INTRODUCTION

Telecommunication is the transmission of information over significant distances to

communicate. In earlier times, telecommunications involved the use of visual signals, such as
beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, and optical heliographs, or audio
messages via coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, or sent by loud whistles, for example. In the
modern age of electricity and electronics, telecommunications now also includes the use of
electrical devices such as telegraphs, telephones, and teletypes, the use of radio and microwave
communications, as well as fiber optics and their associated electronics, plus the use of the
orbiting satellites and the Internet.
A revolution in wireless telecommunications began in the first decade of the 20th century, with
Guglielmo Marconi winning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for his pioneering developments
in wireless radio communications. Other highly notable pioneering inventors and developers in
the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and
Samuel Morse (telegraph), Alexander Graham Bell (telephone), Nikola Tesla, Edwin Armstrong,
and Lee de Forest (radio), as well as John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (television).

I.T.I PROFILE

India’s first Public Sector Unit (PSU) - ITI Ltd was established in 1948. Ever since, as a pioneering
venture in the field of telecommunications, it has contributed to 50% of the present national
telecom network. With state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities spread across six locations and a
countrywide network of marketing/service outlets, the company offers a complete range of
telecom products and total solutions covering the whole spectrum of Switching, Transmission,
Access and Subscriber Premises equipment.
ITI joined the league of worldclass vendors of Global SIM Module (GSM) technology with the
inauguration of mobile equipment manufacturing facilities at its Mankapur and Rae Bareli Plants
in 2005-06. This ushered in a new era of indigenous mobile equipment production in the
country. These two facilities supply more than nine million lines per annum to both domestic as
well as export markets.
The company is consolidating its diversification into Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) to hone its competitive edge in the convergence market by deploying its rich telecom
expertise and vast infrastructure. Network Management Systems, Encryption and Networking
Solutions for Internet Connectivity are some of the major initiatives taken by the company.
Secure communications is the company's forte with a proven record of engineering strategic
communication networks for India's Defence forces. Extensive in-house R&D work is devoted
towards specialized areas of Encryption, NMS, IT and Access products to provide complete
customized solutions to various customers.
Product’s overview: Cellular Mobile Infrastructule-GSM, WLL-CDMA Switching-OCB-283, ISDN
EPABX, IP-TAX, SSTP . Transmission- Satellite, Optical, Microwave, VHF /UHF . Broadband
quipment-ADSL, WiMAX, G-PON, EDW AS . Customer Premises P-quipment-IFWT, ADSL Modem,
LI Phones . GSM-FCT (Fixed Cellular Telephone).
Technological alliances: ITI has many collaborations and alliances with companies of various
countries. Some of them are as follows:
Alcatel Lucent, France for GSM infrastructure.

1. ZTE, China for CDMA Infrastructure, DWDM, GE-PON.

2. SemIndia, India for ADSL-CPEs

3. Tejas Networks India for SDH Optical Transmission Equipments

4. Xalted, India for STM-64

5. MObi, China for Antenna (GSM & CDMA)

Number of employees: 12,745

Regional Offices:
 New Delhi

 Bangalore

 Kolkatta
  Lucknow

 Mumbai

 Chennai

 Hyderabad

 Bhubaneshwar

 Bhopal

 Ahmedabad

 Kochi

 Supported by 36 Area offices all over India

Various I.T.I units in India

Bangalore Unit is the first Plant of ITI set up in 1948. With its, vertically integrated, state-of-the-
art infrastructure a vast range of telecom products are manufactured. They include digital
switches (large, medium, small), Digital Microwave equipment, optic fibre equipments, satellite
communication equipment, access products, terminal equipments.
Raebareli Manufacturing unit was setup in 1973 and boasts a world-class infrastructure.
Presently, this unit manufactures GSM network equipments and CDMA handsets. ITI Raebareli
has taken a leap to enter broadband equipment G-PON and WiMAX. This unit is India's first
telecom equipment manufacturer to conduct field trial of G-PON technology in India, and is all
set to rollout India's first lot of G-PON equipment

