weir-crest and K, n = are constants.

The above relationship holds true for free flow weirs i.e, when the downstream water level is below
certain limiting water level called modular limit. If the tail water condition affects the flow then the
flow is called submerged (drowned) flow. Discharge under submerged flow condition is obtained by
applying a reduction factor to the free flow discharge.

The submerged flow over a weir could be estimated by the Villemonte formula as:

12
 0.385
  H n 
Qs  Q1 1   2   (22)
  H1  

where
Qs = submerged discharge; Q1= free flow discharge under upstream head (H1) above the weir crest; H2
= downstream water surface elevation measured above the weir crest ; n= exponent of head in the
free flow relationship.

Fig.2.11 Free flow over a weir

Fig.2.11 Submerged flow over a weir

Exercise: Differentiate between Sharp Crested Weir, Broad Crested Weir, Flumes and Notches. Study
also their working principles.

2.8.2 Slope- Area Method

It is a very versatile indirect method of discharge estimation and requires known cross-sectional
properties, bed elevation, Manning’s roughness coefficient (n) and water surface elevations at two
sections. The resistance equation for uniform flow (Chezy’s equation, Manning’s equation) in open

13
channel can be used to relate the depths at either ends of a reach to the discharge. Given the water
surface elevation at two sections 1 and 2 of a reach, by applying both energy equation and
Manning’s equation the discharge can be estimated.

Fig. 2.12 Slope-Area method

2 2
v v
Z1  y1  1  Z 2  y 2  2  hL …………………… (2.22)
2g 2g
The head loss , hL accounts for frictional loss (hf) and eddy loss (he) and denoting h= Z+y,
 v1 2 v2 2 
h f  h1  h2       he ……………………….(2.23)

 2g 2g 
For a reach length , L the energy slope Sf is given by:
hf
Sf  …………………………………………………………..(2.24)
L
From Manning’s equation, Sf is estimated as
1
Q  A R2/ 3S f
1/ 2
……………………………………………..(2.25)
n
hf Q2 1 
 Sf  2 where K   A R 2 / 3  ……(2.26)
L K n 
is the conveyance of the channel. In non-uniform flow condition the average conveyance is used to
estimate the average energy slope.
K  K1 .K 2 where K1 and K2 are conveyances measured at two sections.
The eddy loss is estimated as :
2 2
v v
he  K e 1  2 ……………………………………………..(2.27)
2g 2g

14
where Ke = eddy loss coefficient obtained from standard tables for different channel transition cases.

Equations (2.23), (2.25) and (2.27) along with continuity equation (A1V1 = A2V2) is used to estimate
discharge Q for known values of channel cross-sectional values, h, and n.

The discharge is calculated by trial and error procedure using the following of calculations.
1. Assume V1 = V2 . Thus, from eqn. (2.23), hf = h1-h2 = F , fall in the water surface between section
1 and 2.
2. Calculate discharge Q from using eqn. (2.26)
3. compute V1 =Q/A1 and V2 = Q/A2. Calculate velocity heads and eddy loss (he).
4. Now Calculate a refined value of hf using eqn. (2.23). Refine your computation until reasonably
small differences in Q or hf is achieved.

2.9 Stage Discharge Relationships

Once discharge is measured by the methods explained in the preceding sections, stage-discharge
relationship should be established. From this established stage-discharge relationship also known as
rating curve , for known stage or water level the corresponding discharge is obtained. The measured
value of discharge when plotted against the corresponding stages gives relationship that represents
the integrated effect of a wide range of channel and flow parameters. The combined effect of these
parameters is termed as control. If the (G –Q) relationship for a gauging section is constant and does
not change with time , the control is said to be permanent. If it changes with time, it is called shifting
control.

