-RXUQDORI%XVLQHVV5HVHDUFK²

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Business Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres

Using warmth as the visual design of a store: Intimacy, relational needs, and 7
approach intentions
⁎
Eunsoo Baeka, Ho Jung Choob, , Seung Hwan (Mark) Leec
a
Department of Design and Environmental Analysis, Cornell University, 3422 Martha Van Rensselaer Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
b
Department of Textiles, Merchandising and Fashion Design, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
c
Ted Rogers School of Retail Management, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B2K3, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Store design involuntarily affects consumer's thoughts and behaviors. Retailers use color and material to project
Store atmospherics a certain visual, modifying the environmental perceptions of a consumer's store experience. Although, a
Visual design knowledge gap exists on how visual representations of warmth (via design elements) influence consumers in a
Warmth retail context. In a series of three experiments, this research seeks to address this gap. Corresponding to as-
Retail environment
similative effects of warmth, Study 1 shows a visually warm (vs. cold) store design induces intimacy. Based on
Relational needs
complementary effects of warmth, Studies of 2A and 2B report a visually warm (vs. cold) store design is pre-
Sensory marketing
ferred only for consumers with high relational needs. Study 3 presents a boundary condition which reveals that
our results do not hold for luxury brands. Together, the results provide valuable insights from a theoretical and
managerial perspective on how retail spaces via design can influence consumers as nonverbal communication.

1. Introduction Goldenberg, 2013). Physical warmth is also known to foster inter-

personal trust, cooperation, and friendliness (Citron & Goldberg, 2014;
As the digital revolution (e.g., e/m-commerce) continues to disrupt Kang, Williams, Clark, Gray, & Bargh, 2011). Much of the research in
and gain a foothold in the evolving retail landscape, more attention has this domain relies on the notion of conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff
been placed in the retailing community to maintain consumer traffic in & Johnson, 1980). Recent scholars have demonstrated that visually
physical stores. This is especially becoming apparent in the age where perceived warmth can increase the accessibility to thoughts and feel-
shoppers are gravitating towards online shopping for its higher con- ings related to that metaphor (Choi, Chang, Lee, & Chang, 2016; Choi &
venience with lower restraints (e.g., time, physical space) (Morganosky Singh, 2011; Mehta, Chae, Zhu, & Soman, 2011).
& Cude, 2000). Additionally, people are seeking experiences when While the term warmth is often used to describe heat sensations,
shopping at brick & mortar stores (Thompson, 2017). Indeed, ever since warmth can also portray a visual representation of objects and en-
brick & mortar stores have been displaced as the sole transaction vironments. For instance, certain colors may be identified as warm
medium, retailers have been challenged to strategically utilize their (e.g., orange) or as cold (e.g., blue) (Fenko, Schifferstein, & Hekkert,
physical space to strengthen the consumer-brand connection via in- 2010; Yildirim, Akalin-Baskaya, & Hidayetoglu, 2007). Further, certain
store experiences (Verhoef et al., 2009). For example, retailers have objects that we see, based on their texture and material, may also be
long been known to manipulate store ambience in order to project a characterized as warm (e.g., wood, brick) or cold (e.g., metal, glass)
particular theme or “feel” for customers (Baker, 1987). As such, it is (Wastiels, Schifferstein, Heylighen, & Wouters, 2012a, 2012b). While
necessary to understand the value of sensory marketing and how it architects and interior designers have used colors and décor materials
engages consumer senses to affect perception, judgment, and behavior to create a visually warm atmosphere of an environment, a knowledge
in physical retail settings (Krishna, 2012). gap exists on how visual representations of warmth contribute to con-
Sensory experiences (e.g., visual, touch, smell, etc.) involuntarily sumers' affect and their subsequent behavior in a retail context. This is
affect people's thoughts and behaviors (cf. Lee & Schwarz, 2012). For an important line of inquiry as retailers seek to achieve the same type of
example, physical warmth activates the concept of emotional warmth benefits that physical warmth provides without the need to adjust the
(otherwise known as the “temperature-premium effect”), eliciting po- temperature settings in their stores.
sitive reactions and judgments about target objects (Zwebner, Lee, & While ample studies have examined the effect of warmth on

