Standard of

UNIT 1 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT Measurements

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 Standards of Measurements and their Classification

1.2.1 Primary Standard
1.2.2 Secondary Standard

1.3 Standard Unit of Length

1.4 Standard Unit of Weight
1.5 Standard Unit of Time
1.6 Standard Unit of Temperature
1.7 Standard Units of Mechanical Quantities
1.8 Standard Units of Luminous Intensity of a Source of Light
1.9 Standard Unit of Amount of Substance
1.10 Standard Unit of Electrical Quantities
1.11 Summary
1.12 Key Words
1.13 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In order that the investigators in different parts of the country and different parts of world
may compare the results of their experiments on a consistent basis, it is necessary to
establish certain standard units of length, weight, time, temperature and electrical,
quantities. The National Bureau of Standards has the primary responsibility for
maintaining these standard in the United States. In India, Indian Standard Institute (ISI),
New Delhi has taken the responsibility for maintaining all the standard measurements. To
monitor the standard of measurements, the same Institute issues instructions to put ISI
mark on measuring instruments and items so that these may be compared with
non-standard ones.
In the measurement system, the quantity to be measured, in the direct method, is
compared directly against a standard of same kind of quantity. The magnitude of quantity
being measured is expressed in terms of a chosen unit for the standard and a numerical
multiplier. A length can be measured in terms of meter and a numerical constant. Thus, a
10 meter length means a length ten times greater than a meter. Thus, by the means of
standard, it is possible to provide means of establishing and maintaining the magnitudes
of the various units. The simplest kind of standard is a physical object having desired
property. This standard can be used as a basis of comparison.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• understand the importance of standard in the measurement systems,
• explain the sources and causes of errors in the measurements, and
• perform the analysis of experimental data to find the accuracy, precision and
the general validity of the experimental results.

5
Principle of
Measurements and
1.2 STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR
Measuring Techniques CLASSIFICATION
The standards of measurements are very useful for calibration of measuring instruments.
They help in minimizing the error in the measurement systems. On the basis of the
accuracy of measurement the standards can be classified as primary standards and
secondary standards.
1.2.1 Primary Standard
A primary standard quantity will have only one value and it is fixed. An instrument
which is used to measure the value of primary standard quantity is called primary
standard instrument. It gives the accurate value of the quantity being measured. No pre-
calibration is required for this instrument. It is used to calibrate the instruments having
less accuracy. By comparing the readings of the two instruments, the accuracy of the
second instrument can be determined.
1.2.2 Secondary Standard
The value of the secondary standard quantity is less accurate than primary standard one.
It is obtained by comparing with primary standard. For measurement of a quantity using
secondary standard instrument, pre-calibration is required. Without calibration, the result
given by this instrument is meaningless. Calibration of a secondary standard is made by
comparing the results with a primary standard instrument or with an instrument having
high accuracy or with a known input source. In practical fields, secondary standard
instruments and devices are widely used. Using calibration charts, the error in the
measurement of these devices can be reduced.

1.3 STANDARD UNIT OF LENGTH

The meter is considered as one of the fundamental unit upon which, through appropriate
conversion factors, the English system of length is based. The SI unit of length in metre.
The standard metre is defined as the length of a platinum-iridium bar maintained at very
accurate conditions at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near
Paris, France. All other metres had to be calibrated against the metre. The conversion
factor for length for English and Metric systems in the United States is fixed by law as
1 meter = 39.37 inches
Secondary standard of length is maintained at the National Bureau of Standards for
calibration purposes. In 1960, the general conference on weights and measures defined
the standard meter in terms of the wavelength of the orange-red light of a krypton-86
lamp. The standard meter is thus
1 meter = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of orange-red light of Krypton-86
In 1982, the definition of the meter was changed to the distance light travels in
1/299,792,458ths of a second. For the measurement, light from a helium-neon laser
illuminates iodine which fluoresences at a highly stable frequency.
The inch is exactly defined as
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters = 0.0254 metre
In FPS system, the fundamental unit is foot. Its conversion factor can be derived from its
smaller unit and is given by
1 foot = 12 inches
= 12 × 2.54 centimeters
= 30.48 centimeters = 0.3048 metre
The other derived units and their conversion factors are as follows :
1 yard = 3 feet = 0.9144 metre
6 1 mile = 1760 yards = 1609.344 metres
In CGS system, the fundamental unit of length is centimeter. Its conversion factors for Standard of
other system are already mentioned above. The derived units for length are as follows : Measurements

