1.

Electro Magnetic Induction

1.1 Full Forms/Symbols Used:
mmf: magneto-motive force
Φ – magnetic flux
B – Flux Density
H – Magnetizing Force
µ – Permeability
µ0 – Absolute Permeability
µr – Relative Permeability
S – Reluctance
N – Number of turns in Coil
a – Area of Cross Section of coil/conductor
l – length of conductor/coil

1.2 Important terms/Definitions:

Magnetic Field: The area around a magnet where magnetic force is experienced is called magnetic
field.
Magnetic Flux: The amount of magnetic lines of force set up in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetic flux.
Reluctance : The opposition offered to a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called reluctance.
Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct/pass magnetic flux through it is called its
permeability.
Relative permeability: It is the ratio of the permeability of a specific medium to the permeability
of free space µ0. It denoted by the symbol µr.
Electromagnetic induction: If the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an emf is induced in
the circuit. This phenomenon is called Electromagnetic Induction.

1.3 Units/Values
mmf – AT (Ampere Turns)
Φ (magnetic flux) – weber (wb)
S (Reluctance) - AT/wb
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H·m−1

1.4 Important Formulae:

mmf = NI
S = l/µa
µ = µ0µr
Φ = mmf/S
B = µH
e = -N(dΦ /dt)
L = N2aµ0µr/l
M = N1N2aµ0µr/l
K = M/(L1L2)1/2

1.5 Magnetic effect of Current:

A current carrying straight conductor has magnetic lines of force
around it. This magnetic force is proportional to the current
flowing in the conductor and its direction depends upon the
direction of flow of electric current. The direction of these lines of
force can be determined using Right Hand Thumb Rule or
Maxwell’s Corkscrew Rule. This is shown below :
According to this rule if a current carrying conductor is held by
right hand; keeping the thumb straight and in the direction of
electric current, then the direction of wrapping of fingers will show the direction of magnetic lines
of force.

1.6 Analogy Between Electric Circuit and Magnetic Circuit

1.6.1 Similarities Between Electric and Magnetic Circuits:

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

Setting up of magnetic flux forms a magnetic
Flow of current forms an electric circuit.
circuit.
emf (measured in volts) is the driving force Mmf (measured in AT) is the driving force in
in the electric circuit. the magnetic circuit.
Conductivity Permeability
There is a current I in the electric circuit There is flux (Φ) in the magnetic circuit which
which is measured in amperes. is measured in the weber.
The flow of electrons/holes is called The magnetic lines of force in the circuit is
current. called the flux.
Resistance (R) oppose the flow of the Reluctance (S) is opposed by magnetic path to
current. the flux.
R = ρ. l/a. S = l/ (μ0μra).
Current (I) = emf/ Resistance Flux (Φ) = MMF/ Reluctance
The current density (J) = I/a The flux density (B) = Φ/a
Electric Intensity (E) = V/d Magnetic Intensity (H) = NI/l

1.6.2 Dissimilarities Between Electric and Magnetic Circuits:

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

In the electric circuit, the current is flux gets established in a magnetic circuit and
actually flows does not flows
There are many materials which can be
There is no perfect insulator for magnetic flux.
used as insulators.
Energy must be supplied to the electric Energy is required to create the magnetic flux,
circuit to maintain the flow of current. but is not required to maintain it.
The resistance doesn’t depends upon
The reluctance dependents on the flux density.
current density.
There is continuous consumption of Energy is required only to create the magnetic
electrical energy. flux.

1.7 Faraday’s Laws and Lenz’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

1.7.1 Faraday’s First Law of E.M.I.
“Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field emf is induced which is called
induced emf.”
It indicated that an emf is induced in a conductor if the flux linked with the conductor changes with
respect to time.
1.7.2 Faraday’s Second Law of E.M.I.
“ The emf induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages (flux linkages is the
product of no. of turns (N) of the coil and the flux associated with it).”
Mathematically,
Φ ∝ dΦ /dt
or e = N(dΦ /dt)
Note: Faraday’s Laws only give magnitude of the emf induced in the conductor.
1.7.3 Lenz’s Law
“The direction of the induced emf in the conductor will be such that the flux
produced by it will oppose the cause produce it.”
1.8 Self and Mutual induced emf