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Baek), [email protected] (H.J. Choo), [email protected] (S.H.M. Lee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.03.013
Received 23 May 2017; Received in revised form 12 March 2018; Accepted 13 March 2018
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judgments and behaviors, most are confined to the impact of physical In addition to color, surface features can also influence warmth
warmth (e.g., Ijzerman & Semin, 2010; Williams & Bargh, 2008). Given perceptions. For instance, a wall that is smooth may be perceived to be
that certain color and materials may activate temperature perceptions colder than a wall that is textured (Thiis-Evensen, Waaler, & Campbell,
(Choi et al., 2016), we believe that a visually warm store can also in- 1987). Wastiels et al. (2012b) found that smooth-surfaced materials
fluence consumers' affect and behavior. Hence, the goal of this research such as glass were perceived to be colder than rougher materials such as
is to systematically investigate the effect of visually warm design on wood and brick even though they were at the same temperature.
store intimacy (affect) and approach intentions (behavior) towards re- Pallasmaa (2012) asserts, “Vision reveals what the touch already
tailers. In addition, we were interested in how a consumer's relational knows.” That is, such warmth perceptions by material textures can be
needs may impact their affect and behavior. Moreover, current psy- formed via visual senses regardless of the actual temperature of the
chological research in this domain suffers from the lack of applicability object. Appendix A provides a comparison of a visually warm versus a
or observation of actionable behavior (Meier, Schnall, Schwarz, & visually cold design of a store using colors and materials as visual cues.
Bargh, 2012). This is especially true in retail settings where the ap-
plicability of visual temperature and its impact on consumer behavior
2.2. Motivations on warmth: assimilative vs. complementary
has been limited. Thus, our research seeks to contribute not only in
advancing theoretical knowledge but also in providing practical stra-
Recent models of social cognition suggest many abstract psycholo-
tegies and solutions to generate optimal retail settings for physical
gical concepts are grounded in physiological experiences (Barsalou,
stores.
2008; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). That is, physiological experiences ac-
tivate related concepts in memory which ostensibly influences people's
2. Literature review perceptions, judgments, and feelings (Williams, Huang, & Bargh, 2009).
For example, prior research has shown that physiological warming
2.1. Retail atmospherics and visually warm store design sensations lead to compatible abstract concepts of warmth such as af-
fection and love (Vess, 2012; Williams & Bargh, 2008). This is because
According to inference theory, people make inferences about the physiological experiences are stored together with corresponding psy-
unknown on the basis of information they receive from cues available to chological concepts in memory which is later produced to strengthen
them (Huber & McCann, 1982; Monroe & Krishnan, 1985). In a retailing conceptual metaphors (Niedenthal, Barsalou, Winkielman, Krauth-
context, consumers may take cues from the store ambience to make Gruber, & Ric, 2005). Hence, it is not surprising people experiencing
judgments and inferences about the store. For instance, retail managers physical warmth tend to use more language associated with inter-
have focused on how the environmental elements of a retail space are personal warmth (IJzerman & Semin, 2009). Warmer colors are also
designed and arranged to influence consumption behavior (Baker, associated with tranquility, liberalness, and sociableness (Choi et al.,
Parasuraman, Grewal, & Voss, 2002; Bitner, 1992). Retailers' efforts to 2016).
enrich in-store consumer experiences have shifted from merchandise Theories of grounded cognition suggest cognition process takes
assortment to store atmospherics; it allowed the store to communicate place via modal representations (e.g., Gibbs Jr, 2005). Notwith-
with in-store consumers nonverbally beyond their products and services standing, the relationship between physical and social warmth is one of
that they offer (Spence, Puccinelli, Grewal, & Roggeveen, 2014). In- the most robust findings among all findings in the field of grounded
deed, retail researchers have touted the benefits of store atmospherics cognition (e.g., Bargh & Shalev, 2012; Williams & Bargh, 2008). Extant
on internal states (pleasure/arousal) and subsequent behavioral re- research on warmth can be broadly classified into two streams (Zhang &
sponses such as patronage intentions, approach intentions, and store Risen, 2014). One stream of research has demonstrated an assimilative
preferences (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis, 2003; Orth & Wirtz, 2014; effect; physical warmth activates concepts of interpersonal warmth and
Rosen & Purinton, 2004). vice versa. For example, physical warmth (i.e., holding a warm drink)
The term warmth originally refers to thermal properties perceived relates to evaluating another person also as warm (Williams & Bargh,
by tactile sensation, but it is also widely used to describe a holistic 2008), feeling intimate (Zwebner et al., 2013), conforming to others
atmosphere of an environment or an interior design. When gauging a (Huang, Zhang, Hui, & Wyer Jr, 2014) or showing higher tendency of
visually warm design of a store environment, color is a one of the key gift giving (IJzerman, Leung, & Ong, 2014). Even without the direct
defining characteristic (Wastiels et al., 2012a). Cognitive psychologists touch or experience of physical warmth, Macrae, Raj, Best, Christian,
have depicted that some colors with wavelengths falling under 3000 K and Miles (2013) replicated the assimilative effect of warmth; people
are perceived to be warmer (e.g., red, amber, etc.); red-colored objects imagining holding a warm drink showed higher tendency of evaluating
appear as warmer than other colors (Fenko et al., 2010; Lewinski, 1938; others as warm than those who did not.
Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957; Ross, 1938; Taft, 1997). This is The other stream of research has demonstrated a complementary
based on the associative network of memory (Anderson & Bower, 1973; effect such that a certain physical experience can enhance a person's
Bower, 1981) where orange often represents warmer objects such as the desire for a psychological state that complements the physical state.
fire and the sun, whereas blue often represents colder objects such as Here, motivation plays a crucial role in leading to behaviors that me-
the ocean and the sky. In the past, empirical studies have explored the taphorically alleviate undesirable state such as loneliness (Bargh &
color-temperature link in multiple settings. For instance, Itten and Shalev, 2012; Zhong & Leonardelli, 2008). In parallel, social con-
Birren (1970) discovered that an orange/red-colored room was per- sumption can regulate the feelings of physical coldness (lower room
ceived 3–4 °C warmer than a room with a blue/green color. Guéguen temperature) (Lee, Rotman, & Perkins, 2014). Taken together, people
and Jacob (2014) showed that a red-colored cup leads to the warmest seek psychological solutions for physiological imbalance and vice versa.
perception for the liquid when compared to other colors. Michael and Using theories of grounded cognition as the basis of our research,
Rolhion (2008) also revealed that people reported their nasal percep- we aim to provide a theoretical framework to understand the effect of
tion to a red-colored liquid to be warmer than to a yellow/green liquid, visually warm (and cold) store design. Specifically, we propose a set of
despite the matching temperature of the liquids. Taken together, color hypotheses that investigates the effects of a visually warm (vs. cold)
plays a key role in contributing to the perception of warmth. design on store intimacy and approach intentions. We also consider the