1 m = 100 cm
1 km = 105 cm = 1000 m
1 mm = 10− 3 m = 10− 1 cm
1 centimeter = 10− 2 m
1 decimeter = 10− 1 m
1 decameter = 10 m
1 hectometer = 102 m.
We also have some other units, which are frequently used for short and large lengths.
They are :
1 Fermi = 1 f = 10– 15 m
o
1 Angstrom = 1 A = 10– 10 m
1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m (distance that light travels in 1 year)

Note : Velocity of light is 3 × 108 m/s .

1.4 STANDARD UNIT OF WEIGHT

The kilogram is considered as fundamental unit upon which, through appropriate
conversion factors, the English system of mass is based. The SI unit of mass is kilogram.
The standard kilogram is defined in terms of platinum-iridium mass maintained at very
accurate conditions at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres,
France.
The conversion factors for the English and Metric systems in the United States are fixed
by law is
1 pound-mass = 453.59237 grams
= 0.45359237 kilogram
Secondary standard of mass is maintained at the National Bureau of Standards for
calibration purpose.
In MKS and SI systems, fundamental unit of mass is kilogram, whereas in CGS system,
the unit for the same is gram. The conversion factors for the above units and units
derived from them are as follows :
1 kilogram = 1000 grams; 1 gram = 10– 3 kilogram
1 hectogram = 100 grams = 10– 1 kilogram
1 decagram = 10 grams = 10– 2 kilogram
1 milligram = 0.001 gram = 10– 6 kilogram

1.5 STANDARD UNIT OF TIME

The standard units of time are established in terms of known frequencies of oscillation of
certain devices. One of the simpliest devices is a pendulum. A torsional vibration system
may also be used as a standard of frequency. The torsional system is widely used in
clocks and watches. Ordinary 50 HZ line voltage may be used as a frequency standard
under certain circumstances. An electric clocks uses this frequency as a standard because
it operates from a synchronous electric motor whose speed depend on line frequency. A
turning fork is a suitable frequency source, as are piezo-electric crystals. Electronic
oscillator may also be designed to serve as very precise frequency sources. The SI unit of
time is second.
7
Principle of 1
Measurements and The fundamental unit of time, the second, has been defined in the past as of a
Measuring Techniques 86400
mean solar day. The solar day is measured as the time interval between successive
transits of the sun across a meridian of the earth. The time interval varies with location of
the earth and time of the year, however, the mean solar day for one year is constant. The
solar year is the time required for the earth to make one revolution around the sun. The
mean solar year is 365 days 5 hr 48 min 48 s.
The above definition of second is quite exact but is dependent on astronomical
observation in order to establish the standard. In October, 1967 the Thirteenth General
conference on weights and measures adopted a definition of the second as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two
hyperfine levels of the fundamental state of the atom of cesium-133. This standard can be
redily duplicated in standards laboratories throughout the world. The estimated accuracy
of this standard is 2 parts in 109. Very precise frequency and time standards are
broadcast by National Bureau of Standard’s radio station, WWV. This station furnishes
standard time intervals, time signals, standard musical pitch, standard radio frequencies
and radio-propagation forecasts. The accuracy of the radio and audio frequencies, as
transmitted, is better than 1 part in 100,000,000, and the time interval is accurate to
1 part in 100,000,000 + 1 microsecond (μs).