Induced emf : Whenever a conductor is placed in a magnetic field with varying flux linkage, an
emf is induced in the conductor (Faraday’s law) and this emf is called induced emf.
Induced emf is of two types :
1. Dynamically induced emf : When the conductor moves and the field is stationary, the emf is
induced in the conductor, this type of emf is called dynamically induced emf.
II. Statically induced emf : When the conductor is stationary and the field changes with time then
in this case the induced emf is called statically induced emf.
Statically induced emf is again of two types
1. Self induced emf
2. Mutually induced emf

Self-induced emf is that emf which is induced in the conductor by changing its own flux/current.
When current is changing the magnetic field is also changing around the coil and hence as per
Faraday law an emf is induced in the coil to it self which is called self induced emf.
Mutually induced emf : The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by another
neighbouring coil linking to it, is called Mutually Induced emf.

1.9 Concept of current growth, decay and time constant in an inductive (RL) circuit.
A RL Series Circuit consists basically of an inductor of inductance, L connected in series with a
resistor of resistance, R. The resistance R is the DC resistivity value of the wire turns or loops
that goes into making up the inductor coil. Consider the RL series circuit shown below.

1.9.1 Growth of current in R-L Circuit

Let us consider the switch S is closed at t=0.(As shown above)
As the swirch is closed so battery E,inductance L and resistance R are now connected in series and
current tends to increase from i=0 to i = Imax. As per Faraday’s Law and due to self induced emf current
will not immediately reach its steady value but grows at a rate depending on inductance and resistance
of the circuit. Assume I be the current at any instant in the circuit which increases from 0 to a
maximum value at a rate of increase dI/dt. In such case the emf across the inductor is given by
EL=LdI/dt and emf across resistor is given by VR=IR. The total voltage is given by :
E= EL+ VR

Thus E = L dI/dt + IR ..............................(1)

=> dI/dt = E-IR/L ...................................(2)
As we know that at t=0, I=0. So
(dI/dt)t=0 = E/L
Hence, as per the above relation we conclude that greater would be the inductance of the inductor,
more slowly the current starts to increase.
Now, When the current reaches its steady state value I ,the rate of increase of current becomes zero
then from equation (2) we have,
0=(E-IR)/L
=> I=E/R
From this we conclude that final steady state current in the circuit does not depend on self inductance
rather it is same as it would be if only resistance is connected to the source.
On further solving the relation of current as a function of time in equation (1) we get
dI/{(E/R)-I}=(R/L)dt
Now V/R=Imax (Maximum current in the circuit). So we have
dI/(Imax – I )= (R/L)dt ................................... (3)
After Integrating and further solving above equation, we have
I = Imax(1-e-Rt/L)
This equation shows the exponential increase of current in the circuit with the passage of time as
shown below:

Now If we put t=L/R in the above equation then we have,

I = Imax(1-1/e) = 0.630 Imax
Hence, the time in which the current in the circuit increases from zero to 63% of the maximum value
of Imax is called the time constant or the decay constant of the circuit.

For RL circuit, decay constant is given by ,

τL=L/R

1.9.2 Growth of current in R-L Circuit

Let us consider the switch S is opened at t=0 (Switch is brought to position b).In this condition
the current in the circuit begins to decay. Again from equation (2) since E=0 this time, so the
equation for decay is
L (dI/dt)+RI = 0
=> dI/I= - (R/L)dt
on solving we have,
I = Imaxe-Rt/L
Hence current decreases exponentially with time in the circuit in accordance with the above equation
after the battery are cutoff from the circuit (shown below)

If in above equation putting t=L/R give,

I=Imaxe-1=.37Imax
Hence the time in which the current decrease from the maximum value to 37% of the maximum value
Imax is called the time constant of the circuit.

