Mechatronics

11/14/2018 Project Report

Line Follower Robot

Submitted by :-
Souvik Kar 2K16/PE/042
Sandesh Kumar 2K16/PE/038
Sachin Kumar Singh 2K16/PE/036
Windows
Sahil Kumar User 2K16/PE/037
T. [COMPANY
Ashwin Kumar
NAME] 2K16/PE/045
Deepak Kumar 2K16/PE/015
 CERTIFICATE

The report entitled as “LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT”

submitted by Souvik Kar (2K16/PE/042), Sandesh Kumar
(2K16/PE/038), Sachin Kumar Singh (2K16/PE/036), Sahil Kumar
(2K16/PE/037), T. Ashwin Kumar (2K16/PE/045), Deepak kumar,
(2K16/PE/015) of branch Production and Industrial Engineering. On
the basis of the declaration made by him I recommend this project for
evaluation.

Teacher’s signature

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere respect and gratitude to my subject

teacher who has given her valuable support cooperation and
suggestion from time to time in successfully completing this project
work. I would like to put forward my heartfelt acknowledgement to
all my classmates, friends and all those who have directly or indirectly
provided their overwhelming support during my work and the
development of this report.

Name – Souvik Kar 2K16/PE/042

Sandesh Kumar 2K16/PE/038
Sachin Kumar Singh 2K16/PE/036
Sahil Kumar 2K16/PE/037
T. Ashwin Kumar 2K16/PE/045
Deepak Kumar 2K16/PE/015

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Introduction:-
1.1. About The Project:

For my final project, I decided to make a line-follower robot. This simple robot

is designed to be able to follow a black line on the ground without getting off the line

too much. The robot has two sensors installed underneath the front part of the body,

and two DC motors drive wheels moving forward. A circuit inside takes an input signal

from two sensors and controls the speed of wheels’ rotation. The control is done in such

a way that when a sensor senses a black line, the motor slows down or even stops. Then

the difference of rotation speed makes it possible to make turns. For instance, in the

figure on the right, if the sensor somehow senses a black line, the wheel on that side

slows down and the robot will make a right turn.

What is a line follower?

Line follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black

line on a white surface (or vice-versa) or it can be invisible like a magnetic field.

Why build a line follower?

Sensing a line and maneuvering the robot to stay on course, while constantly correcting

wrong moves using feedback mechanism forms a simple yet effective closed loop

system. As a programmer you get an opportunity to ‘teach’ the robot how to follow the

line thus giving it a human-like property of responding to stimuli.

Practical applications of a line follower: Automated cars running on roads with

embedded magnets; guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc.

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Block Diagram:

Fig.1 Block diag. Of Track Follower Robot

1.2. DESCRIPTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRACK FOLLOWER

SENSOR:-We used Infrared Emitter-Sensor pair for sensing the track.

When the emitter passes over the white surface the light from it is reflected

back to the sensor whereas on black surface light doesn’t reflect back and

thus resistance of sensor goes high which intern switches off the motor.

AMPLIFIER- In this we used NPN transistor BC548 as the amplifier circuit. It

amplifies the low intensity sensor signal and provides it to the input of the

motor driving circuit.

CALIBRATION CIRCUIT- A preset or variable resistor of value 500K

is used to adjust the sensitivity of the sensor.

MOTOR DRIVEN CIRCUIT- L293D is used as motor driving circuit which

responses accordingly to the low input signal provided by the amplifier circuit.

MOTOR-In this we used the DC MOTORS which are used to move the

follower ahead.[1]

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1.3. Circuit diagram

Fig. 2 Circuit Diagram of Track follower

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1.4. Explanation of the Circuit

Introduction to Track follower:

Track follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black

line on a white surface (or vice-versa) or it can be invisible like a magnetic field. For

many TRUE robotics competitions, which require an autonomous vehicle, a track-

follower is a pre-requisite. And unbelievably, a line-follower can be constructed

without using any microprocessor/controller and is a mere game of two sensors, a

comparator IC, and DC motors to move your vehicle [1].

