Image Analysis
Image Analysis
Chapter 4
Measu rements
Principles
. and Practiceof
-- Automatic
- ImageAnalysis
8--'--" i" Chapter1
Historical Development
Image analysis is a technique for extracting quantitative data from images.
usually with the objective to analyze some property of the specimen. When
Henry Sorby visually examined his first successfully polished metal
specimen, he analyzed it and described one of the microstructures as a
"pearly structure". The name pearlite has since been applied to the
eutectoid structure of iron-carbon alloys. Since photography was in its
infancy and the microscope illumination was not adequate for the weak
sensitivity of photographic materials. early microscopists drew sketches of
the microstructures. In addition. visual estimates were made of how much
pearlite. ferrite, or carbide was present.
~
~"MUWUCIIT~
'.'..'. ..-. "".-;,.,.-.
. ... .. ..'~.
'".' ,~"..%,~.,
I
"":.'.1.-."
,."
." :.41 _.;~~
... . . -'..':-~',.,-, ~."..\
t . ..
!-!J ~. ...,..
- .w ... ffi
. .. . .",,'."'.
.~.~,..':c,"
.",...:...",
n st
~~!;~i~~~i!
~ II»jl:
~ MS
During the 1960's, the development of video technology made possible the
first video-based image analysis system. Although the early models were
complex and expensive, they were the beginning of a technology that has
developed rapidly to point that some form of automatic image analysis is
available to virtually any user who has this need.
In the 1980's, the development of PCs and their DOS environments enabled
an increase in the speed and accuracy of image analyzers. During the past
years, WindowS@environments have created a more user-friendly interface
for the PC user.
The ever increasing demand for higher quality products at lower competitive
costs increased the need for accurate and timely microstructural analysis.
The Buehler Omnimet Image Analysis System was developed to solve this
dilemma. Since the introduction of the first generation of the Omnimet
Image Analysis Systems (Omnimet) in 1980, several generations have
been developed, including Omnimet II, Omnimet 3 and 4. Next, the
Omnimet Advantage was developed. This was a milestone insofar that the
software and hardware development was brought in-house.
Automatic image analysis deals primarily with the analysis of features in a two-
dimensional image obtained through image forming devices such as a microscope.
The features of interest are binarized or highlighted with a bitplane (color). The
binarization or thresholding process is performed based on the gray values or colors
of the pixels in the given image. Following the thresholding process, binary image
The following processes are included in the overall terminology of "Automatic Image
Analysis" and will be covered in this course:
This image analysis course covers the basic principles of imaging algorithms and
measurements as they occur in the field of quantitative metallography. It stresses the
importance of good specimen preparation practices, microscope optimization, and
proper image analysis and database operations to obtain maximum accuracy.
Through lectures, demonstrations, and nands-on training, basic image analysis
operations are taught. Additional subjects such as shading correction, frame
operations and innovative analysis techniques will be included. The course will also
cover the integration of images and results to MS Word and Excel.
The results may be skewed by poor specimen surface preparation that produces
relief, i.e.; hard constituents are higher than the matrix material. Edge rounding is
a polishing artifact that causes pores to appear enlarged or edge features to be
distorted. (Chapter 3)
If the specimen is etched to produce contrast, care must be taken to avoid over-
etching that could remove precipitates that would then appear to be pits or
porosity. (Chapter 3)
The microscope used to generate the image must be correctly adjusted to obtain
optimum resolution and even illumination that will define features (Chapter 4).
The detection operation must be performed carefully (requiring materials
knowledge) to clearly separate image elements so that they can be represented
properly.
The data produced by image analysis must always be considered in the larger
context of the chemistry, thermal and mechanical history of the specimen.
In the final analysis, we must remember that the images analyzed are two-
dimensional slices of a three-dimensional structure.
Common Applications
Linear Measurements: While the simple filar measuring accessory is still widely
used for making occasional measurements, in cases where a high quantity of
measurements and more statistics are required, image analysis is time saving. After
the necessary delineation, detection, and binary isolation of the coating, several grid
lines are superimposed. These are then combined with the solid coatings using
Boolean logic. The result is many strings (ferets) representing the coating thickness
at a given point of the coating. In a given field, up to 100 coating thickness data
points can be generated allowing for a statistically sound coating thickness
distribution.
Feature ShaDe and Size: The shape of the graphite constituent in gray and ductile
irons is critical. The flake shape of the graphite in gray irons severely limited this
alloys usefulness due to its low ductility, impact and tensile strength. Ductile iron was
developed 50 that the graphite would occur in the form of spherical nodules with the
result of dramatically improved physical properties. However, variations in chemistry
and other factors can cause the nodules to be irregular, leading to some degradation
of the properties. The ability to monitor the graphite shape or determine "nodularity" is
another ability of image analysis. These same techniques are applicable to any
constituent that can be detected.
Stereology
Stereology
Nomenclature
Application of stereology requires the use of mathematical symbols for the
parameters. The International Society for Stereology has promoted a
standard nomenclature which is constantly evolving as new approaches are
developed. The most basic symbols are:
P = Point
L = Line
A = Area
S = Surface
V = Volume
N = Number
These symbols can be combined in a number of ways to generate different
symbols. For example, Pp represents the point fraction; that is, the fraction of
grid points lying in a phase of interest. While A and S seem to be the same,
A is for a flat surface while S is for a curved surface. Thus, Sy represents the
grain boundary surface area per unit volume. NAis the number of particles
per unit area while Ny is the number per unit volume.
PhasePropo~ons
One of the most common measurements, determination of the amount of
phases present, can be done using three different methods. Areal analysis,
developed by Delesse in 1848, says that the area percent of a phase on a 2-
D plane is equal to its volumetric percent, that is, AA= Vy' However,
measuring the area of second phases is very tedious unless they are quite
coarse. Lineal analysis, developed by Rosiwal in 1898, says that the lineal
fraction of test lines in a phase on the 2-D plane is equal to its volumetric
percentage, that is, ~ = Vy' This is easier to determine but still rather
tedious.
Starting around 1930, several workers in different fields and countries
showed that the percentage of points on a test grid lying in the phase of
interest was equal to the volumetric percentage, that is, Pp = Vy' Of the three
methods, this is the most efficient technique; that is, it produces the best
precision for the least effort when done manually. The point counting
technique is described fully in ASTM E 562 (also ISO 9042). Image
analyzers use essentially the same procedure; that is, the amount of a
phase (usually called the area fraction or volume fraction even if it actually is
a point fraction) is determined by the number of picture elements or "pixels"
in the phase of interest divided by the total number of pixels; i.e., Pp'
expressed usually as a percentage.