E. Baek et al. -RXUQDORI%XVLQHVV5HVHDUFK²

moderating effects of relational needs represented by affiliative moti- store will be higher for consumers who have high (vs. low) relational
vation. We elaborate below. needs.
H3. The interactive effect of store type (visually warm vs. visually cold)
3. Hypotheses development and relational needs on approach intentions will be mediated by store
intimacy.
According to the assimilative effect, warmth increases perceptions
Overall, Fig. 1 describes our conceptual framework.
of social proximity and intimacy (e.g., IJzerman & Semin, 2010). As
such, we predict that a warmly designed store will increase the corre-
4. Study 1
sponding psychological perception of warmth such as one's intimacy
towards a store. This is made possible based on the tenets of scaffolding
4.1. Study 1 design and procedures
(Williams et al., 2009) wherein consumers develop similar types of
affect and cognition through mental simulation without the need for
Study 1 is a one-factor between-subjects design (warmth vs. cold-
physical warmth. For example, Madzharov, Block, and Morrin (2015)
ness). Prior to conducting our experiment, we generated our stimuli
uncovered that olfactory experiences of warmth, such as warm scents
using a 3D modeling software to create our virtual store images (see
(e.g., vanilla), affect people's perception and behaviors similar to that of
Appendix A). Due to the inherent nature of store atmospherics research,
physical warmth. Related to our research, a retail store that provides a
insights on how environmental factors interact with consumers' internal
visual experience of warmth (via interior color and materials) may si-
states have been limited (e.g., van Rompay, Tanja-Dijkstra, Verhoeven,
milarly trigger psychological warmth such as intimacy. Therefore, we
& van Es, 2012). Past research addressing the effects of environmental
expect a visually warm (vs. cold) store leads to subsequent activation of
store elements seemed to be inconclusive due to the highly context-
consumer's affect. Formally stated,
dependent nature of store environments. Indeed, Baker, Levy, and
H1. A visually warm (vs. cold) store will induce higher store intimacy. Grewal (1992) suggested the use of visual store prototypes designed
digitally as an inexpensive method to represent a store design. In par-
Lee et al. (2014) suggest people innately seek to regulate behavior
ticular, the use of the digitally created in-store stimuli enables us to
to achieve a physical-psychological balance. For example, people rent
maintain tighter controls, ultimately enhancing internal validity.
more romantic movies when feeling cold (Hong & Sun, 2012), people
In this study, the stimulus was designed to reflect a women's fashion
feeling socially cold (socially excluded) rated warm food and drinks as
retail store (female clothing merchandise) targeting young adult fe-
more desirable (Zhong & Leonardelli, 2008), chronic loneliness (social
males. To initially avoid any branding effects, any brand-related in-
coldness) were associated with an increased tendency to take warmer
formation was excluded. To manipulate the store design to induce
showers (Bargh & Shalev, 2012), and consuming colder drinks gener-
different levels of warmth perception, we modified the interior color
ated more social thoughts (Lee et al., 2014). In a retailing context,
and surface of the material based on previous research (Fenko et al.,
service employees in a retail store with colder temperatures showed
2010; Wastiels et al., 2012b). For the visually warm (cold) store, surface
higher customer orientation (Kolb, Gockel, & Werth, 2012).
materials consisting of wood and bricks (vs. steel and marble) and
Here, we believe that approach intentions to a visually warm store
colors in the range of 3000 K (vs. 5000 K) wavelength were used. All
will be higher for people with high relational needs. When consumers
other store attributes, including merchandise, were controlled to be
have high relational needs, they seek a complementary solution to
consistent across the two images to avoid any confounding effects.
regulate this imbalance. Therefore, while one would develop an affect
A pretest (n = 40, ethnicity: South Korean, mean age = 31.92) was
(intimacy) that is assimilative (see H1), for our next hypothesis, we
conducted to examine whether the designed stimuli were perceived as
propose a moderating effect of relational needs. In addition, we predict
intended. Participants first viewed the virtual store images, then esti-
store intimacy mediates the relationship between the interactive effects
mated the temperature using a sliding scale (0 °C to 40 °C). The results
of relational needs and warm design on approach intentions. We base
confirmed that the temperature of the visually warm store was per-
this mediating prediction on prior studies that have strongly established
ceived to be significantly higher than that of the visually cold store
the downstream effects of positive emotional response on approach
(Mwarm = 22.88 °C vs. Mcold = 18.03 °C, t(38) = −4.11, p < 0.001).
intentions. (e.g., Donovan & Rossiter, 1982). In addition to our pre-
Additionally, using a 7-point scale (1 = cold to 7 = warm), warmth
diction that approach intentions should be higher for a visually warm
perceptions on interior color and material of each store design was also
store for those who have high relational needs, we expect a moderated-
found as intended (Color: Mwarm = 5.16, Mcold = 2.19, t(38) = −6.39,
mediation model with store intimacy as a mediating mechanism. For-
p < 0.001; Material: Mwarm = 4.95, Mcold = 2.29, t(38) = −5.37,
mally stated,
p < 0.001).
H2. Approach intentions towards a visually warm (vs. a visually cold) Data collection was conducted via an online survey agent Macromill
Embrain (http://www.embrain.com) in South Korea. To ensure an ap-
propriate fit between the target market and the store, we only recruited
female consumers in their 20s/30s to participate in this study. We de-
termined that it was important to gather data from a homogenous
target segment that shops at the said store. A total of 270 respondents
participated. After consenting to the study, the participants were ran-
domly assigned to one of two conditions (warm vs. cold). The partici-
pants were provided with a brief scenario describing the shopping si-
tuation (e.g., “Please imagine that you are shopping for a weekend
outing. You find a fashion store as shown in the picture”). They were
then instructed to take some time to view the store stimuli. Then, a
series of survey questions (dependent variables, demographic

Fig. 1. The conceptual framework.