The Circuit explanation:-

The robot uses a combination of IR Photo diode and IR-LEDs to sense the presence to

a line. An IR Photo diode is a resistor whose resistance is proportional to the light falling

on it- greater the light, lesser the resistance and visa-versa. The basic principle

underlying this project is that objects light in colour radiate the light falling on them

while dark coloured objects don’t. So when the sensors are above the black line the

light emitted by the IR- LED is not radiated by the floor, hence the resistance of the

Photo-diode increases. The opposite happens when the robot back on the white surface.

In our robot the IR Photo diode is used part of a voltage divider circuit. The circuit

diagram of the voltage divider used in this project is given below

The resistor whose value is 500K is a potentiometer. A potentiometer (pot or preset)

whose resistance can be changed. In our project, we will be using 500k presets, that is,

we will use presets whose resistance can be changed from 0K to 500K.

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When the robot is on white surface the

light emitted by the IR LEDs fall on the

IR Photo diode and decreases its

resistance. This in turn reduces the

voltage at Vout. When the robot is on the

black line, the light emitted by he IR-

LEDs does not reach the IR Photo diode,

hence its resistance increases. This in

turn increases the voltage at Vout. Fig. 3 Sensor Circuit

During both the cases it is necessary to adjust the 500K preset in such a way that, when

the robot is on white surface, voltage at Vout is <0.8V (so that the voltage at the emitter

of the transistor is LOW) and when the sensor is on the black line the voltage is >0.8V (so

that the voltage at the emitter of the transistor is HIGH). For controlling the two DC

motors, I have used the L293D motor driver. The reason I used this is that it has high noise

immunity (that is, it considers voltages up to 1.7V as LOW), perfect for a robot which

deals with analog signals.[2]

The pins 4, 5, 12 and 13 are connected to ground. Pin 8 is the motor power supply pin

and is connected to Vcc (9V) along with Pins 1, 16 (the two enable pins) and Pin 9. The

left and right motors are connected to Pins 3, 6 and Pins 14, 11 respectively. Pin 2 (Input

A), Pin 7 (Input B) and Pin 15 (Input A), Pin 10(Input B) are the input pins for

controlling the left and right motor respectively. The truth table for controlling the

motors is given below

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Fig.4 Sensors mounted on Robot.

Fig.5 schematic of track follower on PCB

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WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:

In both the sides of the robot two sensors are used to sense the presence the line. The

output of both the sensors of each side are connected together and connected to an

LED. So that, the LED glows even when one of the sensors detects the line. The

output of the left sensor is connected to Input A (Pin 2) of the left motor and the right

sensor to Input A (Pin 15) of the right motor. When the robot is on white surface only

one (Pin 7 and 10) input pin in each channel is high. The Pins 2 and 15 are low as the

sensors are on white surface. Hence this makes the robot move forward. When the left

sensor is on the line, Pin 2 is high. But Pin 7 is also high. Hence the left motor is

switched off as both the inputs are HIGH (refer to the truth table above).But the right

motor is still turning forward. This brings the robot Back on the white surface.

Similarly when the right sensors are on the line, the right motor is switched off until

the robot is back on the white surface.[3]

This circuit works fine for black line following and using the robot as a photovore and

obstacle avoider, for following white line and for using the robot as a photophobe, there

is a slight change in the circuit. The left sensor output is connected to Pin 7 and right

sensor output to Pin 10. Pins 2 and 15 remain unconnected.

The rest of the circuit remains unchanged. When the robot is on black surface (when

following white lines), the input pins 2 and 15 are high. This makes the motors turn

forward. When the left sensors are on the line the output goes low and stops the motor

until the sensors are back on the black surface. Similarly, when the right sensors are on

the line, the right motor is stopped.