PointCountinaExamole
ASTM E 562 describes the point counting procedure for determining the
amount of second-phase constituents. A grid with systematically spaced
points (e.g., 10 rows of 10 equally spaced points) is superimposed over the
structure, either on an eyepiece reticle or a plastic sheet placed over or
behind a ground glass projection screen or on a monitor. The points are
usually drawn as fine perpendicular crossing lines and the "poinf' is the
intersection of the two lines. This is done because actual points would be
very difficult to see. The optimum point density for manual point counting is
~
Principles and Practice of Automatic Image Analysis Chapter 2
~, +: '-T
+ i~!
~
~ l
T
B ~i ~ ..:f +
~ .: !;F' ~
~
~ .:t
~
~ + ~ ~ .
I'"
~
.,ifr;;
~ ~
r;,~"i: "~ '+
;~ :0= ~
~~
~ !
",. ~
Figure 9-1 Point count grid overlayed on Muntz metal, Klemm's I reagant
The microstructure above shows the beta phase in Muntz metal (Cu-40%
Zn) preferentially colored by Klemm's I reagent while the alpha matrix is
unaffected - ideal conditions for point counting. Since there is less (3than a,
count the number of times the points fall in the colored (darker grey) (3
grains. The amount of a is simply 100 - %(3.As you can see, we have
superimposed a 54-point test grid (8 rows of 8 points) over the structure and
we have 12 hits and 11 tangent hits. The point fraction (volume fraction) is
17.5/54 = 0.273 or 27.3%.
The point counting grid would be placed randomly over the structure a
number of times so that the point fraction is determined for a number of
fields. The necessary number of fields to yield a 10% relative accuracy
varies inversely with the volume fraction (the lower the volume fraction, the
greater the number of fields, i.e., the greater the total number of applied grid
points).
Groin SIze
Grain size is perhaps the most commonly performed microstructural
measurement, although chart ratings are more commonly done than actual
measurements (this is changing).
The ASTM grain size number, G ,is defined as: n = 2 G-1 where n is the number of
grains per square inch at 100X. To convert n to NA(the number of grains per square
mm at IX), multiply n by 15.5. The four ASTM grain size charts show graded series
of grain structures of different types.
In the intercept method, either straight lines, curved lines, or circles are
placed over the structure and a count is made of either the number of grain
boundary intersections, P, or the number of grains intercepted, N, by the
line. P or N is divided by the true line length, LT,to determine PLor NL,the
number of intersections or interceptions per unit length (for a single phased
structure). The reciprocal of PLor NLgives the mean lineal intercept length, 1,
1= 1/N, = 1/P,
The figure 9-2 shows the grain structure at 200X of a low-carbon sheet steel
after color etching. A circle of known size (64.4mm diameter) has been
placedover the image to illustrate the method. There are 44 grains within the
circle (n...) and 34 grains intercepted by the circle (n~). The number of
grains per sq. mm, NA, is calculated from:NA= f {n- + Y2(n---J}
From NA,we can calculate the ASTM grain size number, G, using the
following formula from E 112-96:G = {3.322 (log10 NA)- 2.954} = 6.6
The ASTM grain size can also be determined using the intercept method
counting either the number of grains intercepted, N, or the number of grain
boundaries intersected, P, with a test line. ASTM recommends using a grid
with three concentric circles with a 500mm total line length. To illustrate the
principle of the method, we will use the same image with a single circle
(shown on previous page). The count of the number of grains intercepted by
the circle is N. To calculate the number of interceptions per mm, NL,we
divide N by the true length (circumference) of the circle. Since the diameter
of the circle is 64.4mm, its circumference is nD, that is, 202.3mm. The true
length is 202.3mm divided by the magnification, M, that is, 1.01mm. Hence,
NL = N~ = 34/1.01 = 33.6 interceptions per mm.
To calculate the grain size, we first determine the mean lineal intercept
length, I, which is the reciprocal of NL(or of PL' the number of grain boundary
intersections per unit length). Thus, 1= 1/33.6 = 0.0298mm. G is calculated
from an equation from E 112-96:G = {-6.644 (log10 1)- 3.288} where 1is in
mm. In this example, G = 6.85. Since the two methods are sensing different
geometric aspects of the three-dimensional grain structure, they will not give
exactly the same value, but they will be close, generally within the
experimental limitations of the measurements. In practice, we would repeat
these measurements on a number of fields in order to obtain a good
estimate of the grain size.
Figure 9-2. Low carbon steel sheet with a circle grid superimposed
Spacings
The spacing between second-phase particles, such as carbides or inclusions
in steels or between intermetallic particles in aluminum alloys, can affect
mechanical properties and formability. A special case is the interlamellar
spacing of pearlite in high carbon steels (like rail steel) where refinement of
the spacing improves both strength and toughness.
Spacings are easily assessed using a simple Nl (number of particles
intercepted per unit length of test line) measurement. The mean center-to-
center spacing, sometimes called 0, is simply: 0 = 1/Nl This is not a
nearest-neighbor spacing, but the mean spacing between particles in the
test line direction (either placed randomly or in some preferred direction,
such as the through-thickness direction).
By a simple subtraction of (0"- A), we can obtain the mean intercept length of
the second phase particles - without measuring any particles! Furthermore,
if we count the number of particles within a known area to obtain NA
(including only half of the particles intersected by the field edges), we can
determine the average cross sectional area of the particles, A, by: A =
PP/NAwhere Pp is the point fraction (as a fraction, not a %) of the second
phase. Thus, the average size of particles can be determined manually
without actually measuring the particles. With modern image analyzers,
individual measurements of particles are fast and simple. Besides generating
average particle dimensions, the distribution of particle sizes can be
obtained by feature-specific image analysis.
In the past, the mean directed spacing, ad, was determined for the pearlite
colony with the finest observed spacing, and this was assumed to be the
true spacing. This is a better technique for isothermally-formed pearlite than
for pearlite formed during continuous cooling. However, the longer you
search for the finest colony, the finer the measured colony size! That is, the
ad value obtained depends upon the amount of time spent looking for the
finest colony, even in isothermally-formed pearlite. Any effort spent looking
for a "best" or "worst" field condition, of any type, is strongly influenced by
the amount of search time, and the results are neither reproducible nor
precise.
Interlamellar Soacina Examole
Traditionally, the metallographer has searched for the finest appearing
interlamellar colony and made a measurement of its spacing using a test line
perpendicular to the lamellae. This spacing is claimed to be the true
interlamellar spacing. However, this method is not reproducible as the longer
you search, the finer the measured spacing. A better approach is to measure
a mean random spacing and divide that by two to get the mean true spacing.
This method was verified and proven to be correct (see Metallography, Vol.