Permanent Control

Non-alluvial rivers and streams exhibit permanent control. For such streams the relationship
between stage and discharge is a single valued relation which is expressed as:

Q   G  Go  
, called rating equation. ……………………..(2.28)

Where Q= stream discharge; G=gauge height (stage); Go is a constant which represents the gauge
reading corresponding to zero discharge;  and  are rating curve constants. This relationship is
represented by plotting the relative stage (G-Go) against the corresponding discharge values in
arithmetic or logarithmic plot. A straight line is fitted to the data points of (G-Go) versus Q plot. The
coefficients  and  need not be the same for the full range of the plot. The best value of  and 
is obtained by least square-error methods. Thus by considering the logarithms of the eqn. ( ) , we
have,

log Q   log G  Go   log 

i.e, Y  X  c …………………………………………..(2.29)

15
For the best fit straight line of N-observations of X and Y , by regression:

Ν  XY    X  Y 

Ν  X    Y 
2 2

…………………………………………………………………(2.30)

c
 Y    X 
N

And Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, r, representing the relationship between the
two dataset is given by:

N XY    X  Y 
r

   
 
N  X 2   X2  N  Y 2   Y 2 

…………………………………………………..(2.31)

Stage of Zero discharge ( Go)

The constant Go in eqn. (2.28 ) above represents the gauge height for zero discharge in stream and is
a hypothetical parameter and cannot be measured in the field. The following methods are commonly
applied to determine Go.

1. Graphical Method: Plot G versus Q on arithmetic graph paper and draw a best fit curve. By
extrapolating the curve by eye judgment find Go as a value of G corresponding to Q=0. Using
the value of Go ,plot log ( G-Go ) versus log Q and verify whether the data plots as straight
line. If not, select another value of Go, close to previously assumed value and by trial and
error find an acceptable value of Go which gives straight line plot.
2. Running’s Method: the G versus Q data are plotted to an arithmetic scale and a smooth curve
through the plotted points are drawn. Three points A, B and C on the curve are selected in
such a way that their discharges are in geometric progression.

Q A QB

QB QC ………………………………………………..(2.32)

16
Fig. 2.13 Running’s method of estimating Stage for discharge.

At A and B vertical lines are drawn and then horizontal lines are drawn at B and C to get D and E at intersection
points with the vertical. Two straight lines ED and BA are drawn to intersect at F. The ordinate at F is the
required value of Go- the gauge height corresponding to zero discharge. Running’s method assumes the lower
part of the stage-discharge curve to be parabola.

3. Analytical Method: Plot G versus Q to an arithmetic scale and draw a smooth good-fitting curve by eye
judgment. Select three discharges Q1, Q2 and Q3 in such a way that Q1/Q2=Q2/Q3. Also note, from the
curve, the corresponding values of gauge readings G1, G2 and G3.

G1  Go  G2  Go 

G2  Go  G3  Go 
G1 G3  G2
2

Go 
G1  G3   2G2 ……………………………………………………………………………..(2.33)

4. Optimization Technique: A number of optimization procedures are available to estimate the best
value of Go. A trial and error search for Go which gives the best value of the correlation coefficient is one of
them.

17
Shifting Control in stage- discharge relationship
The control that exists at gauging section giving rise to a unique stage-discharge relationship may
change due to various physical processes occurring in the bed and banks of the water course. The
following are some of the conditions that result in altered stage-discharge relationship.

i. Weed growth, channel encroachment and dredging

ii. Aggradation or degradation problem of alluvial channels
iii. Variable backwater effects
iv. Unsteady flow effects of rapidly changing stage

There is no permanent corrective measure to tackle the first two (i and ii ) cases. Frequent current-
meter gaugings are usually applied to update the rating curves.

Backwater Effects
If the shifting control is due to variable backwater effects, the same stage will indicate different
discharges. To alleviate the problem, secondary gauging station is installed at downstream of the
main gauging section and both readings are taken. The fall, F is defined as the difference in water
surface level between the main gauge and the secondary gauge.