1.10 Energy stored in an Inductor

Let us consider the arrangement shown in the figure above. An inductor is connected to a battery
via a switch.
Suppose battery voltage is V volts, value of inductor is L Henry, and current I will flow at steady
state. When the switch is ON, a current will flow from zero to its steady value. But due to self
induction a induced voltage appears which is an emf is induced in the coil as per equation:
EL=LdI/dt
This EL always in the opposite direction of the rate of change of current.
Now let the energy or work done due to this current passing through this inductor is U.
As the current starts from its zero value and flowing against the induced emf E, the energy will
grow up gradually from zero value to U.
We know that dU = W.dt,
where W is the small power and W = – V.I
So, the energy stored in the inductor is given by intigrating above equation. On solving for U we
get
U = ½ LI2
This is the expression for energy stored in an inductor.
1.11 series and parallel combination of Inductors
1.11.1 Inductors in series
Let us consider two inductors L1 and L2 are connected in series. We know that voltages in series
are added as the same current flows through all components in series.

The total voltage is given by the equation;

v=v1+vM+v2+vM
=> v=L1diL/dt+MdiL/dt+L2diL/dt+MdiL/dt
=> v=(L1+L2+2M)diLdt
Comparing it with e=Ldi/dt we get
Leq= L1+L2+2M

1.11.2 Inductors in parallel

Let us consider two inductors L1 and L2 are connected in parallel (as shown below)

The equivalent inductance in the above circuit is given by the equation

LE=L1.L2−M2/(L1+L2−2.M)
 2.Batteries
1.1 Full Forms/Symbols Used:
SMF : Sealed Maintenance Free
d.c. : Direct Current
a.c. : Alternating Current

1.2 Important terms/Definitions:

Cell: It is a device which convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
Battery: A combination of cells in series, parallel or Series/parallel is called battery.
Primary Cells: A primary cell is a cell in which chemical reaction is irreversible or it is a cell which
cannot be recharged.
Secondary Cells: A secondary cell is a cell in which chemical reaction is reversible or it is a cell
which can be recharged.
Hydrometer : A device used to check specific gravity of electrolyte.

1.3 Units/Values
Battery Capacity : Ah (Ampere Hour)
Specific Gravity : No Unit

1.4 Important Formulae:

I = nE/R (n Cells of E emf each in Series)
I = nE/r (n Cells of r internal resistance each in Parallel)

2.5 Construction, working principle and applications of Lead-Acid, Nickel-Cadmium

and Silver-Oxide batteries
2.5.1 Construction, working principle and applications of Lead-Acid batteries
The core components of a lead acid batter as shown below:

These are:
1. Electrodes (Anode and Cathode) : A battery consists of two terminals viz. Anode (+ve) and
cathode (-ve), collectively these terminals are called electrodes. In an Lead Acid battery +ve plate is
made of Lead Peroxide(PbO2) and -ve plate is made of spongy Lead(Pb). The color of +ve plate is
chocolate brown and that of -ve plate is grey, when fully charge.
2. Separator : The separators are thin sheet of porous material which are placed between +ve and -ve
plates to prevent internal short circuit of Anode and Cathode. The porous material helps electrolyte to
diffuse freely between the electrodes. Separators are made of insulating material which may be
chemically treated wood, rubber or glass fibre.
3. Eloctrolyte : Sulphuric Acid or H2SO4 (dil.) is used as electrolyte in lead acid batter. Water:H2SO4
ratio is appx. 3:1. Anode and cathode are completely immersed in the electrolyte. Electrolyte help in
mobilising ions between anode and cathode to produce free electrons i.e. electric current.
Apart from these following parts or componets are also present in Lead acid batter :
1. Container : Electrodes and electrolyte are placed in container which may be made of vulcanised
rubber or moulded hard rubber or glass. Container is sealed at top. Holes are provided for terminal
pours and provision for release of gasses produced during charging process. The vent plug is made of
polystyrene and is screwed in the cover.
2. Connecting bars : Connecting bars is used to join the cells together to increase the voltage
(connected in series) or to increase current (connected in parallel). Connecting bars is made up of
conductor material for example copper.
3. Cell Covers : Each cell compartment has a cover usually made of moulded hard rubber. Openings
are provided in these coveres for the terminals. The joints between cover and container are sealed with
acid resistant material.
4. Vent Caps : Each cell cover has a hole into which the vent cap is fitted. The cap has vent hole to
allow the free exit of gases form in the cell. The vent cap can be easily removed for adding water and
to check specific gravity of electrolyte by using a hydrometer.