1.6 STANDARD UNIT OF TEMPERATURE

An absolute temperature scale was proposed by Lord Kelvin in 1854 and forms the basis
for thermodynamic calculations. This absolute scale is so defined that particular meaning
is given to the second law of thermodynamics when this temperature scale is used.
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 furnishes an experimental basis
for a temperature scale which approximates as closely as possible the absolute
thermodynamic temperature scale. In the International Scale, 11 primary points are
established as given in Table 1.1. Secondary fixed points are also established as given in
Table 1.2. In addition to the fixed points, precise points are also established for
interpolating between these points. These interpolation procedures are given in
Table 1.3.
More recently, the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) has been adopted.
The fixed points for ITS-90 that are shown in Table 1.4 differ only slightly from
IPTS-68. For ITS-90, a platinum resistance thermometer is used for interpolation
between the triple point of hydrogen and the solid equilibrium for silver, while above, the
silver point black body radiation is used for interpolation.
Table 1.1 : Primary Points for the International Practical Temperature
Scale of 1968
Point Normal Pressure = 14.6959 psia Temperature
= 1.0132 × 105 Pa o
C F
Triple point equilibrium hydrogen − 259.34 − 434.81
Boiling point equilibrium hydrogen at 25/76 normal pressure − 256.108 − 428.99
Normal boiling point (1 atm) of equilibrium hydrogen − 252.87 − 423.17
Normal boiling point of Neon − 246.048 − 410.89
Triple point of oxygen − 218.789 − 361.82
Normal boiling point oxygen − 182.962 − 297.33
Triple point of water 0.01 32.018
Normal boiling point of water 100 212.00
Normal freezing point of Zinc 419.58 787.24
Normal freezing point of silver 961.93 1763.47
Normal freezing point of gold 1064.43 1947.97
8
 Table 1.2 : Secondary Fixed Points for the International Practical Standard of
Measurements
Temperature Scale of 1968
Point Temperature, oC
Triple point, normal H2 − 259.194
Boiling point, normal H2 − 252.753
Triple point, Ne − 248.595
Triple point, N2 − 210.002
Boiling point, N2 − 195.802
Sublimation point, CO2 (Normal) − 78.476
Freezing point, Hg − 38.862
Ice point 0
Triple point phenoxibenzene 26.87
Triple point, benzoic acid 122.37
Freezing point, In 156.634
Freezing point, Bi 271.442
Freezing point, Cd 321.108
Freezing point, Pb 327.502
Freezing point, Hg 356.66
Freezing point, S 444.674
Freezing point, Cu-AI-Eutectic 548.23
Freezing point, Sb 630.74
Freezing point, AI 660.74
Freezing point, Cu 1084.5
Freezing point, Ni 1455
Freezing point, Co 1494
Freezing point, Pd 1554
Freezing point, Pt 1772
Freezing point, Rh 1963
Freezing point, Ir 2447
Freezing point, W 3387

Table 1.3 : Interpolation Procedures for International Practical Temperature

Scale of 1968
Range oC Procedure
− 259.34 – 0 Platinum resistance thermometer with cubic polynomial coefficients
determined from calibration at fixed points, using four ranges.
0 – 630.74 Platinum resistance thermometer with second-degree polynomial
coefficients determined from calibration at antimony, silver and gold
points.
630.74 – 1064.43 Standard platinum – platinum rhodium (10%) thermocouple with second-
degree polynomial coefficients determined from calibration at antimony,
silver and gold points.

eC2 / λ (TAu + T0 ) − 1
Above 1064.43
JT
Temperature defined by = c λ (T + T )
J Au e2 0
−1
JT, Jau = Radiant energy emitted per unit time, per unit area, and per unit
wave length at wave length λ, at temperature T and gold point
temperature Tau respectively
C2 = 1.438 cm-K,
T0 = 273.16 K, λ = wave length.