17, No.1, February 1984, pp. 1-17). The micrograph in Fig. 9-3 is that of an
as-rolled carbon steel of about 0.45% C, etched with 4% picral and
photographed with the SEM (specimen perpendicular to the beam) using
secondary electrons at 17,800x magnification. A circle with a diameter of
49.7mm was placed over the lamellae and the number of carbide lamellae
intercepted by the test line, N, was counted. NLwas again determined as N
(23) divided by the true line length, nD/M, where the circle diameter, 0, is
49.7mm and M is 17,800x. Thus NL is 2622 interceptions per mm. The mean
random spacing, crr, is given by: cr, = 1/NL = 0.381 ~ = 381 nm. The mean
true spacing, crt, is cr,/2 = 190.7nm.
Statisflcs
Other measurements are possible, but the ones described above represent
some of the simplest and most useful. Each can be repeated on a number of
fields on the plane-of-polish so that a mean and standard deviation can be
obtained. The number of fields measured influences the precision of the
measurement. Manual measurements are tedious and time-consuming so
sampling statistics may be less than desired. Image analysis removes most
of the barriers to inadequate sampling.
Sampling
So far, we have discussed measurements on a single plane-of-polish on one
specimen. Because we are usually dealing with large quantities of material
(such as an entire "hear' of metal or alloy, a large heat treatment lot of bars,
forgings, etc., or a large forging or casting), a single specimen may not be
representative of the whole quantity. Ideally, random sampling of a large
batch would be best, but practical considerations usually rule this out.
In most cases, sampling is done at predetermined convenient locations,
such as the extreme ends of a coil, bar, plate, etc., or at locations which will
be subjected to extensive machining. In some cases, excess metal is added
to a forging or casting to provide test material as similar as possible to that of
the component. Sampling is often a compromise and is rarely excessive due
to cost considerations. However, inadequate sampling or sampling of
nonrepresentative material or locations may degrade the value of the
measurements.
~
Cha ter 3 The Role of S ecimen Pre aration
Sectioning
Mounting
Grinding & Polishing
Microstructural Etching Techniques
Contrast Enhancement
Sectioning
Sectioning is performed to remove a suitably sized specimen for subsequent
mounting and polishing. Since the intended plane of polishing is usually
determined by the sectioning operation, caution must be exercised to avoid
excessive damage to this surface. Abrasive cutting, the most often recommended
method of metallographic sectioning, produces minimal surface deformation and
is also the most economical, simple, and rapid method available. If the removal of
specimens involves destructive methods such as torches or hacksaws, the cuts
should be made at a safe distance from the area of interest. Subsequent cutting
to remove the damaged areas should be performed in the laboratory with an
abrasive cutter.
Wheel selection should be based on the chemical and physical properties of the
material to be cut. While aluminum oxide abrasive wheels are suggested for
cutting ferrous alloys, non-ferrous alloys and non-metals should be cut with silicon
carbide wheels. Abrasive wheels are rated according to their hardness. The
softer wheels are used to cut harder materials; the harder are preferred for softer
materials. Special resin or metal bonded diamond abrasive blades may be
required for extremely hard metals, carbides and ceramics.
Adeguate. uniform coolant is important to prevent heat buildup during the cutting
process. Submerged cooling is very efficient, but cutters employing an abundant
stream of coolant directed at the cutting area may be equally effective. If a cutter
employs adjustable coolant nozzles, the distance from both nozzles to the
workpiece must be equal. This prevents irregular wear of the abrasive wheel,
which may result in curved cuts and possible wheel failure.
Technigue is another important aspect of metallographic cutting. Parts must be
clamped securely to prevent movement during cutting. Firm, but not extreme
pressure, should be applied with the blade to maintain a reasonable cutting
action. Excessive pressure could cause burning of the workpiece and possible
wheel breakage. Resistance to cutting could indicate a wrong choice of abrasive
wheel for the specimen or insufficient cooling. Drastic slowing down or stalling of
the cutter while in operation may indicate that the particular cutter is not suited for
the job.
Mounting
Mounting provides a safe, convenient means of holding metallographic samples
during preparation and protects the sample edge from the destructive attack of
abrasive materials. Encapsulants for metallography fall into two major categories:
. Compressing Mounting
. Castable Mounting
Compression molding resins are dry powders or PREMOLDS @ which cure at
3,000 to 4,200 psi (3-4.2 ksi) pressure and 140 - 16~ C temperature. They are
ideally suited for mounting solid specimens that are not damaged by the required
heat and pressure. While compression mounting is more economical and usually
requires less time and effort, castable curing resins are preferred for specimens
that are sensitive to damage from heat and pressure.
Selection of a mounting technique must also take into consideration the possible
need for edge protection. Vital information such as case hardness depth, plated
layer thickness and surface defects may be preserved by the application of
Edg..
not
protected
c=~
LIght
T~ T T
Specimen
Mount
Rounded Retained
~o
A B c D
Contrast Enhancement
Ceramics
Ceramic materials are increasingly used in applications requiring high hardness,
toughness, heat, wear, and corrosion resistance. These materials, which include
alumina, silicon nitride and others, are not only difficult to polish but also resist
efforts to reveal their microstructure. Even when porosity, grain boundaries and
cracks are visible through the microscope, the contrast is marginal at best for
image analysis. This is particularly true for magnifications higher than 200x. In
such cases, sputter coating maybe used to increase the contrast significantly.
Sputter coating is the vacuum vapor deposition of a thin film such as gold or gold-
palladium.
Concrete Analysis
Concrete is an aggregate material whose properties depend upon a correct ratio
of particles and air porosity in the cement matrix. Therefore, it is extremely helpful
to perform particle counts and area % porosity in a timely manner using automatic
image analysis. Like ceramics, concrete samples have limited optical contrast, so
the following method was developed to increase the contrast.
The specimens are first ground through 800 grit SiC abrasive papers to produce
a smooth, flat surface. They are then washed thoroughly. This is followed by a
1202F (49-54QC) bake in an oven for 3-4 hours to remove moisture. Next the
specimens are pressed onto a stamp pad containing a moderate amount of black
ink, taking care to avoid filling the pores. The ink-coated specimen is placed into
the oven for 10-12 hours or until dry. While the sample is still warm, apply zinc
oxide paste to the surface, and then place in a refrigerator until the paste
hardens. Carefully scrape the surface with a plastic scraper or putty knife. Dust
the surface with aluminum oxide polishing abrasive or plaster of Paris and re-
scrape the surface until the voids appear white against a dark background. The
specimen is now ready for analysis.
~
Principles
. and Practk:e of Automated Image
- Analysis
. i, i! r! ' Chapter 4
Illumination Modes
Resolution
Kohler Illumination
Optical Terminology
The reflected light microscope is the most commonly used tool in metallography
for the study of materials. Light optical microscopes are required to magnify
images to observe the fine details not seen with the human eye. The unaided
human eye can only resolve details separated by about 0.1mm or 100 microns.
A microscope magnifies an image with the application of suitable lenses that
bend and focus light or other types of radiation. The useful magnification that can
be achieved reaches a limit, which is dependent upon the wavelength of the
radiation employed.