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 Fig.6 Track Follower

Fig. 7 Views of Line follower/Track Follower

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2. Description of Components:

2.1. LIST OF COMPONENT:

S.No. Equipment’s name Rating Manufacturer Quantity Cost per Total

unit
cost

1 Resistor 100k +4

2 L293D 1 3 3

3 Capacitor 2 2 .50 1

4 IC Socket 4 4 3 12

5 Zero PCB 10*10 1 35 35

Total 998 908 90

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2.2. Components Description:

2.2.1. Capacitor:

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric. Capacitors store electric charge in them. They

are used with resistors in timing circuits because it

takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They

are used to smoothly vary DC supplies by acting as a

reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter

circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing)

signals but they block DC (constant) signals. An

ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant

value, capacitance, which is measured in farads.

Fig.8 Capacitor

This are of different types which includes- multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc,

multilayer polyester film, tubular ceramic, polystyrene, metalized polyester film,

aluminium electrolytic.

Coding:- Value of capacitor are read from their body. An electrolytic capacitor

contains its value along with unit as well as voltage specification. Whereas in disk

type if two digits are present, these are read as Pico-Farads. An example: 47 printed

on a small disk can be assumed to be 47 Pico-Farads. But, in case three digits are

present the first two are the 1st and 2nd significant digits and the third is a multiplier

code. Most of the time the last digit tells us how many zeros to write after the first two

digits.[5]

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2.2.2. Resistor:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across

its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with

Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous

in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds

and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as

nickel-chrome).

Fig. 9 Resistor

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the

maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include

temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical

resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted

current, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is

determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.

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 Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated

circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment

designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating

their power.

Theory of operation:

The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in

Ohm's law:

V=I*R

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the

current(I)through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a

resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance.

This formulation is often used in practice. For example, if V is 12 volts and R is

400 ohms, a current of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R. [4]

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2.2.3. Transistor

A Transistor is a semiconductor which is a fundamental component in almost all

electronic devices. Transistors have many uses including switching, voltage/current regulation,

and amplification - all of which are useful in renewable energy applications.

A transistor controls a large electrical output signal with changes to a small input signal. Since

a large amount of current can be controlled by a small amount of current, a transistor acts as

an amplifier.

The most common type of transistor is a bipolar junction transistor. This is made up of three

layers of a semiconductor material in a sandwich. In one configuration the outer two layers

have extra electrons, and the middle layer has electrons missing (holes). In the other

configuration the two outer layers have the holes and the middle layer has the extra electrons ]

Fig10. Transistor Symbol

Fig.11 Transistor

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2.2.4. LED(Light Emitting Diode):

LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode

(LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward

biased P-N junction there is, with in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a

recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy

possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another state. The process of

giving off light by applying an electrical source is called electroluminescence.

LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are

displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown

through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and

also in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.

Fig. 12 LED

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be

labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!).

The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round

LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is

not an official identification method).

LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you

are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.[6]

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 2.2.5. L293D IC MOTOR DRIVER

Features:

Wide Supply-Voltage Range: 4.5 V to 36

V Separate Input-Logic Supply Internal

ESD Protection

Thermal Shutdown

High-Noise-Immunity Inputs

Functionally Similar to SGS L293 and SGS L293D Output

Current 1 A Per Channel(600mA for L293D) Peak Output

Current 2 A Per Channel (1.2 A for L293D)

Output Clamp Diodes for Inductive Transient Suppression (L293D)

Fig. 13 L293d IC Motor Driver Pin Diagram

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The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed

to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The

L293D is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages

from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays,

solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage

loads in positive-supply applications. All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a

complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-

Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN

and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.When an enable input is high, the associated

drivers are enabled, and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs. When

the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled, and their outputs are off and in the

high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H

(or bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. [8]

2.2.6. IR PHOTO DIODE:

A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either

current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. The term photodiode can be

broadly defined to include even solar batteries, but it usually refers to sensors used to

detect the intensity of light IR Photo diodes are semiconductor devices responsive to

high energy particles and photons. Photodiodes operate by absorption of charged

particles and generate a flow of current in an external circuit, proportional to the

incident power. Photodiodes can be used to detect the presence or absence of minute

quantities of light and can be calibrated for extremely accurate measurements from

intensities below 1pW/cm2.