9
Principle of Table 1.4 : Fixed Points for International Temperature Scale of 1990
Measurements and
Measuring Techniques Defining State Temperature
o
C K
Triple point of hydrogen − 259.3467 13.8033
Liquid/vapour equilibrium for − 256.15 17
hydrogen at 25/76 atm
Liquid/vapour equilibrium for − 252.87 20.3
hydrogen at 1 atm
Triple point of neon − 248.5939 24.5561
Triple point of oxygen − 218.7916 54.3584
Triple point of argon − 189.3442 83.8058
Triple point of water 0.01 273.16
Solid/liquid equilibrium for 29.7646 302.9146
gallium at 1 atm
Solid/liquid equilibrium for tin at 231.928 505.078
1 atm
Solid/liquid equilibrium for zinc 419.527 692.677
at 1 atm
Solid/liquid equilibrium for silver 961.78 1234.93
at 1 atm
Solid/liquid equilibrium for gold 1064.18 1337.33
at 1 atm
Solid/liquid equilibrium for 1084.62 1357.77
copper at 1 atm

Both the Farenheit (oF) and Celsius (oC) temperature scales are in wide use, and the
experimenters must be able to work in either. The absolute Farenheit scale is called the
Rankine (oR) scale, while absolute Celsius has been designated as the Kelvin (K) scale.
K = oC + 273.15
o
R = oF + 459.67
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. One Kelvin is equal to the fraction 1/273.6 of the
thermodynamic temperature of triple point of water.

1.7 STANDARD UNITS OF MECHANICAL QUANTITIES

Among the various mechanical quantities, velocity, acceleration, force, work, energy and
power are some of the important quantities of them. All these quantities may be
expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions – length (L), Mass (M), Time (T) and
temperature (θ). The unit to be used for certain dimensions are selected by somewhat
arbitrary definitions which usually relate to a physical phenomenon or law.
For example, Newton’s second law of motion may be written as
Force = Time rate of change of momentum
d
F=K (mv) . . . (1.1)
dt
where, K is the proportionality constant. If the mass is constant,
F = Kma . . . (1.2)