Light microscopes are the least expensive scope and the simplest to use with a
considerable amount of flexibility. Standard descriptions typically include the way
the image is created such as either being a reflective, transmitted, or stereo
microscope. For the majority of materials prepared by standard practices
(grinding and polishing), the reflected light microscope is utilized. Observations
of thin sections, however, require a transmitted light microscope.
While this lesson will focus on the light microscope, other types of instruments
are often used to characterize microstructures, such as:
Stereo Microscopes
The stereo microscope offers the user several advantageous features not found
in a compound microscope. The stereo microscope has an extended working
distance (as much as 2000 mm), and depth of field. These features make the
stereo microscope an indispensable tool in many areas of investigation. The
magnification range is in the area of 1x to 250x. They produce a three-
dimensional visual image and use coaxial, ring or oblique illumination. They are
excellent for the examination of rough surfaces such as fractures. On polished
surfaces, they produce a darkfield image.
Transmitted brightfield yields a highly magnified and resolved image. Little color
is discerned. Shadows, outlines and edges of clear and opaque substrates are
generally observed.
They are often called metallurgical microscopes because they are necessary for
the examination of opaque polished samples. Vertical illumination produces the
needed Brightfield effect. Other forms of illuminations such as Darkfield,
Polarized Light and Differential Interference Contrast (DIG) may be utilized as
discussed in this chapter.
Inverted Microsco~es
UDriahtMicrosco~s
"1m Plane
T
goula. I.n.
0
o~ Field
Dlop~rog",
Aperture
Dlophrog..
I
R.fl.~I;ng/
r . ).-y ~+-~" ill -eI ~
Transmllling
,f-:
S"rfa~. -
I B \. '
--
O~.~tlv.
0 I
ili
".Iay ,.".. I. Con_-
~~~-
Figure 6-4 Light Path of an Upright Microscope
Reflective Illumination Modes
Brightfield (BF) is the standard lighting condition for reflected light microscopy.
Light strikes the sample surface at a high angle and is reflected back on the
same path to the viewer or camera. The resulting image is viewed as dark lines
on a bright background. This is the best condition for cursory examination.
Darkfield (DF) is produced by special objective lenses that cause light from the
illuminator to be channeled down the side of the lens and strike the sample
surface at an incident angle. The light then returns to the viewer via the lens
elements, producing bright lines on a dark background. Darkfield illumination
causes fine features to stand out, even if they were not visible with Brightfield
illumination. See figure 6-5 for an example.
Figure 6-5: Comparison of a cast aluminum alloy observed in brightfield (left) and darkfield conditions
(right).
Figure 6-6: Comparison of a white cast Iron (~/o nital etch) observed in brightfield (left) and differential
Inteference contrast conditions (right).
Figure 6-7: Comparison of a cast aluminum alloy, which has been anodized, observed in brightfield (left)
and polarized light conditions (right).
Resolution
Resolution Limits
The most influential component in an optical microscope is the numerical
aperture (denoted N.A.) of the objective. This is a measure of its light gathering
power. Numerical aperture is defined as:
N.A.= n sin a
n=refractive index of the medium in front of the objective (n=1 for air, 1.51 for oil),
a=the half-angle of the most oblique rays entering the front lens of the objective.
The numerical aperture is also related to the resolving power of the objective.
Resolving power is defined as the ability to reveal closely adjacent structural
details. A more commonly used term is the Limit of Resolution: this is the
maximum distance allowing details to be resolved.
Limit of Resolution = 1 = A
Resolving Power 2 x N.A.
Magnification
The total magnification observed at the eyepieces is calculated by the following
formula:
Answer
A. Total magnification = 20 x 10 = 200x
The correct answer is A because of the greater resolving power or smaller limit
of resolution. At low magnifications, this limit will not be as critical as for higher
magnifications where a loss in resolution will cause the image to appear out of
focus. Another important consideration of the objective lens is its depth of field.
Depth of field is the range within which the details are in focus. For low
magnifications, this is not usually critical, but for higher magnifications, care must
be taken to insure that the specimen surface is flat and perpendicular to the
objective lens.
Kohler Illumination
The adjustment technique necessary to obtain the greatest performance from a
microscope or metallograph is referred to as "KOhler" illumination. This
illumination and adjustment method was devised by a German named KOhlerin
1893 and has been generally used since that date.
Aperturediaphragm adjustment
. Field diaphragm adjustment
Eyepieces
Procedure
1 Remove the eyepieces and adjust each for midpoint focus; there is usually a
line scribed on the side of the eyepiece barrel to indicate this position.
2. Remove any filters from the light source and light path. These may be the
slide-in type or they may be part of a rotating wheel or turret.
3. Place a specimen onto the stage; a typical polished and leveled sample is
best.
5. Adjust both the field diaphragm and the aperture diaphragm to maximum
diameter.
6. Adjust the coarse and fine focus controls to being the specimen into sharp
focus through the eyepiece.
10. Center the bulb filament in the field of view. Controls for moving the light up
and down and side to side are usually part of the light source or its
attachment on the lamp house.
12. When viewing through the eyepieces at a focused image, adjust the field
diaphragm so that it lies just outside the field of view.
14. When viewing down the tube without the eyepiece. adjust the aperture
diaphragm so that its minimum radius is about 15% less than the radius of
the field of view.
15. Replace the eyepiece. Re-install any filters, which were removed.
Note: Each microscope objective has an entry aperture through which the light
from the lamphouse enters the objective. The diameter of the entry aperture
varies with the magnification power of the objective. The higher the objective
magnification power, the smaller the diameter of the entry aperture.
For many years, metallographers have documented images. Typically, they are
acquired using light optical microscopes, stereomicroscopes, macro lenses and
scanning electron microscopes (SEM). Photography was, and still is, the most
common way to obtain images in the materials laboratory. At first, glass plates,
then sheet film and 35mm film formats were used to accomplish this task. Since
the 1960's, Polaroid instant films have largely replaced wet-processed films.
Wet processed films produce the highest quality images, with best permanence,
easily duplicated but the process is labor intensive and negative storage (and
subsequent retrieval) is a problem. Instant films, which do not require a darkroom
technician, offer speed and convenience. The savings in processing time and
labor is offset somewhat by high film costs, waste, and the greater expense when
multiple prints are required. Further, image quality of some instant films is
noticeably inferior. Color instant films are plagued with reciprocity failures, i.e.,
inability to generate true colors unless the exposure time is carefully controlled.
The newer 64T film has solved this problem.
Size Format The most popular sizes are 35mm rolls, 3x4 packs and 4x5 sheet
film of individual instant sheets.
Fihers Although they are the least expensive equipment item, the availability
and correct choice of filters often makes the difference between success or
failure.
Color correction filters allow the operator to use daylight film with tungsten
illumination and vice versa.