E. Baek et al. -RXUQDORI%XVLQHVV5HVHDUFK²

Table 1 5.1. Study 2A

Differences in dependent variables by store type (Study 1).
5.1.1. Study 2A design and procedures
Dependent variables Factors (store type) t(267)
Ninety participants completed an online study via Amazon
Visually warm Visually cold Mechanical Turk in exchange for small monetary compensation
(n = 133) (n = 136) (Buhrmester, Kwang, & Gosling, 2011). All participants were informed
that they would be answering questions about their shopping experi-
Store intimacy M = 3.69, M = 3.30, t = −2.42,
SD = 1.32 SD = 1.30 p < 0.05 ences and preferences. Prior to seeing the virtual store stimuli (same
Store attractiveness M = 4.89, M = 4.94, t = 0.439, ns stimuli as Study 1), participants were asked to report their current
SD = 0.98 SD = 0.94 mood: positive (e.g., happy, relaxed, cheerful) and negative (e.g., bad,
Quality perception M = 5.15, M = 5.26, t = 0.879, ns tense, anxious). The six positive mood items (α = 0.89) were averaged
SD = 1.06 SD = 1.08
to form a positive mood index, and the four negative mood items
Price perception M = 5.32, M = 5.49, t = 0.935, ns
SD = 1.11 SD = 1.11 (α = 0.92) were averaged to form a negative mood index. Next, rela-
tional needs were measured with participants' current affiliation motive
by asking participants to report on their agreement with the following
five statements measured (Park & Maner, 2009): Right now, how much
information) were provided. would you like to… 1) talk on the phone with a friend, 2) spend time
This study measured the effect of visually warm (or cold) design on with a close friend, 3) hang out with friends, 4) write a message to a
store intimacy, store attractiveness, quality perception, and price per- close other, 5) make plans with a friend or significant other.” The items
ception. Regarding our primary variable of interest (H1), store intimacy showed high internal reliability (α = 0.88), and thus were averaged. All
was a 7-point, two-item bipolar scale (not intimate-intimate; not close- items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale (1-not at all, 7-very
close) adopted from Zwebner et al. (2013). Store attractiveness was a 7- much). Afterwards, we randomly assigned the participants into one of
point, three-item bipolar scale (unattractive-attractive; bad-good; un- two conditions (warm vs. cold) with a brief scenario describing the
favorable-favorable) adopted from Orth and Wirtz (2014). Both scales shopping situation like Study 1.
had higher internal reliability, i.e. store intimacy (Pearson's r = 0.90) Approach intentions were measured with 8 items including general
and store attractiveness (α = 0.86), and thus were averaged. Further, a attitude (e.g., “I like this store environment”), probability of spending
7-point, single-item of quality perception (low-high) and price percep- time (e.g., “I would like to spend time browsing in this store”), and
tion (inexpensive-expensive) was also asked. We also included a ma- probability of buying (e.g., “This is the sort of place where I end up
nipulation check measure of warm design by providing a 40-point spending more money than I originally set out to spend”) on a 7-point
sliding scale (0 °C to 40 °C) of the estimated temperature. After re- Likert scale (1 = not at all to 7 = very much) (Mattila & Wirtz, 2001;
moving one respondent for incomplete data, 269 valid responses were Orth & Wirtz, 2014). Reliability was satisfactory (α = 0.90) and re-
used (mean age = 29.01). sponses to the items were averaged. Afterwards, store intimacy (Pear-
son's r = 0.71) and manipulation check of the store type was measured
4.2. Study 1 results followed by demographic variables.
Six participants were excluded from the analysis due to incomplete
The results of an independent t-test confirmed that the visually responses, yielding a final count of 84 participants (mean age: 30.37, all
warm design had higher perception of ambient temperature females). Unlike the first study, the sample was ethnically diverse
(Mwarm = 24.08 °C, SD = 6.40) than the cold design (Mcold = 18.99 °C, (White: 78.2%; African American: 7.7%; Asian or Pacific Islander:
SD = 4.40; t(267) = −7.57, p < 0.01). Therefore, the manipulation 5.1%, Hispanic: 6.4%; and Others: 2.6%).
was successfully established.
Testing for H1, a one-way ANOVA was performed with store type
(warm vs. cold) as the independent variable and store intimacy as the
dependent variable. Confirming H1, the results revealed that people in
the visually warm condition (M = 3.69, SD = 1.32) rated the store to
have higher intimacy than those in the visually cold condition
(M = 3.30, SD = 1.30; t(267) = −2.42, p < 0.05). Table 1 sum-
marizes the results of Study 1. Overall, the results of Study 1 demon-
strate that consumers viewing a visually warm store experienced higher
intimacy with the store than those viewing a visually cold store. Next,
we test for H2; it examines the level of consumers' approach intentions
based on their relational needs.

5. Study 2

Study 2 contains two separate experiments (2A and 2B). Both stu-
dies were a between-subjects design (store type: warm vs. cold) with a
measured moderator (relational needs, Study 2A) or with a manipu-
lated condition (exclusion type, Study 2B). Store intimacy and approach
intentions were collected as dependent variables. To control for any
possible effects of participants' current mood, positive and negative Fig. 2. Interactive effect of relational needs and store type on approach intentions (Study
mood were also measured. 2A).