dv
where the acceleration is a =
10 dt
Eq. (1.2) may also be written as Standard of
Measurements
ma 1
F= , with =K . . . (1.3)
gc gc
Eq. (1.3) is used to define our systems of units for mass, force, length and time. Some
typical systems of units are :
(a) 1 pound-force will accelerate 1 pound mass 32.174 feet per second square.
(b) 1 pound-force will accelerate 1 slug mass 1 foot per second squared.
(c) 1 dyne force will accelerate 1 gm-mass 1 centimeter per second squared.
(d) 1 Newton (N) force will accelerate 1 kilogram-mass 1 meter per second
squared.
(e) 1 kilogram force will accelerate 1 kilogram-mass 9.80665 meter per second
squared. The kilogram force sometimes given the designation kilopond
(Kp).
Since Eq. (1.3) must be dimensionally homogeneous, we shall have a different value the
constant gc for each of the unit the system in items (a) to (e) above. The values are :
(a) gc = 32.174 Lbm . ft/lbf . s2
(b) gc = 1 slug . ft/lbf . s2
(c) gc = 1 g. cm/dyn.s2
(d) gc = 1 kg.m/N.s2
(e) gc = 9.80665 kgm-m/kgf . s2.
It does not matter which system of units is used so long as it is consistent with the above
definition.
Work has the dimensions of a product of force times a distance. Energy has the same
dimensions. Thus, the units for work and energy may be chosen from any of the system
used above as :
(a) lbf – ft
(b) lbf – ft
(c) 1 dyn – cm = 1 erg
(d) 1 N. m = 1 Joule (J)
(e) 1 kgf – m = 9.80665 J
In addition, we may use the units of energy which are based on thermal phenomena :
(a) 1 British thermal unit (Btu) will raise 1 pound-mass of water 1 degree
Farenheit at 68oF.
(b) 1 calorie (cal) will raise 1 gm of water 1 degree Celsius at 20oC.
(c) 1 kilo-calorie will raise 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius at 20oC.
The conversion factor for the various units of work and energy are
1 Btu = 788.16 lbf . ft
1 Btu = 1055 J
1 kcal = 4182 J
1 1bf – ft = 1.356 J
1 Btu = 252 cal
The weight of a body is defined as the force exerted on the body as a result of the
acceleration of gravity. Thus
11
Principle of g
Measurements and W = m
Measuring Techniques gc
where, W is the weight and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Note that the weight of a
body has the dimensions of a force. We now see why systems (a) to (e) above were
devised : 1 lbm will weigh 1 1bf at sea level, and 1 kgm will weigh 1 kgf.
Unfortunately, all the above unit systems are used in various places throughout the world.
While the foot-found force, pound-mass second, degree Farenheit, Btu system is still
widely used in the United States, there is increasing impetus to institute the SI units as a
worldwide standard. The system which is now internationally accepted is the Systeme
International d’Unites, abbreviated as SI. Here we have seven basic units. They are the
metre (m) for length, the kilogram (kg) for mass, the second (s) for time,
Kelvin (k) for temperature, ampere (A) for electric current, candela (cd) for light
intensity and mole (mol) for amount of substance. In this course, we shall follow SI units.
Derived Units
The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed in terms of these base
units. For example, we can express the unit of speed in metre per second, the unit
of density in kilogram per cubic metre. Let us consider another physical quantity
like force. From Newton’s second law of motion, force can be defined as the
product of mass and acceleration. We can therefore take the unit of force as 1
kilogram × 1 metre/second2. We call this by the name, Newton for convenience.
The unit of energy is Newton-metre. We call this by the name Joule. The unit of
power is Joule per second. We call it Watt.
The conversion factor for various units are
1 H.P = 746 watt (J/s)
1 H.P = 550 ft-1b/sec.
1 H.P = 75 kg-m/sec.

1.8 STANDARD UNIT OF LUMINOUS INTENSITY OF A

SOURCE OF LIGHT
Candela is the SI unit of luminous intensity of a source of light in a specified direction.
The candela is the luminous intensity of a black body of surface area 1/60,000 m2 placed
at the temperature of freezing platinum and at a pressure of 101, 325 N/m2, in the
direction perpendicular to its surface. Now candela is redefined as the luminous intensity
in a given direction of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
(SI unit of solid angle).

1.9 STANDARD UNIT OF AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE

The mole (mol) is the SI unit of amount of substance.
One mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon – 12.