Sharpfocus
Correct and even illumination (right color temperature match with no hot
spots)
Image Capture
This term describesimageacquisitionby meansof a camera and frame grabber
or a digital camera. Because of the many choices of camera types, a video
microscopysystem must be flexible. Analog CCD (Charged-CoupledDevice)
cameras,both black and white and color, are most frequentlyused. Component
video (Y/C or S-Video)and compositevideo signals and a numberof color video
standards such as NTSC, PAL and SECAM are typically supported. Images
acquired in the materials laboratory are optimized in real time by adjusting
brightness,contrast, and color saturation.The analog output camera signal is
then digitized utilizing an analog frame grabber board. Various PC-compatible
image file formats and compressionalgorithms are commonly used, such as
TIFF, BMP,TGA, DBA,PCX,JPEG and manyothers.
Field of View: The viewable area of the specimen under inspection. In other
words, this is the portion of the object that fills the camera's sensor.
Resolution: The minimum feature size of the object that can be distinguished
by the imaging system.
Sensor size: The size of a camera sensor's active area, typically specified in
the horizontal dimension. This parameter is important in determining the proper
lens magnification required to obtain a desired field of view. Also referred to as
chip size.
In order to determine the field of view, or portion of the specimen that is visible
on the monitor, it is necessary to know the sensor size. the objective
magnification and the transfer lens magnification. The field of view does not vary
with the size of the monitor.
Monitor Field of View (diagonal) = sensor size (diagonal) .
objective mag. X transfer lens mag
Exam~le: Determine the field of view, if you are using a 40X objective, 0.5 X
transfer lens and a Y2inch camera.
where the optical magnification = objective mag. X transfer lens mag. And
electronic magnification = monitor diagonal/sensor diagonal.
1/2 8 sox
2/3 11 .67 X
1 16 1.0X
Image quality
An imaging system should create sufficient image quality to enable extraction of
desired information about the specimen from the image. Note that what may be
adequate for one application may prove inadequate for another. There are a
variety of factors that contribute to the overall image quality, including resolution,
image contrast, depth of field, perspective errors and geometric errors.
Resolution
Start with a simplified image of squares where each square fills one camera
pixel. If the squares are the same color and imaged on to neighboring pixels the
two are indistinguishable from one another. Since there is no space between the
squares they appear as one solid rectangle. In order to distinguish them, a
certain amount of white space is needed. The sequence of a colored square
next to a white square is said to represent a line pair (Ip). As a result, resolution
can be expressed in terms of line-pairs per millimeter (Ip/mm), also known as the
frequency. The inverse of the frequency yields the spacing in millimeters
between two resolved squares.
The object resolution can be calculated from the image resolution of the camera
using the primary magnification of the imaging lens.
8~o~uJ.as:
Line-Pair (Ip/mm) = 1 / Spacing (mm), Line-Pair (Ip) = 2x Pixel
Object vs Cameraresolution:
Depth of Field
The depth of field of a lens is its ability to maintain a desired amount of image
quality as the specimen is positioned closer to and further from best focus. As
the specimen is placed closer or farther than the working distance, it goes out of
focus and both the resolution and the contrast suffer.
Components
The sensor, as well as other electronic components, plays a significant role in
the performance of an imaging system. Proper integration of all components
(including camera, capture board, software and cables) will result in optimum
system performance.
Charge-Coupled Devices (CCD)
Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) are the most common camera sensors used in
machine vision. The CCD camera contains a silicon chip that consists of a
matrix of light sensitive photosites called pixels.
CCD Pixels
When light falls on a CCD chip, it is collected by a matrix of small potential wells
called pixels. The image is divided into these small discrete pixels. The
information from these photosites is collected, organized, and transferred to a
monitor to be displayed.
Analog CCD cameras have rectangular pixels (larger in the vertical dimension).
This is a result of a limited number of scanning lines in the signal standards (525
lines for NTSC, 625 lines for PAL). Asymmetric pixels yield higher horizontal
resolution than vertical. Analog CCD cameras (with the same signal standard)
usually have the same vertical resolution, for this reason, the industry standard is
to specify resolution in terms of horizontal resolution. Digital cameras are not
limited by the vertical bandwidth, and therefore, can have either rectangular or
square pixels.
Another issue is the ability of the lens to support certain CCD chip sizes. If the
chip is too large for the lens design, the resulting image may appear to fade
away and degrade towards the edges because of vignetting (extinction of rays
which pass through the outer edges of the lens). This is commonly referred to
as the "tunnel" effect, since the edges of the field become dark. Smaller chip
sizes do not yield such problems. Transfer lens recommendations based on
sensor dimensions were shown in Table 7-1.
Digital Analog
With no bandwidth limit, these can Sensors usually are standard size
offer higher number of pixels and formats.
larger CCD sensors, resulting in
greater resolution.
Optical Terminology
Aberrations Optical defects which are inherent in the lens design.
Depth of Field The distance along the optical axis through which the object is in
sharp focus.
Flat Field An image condition in which the entire field of view appears to be in
sharp focus.
Parfocal The image is in focus at the eyepiece and is also in focus at the film
place of the camera or the accessory port.
Tube Factor The distance from the focal point of the objective lens to the focal
point of the ocular (viewing or projection lens) of a microscope. If greater than
1.0x it will increase the total magnification of the microscope. If the magnification
is less than 1.0x,it will decrease the total magnification of a particular objective-
ocular lens combination.
Working Distance The distance between the front surface of the objective lens
and the sample surface when the image is focused.
Software Components
lIumination Settings (B&W camera)
Shading Correction
Calibration
Software Components
Four icons are present on the Windows desktop.
~
. Enterprise
- mainprogram .
Database configuration -
rename the labels for the
database fields
2. Adjust the illumination on the microscope until only a few blue overflow
indication pixels are visible on the screen.
Shading Correction
The shading correction is used to correct minor illumination differences in the
microscope when capturing images. Before setting the shading correction for an
objective, make sure that the correct microscope and objective are set and that the
illumination is optimally adjusted (i.e. that the microscope is set up for Kohler
illumination, see Chapter 4).
The Pseudocolor icon is a useful tool to find out whether shading correction is needed
because of uneven illumination. This tool allows the user to see uneven the gray
levels caused by the light source with color. A mirror type specimen surface is
needed to perform this task (mirror or inclusion free, highly polished steel specimen).
1. Place a mirrored surface on the microscope stage and view its surface
through the Enterprise image window.
2. Click on the Saturation icon and adjust the level illumination until the blue
pixels disappear.
3. From Enterprise main menu, click Setup.
The shading correction will be stored in objective database. After this point, when an
image is captured, the shading correction will be applied to the image. Please note
that the use of shading correction will cause a general brightening of the image.