Thus for a given main-stage value, the discharge under variable backwater condition is a function of
the fall F, i.e

Q  f G, F  ……………………………………………………………………………….(2.34)

To reduce the parameter in eqn. (2.34 ), a constant normalizing factor Fo of a fall value is taken for all stages
and F is the actual fall at a given stage when the discharge is Q. These two fall values are related as:

m
Q F 
  ……………………………………………………………………………..(2.35)
Qo  Fo 

18
Where Qo = normalized discharge at the given stage when the fall is equal to Fo and m =an exponent with a
value close to 0.5.

Fig. 2.14
Backwater effect on rating Curve: Normalized curve (Fig. a) and
adjustment curve (Fig. b)

From the observed data a convenient value of Fo is selected. An approximate G versus Qo curve for a constant

( Fo) called constant fall curve is drawn. For each observed data
Q and F value are calculated and
Qo Fo

plotted as
Q versus F . This is called the adjustment curve. Both the constant fall curve and the
Qo Fo
adjustment curve are refined by trial and error procedure until the best-fit curve is achieved. When finalized
these curves provide the stage-discharge information a gauging site. For example, if the observed discharge

and fall are G1 and F1 respectively, first by using the adjustment curve the value
Q1 is read for a known
Qo
F1
value of . Using the constant fall rating curve, Qo is read for the given stage G1 and hence the actual
Fo
discharge is calculated as:

Q 
Q   1  * Qo
 Qo 

Unsteady Flow Effect

19
 When a flood wave passes a gauging station in the
advancing portion of the wave the approach velocities are
larger than in the steady flow at corresponding stage. Thus
for the same stage, more discharge than in a steady uniform
flow condition occurs. In the retreating phase of the flood wave
the converse situation with reduced approach velocities giving
lower discharges than in an equivalent steady flow case.

Fig. 2.15: Backwater effect - Loop rating curve

Thus the stage-discharge relationship for unsteady flow will not

be a single valued relationship. It is looped curve as indicated in Fig. 2.15. For the same stage , more
discharge passes through the river during rising stage than in falling stage. As the condition for each
flood varies, the loops have no unique properties.

If Qn is the normal discharge at a given stage under steady uniform flow and QM is the measured
unsteady flow, then;

QM 1 dh
 1
Qn Vw S o dt

dh
Where S o = water surface slope at uniform flow ; =rate of change of stage ; Vw =velocity of the
dt
flood wave; Vw is approximately equal to 1.4* V, where V is average velocity for a given stage
computed using Manning’s equation for the channel under consideration.

Extrapolation of Rating Curve

Extrapolation of rating curves is required because the range of level over which gauging has been
carried out does not cover the full range of observed levels. The rating curve may fall short at both
the lower and the upper end. Extreme flows are often the most important for design and planning
and it is important that the best possible estimates are made. Besides, calibration at very high
instantaneous flows is particularly difficult as they occur infrequently and are of short duration. They
may occur at night. Peak flow gauging requires the gauging team to be on site when the flood arrives
- which may not be possible. It also requires that facilities are available for flood gauging in safety. In
practice, the gauging site may be inaccessible, the gauging facilities no longer serviceable and the
river may have spread from a confined channel to an inaccessible flood plain.

Extrapolation is not simply a question of extending the rating curve from existing gaugings to
extreme levels (although in some cases this may be acceptable); a different control may apply, the
channel geometry may change, flow may occur over the floodplain and form and vegetation

20
roughness coefficients may change. Applicable methods of extrapolation depend on the physical
condition of the channel, whether inbank or overbank and whether it has fixed or shifting controls.
Consideration must also be given to the phenomenon of the kinematic effect of open channel flow
when there may be reduction in the mean velocity in the main channel during inundation of the flood
plain. Methods given below are suitable for rivers with defined banks and fixed controls, as well as for
a channel with spill. There following techniques are used for high flow extrapolation.