E. Baek et al. -RXUQDORI%XVLQHVV5HVHDUFK²

Table 2 5.2. Study 2B

Indirect and direct effect on approach intentions (Study 2A).
5.2.1. Study 2B design & procedures
Relational needs Dependent variable: approach intentions
(via affiliative In Study 2B, relational needs were manipulated via social exclusion.
motive) Indirect effect (store Direct effect (store type) Lee and Shrum (2012) highlight differences in the activation of efficacy
intimacy) and relational needs depending on the type of social exclusion. They
assert that social exclusion can be experienced when people are 1)
Beta 95% Bias- Beta SE t(76)
corrected
implicitly ignored or 2) explicitly rejected. In particular, those who are
bootstrap CI implicitly ignored are activated with efficacy needs resulting in con-
spicuous consumption, and those with explicit rejection are activated
Low (−1SD: 2.52) −0.280 −1.0537, −0.048 0.37 −0.129 with relational needs. Based on this notion, Study 2B has been designed
0.4385
High (+1SD: 5.72) 0.705 0.1764, 1.3773 0.369 0.39 0.937
to use the two social exclusion conditions to represent high and low
relational needs.
One hundred and fifty participants completed an online study via
Amazon Mechanical Turk. To reduce suspicion about the purpose of the
study, participants were told they would be participating in two sepa-
5.1.2. Study 2A results rate studies; the purpose of the first study (which manipulated social
The manipulation check was successful; the visually warm design exclusion condition) was to develop counseling techniques. For the
had higher perception of temperature (Mwarm = 22.56 °C, SD = 4.85) second study, they were told to be participating in a study that ex-
than the cold design (Mcold = 19.84 °C, SD = 3.43; t(80) = −2.81, amined consumer preferences across shopping situations.
p < 0.05). Testing for H2, approach intentions were regressed on store The exclusion type manipulation method was adapted from Lee and
type (warm vs. cold) and relational needs, store type × relational needs Shrum (2012). The participants were randomly assigned to the ignored
interaction, while controlling for positive and negative mood using (low relational) or the rejected (high relational) condition. Respondents
PROCESS SPSS macro (model 1). Supporting H2, a significant interac- in each condition were asked to recall a time in which they were either
tion effect of store type × relational needs was observed (β = −0.439, t passively ignored or actively rejected and then they were asked to write
(76) = 2.12, p < 0.05) on approach intentions. To identify regions in about that incident for 4–5 min. Respondents assigned to the ignored
the range of moderator, we used Johnson-Neyman (JN) technique (or rejected) condition were instructed: “Describe the period when you
(Hayes & Matthes, 2009; Johnson & Neyman, 1936). The JN point for felt strongly ignored (or rejected) in some manner…You felt you were
p < 0.05 (t = 1.98) for relational needs moderator occurs at a value of clearly ignored (or rejected); however, no one informed you in reality
5.01. This indicates that the visually warm store results in significantly that he or she did not like or need you (you were rejected because
higher approach intentions than the visually cold store for all values of people did not like you).” Following this task, respondents were in-
relational needs above 5.01 (see Fig. 2). In addition, there were no structed to indicate how implicitly ignored and explicitly rejected they
significant differences between the visually warm and cold store below felt at the time on a 7-point scale (not at all – very much) as a ma-
the JN point, owing to the larger confidence intervals at lower levels of nipulation check. Next, masked as a separate study, the participants
relational needs. As such, supporting H2, the results are consistent with completed the remainder of the study similar to that of Study 2A.
the conclusion that people with higher relational needs prefer visually Five responses were excluded from the analysis due to incomple-
warm (vs. cold) store. tion, yielding a final count of 145 participants (mean age: 31.30; all
Given the moderation effect of relational needs, we conducted a females). Ethnicity classifications were as follows: White: 79.1%;
moderated-mediation analysis on approach intentions with store in- African American: 9.4%; Asian or Pacific Islander: 6.5%, Hispanic:
timacy as a mediator to test H3. Next, A bootstrapping analysis was 2.9%; and Others: 2.2%.
conducted using PROCESS SPSS macro (Model 8, n = 5000 resamples;
Hayes, 2015). In this analysis, store type was the independent variable,
store intimacy was the mediator, and relational needs was the mod-
erator with positive and negative mood as control variables.
Supporting H3, the results showed a significant moderated-media-
tion effect (indirect effect: 0.308, CI95% = 0243, 0.7032). As shown in
Table 2, the mediation effect of store intimacy was significant for those
who have high relational needs at 1SD above the mean, but not for
those with low relational needs at 1SD below or at the mean, positively
affecting approach intentions (β = 0.509, p < 0.001). In addition, the
conditional direct effects of store type on approach intentions were not
significant at any values of relational needs. The previously significant
interaction effect of store type × relational needs became non-sig-
nificant after the intimacy was included as a mediator. This means that
the identified mediator was consistent with the hypothesized theore-
tical framework as an indirect-only mediation (Zhao, Lynch, & Chen,
2010). Taken together, Study 2A shows that people in the visually
warm store have higher approach intentions via store intimacy, but
only when they have higher relational needs.
Fig. 3. Interactive effect of store type and relational needs condition on approach in-
tentions (Study 2B).


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Table 3 for a visually cold store becomes lower. This study once again confirms
Indirect and direct effect on approach intentions (Study 2B). H2 and H3 and provides replication for our theoretical framework.
Relational needs Dependent variable: approach intentions
(via exclusion type) 6. Study 3
Indirect effect (store Direct effect (store type)
intimacy)
Study 3 was designed to investigate the potential influence of brand
Beta 95% Bias- Beta SE t(138) type. In particular, we expect that the effect of visual warmth inducing
corrected intimacy and approach intention may not manifest for a brand that
bootstrap CI emphasizes exclusivity and luxury (Phau & Prendergast, 2000). Since
Low (ignored) −0.136 −0.6300, −0.037 0.27 −0.137
warmth is associated with connection and proximity, rather than iso-
0.3865 lation and distance, there may be incongruence between warmth and
High (rejected) 0.702 0.2445, 1.1958 0.240 0.28 0.853 luxuriousness. Therefore, Study 3 is intended to uncover any restraining
factors to our theoretical framework. Furthermore, while studies 1 and
2 used fictitious visual stimuli (non-branded retail store) for tighter
internal controls, Study 3 seeks uses real brands and real visual images
of stores to increase external validity.
5.2.2. Study 2B results
The manipulation check successfully confirmed that the visually
warm design had a higher perception of ambient temperature 6.1. Study 3 design and procedures
(Mwarm = 22.25 °C, SD = 3.19) than the visually cold design
(Mcold = 20.22 °C, SD = 3.82; t(143) = −2.81, p < 0.05). In addition, Study 3 is a between-subjects design (brand type: luxury vs. non-
the manipulation of the two exclusion types was also successful. luxury). For both conditions, we only employed a visually warm store
Participants asked to describe experiences of being ignored reported design. We used known existing brands to enhance external validity.
greater feelings of being ignored than being rejected (Mignored = 6.36, Hermès was selected for the luxury brand condition, and Fossil was se-
SD = 0.85 vs. Mrejected = 5.23, SD = 1.70; t(143) = 5.13, p < 0.001), lected for the non-luxury condition. They were selected for the fol-
whereas participants asked to describe experiences of being rejected lowing reasons. 1) Existing stores of both brands are designed as vi-
reported greater feelings of being rejected than being ignored sually warm, 2) the retail merchandise assortment of both brands is
(Mrejected = 6.69, SD = 0.75 vs. Mignored = 5.75, SD = 1.41; t similar; they carry items such as leather goods and accessories, but 3)
(143) = −4.41, p < 0.001). the two brands are distinct in terms of status (luxurious brand image vs.
To test for H2, we conducted a 2 (store type: warm vs. cold) × 2 a non-luxurious brand image) and different price points for their mer-
(relational needs condition via social exclusion: high vs. low) ANCOVA chandise. For example, Hermès cater to an exclusive group of con-
on approach intentions (α = 0.91), while controlling for positive sumers in the higher social class (e.g., Quan & Shen, 2017) while Fossil
(α = 0.90) and negative mood (α = 0.87). The analysis revealed an targets a broader range of consumers.
interactive effect of store type × relational needs condition on ap- The photos depicting the front side of the store were acquired via a
proach intentions (F(1,139) = 4.53, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.32). Further, search through Google images (see Appendix B). Prior to the experi-
neither main effect nor mood was significant. ment, a pre-test was conducted via Amazon Turk (n = 104) to verify
The interactive effect of store type × relational needs condition on whether the storefront images were similar in the absence of brand
approach intentions was further analyzed with a pairwise comparison. names. Similar to earlier studies, warmth-related variables such as
The analysis revealed that approach intentions towards the visually temperature estimate, color/material warmth, and store intimacy, as
warm store were significantly higher (Mwarm = 4.25, SE = 0.28) than well as, product quality and price perception were measured. The t-test
the visually cold store (Mcold = 3.31, SE = 0.25; F(1,139) = 6.33, results confirmed that there were no significant differences in percep-
p < 0.05) for those who were in high relational need, but not for those tions between the photos without the brand name. Therefore, we pro-
who were in low relational need (F < 1). See Fig. 3 for a graphical ceeded to the main experiment using these stimuli along with the brand
representation of the results. name.
Similar to Study 2A, we tested a moderated-mediation analysis with A total of 180 participants completed the survey via Amazon Turk.
store intimacy (α = 0.88) as a mediator. The analysis revealed that
store intimacy significantly mediated the interactive effect of store
type × relational needs condition on approach intentions (Indirect ef-
fect = 0.838; 95% CI: 0.1511, 1.5448). In particular, the mediating
effect of store intimacy was significant only for those who were in the
high relational need condition but not for those who were low rela-
tional need condition (see Table 3). The interactive effect of store
type × relational needs condition on approach intentions became
nonsignificant after store intimacy was included (p > 0.05), while
store intimacy was significant (β = 0.58, t(139) = 11.02, p < 0.001)
indicating full mediation effect.
Overall, Study 2B also revealed that people in the visually warm
store have higher approach intentions via store intimacy, but only when
they have higher relational needs. We achieved this by activating re-
lational needs via a social exclusion manipulation (ignored vs. re-
jected). When a person feels rejected (higher relational needs), the
preference for the visually warm store is higher, whereas the preference Fig. 4. Interactive effect of relational needs and brand type on approach intentions to a
visually warm store (Study 3).