1.10 STANDARD UNITS OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

The International conference on electrical units in London in 1908 confirmed the
absolute system units adopted by the British Association Committee on Electrical
Measurement in 1863. This conference decided to specify some material standard which
can be produced in isolated laboratories and used as International standards. The desired
properties of International standards are that they should have a definite value, be
12 permanent, and be readily set up anywhere in the world, also that their magnitude should
be within the range at which the most accurate measurements can be done.
The four units – ohm, ampere, volt and watt – established by above specifications were Standard of
known as International units. The ohm and ampere are primary standards. Definitions of Measurements
International unit are given below :
International Ohm : The international ohm is the resistance offered to the passage of an
unvarying electric current at the temperature of melting ice by a column of mercury of
uniform cross-section, 106.300 cm long and having mass of 14.4521 gm (i.e., about 1
sq.mm in cross-section).
International Ampere : The international ampere is the unvarying current which when
passed through a solution of silver nitrate in water deposits at the rate of 0.0001118 gm
per second.
The International Volt and Watt : The international volt and watt defined in terms of
International ohm and ampere. As constructing standards, which did not vary appreciably
with time, was difficult and also as, by 1930, it was clear that the absolute ohm and
ampere could be determined as accurately as the international units. The International
committee on Weights and Measures decided in October, 1946 to abandon the
international units and choose January 1, 1948 as the date for putting new units into
effect. The change was made at appropriate time and the absolute system of electrical
units is now in use as the system on which electrical measurements are based.
Following a number of determinations, by various national laboratories of standards, of
the absolute ohm and ampere during the year 1934-1940, the National Physical
Laboratory has adopted the following conversion factors.
1 international ohm = 1.00049 absolute ohm
1 international ampere = 0.99985 absolute ampere
1 international volt = 1.00034 absolute volt
1 international watt = 1.00019 absolute watt
1 international henry = 1.00049 absolute henry
1 international farad = 0.99951 absolute farad
Electrical Standard
Voltage Standards
To make voltage measurement, it is desirable that we should have a cell
whose emf remains constant and is accurately known. It must be made of
chemicals which can be purified and reproduced easily. No chemical
reactions must take place inside the cell except when the current is drawn
from it. Such a cell is called standard cell.
Current Standards
It is not possible to set up a physical standard of current. The current is
defined either in terms of force exerted between the fixed and moving coils
carrying the current. We can easily measure the current by comparing the
drop in a standard resistance with a standard cell with the help of a
potentiometer. SI unit of current is ampere. It is defined as the constant
current which flowing in two infinitely long straight parallel conductors of
negligible circular cross-section placed in vacuum one metre apart, produces
between them a force of 2 × 10– 7 Newton per metre of their length.
Standard of Resistance
Measuring the value of resistance by comparing with a standard resistance is
considerably easier than to determine its value by absolute measurement.
Also for general purposes, measurement of resistances by comparison can be
made with sufficient accuracy. Therefore, it is convenient to have available
standard resistor which can be used as reference standard.
Bifilar winding is used for standard resistors. The commonly used metal is
manganin.
13
Principle of Standard of Inductance
Measurements and
Measuring Techniques The standards of mutual inductance are generally used as the primary standards of
inductance.
The primary standards of self inductance are made by a single layer coil of hard
drawn copper wound under tension in a screw thread cut on the surface of a
cylindrical former of white marble.
The secondary standards of self inductance are made winding the coil in a square
groove cut on the circumference of a hollow marble cylinder.
Primary standard of mutual inductance is constructed on Cambell’s principle. Its
primary is a single layer coil of bare copper wire wound under tension in a screw
thread cut on the surface of an accurate marble cylinder. The secondary is a
multilayer coil wound in a groove cut in the circumference of a marble ring and
placed concentrically and co-axially with the primary coil cylinder.
Secondary standards of mutual inductance are used for general laboratory
purposes. So, it is not essential that their dimensions shall be determined with very
great accuracy. It is only essential that the value of mutual inductance shall be as
near as possible to the nominal value for which they are designed. Secondary
standards are usually coils in a groove cut in the circular form of marble or hard
paraffined wood.
Standards of Capacitance
As the capacitance of primary standards are calculated from its dimensions, it is
essential that the shapes of the capacitors must be in simple geometrical form so
that the dimensions can be measured easily. For this reason, three types of primary
standards namely the concentric spheres type, co-axial cylinder type with guard
rings and parallel plates type with guard plates are used.
All capacitors used in AC bridges are secondary standards. These are calibrated
standards.
SAQ 1
(a) Why are standards necessary?
(b) What is the difference between primary and secondary standards?
(c) The Universal gas constant has a value of 1545 ft-lbf/1bm-mol oR. By
applying appropriate conversion factors, obtain its value in SI unit.
(d) Mention the fundamental SI units which are used in mechanical system.
(e) What are the SI unit of the following :
(i) Temperature,
(ii) Current,
(iii) Luminous intensity of light, and
(iv) Amount of substance.

SAQ 2
(a) The SI unit for heat generation is W/m3. Derive a factor to convert to
B t u/h – ft3.