The chemical changes that take place when the cell is discharging and the final result of the
changes are as follows:

(a). At the Positive Plate (Anode): Lead peroxide and sulphuric acid produce lead
sulphate, water, and oxygen, or:

(b). At the Negative Plate (Cathode): Lead and sulphuric acid produce lead sulphate and
Hydrogen, or:

The oxygen of equation (a) and the hydrogen of equation (b) combine to form water, as
may be shown by adding these two equations, giving one equation for the entire discharge
action:

During charging of cells following reactions occurs:

Lead sulphate and water produce. sulphuric acid, hydrogen and lead peroxide, or:
 The changes at the negative plate may be expressed as follows: Lead sulphate and water
produced sulphuric acid, oxygen, and lead, or:

The hydrogen (H2) produced at the positive plate, and the oxygen (0) produced at the
negative plate unite to form water, as may be shown by the equation:

Applications of Lead Acid batteries:

Lead acid batteries are used in following places:
1. For vehicle starting and ignition.
2. As a power source for inductrial and mining battery locomotive.
3. As a power source in telephone exchange, broadcasting station etc.
4. For local lighting of generating and substations during breakdown.
5. For traffic control system.
6. As a supply source for wireless transmitter and receiver set.
7. For starting rotary substation.
8. As a power source for domestic lighting.

2.5.2 Construction, working principle and applications of Nickel-Cadmium batteries

The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd battery or NiCad battery) is a type of rechargeable battery using
nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. The abbreviation NiCd is derived from the
chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd). Ni–Cd cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2
volts (V).
The chemical reactions at the cadmium electrode during discharge are:
At cathode : Cd+ + 2OH- -> Cd(OH)2
At Anode : Ni(OH)4 + 2K -> 2KOH + Ni(OH)2
The chemical reactions at the cadmium electrode during charging are:
At cathode : Ni(OH)2 + 2OH- -> Ni(OH)4
At Anode : Cd(OH)2 + 2K -> Cd + 2KOH
Applications of Ni-Cd Batteries:
Ni–Cd batteries are substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and smaller ampere-hour
capacity may reduce performance as compared to primary cells. Miniature button cells are sometimes
used in photographic equipment, hand-held lamps (flashlight or torch), computer-memory standby,
toys, and novelties. Specialty Ni–Cd batteries are used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency
lighting, and other applications. With a relatively low internal resistance, they can supply high surge
currents. This makes them a favourable choice for remote-controlled electric model airplanes, boats,
and cars, as well as cordless power tools and camera flash units.
2.5.3 Construction, working principle and applications of Silver-Oxide batteries

A silver-oxide battery is a primary cell with a very high energy-to-weight ratio. Available either in
small sizes as button cells, where the amount of silver used is minimal and not a significant contributor
to the product cost, or in large custom-designed batteries, where the superior performance of the silver-
oxide chemistry outweighs cost considerations. These larger cells are mostly found in applications for
the military while small cells are used in watches, toys, lights etc.

A silver-oxide battery uses silver(I) oxide as the positive electrode (cathode), zinc as the negative
electrode (anode), plus an alkaline electrolyte, usually sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium
hydroxide (KOH). The silver is reduced at the cathode from Ag(I) to Ag, and the zinc is oxidized from
Zn to Zn(II).
The half-cell reaction at the negative plate:

Ag2O(s) + 2 H(+) + 2 e− → 2 Ag(s) +  H2O ,

The reaction in the electrolyte:
2 H2O →  2 H(+) +  2 OH(−) ,

The half-cell reaction at the positive plate:

Zn + 2 OH− → Zn(OH)2 + 2 e− ,

Overall reaction:

Zn + H2O + Ag2O → Zn(OH)2 + 2 Ag(s)

2.6 Charging methods used for lead-acid battery (accumulator )

Following charging methods are used to charge a lead acid battery:
1. Normal DC Voltage charging (by varying resistance)
2. Low voltage motor generator method
3. Rectifier unit charging (By changing AC into DC)