~
Principlesand Practiceof AutomaticImage Analysis Chapter 5
1 Make sure that the correct objective and camera are selected.
Calibration
The Image Analyzer allows the user to conduct quantitative measurements of
features in an image. Each image is comprised of thousands of individual picture
points or pixels (for example, 756 x 570 = 430,920). Any video system requires a
pixel calibration to perform measurements. At a given magnification setting, the
computer needs to determine a calibration factor. Therefore, pixels have to be
equated to a real distance.
Most systems will include an optical light microscope that has a selection of
objectives: each of these must be calibrated. With the size of each pixel being known
in both X and Y dimensions for each objective, it will be possible to measure the
image features in that plane in any direction and at any of the included magnifications.
It should be noted that while calibration is critical for many quantitative measures,
there are certain ones that are non-calibration critical since they are dimensionless.
Typical non-calibration critical measures are form factors (i.e. sphericity and
roughness) and fractions (i.e. area percent, aspect ratio, and area fraction sample).
Calibrate X Objective
When using a CCD camera that has square pixels, then with the correct selection of
the X- Y size of image to be sampled from the device, it can be assumed that
subsequent images have a correct pixel aspect ratio. This is the case with the use of
a standard CCD camera.
In the case of a known X- Y pixel ratio, it is only necessary to calibrate the X-axis for
each objective.
3. Move the caliper ruler by placing the mouse pointer on the caliper ruler,
pressing down the left mouse button and dragging the mouse.
4. Place the mouse pointer on the right leg of the caliper ruler, press down the
left mouse button and drag the mouse to change the number of pixels.
5. After aligning the caliper type the distance that the calipers cover in the X
Distance box.
6. The Aspect Ratio showsthe aspectratio of the imagepixelsfrom the
'7 The Image Pixels shows the number of pixels between the legs of caliper
ruler.
8. tal Factor shows the Calibration Factor that changes according to the value
in the Image Pixels window.
9. Click OK.
Calibrate XV Objective
If video cameras are used where the X-V pixel ratio is not known, we need to
calibrate the image in both X and V-axis to determine the proper pixel aspect ratio.
3. Move the caliper rulers by placing the mouse pointer on the caliper rulers,
pressing down the left mouse button and dragging the mouse.
4. To change the X axis pixel number: place the mouse pointer on the right leg
of the horizontal caliper ruler, press down the left mouse button and drag the
mouse.
5. To change the Y axis pixel number: place the mouse pointer on the lower leg
of the vertical caliper ruler, press down the left mouse button and drag the
mouse.
6. After aligning the calipers, type the distance that the calipers cover in the X
Distance box and the Y Distance box.
'7 The Image Pixels shows the number of pixels between the legs of the caliper
~
Principlesand Practiceof Automatic Image
- Analysis
- I,,')I,! Chapter
. 5
ruler.
8. Cal Factor shows the Calibration Factor that changes according to the value
in the Image Pixels window.
9. The Aspect Ratio shows the calculated aspect ratio of the image pixels.
Color Threshold
Grayscale Threshold
Thresholding is the way of representing ranges of grayscale values with
different color bitplanes. The bitplanes are used for binary operations and
measurements.
Pause, Threshold
Pause, threshold is used to stop execution of a routine until thresholding is
done. This is useful when there is variance in the grayscale ranges from one
image to the next.
To Pause, threshold:
1. In the Operation Builder window, expand Grayscale Threshold branch
node. Double click on Pause, threshold.
Or
Threshold Window
The main thresholding dialog box displays a gray scale histogram of the image.
The gray scale histogram has an X-axis from 0-255. The left end of the scale is
zero (black) and the right end is white (255). The height or V-axis of the graph
represents the number of pixels at each gray level.
To detecta bitplane:
Place the cursor over the Upper Limit slider. Press and hold the left button of
the mouse, and then drag the slider toward right over the desired gray scale
range selecting the lightest gray area of interest.
Placethe cursor over the Lower Limit slider. Press and hold the left button of
the mouse, and then drag the slider toward right over the desired gray scale
range selecting the darkest gray area of interest.
If other bitplanes are desired, repeat the above steps. Clicking on another
bitplane will cause the Lower Limit slider to be placed immediately to the right of
the Upper Limit of the last detected bitplane.
The Sticky Threshold option always moves the Lower Limit slider and the Upper
Limit slider one video level to the right of the previous position of the Upper Limit
slider. Thus, it is guaranteed that different bitplane colors will not overlap, or no
video level will be included in more than one bitplane. If 2 bitplanes overlap the
color will change to an olive green overlap color.
There are three different Y scalings LInear, Sq. Root and Log. Select the
appropriate scale to best view the distribution of the grayscale pixels.
Color Threshold
. Hue
. Luminance
. Saturation
Scaling allows the user to choose the way the histogram will be
displayed. Linear gives the least detail. Sq. Root gives a more detailed
histogram. Lastly, Log gives the maximum detail.
Undo will remove the last accumulative sample selected by the user. It
is only active when an accumulative sample is selected.
~
_8- I
~
1~lw~t
J ~~ 19~25J
I-.~ ~r~
PAccumulatrve Sample
I~K I
@Buehler Ltd. 1999 3 The Institute for Microstructural Analysis
~
Principles and Practice of Automatic Image Analysis
This color wheel displays the range for Hue and Saturation that the user
has selected (see below).
The user can also configure the range of Hue and Saturation by using
the mouse and clicking on the edges and pulling them until it reaches
the necessary ranges for Hue and Saturation.
This threshold enables the user to set the range of intensity for the
grayscale.
Color HLS Thresholding is the way of representing ranges of color values with
different color bitplanes. The bitplanes are used for binary operations and
measurements.
Or
Image Clarifications
. BinaryImage Modifications
Image Clarifications
The image clarifications are often called "image enhancements". The purpose of
these clarifications is to:
1. Look-up-tables
Look-up-tables (or LUT's) are widely used in image processing. This is a tool to
adjust brightness and contrast levels of the image as well as the gamma function.
The transformed pixel values are used in the subsequent thresholding process.
3. Neighborhood Transformations
Neighborhood transformations, also called convolutions, are commonly used as
gray image clarifications. The principle is that the pixel value is modified in
relation to its immediate neighbors. This neighborhood averaging replaces each
pixel with the average of itself and its neighbors. This is often described as a
kernel operation. The neighborhood sizes are typically squares from 3x3, 5x5,
7x7, etc. The goal is an increase in local contrast at the phase boundaries. Often
times, the use of a neighborhood transformation results in a more narrow gray
scale distribution of a given phase, making the subsequent thresholding or
detection process easier.
After thresholding, the different phases in the image are represented by different
bitplane colors. It is possible that more than one phase or feature of interest was
detected by the same bitplane color because of a similar gray level range. A
Binary operation is the process that separates and classifies features within the
same bitplane, based on morphology or size.
Below is a listing and short description of all the binary image modification
commands available in the image analysis system:
Boolean
Boolean operations perform logical functions between bitplanes.