14 (b) Pressure is measured in unit lbf/m2 in the English system of units. Derive the
factors to convert to units of N/m2 (Pa) and kgf-m2.
 (c) One gallon equal 231 in3. Derive a conversion factor to convert automobile Standard of
fuel economy from miles/gallon to kilometer/litre. Measurements

(d) Derive a factor to convert density from g/cm3 to kg/m3.

SAQ 3
(a) Derive a factor to convert volume flow rate from cm3/s to gal/min.
(b) How do you convert degree Kelvin to degrees Rankine?
(c) A unit for specific heat in the SI system is kJ/kgoK. Derive a factor to
convert it to B t u/1bmoF and to kcal/gmoK.
(d) Derive a factor to convert flow rate lit/hr to m3/sec.
(e) The thermal conductivity of a metal is 0.2 cal/cm-s-oC. Find its value in SI
unit.

1.11 SUMMARY
On the basis of the accuracy of measurement, the standard can be classified into two
categories, viz. Primary standard and Secondary standard.
The meter is considered as one of the fundamental units upon which, through appropriate
conversion factors, the other systems of length are based.
The kilogram is considered as fundamental unit upon which, through appropriate
conversion factors, other systems of mass are based.
The standard units of time are established in terms of known frequencies of oscillation of
certain devices. The fundamental unit of time is second.
Both Farenheit (oF) and Celsius (oC) scales are widely used for measurement of
temperature. The absolute Farenheit scale is called Rankine (oR) scale and absolute
Celsius has been designated as the Kelvin (K) scale. The relationship between these
scales is as follows :
K = oC + 273.15
o
R = oF + 459.67
In mechanical systems, the fundamental units in SI system are meter, Newton, kilogram-
mass, second, and joule.
International units of electrical systems are ohm, ampere, volt and watt.
The SI unit of luminous intensity of light is Candela (Cd) and the SI unit of amount of
substance is mole (mol).

1.12 KEY WORDS

Primary Standard Quantity : It has only value and it is fixed.
Secondary Standard Quantity : Its value is less accurate than primary standard
quantity and it is obtained by comparing with a
primary standard.
15
Principle of Standard Meter : It is defined as the length of a platinum iridium bar
Measurements and maintained at very accurate conditions at the
Measuring Techniques
International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
Sevres, France.
Standard Kilogram : It is defined in terms of a platinum-iridium mass
maintained at very accurate conditions at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
Sevres, France.
Standard Units of Time : These are established in terms of known
frequencies of certain devices.
Absolute Temperature Scale : It was proposed by Lord Kelvin in 1854 and forms
the basis for thermodynamic calculations.

1.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) The standards of measurements are very useful for calibration of measuring
instruments. They help in minimizing errors in measurement systems.
(b) Primary standard quantity has only one value and it is fixed, whereas the
value of the secondary standard quantity is less accurate than primary
standard.

(c) R = 1545ft − lbf/1bm − mol. o R

1
= 1545 × 0.1383 × × 1.8
0.4536
= 848 m-kgf/kgm-mol.K
(d) Metre, Newton, Kilogram, Second and Joule.
(e) (i) Kelvin,
(ii) Ampere,
(iii) Candela, and
(iv) Mole.
SAQ 2

(a) Q = 1 W/m3

= 44.24 ft-pound/min.m3

44.24
= B.T.U./min.m3
778
1
= 3.4118 × B.T.U/h-ft 3
35.314
= 0.0966 BTU/h-ft3

(b) P = 1 Ibf/m 2

1
= 1 Ibf × in 2
1550
1 1
= −4
× N/m 2
1.45 × 10 1550
16
 Standard of
= 4.45 N/m 2 Measurements

1
P= Ibf / inch 2
1550
14.42
= kg f / cm 2
1550

= 9.174 × 10− 3 kg f / cm 2

9.174 × 10− 3
= kg f / m 2
10− 6
= 9174 kg f /cm 2
(c) F = 1 miles / gallons

1.609 km
=
231 in 3

= 6.965 × 10− 3 km / in 3

6.965 × 10− 3
= km / cm3
1
0.0610
= 6.965 × 0.610 km / litre
= 4.08 km / litre .

