LECTURE 3

Propositions may be made up of components, e.g. more basic propositions. These are compound
propositions.

E.g.: There may or may not be free tea after the class.

How many propositions are here?

Not everything inside a proposition need to be asserted (needs to have its truth value checked).

“If you are the whatsapp admin of this course, you will get free tea”.

if [ are(you, whatsapp admin)  get(you, free tea)]

Only the if-then connection of the hypothetical situation needs to be checked. Noone really needs to
be the whatsapp admin. Noone really needs to get the free tea.

ARGUMENTS

Arguments involve arriving at a proposition on the basis of some previous proposition.

An argument looks like: Proposition1 – Proposition2 – Proposition3 … - PropositionN.

Crude definition: Thus, an argument is a group/cluster of propositions.

But are all groups/clusters of propositions arguments?

E.g.: John woke up early. John ran throughout the day. John did not have good meals.

Do you think that this is an argument?

No. This is a cluster of propositions but not an argument. Because what are we arguing about? What
are we trying to arrive at? What are we trying to show? What are we trying to INFER?

Updated definition: An argument involves inferring/deducing/arriving at a conclusion on the basis of

Next example: John woke up early. John ran throughout the day. John did not have good meals.
Therefore, John is very tired.

This seems like an argument, because there is a conclusion here.

There is a conclusion here. But is it an argument?

No. Because the conclusion does not follow the provided information. We cannot infer the
conclusion from the provided information.

Updated definition: Argument refers to the group of propositions where the final proposition should
follow (be inferred) from the other propositions.

Thus, argument is not a mere group of unrelated propositions. There is a structure.

The structure is : PREMISE  CONCLUSION

Conclusion = The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is to be affirmed.

Premises = The premises of an argument are the propositions that support the conclusion.

One must be able to infer conclusion on the basis of premises.

PREMISES

Proposition P1 CONCLUSION

Proposition P2 Proposition
C1
. Drawing inference i.e.
Deducing (This requires
. reasoning)
Proposition Pn

Logic does not worry Logic only worries Logic does not worry
whether premises are true whether the conclusion whether conclusion is true
or false can be drawn from the or false.
propositions.

This whole procedure is called argument.

Logic lets you know if the argument was good or bad.

Conclusion follows premise? Good argument.

Conclusion does not follow premise? Bad argument.

Premise 1: Anyone that can read a book can also fly.

Premise 2: Pigs can read book.

Conclusion: Pigs can fly.

In our world, the premises are false, and conclusion is absurd. However, logic does not deal with
your real world. It deals only with the microcosm of premises and conclusion. If the premises are
correct, then conclusion follows the premises. Hence, according to logic, the argument is good.

Are arguments always written in short sentences that follow one another?

No. Entire argument can be encoded within one sentence too.

Example: Since pigs can the read book and readers are also flyers, pigs must fly.

Do conclusions have to literally ‘follow’ the premises?

No. Conclusion may also be stated earlier than premises. If conclusion is stated first, the premises
are usually introduced with “because” or some other alternative.

Example: Pigs must fly because they can read and readers are flyers.

Should there be multiple propositions in premises?

No. Single proposition premises are also possible.

Example: Food sustains life. If you don’t eat, you will die.

Note: I said that single proposition premise is possible. I did not say that single proposition argument
is possible. Argument will always need at least two propositions: one as the premise and one as
conclusion.

Some clusters may look like arguments but they are not.

Example: If you go to sleep early, you will find it easy to wake up early.
There is no inference. There is only implication. No argument is being made. No premise to support
a conclusion. HINT: There is “because x therefore y” structure.

We can turn this non-argument into an argument though:

Example: (Because) Every person needs a fixed amount of sleep. After this fixed amount of sleep, it
is easy to wake up. (Therefore) If you go to sleep early, you will find it easy to wake up.

How to identify arguments

Language uses certain indicators that help us identify conclusion and premises.

Conclusion indicators:

Therefore; Hence; So; Accordingly; consequently; proves that; as a result; for this reason;

We may infer; It follows that; conclude that; which means that

Premise indicators:

Since; because; for the reason that; follows from; as shown by; in view of the fact that (facts); etc.

But arguments may not always use such explicit indicators.

2. Because it is easier to buy paperback copy.

Therefore, people do not want to photocopy a book and give it to a friend.

3. Because: human intelligence is a gift from God.

Therefore: Using intelligence is pleasing to God.

4. Because: Not (he was the first to climb Mt. Everest)

Because he never forgot the sherpas who helped him.

Because he built schools and hospitals for them.

Therefore: Sir Edmund Hillary is a hero.