E. Baek et al. -RXUQDORI%XVLQHVV5HVHDUFK²

Five participants were excluded due to those who used a mobile device cues, as well as with storefronts of real brands. Although, the find-
to complete the survey. Due to display size issues, we only kept parti- ings did not hold for exclusive brands (luxury brands), thus pre-
cipants who completed their survey via a tablet or a laptop (not a senting a boundary condition.
mobile phone). In the end, 175 responses were kept for the final ana- • Much of the prior research has focused on physical warmth or
lysis (mean age: 34.19). The sample was ethnically diverse (White: sensations of warmth. This research reveals the applicability of
68.0%; African American: 9.1%; Asian or Pacific Islander: 12.6%, employing visually warm store design to influence one's perception
Hispanic: 7.4%; and Others: 2.9%) and included both genders (50.4% of store intimacy.
females). • Our research further confirms the use of color and surface material
As in previous experiments, we measured participants' current mood as methods to project a visually warm or cold design of a store.
(α = 0.87) and relational needs (α = 0.91) before showing the photos
to the participants. After randomly being assigned to one of the two Our research aligns well with the growing concerns over the future
conditions (luxury vs. non-luxury), participants indicated their ap- of physical retail stores. In the growing age of e-commerce, it is be-
proach intentions to the store (α = 0.91), store intimacy (Pearson's coming imperative for retailers (i.e., Neiman Marcus, Nordstrom) to
r = 0.83) and temperature estimate after reading a shopping scenario. adopt a more flexible retail design that allows for a continuous curation
Additionally, five items of luxury perception on the brand (α =0.90) of experience (Hoang, 2016). Given that customers no longer need to go
were measured in 7-point Likert scale as a manipulation check (e.g., I to physical stores to buy products, retail stores could do more to pro-
find this brand is luxurious) (Beuckels & Hudders, 2016). In addition, vide a distinct experience that cannot be replicated online (Abnett,
we asked the participants regarding their prior experience with the 2016). As such, advancing knowledge for creating a retail space and
brand (yes or no) along with their demographic characteristics. Relia- design that differentiates from the online experience is paramount; our
bility of all variables were satisfactory, and responses to the multiple research contributes to this body of work.
items were averaged.
7.1. Theoretical contributions
6.2. Study 3 results
The present research contributes to the retailing discipline in mul-
The manipulation check on luxury perception of the provided brand tiple ways. First, while research on warmth has received considerable
was successful; participants who were exposed to the Hermès brand had attention in the areas of psychology and marketing, the focus has been
higher luxury perception (M = 6.24, SD = 0.09) than those who were primarily on the tactile experience of warmth (physical sensation, i.e.,
exposed to the Fossil brand (M = 5.38, SD = 1.17; t(173) = 5.53, temperature). This research extends the literature by demonstrating
p < 0.001). The temperature estimates for both stores were not sig- that visually perceived warmth (via manipulation of interior colors and
nificantly different (MLuxury = 23.04, SD = 3.98, MNon-luxury = 24.20, materials) can affect individuals. While previous scholars have shown
SD = 4.20; t(173) = 1.87, p = 0.06) and were within the range of similar effects of warmth using visual stimuli (e.g., a photo of burning
warmth (22–24 °C) (Ijzerman & Semin, 2009). logs in a fireplace) (e.g., Murphy & Standing, 2014; Wilkowski, Meier,
Approach intentions were regressed on the brand type (luxury vs. Robinson, Carter, & Feltman, 2009), their mechanism has yet been
non-luxury) and relational needs, brand type × relational needs while verified via priming. Distinguishing from the standard theories of cog-
controlling the mood and prior experience of the brand. Results showed nition related to semantic memory, our research reveals that visually
a significant interaction between brand type × relational needs af- perceiving certain colors or materials without a warmth-related theme
fecting the approach intentions to a visually warm store (β = 0.28, t (e.g., a fireplace) can still influence temperature estimates, and in turn,
(169) = 2.12, p < 0.05) with no significant main effect or covariates store intimacy.
(ps > 0.12). As expected, the effect of individuals' relational needs on Importantly, the current research finds that relational needs
approach intentions to a visually warm store was conditional; there was strengthen the connection between warm store atmosphere and its ef-
a positive relationship only in the non-luxurious condition (β = 0.31, t fect on intimacy. People with higher relational needs perceived higher
(169) = 3.66, p < 0.001). Despite the visually warm atmosphere, no intimacy to a visually warm store and thus were more likely to shop at
significant relationship between relational needs and approach inten- such stores. Employing both methods of measuring individual differ-
tions was found for the luxury brand (p = 0.73). The JN-point identifies ences (Study 2A) and manipulating situations (2B), this study provides
relational needs over 4.33 as the significant regions as a result of the reliable results that either dispositional or situational relational needs
moderating effect of brand type. Fig. 4 describes our findings. can strengthen the visually warm store effect.
Lastly, the boundary condition on the effect of a warmer store de-
7. General discussion sign not only fosters theory development of the current study but also
contributes to the extant literature of congruence often found in the
In summary, we tested a set of hypotheses that investigate the ef- advertising and the marketing literature (e.g., Barone, Norman, &
fects of visually warm (vs. cold) store design on store intimacy and Miyazaki, 2007; Hung, 2000). Our results confirmed that derived
approach intentions. A culmination of four studies provides strong meaning via marketing stimuli is affected by congruency or a thematic
support for our hypotheses. Our key contributions include: match with the brand image. Although our primary interests were not
in examining the congruency effect, revealing a boundary condition
• Consumers viewing a visually warm store experienced higher store (e.g., incongruence between a brand and store design) further enriches
intimacy than those viewing a visually cold store. Relational needs our research.
(represented by affiliative motivation or explicit rejection) moder-
ates the above relationship such that visually warm store design 7.2. Managerial implications
attracts people with high relational needs, and thus increases store
intimacy. Despite the ample research on grounded warmth, this domain has
• The findings replicated via simulated retail design without brand been criticized for the lack of applicability of the concepts (Meier et al.,