I NOR: excludes both bitplanes from entire image and puts rest of image into
destination bitplane.
~ MINUS: takes the part of Source #1 that is not in Source #2, and puts it into
destination bitplane. This function is useful for removing overlap from 2 bitplanes
(see coating thickness example, chapter 9).
Boundary Fill
This function smoothes the object boundary in the selected bitplane by expanding
and shrinking the objects. The resulting objects have shapes similar to the
original objects. This function is defined as dilation with a square kernel followed
by erosion with a cross kernel. It is normally used to substantiate the boundaries
before inverting.
Border Eliminate
This function eliminates all objects on the chosen bitplane that touch edge of
image frame.
Chord Size
This function eliminates objects that cannot completely cover a specified test box
of X by Y size. It is useful to eliminate elongated thin objects such as scratches.
Do not use this function on grain boundaries, as thin boundaries will disappear.
An object that does not cover the whole test box can be transferred to another
bitplane or discarded (to none). See Trap.
Clear
This function erases selected bitplane pixels over the entire image.
Close
This is dilation followed by erosion. Both operations will be done with same kernel
and same number of cycles. You can select number of cycles. Kernel choices
include square, hexagon, octagon, horizontal, vertical, and cross. This function is
used to fill holes or connect particles in a phase without significantly altering the
original shape.
Convex Hull
This function rounds off edges and fills in crevices at the edge of particles. It can
dilate any concave object until it becomes convex (turning a C into a circle).
Copy
This function copies the selected source bitplane into another bitplane. It does not
alter the information in the source bitplane. The source bitplane is turned off and
destination bitplane is turned on at the end of the operation.
Delta Dilate
This function sends the changes of the selected bitplane (added pixels) from
dilate to selected bitplane. This is difference from original image (before dilate)
and image after applying Dilate.
Delta Erode
This function sends the changes of the selected bitplane (subtracted pixels) from
erode to selected bitplane. This is difference from original image (before erode)
and image after applying Erode.
Delta Prune
This function sends changes of the selected bitplane (subtracted pixels) from
prune to selected bitplane. This is difference from original image (before prune)
and image after applying Prune.
Delta Thicken
This function sends changes of the selected bitplane (added pixels) from thicken
to selected bitplane. This is difference from original image (before thicken) and
image after applying Thicken.
Delta Thin
This function sends changes of the selected bitplane (subtracted pixels) from thin
to selected bitplane. This is difference from original image (before thin) and image
after applying Thin.
Dilate
This function grows objects with the chosen kernel (square, cross, octagon
hexagon, horizontal, or vertical) by adding a layer to the objects.
Erode
This function shrinks objects with the chosen kernel (square, cross, octagon
hexagon, horizontal, or vertical) by peeling a layer off the objects.
Fill
This function fills holes (undetected areas) that are totally enclosed by the
detected bitplane
Intersect Transfer
This function transfers any object in the source bitplane which overlaps or
crosses any object on the intersector bitplane to a destination bitplane. The entire
object is transferred not just the portion which overlaps/crosses. The transferred
objects are eliminated from the source bitplane. The intersector bitplane is not
affected. All three bitplanes are still on at the end of the operation.
Invert
This function inverts the source bitplane. Every pixel that was on is turned off and
vice versa.
Open
This function is erosion followed by dilation with the same kernel and the same
number of cycles for each operation. Open generally smoothes the contour of an
object breaks narrow "necks" between particles and eliminates thin protrusions,
as well as removing small features.
Prune
This function trims short thin lines by a selected number of cycles. Choosing "to
end" will trim lines until triple points are reached. Any pixel that has only 1
neighboring pixel is removed with each cycle. This function only works after
thinning. It is available for square and hexagon kernels. The user selects the
number of cycles or to end.
Radial Grid
This function generates a circular grid using the selected bitplane. Grid, radial
dialog box allows user to type in number of circles and diameter lines to form the
grid. The maximum grid is 100 circles and 100 diameters.
Seed
This function finds the single line or point at the center of an object. Sometimes
objects like a dumbbell will have more than one seed point. This function is
available with square and hexagon kernels.
Square Grid
This function generates an X by Y grid using selected bitplane. The frame option
will put a border around the outside of the image or process frame. The
maximum grid is 100 X 100.
Thicken
This function adds layers of pixels to the objects in the selected bitplane for the
selected number of cycles. Unlike dilate, thicken will not connect objects that did
not touch prior to applying the thicken function. You can select number of cycles
or to end. To end dilates objects until 1 pixel is left between objects. Both square
and hexagon kernels are available.
Thin
This function removes layers of pixels on the objects in the selected bitplane for
the selected number of cycles. Unlike erode, thin will not remove objects but
rather stops when the object is 1 pixel wide or reduced to a point. Square and
hexagon kernels are available. The user can select the number of cycles or to
end.
Trap
This function eliminates objects that completely fit inside a specified test box of X
by Y size. Particles that do not fill the test box can be sent to either another
bitplane or discarded (to none). See Chord Size.
~
~ andPracticeof Automa~ImageAnatyais i ~
Feature Measurements
Field Measurements
Area Fraction Plane Measurement
Area Fraction Sample Measurement
Feature Measurements
45
ThisDegree Feret
function is the measurement of the diagonal feret. The angle between the
feret and positive X-axis is 45 degrees. The result is provided as a number in the
chosenunits of measurement.
90
ThisDegree Feret
function is the measurement of the vertical feret. The angle between the
feret and positive X-axis is 90 degrees. The result is provided as a number in the
135 Degree
This functionFeret
is the measurement of the diagonal feret. The angle between the
feret and positive X-axis is 135 degrees. The result is provided as a number in the
Aspect Ratio is the longest feret in a detected object divided by shortest feret in
This function
the same object. This is the same as LengthIWldth. The result is provided as a
dimensionlessnumber. .
CBuehierLtd. 1999
ASTM E112
This function gives the ASTM grain size number as defined by ASTM
specification E112 for each individual grain. The result is provided as a
dimensionless number.
Average Feret
This function is the average measurement of all the ferets of an object. The result
is provided as a number in the chosen units of measurement.
Breadth
This function is also called Orthogonal feret that measures the feret perpendicular
to the angle of the longest feret (length). The result is provided as a number in the
chosen units of measurement.
Circular Diameter
This function determines the equivalent circular diameter of each individual object
in a selected bitplane in the image. The area of the object is measured first, and
then an equivalent circle with the same area is calculated. The diameter of this
circle is the equivalent circular diameter of the object. The result is provided as a
number in the chosen units of measurement.
Compactness
This function is defined as 4*pi * Area / (Convex perimeter). The result is
provided as a dimensionless number.
Convex Perimeter
This function is an approximation of the perimeter of the particles that have
concave edges. Convex perimeter is a rubber band around all ferets in a particle.