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 This IR sensor circuit is designed using 1 IR LED and 1 Photodiode. This circuit

works on the reflection criteria. IR LED and Photodiode is placed adjacent to each

other. When no IR light falls on the IR Photo diode the resistance of the diode falls in

the range ohm Mega ohms or approximately infinity

When any reflecting surface (White surface) comes near to IR LED and IR Photo diode

pair the reflected light of IR LED falls on the photodiode which rapidly decreases the

resistance of the Photodiode and photodiode starts conducting[7]

Features of photodiode

Excellent linearity with respect to incident light

Low noise

Wide spectral response

Mechanically rugged

Compact and lightweight

Long life

Fig.14 IR Pair

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 Fig. 15 Working of IR pair

APPLICATION:

1. Photodiodes are used in consumer disc electronics devices such as compact

players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls

in VCRs and televisions.

2. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for

computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyse samples

(immunoassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters.

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2.2.7. DC MOTOR:

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity.

A direct current (DC) motor is a fairly simple electric motor that uses electricity and a

magnetic field to produce torque, which turns the motor. At its most simple, a DC motor

requires two magnets of opposite polarity and an electric coil, which acts as an

electromagnet. The repellent and attractive electromagnetic forces of the magnets

provide the torque that causes the DC motor to turn.

The most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use

internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from

the DC source—so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.

The brushed DC motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor

by using internal commutation, stationary permanent magnets, and rotating electrical

magnets. .It works on the principle of Lorentz force, which states that any current

carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a torque or

force known as Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial

cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high

maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses.

Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary

electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This

design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of

transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of

brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency.

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Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed

controllers.

DC motors are used for a variety of purposes, including electric razors, electric car

windows, and remote control cars. The simple design and reliability of

a DC motor makes it a good choice for many different uses, as well as a fascinating

way to study the effects of magnetic fields. [8]

Fig. 16 DC Motor

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3. Application:

For repetitive tasks which use the same path things like following one on the floor
of a factory to remove the need for a human operator also lines of metal placed
under lawns can be used as a guide for a robot lawnmower.

There are cases where smarter versions of line followers are used to deliver mail
within an office building and deliver medications in a hospital.

The technology has been suggested for running buses and other mass transit
systems, and may end up as part of autonomous cars navigating the freeway.

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 CONCLUSION

The Track Follower robot is one of the outcomes of implementation of with

microcontroller on single board. This robot can be autonomous if it is run by 4 AA

batteries. There are certain advantages of this robot. They are as:

Increased productivity, safety, efficiency, quality of products

Can work in hazardous environments, no need for support

Need no environmental comforts

Have repeatable precision at all times

Can be more accurate than humans

Have many capabilities beyond those of humans

Can process multiple stimuli/tasks simultaneously.

A robot can work without sleep. So it can work 24/7/365

Apart from advantages there are some disadvantages too. They are as follows:

Robots take the place of many humans in places like factories. So the people

have to find new jobs or be retrained. So a MAJOR disadvantage is that the

robots take the place of humans in several situations.

Another disadvantage is that there is quite a high initial cost for the robot and

the software and equipment that you need to use with the robot

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 REFERENCE

1. Conceptual Details of Track Follower: Advances in Robotics: FIRA Robo

World Congress 2009, Incheon, - Page 69 Jong-Hwan Kim, Shuzhi Sam Ge,

Prahlad Vadakkepat - 2009 - 322 pages

2. Concept of Line follower Robot : Evolutionary swarm robotics: evolving self-

organising behaviours - Page 164 Vito Triennia - 2008 - 189 pages

3. www.projectdesignline.com/howto/207800773

4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor

5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor

6. Simple Line Follower. www.societyofrobots.com/member_tutorials/node/62

7. http://www.datasheetarchive.com/

8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dc motor

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