E. Baek et al. -RXUQDORI%XVLQHVV5HVHDUFK²

2012). Increasingly, researchers have called for more actionable results. sample of participants (Study 1 – homogenous sample (all female
Aside from the theoretical contribution, our results provide practical Koreans); Study 2 – hybrid sample (all females, diverse ethnicity);
solutions for retailers: Retailers are encouraged to create a warmer store Study 3 – diverse sample (both sex, diverse ethnicity)), To address this,
design (via color and surface material) to increase store intimacy, future researchers are encouraged to partner with retail stores and
which in turn, increases approach intentions. Moreover, a warmer de- gather data from consumers across all ages (e.g., elderly, children).
sign is beneficial to those with higher relational needs (vs. low). Based Third, our dependent variables of interest only focus on store in-
on Baumeister and Leary's (1995) principle of substitution (com- timacy and approach intentions. Unfortunately, the scope is narrow in
plementary effect), people whose relationships do not satisfy their need that it does not track whether consumers are more likely to browse, stay
(i.e., higher relational need), seek fulfillment. Hence, a store with warm longer, or ultimately buy items within the store. Investigating such
design has the potential to alleviate the relational gap, thus making it variables will provide a more practical contribution for the retailers.
attractive for them to enter the store (approach intentions). As a result, Finally, our first two studies compared the warm store design to the
retailers are encouraged to think how visual presentation of their retail cold store design. To get a more accurate outcome of the warmth ef-
stores can have an instrumental effect on consumer's perception of the fects, it may be worthwhile to compare the results of the warm store
store (i.e., store intimacy). Retailers can achieve a particular theme by design to a neutral store design setting (control).
adjusting the lighting, décor, and surface material to achieve a warmer As mentioned in the Implication section, there are multiple avenues
ambience. As cold temperature elicits people's need for relation (e.g., of extending our results to future research domains. First, we suggest
social thoughts/consumption) (Lee et al., 2014), adopting a warmer exploring other types of sensory warmth (e.g., warm music, warm
design during the winter season will also be effective in fulfilling such scent) on store intimacy and approach intentions. For example,
needs. In a similar context, as higher relational needs are often evoked Madzharov et al. (2015) showed certain scents (e.g., vanilla) are
during family-gathering seasons (e.g., Christmas, Thanksgiving), brand warmer than other scents (e.g., peppermint) via semantic associations.
managers and retailers can adopt a more warmth-evoking environment This may apply to music where particular type of music may be heard
to provide a stronger connection and intimacy for lonesome people as warmer than other types of music depending on the genre or how it is
during the holiday season. Although it is important to note creating played (e.g., acoustic guitar vs. electric guitar). Given that a visually
such ambience may not be beneficial for luxury brands. As shown in warm store affects store intimacy and approach intentions, it will be
Study 3, we find that our results held only for non-luxury brands like fruitful to explore whether the same holds true for auditory and ol-
Fossil but not for luxury brands such as Hermès. factory warm stimuli. Moreover, with the growing interest of applying
While our research purports the benefits of using a warmer store multisensory experiences in retail, it will be worthwhile to investigate
design, this does not imply that colder store designs are ineffective. In how different types of warmth interact to influence consumer percep-
an empirical test, Cimbalo, Beck, and Sendziak (1978) showed that blue tions and behavior. For instance, how is store intimacy affected when a
is associated happiness while red is associated with sadness. The colder customer is experiencing warm scent but in a visually cold store (or vice
ambience may also give a sense that time is going by more quickly versa)? How is store intimacy augmented when multiple sensorial
(Singh, 2006) and promote relaxation (Gorn, Chattopadhyay, Sengupta, warmth (visual, tactile, auditory warmth, etc.) is present? These ques-
& Tripathi, 2004). Hence, our research findings do not suggest that tions may be the next steps in uncovering how warmth influences retail
warmer store design is superior to the colder design. Rather, we suggest consumers.
that retailer must carefully consider what they want to portray and who Second, while our findings purport the benefits of the warm design,
they want to target to optimize their retail atmospheric strategy. For we do not investigate whether the magnitude or the degree of warmth
instance, colder colors are seen to be associated with the symbol of differentially affect our results. For instance, if we were to use a deeper
power and prestige (Labrecque, Patrick, & Milne, 2013). In Study 3, we red or brighter orange colors (deeming it “hotter”), would store in-
discovered that the warmer store design did not affect luxurious brands. timacy and approach intentions correspondingly increase? Prior studies
Hence, given its link to power and prestige, the interplay between investigating physical and psychological warmth has not viewed
luxury brands and colder store design seems appropriate. Given that warmth on a spectrum. Rather, it has often been compartmentalized for
past research has primarily focused on warmth, the investigation of experimental purposes. Thus, we encourage future research to explore
coldness as an ambience strategy may be fruitful in advancing the field the degree of warmth and its subsequent effects on retail store design.
of retail design and sensory marketing. Third, we are curious about the impact of congruity between tem-
perature and the inherent theme of the store. For instance, would the
7.3. Limitations and future research positive effects of warmth be consistent across store designs and brands
that are inherently cold? This is an important investigation to test the
We note several limitations. First, the retail context of focus in all of boundary conditions of our findings. Moreover, the concept of warm
our studies were fashionable goods such as apparel and leather acces- and cold may differ depending on their cultural background and/or
sories. We caution whether our results are generalizable to other retail where people live. Culture may influence how people view color in a
categories (sports, home hardware, furniture, etc.). Particularly, Study particular way. For example, red may be seen as lucky or evil de-
3 examined two fashion-based brands. While the application of existing pending on the cultural context. Integrating such individual difference
brands in Study 3 provides a more practical lens to our findings, there variables will provide us with a clearer understanding of when to apply
remains limitation in generalizability in selecting specific brands and our results in a practical context. Further, where people live (geo-
ignoring others. To increase external validity, more studies involving graphic location) may influence their overall perception of warmth.
diverse retail brands and settings may be necessary to corroborate our Thus, it may be important to control for these factors in future research
findings. to present boundary conditions to our findings.
Second, all of our experiments were conducted solely online. While
online experiments are essential for isolating noise and increasing the Acknowledgement
internal validity of our methodology, a field study may be necessary to
corroborate our findings. Also, the age group of the participants were This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of
primarily young adults (20–35) despite our attempt to gather a diverse Korea, Global Research Network Program [NRF-2014S1A2A2028434].