(d) D = 1 g / cm3

10− 3
= −6
kg/m3 = 103 kg /m3
10
SAQ 3

(a) Q = 1 cm3 / s

10− 3
= 1 litre / min.
60

= 60 × 10− 3 × 0.2642 gallon / min.

= 0.0158 gallon / min.

(b) K = o C + 273.18
o
R = o F + 459.67
o
F = o C + 32.00

∴ o
R = o C + 32 + 459.67
= K − 273.18 + 32 + 459.67
= K + 218.51

(c) C = 1 kJ / kg o K

17
Principle of 1 × 10− 3
Measurements and = kcal / gm o K
Measuring Techniques 4.2

= 0.238 × 10− 3 kcal / gm o K

3.968 × 103 1
= 0.238 × 10− 3 × × B t u / lbm o F
2.205 33.8

= 0.01267 B t u / lbm o F .
(d) Q = 1 lit/hr

1000 cm3
=
3600 sec

1000
= m3 / sec
10 × 3600
6

= 0.028 × 10− 5 m 3 / sec

(e) SI unit of thermal conductivity of a metal is W m– 1 K– 1.
K = 0.2 Cal s– 1 cm– 1 oC– 1
1 cal of 4.2 Joules
1
∴ 1J = cal
4.2
Joule/sec = Watt
1 cm = 10– 2 m
1
∴ K = 0.2 × × 10− 2 Joule/sec-m-k
4.2

= 4.76 × 10− 4 W m −1 k −1

METROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTATION

Metrology is a science of measurement. Metrology may be divided, depending upon the
quantity under consideration, into metrology of length, metrology of time, etc.
Depending upon the field of application, it is divided into engineering metrology,
medical metrology, legal metrology, etc.
18
Meterology is defined as the process of making extremely precise measurements of the Standard of
relative positions and orientations of the different optical and mechanical components. Measurements
The study of measurement involves measuring quantities, calibration of instruments, and
determining the uncertainty of a measurement, and the study of weights and measures or
measurements.
Engineering metrology is restricted to the measurement of length, weight, time,
temperature, angles and other quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms.
For every kind of quantity measured, there must be a unit to measure it. This will enable
the quantity to be measured in number of that unit. Further, in order that this unit is
followed by all; there must be a universal standard and the various units for various
parameters of importance must be standardized. It is also necessary to see whether the
result is given with sufficient correctness and accuracy for a particular need or not. This
will depend on the method of measurement, measuring devices used, etc.
Thus, in a broader sense metrology is not limited to length and angle measurement but
also concerned with numerous problems theoretical as well as practical related with
measurement.
The knowledge of metrology and their applications are of vital importance in modern
competitive environment.
The objective of this course is to expose the students to the fundamental of the metrology
and their application in various fields.
This course comprises two blocks. The first block entitled “Principles of Measurements
and Measuring Techniques” dealt with the basic concepts of measurements. Block 2
deals with Measuring Instrumentation.

PRINCIPLE OF MEASUREMENTS AND

MEASURING TECHNIQUES
Measurement is an essential part of the development of technology and as technology
becomes more complex the techniques of measurement becomes more sophisticated.
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Principle of Mechanical and production engineers are concerned with special aspects of measurement
Measurements and in designing and manufacturing engineering products. The latter, which vary widely in
Measuring Techniques
size, shape, etc. have one thing common, namely they have to be performed to a
specification involving dimensional accuracy.
In this block, we shall discuss the basic principles of measurement and their application
in the process of measurements of various quantities.
Unit 1 deals with the standards of measurement of various quantities like length, weight,
time, temperature, etc.
Unit 2 describes the various types of errors in measurements.
Fits and tolerances for the materials being produced are discussed in Unit 3.
In Unit 4, different types of process gauging and their applications have been discussed.

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