The result is provided as a number in the chosen units of measurement.
Density
This function is also called "Photographic Density." This is the measurement of
the average gray level values of all detected pixels in the detected bitplane in the
image divided by 255. If the image is completely black, which means no light can
come from it, the density of this image is 0%. If the image is completely white,
which means all light can come from it, the density of this image is 100%.
Length
This function gives the longest measured feret. The result is provided as a
number in the chosen units of measurement.
Orientation
This function gives the angle at which the longest feret occurs. This function is
used to give an angle of the particle relative to the X-axis on the monitor screen.
The result is provided in degrees.
Perimeter
It is the distance around each individual feature or object. It gives the perimeter
for each particle. The result is provided as a number in the chosen units of
measurement.
Roughness
This function gives the roughness for each object in the selected bitplane in a
range of 0 to 1.0.Roughness is defined as the ratio of the convex perimeter,
which is a rubber band around all feret, to the perimeter. If there is no concave at
the edge of the particle, the roughness of this particle is 1.0. The result is
provided as a dimensionless number.
Spherical Diameter
Spherical diameter is defined as the (circular diameter * 1.22474). This
measurement gives the equivalent spherical diameter of each individual object in
a bitplane in the image. The result is provided as a number in the chosen units of
measurement.
Sphericity
This function measures the sphericity of each object in a selected bitplane in a
range of 0 to 1.0.Sphericity is defined as (4 * PI * area) I (perimeter). If the
shape of the particle is a perfect circle, the sphericity of this particle is 1. The
more bumps a particle has, the lower sphericity value. The result is provided as a
dimensionless number.
String Length
This function is used to measure the actual (curved) length of objects that are
thin, curved and elongated. The result is provided as a number in the chosen
units of measurement.
String Width
This function is used to measure the actual (curved) width of objects that are thin,
curved and elongated. The result is provided as a number in the chosen units of
measurement.
Width
Width is the shortest of the measured feret. It measures the minimum feret
diameter of each particle in a selected bitplane. The result is provided as a
number in the chosen units of measurement.
Principlesand Practiceof AutomaticImageAnalysis! i... " Cha
X Centroid
This function gives the Centroid X coordinate with respect to the origin of the
image or Guard Frame (if used).
Y Centroid
This function gives the Centroid Y coordinate with respect to the origin of the
image or Guard Frame (if used).
Field Measurements
Field measurements are performed on a whole field or image, providing the sum
of the individual measurements in a field of view. Statistical information is only
generated if multiple fields are analyzed. This can point out microstructural
variations within different fields of a specimen.
Anisotropy
This measurement is defined as the mean horizontal chord divided by the mean
vertical chord for all detected particles in the selected bitplane. The result is a
dimensionless ratio such as 1.6.
Area
This function gives the total area of all objects or phases of interest for a
particular bitplane. The result is provided as a number in the chosen units of
measurement.
Area Percent
This measurement is defined as the area of a particular bitplane divided by the
area of the field being measured. The result is expressed as percentage such as
45.3%.
ASTM E112
This measurement gives the average ASTM grain size of the metal
microstructure using the average chord length as defined by ASTM specification
E112. The result is provided as a dimensionless number such as 10.69.
Average Area
This measurement is the area of all the particles in the selected bitplane divided
by the total number of particles. It is the mean of feature area measurement. The
result is expressed as a number in the chosen units of measurement.
Circular Diameter
This measurement gives the average equivalent circular diameter of all the
objects in a bitplane of an image. The average area of each object in the field is
measured first, and then an equivalent circle with the same area is determined.
The diameter of this circle is the equivalent circular diameter of the object. The
result is expressed as a number in the chosen units of measurement.
Count
This measurement gives the total number of objects in the selected bitplane
within the measurement frame. The result is provided as a dimensionless number
such as 67. Note: Holes in particles must be filled before measurement or a
miscount may occur.
Density
This function is also called "Photographic Density." This is the measurement of
the average gray level values of all detected pixels in the detected bitplane in the
image divided by 255. If the image is completely black, which means no light can
come from it, the density of this image is 0%. If the image is completely white,
which means all light can come from it, the density of this image is 100%.
Horizontal Intercept
This measurementgivesthe total numberof horizontalinterceptsof horizontal
scan lineswith the particlesin the selectedbitplane.The result is expressedas a
dimensionlessnumbersuch as 252.
Number/Area
This measurement is defined as the total number of objects divided by the total
field area within the measuring frame. It determines the number of objects per
unit area. When using this measurement, it is better to use large area units of
measurement (i.e., millimeters or inches) rather than small units (i.e., microns). If
small units are selected, values for this measurement, such as 0.0013 particles
per unit area can be the result. The result is provided as a number in the chosen
units of measurement.
Perimeter
This measurement determines the sum of the total individual object perimeters
(length of the edges around an object) in a particular bitplane. The result is
provided as a number in the chosen units of measurement.
Spherical Diameter
Spherical diameter is defined as the circular diameter, multiplied by 1.22474. This
measurement gives the total equivalent spherical diameter of all the objects in a
bitplane of an image. The result is provided as a number in the chosen units of
measurement.
Vertical Intercept
Verticalinterceptgives the number of vertical intercepts of vertical lines with the
particles in the selected bitplane. The result is expressed as a dimensionless
number such as 577.
percentage.
Area % The total area of all detected particles within the frame,
divided by the area of the measurement field.
Derived Measurement Measurements which are computed using the results from
basic measurements and constants combined
arithmetically. Example: Average Area.
Field One complete vertical scan across the field of view. See
also Field of Measurement.
Field Area A measurement mode in which the sum of the areas of all
detected features in the field of measurement is
determined.
Field of Measurement The area on the Image Monitor Screen bounded by the
fixed or variable frame, within which measurements are
made.
Field of View The whole picture visible on the Image Monitor Screen.
Gray Level Also "gray scale value," a term related to optical density
defining the brightness of a particle or area as a value
lying on a scale between a minimum (black=O) and a
maximum (white=225).
Numerical Aperture (N.A.: With reference to microscope objectives, the term which
defines the amount of light collected by the objective. The
higher the N.A. number, the greater the resolution of the
objective.
Outline A line pattern generated on the screen of the Image
Monitor and superimposed on the image to coincide with
the boundaries of detected features. The purpose of
outlines is to indicate the features which are detected.to
the operator.
Projected Length (Vertical) The vertical Feret' Diameter plus the tangent-to-tangent
distance of all holes and concavities with the feature.
Resolution In image analysis, the term usually means the size of the
smallest elements in an image that the instrument can
detect, measure or count. It also relates to the sharpness
of a focused image. See Picture.EQ!n!.
Screen The visible front portion of the CRT in the monitor, coated
with phosphor, on which the picture is generated.
Variable Frame Same as fixed frame, but with dimensions and location
controlled by the operator.