E. Baek et al. -RXUQDORI%XVLQHVV5HVHDUFK²

Appendix A. A Visually Warm vs. Visually Cold Store (Study 1, 2A, and 2B)

Appendix B. Photos of a luxury and non-luxury brand store with the visually warm atmosphere (Study 3)


E. Baek et al. -RXUQDORI%XVLQHVV5HVHDUFK²

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Psychology, 96, 203–217. Eunsoo Baek is a post-doctoral researcher at Cornell University, USA. She earned her
Phau, I., & Prendergast, G. (2000). Consuming luxury brands: The relevance of the ‘rarity Ph.D. in fashion marketing at Dept. of Textiles, Merchandising and Fashion Design Seoul
principle’. Journal of Brand Management, 8, 122–138. National University. Dr. Baek's primary research interests center on retail experience
Quan, V., & Shen, B. (2017). Evolution of luxury fashion brands. In luxury fashion retail based on the consumer behavior discipline. Her recent research interests include retail
management (pp. 11–18). Singapore: Springer. technology, such as virtual reality and augmented reality, and its effect on consumer
van Rompay, T. J., Tanja-Dijkstra, K., Verhoeven, J. W., & van Es, A. F. (2012). On store experiences.
design and consumer motivation: Spatial control and arousal in the retail context.
Environment and Behavior, 44, 800–820.
Rosen, D. E., & Purinton, E. (2004). Website design: Viewing the web as a cognitive Ho Jung Choo is a Professor at Dept. of Textiles, Merchandising and Fashion Design,
landscape. Journal of Business Research, 57, 787–794. Seoul National University in Seoul, South Korea. She earned her Ph.D. in Human
Ross, R. T. (1938). Studies in the psychology of the theater. The Psychological Record, 2, Environment Design & Mgt. at Michigan State University, USA. Her teaching and research
focuses on fashion marketing including fashion consumption, fashion retailing and
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Singh, S. (2006). Impact of color on marketing. Management Decision, 44, 783–789. fashion-related consumer behaviors.
Spence, C., Puccinelli, N. M., Grewal, D., & Roggeveen, A. L. (2014). Store atmospherics:
A multisensory perspective. Psychology and Marketing, 31, 472–488. Seung Hwan (Mark) Lee is an Associate Professor at Ted Rogers School of Retail
Taft, C. (1997). Color meaning and context: Comparisons of semantic ratings of colors on Management in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He earned his Ph.D. in Business Administration
samples and objects. Color Research & Application, 22, 40–50. from the Ivey School of Business at Western University. Dr. Lee's primary research in-
Thiis-Evensen, T., Waaler, R., & Campbell, S. (1987). Archetypes in architecture. Oslo: terests are in the consumer behavior discipline, specifically focusing on the structural
Norwegian University Press. dynamics of social networks and its impact on retail consumers. Professor Lee also con-
Thompson, D. (2017, April). What in the world is causing the retail meltdown of 2017. tributes to the topic of branding, virtual reality, marketing education, and sensory mar-
The Atlantic. retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/ keting.
04/retail-meltdown-of-2017/522384/.