1. The double-log plot (logarithmic) method

Where the hydraulic characteristics of the channel do not change much beyond the measured range,
then simple extrapolation of the logarithmic stage discharge relationship may be applied. Graphically,
the relationship in this case can simply be extended beyond the measured range by projecting the
last segment of the straight line relationship in log-log domain. Alternatively, the coefficients of the
rating curve can be obtained by least square error method specified in the previous sections and an
established power equation can be used. Double-logarithmic extrapolation implies that the same power
type equation is used for the higher stages as well. One of the basic conditions for the application of the
double logarithmic method, namely no change in the hydraulic characteristics at the higher stages, is not
fulfilled. It is likely that this method will lead to an underestimation of the discharge, since the
contribution of the floodplain flows to the total river flow is not taken into consideration.

2. Stage-area / Stage-velocity method

Where extrapolation is needed either well beyond the measured range, or there are known changes in
the hydraulic characteristics of the control section, then a combination of stage area and stage-velocity
curves may be used. Stage-area and stage-mean velocity curves are extended separately. For stable
channels the stage-area relationship is fixed and is determined by survey up to the highest required stage.
The stage-velocity curve is based on current meter gaugings within the measured range and, since the
rate of increase in velocity at higher stages diminishes rapidly this curve can be extended without much
error for in-bank flows. Discharge for a given (extended) stage is then obtained by the product of area and
mean velocity read using extrapolated stage-area and stage-mean velocity curves (Fig. 2.3). This method
may be used for extrapolation at both the upper and lower end of the rating curve.

21
 Fig. 2.16 Extrapolation based on stage-area/stage-velocity technique

The mean velocity curve can also be extrapolated by the use of a logarithmic plot of mean velocity
against hydraulic radius. The hydraulic radius can be found for all stages from the cross section by
survey. The logarithmic plot of mean velocity and hydraulic radius generally shows a linear
relationship and thus can be extended linearly beyond the extent of measurements. Mean velocity in
the extrapolated range can be obtained from this curve. Extrapolated discharge as before is obtained
as the product of mean velocity thus estimated and the corresponding area from the stage-area
curve.

3. The Manning’s equation method

A slight variation of the stage-area-velocity method is the use of Manning’s equation for steady flow.
In terms of the mean velocity the Manning equation may be written:

V  K m R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 (1)
Since for higher stages the value of K m S 1 / 2 becomes nearly constant, the equation can be rewritten:

V  K *R2/3 (2)
V
or K *  2/3 (3)
R

The relationship of stage (h) to K* is plotted from

discharge measurements. This curve often approaches a
constant value of K* at higher stages (Fig. 2.17). This
value of K* may then be used in conjunction with
extrapolated relationships between h and A and, h and
R 2 / 3 based on survey. Discharge for extrapolated stage
is then obtained by applying the Manning equation with
K* and extrapolated values of A and R 2 / 3 . Above
bankfull stage, the discharge on the floodplain must be
determined separately by assuming an appropriate K m
value as done using the conveyance slope method.

Fig. 2.17 K * versus gauge height

4. The conveyance slope method

22
In the conveyance slope method, the conveyance and the energy slope are extrapolated separately. It
has greater versatility than the methods described above and can be applied in sections with
overbank flow. It is therefore recommended for use. It is normally based on the Manning equation:

Q  KS 1 / 2 (5)

where the conveyance is:

1
K AR 2 / 3
n

For the assessment of K for given stage, A and R are obtained from field survey of the discharge
measurement and values of n are estimated in the field. Values of K are then plotted against stage up
to the maximum required level (usually on natural graph paper).

Fig. 2.18 Conveyance method of rating curve extension

Values of S, which is the energy gradient are usually not available but, for measured discharges, S 1 / 2
2
can be computed by dividing the measured discharge by its corresponding K value as S f  Q . S
K2
is then calculated and plotted against stage on natural graph paper and extrapolated to the required
peak gauge height, in the knowledge that S tends to become constant at higher stages at the limiting
slope of the stream-bed.

The discharge for given gauge height is obtained by multiplying the corresponding value of K from the
K curve by the corresponding value of S 1 / 2 from the S curve. It should be noted that in this method,
errors in estimating K have a minor effect, because the resulting percentage error in computing K is
compensated by a similar percentage error in the opposite direction in computing S 1 / 2 .

23