Mankapur Unit was established in 1983. The plant manufactures large digital switches and
digital trunk exchanges in technical collaboration with M/S ALCATEL. The unit also produces
state-of-the-art technology of BTS (Base Transreceiver Station for GSM). A lean and highly
productive plant by virtue of its structure has the most modern facility for PCB manufacturing
assembly and automatic testing facilities with SMT Line and environmental test labs.
Palakkad Unit was established in 1976, as the Nation’s first Electronic Switching System
Manufacturing Unit, to manufacture large digital switches and digital trunk exchanges, in
collaboration with Alcatel.
Today, we are the leading Switching Equipment Manufacturers for the National Telecom Network
with a capacity of producing over 1 million lines of fixed line switches per annum. Over the
years; we have diversified into various other products and solutions. ITI Limited, Palakkad aims
to become a product independent manufacturing line as well for providing total turnkey
solutions, in meeting the demands of the Telecom industry, worldwide.
ITI Limited Palakkad Plant situated in the State of Kerala specialized for Electronic switching
equipments. The Plant awarded ISO 9001(2000E) and ISO 14000(2004). With world class
manufacturing facilities and International quality standards enjoying self certification, ITI
Palakkad is ranked the best among the Telecom field industries in India.
Srinagar Plant was set up in 1969 with 5 employees as an Ancillary to Bangalore Complex for the
supply of components Parts (initially different kinds of Braided Cords) to the main Plant. In the
year 1981, the status of Plant was upgraded to that of a manufacturing Plant for the
manufacture of Telephone Instruments with an installed capacity of 1 lakh telephone
instruments.
Naini plant was set up in 1971 for the manufacture of transmission equipment. The major
products are optic fibre systems of both PDH and SDH and telephone instruments of various
types. It has an R&D Centre and modern facilities for assembly and testing with Surface Mount
Technology. Environmental lab, metal parts manufacturing facilities and PCB plant are part of the
modern infrastructure.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT [R & D]

 NMS
o Elemental as well as Umbrella
 Optical
o STM Interfaces
o O/E & E/O Converters
o 2/34 Mbps Optimux
 Encryption equipment
o Encryption equipment for Voice / Data for Bit Rates of 16 kbps/ 64 kbps
o E1, E3, STM-I, STM-4 & STM-16 for various media -wired & wireless
o Voice/Data/Fax Encryptor
o IP Encryptor
 Wireless
o WLSS SVBF (Wireless Siren System with Simultaneous Voice Broadcast
Frequency)
o Microwave Equipment 8 GHz E1/STM-1 Radio
 Digital Access Products
o 30 Ch1 PCM, MIL PCM MUX
o Programmable MUX
o Protocol Converters
 Consumer Premises Equipment
 CLIP (Calling Line Identification Presentation) telephone for Navy
o
o 5B & 5C telephone sets for Defence forces
o Sound Powered telephone
 System Engineering
o Network Planning and Design
o Mobile Communication Vehicle
 Satellite
o IDR (Intermediate Data Range) Systems
o Ku Band Satellite Systems

I.T.I NAINI, ALLAHABAD

The areas of business of ITI, Naini are Telecom Equipment Manufacture for Defence and
Civilians, IT Services, Diversified Products.
The products handled, include EPBT/CLI Phones, Transmission (Fiber Distribution
Frame,FORDAR,9.6 Kb/s IP Radio), STM1, STM4, STM16, STM64,2/8 2/34 & 2/140 OPTIMUX,DDF,
DWDM 2.5G(32CH),DWDM 10G(40CH), Solar Panels
The facilities provided here are Environment testing, PCB Assembly and Testing, Card assembly
and Testing including In circuit tester, Metal parts manufacturing, Mechanical Fabrication /
Machine Shop with modern CNC machines and Finishing shop, Moulding shop, Computer
Centre, Component approval centre approved by BSNL.
Quality system: ISO 9001:2000
Factory division at ITI Naini:
ITI Naini Ltd. has the following divisions
1. TED (Transmission Equipment Division)

2. TID (Telephone Instrument Division)

3. Administrative Control Division

Transmission Equipment Division (TED)
It is the main section of ITI Naini and consists of the following Hangers:

a) ‘A ’Hanger (Machine shop): This shop has various machines like shaper, lathe,
drilling and welding machines with well furnished tool rooms.

b) ‘B’ Hanger(Radio Hanger): This hanger deals with the production of DLC, 2/34 Mb
and 2/140 Mb optimux and STM-16.

c) Digital Hanger (OPTO Electronics) : this hanger deals with the production of STM-
4.

d) Fourth hanger : it deals with production of STM-1 and new projects.

Telephone Instrument Division (TID)

This section is mainly involved in the production of telephone instruments and solar parts. It is
sub-divided into 4 parts:

1. Molding shop

2. Tool room

3. TID Assembly

4. Solar and Photovoltaic Department.

Digital Transmission Hierarchies

There are two hierarchical structures that exist for digital networks:

1. Plesiochronous hierarchies
2. Synchronous hierarchies

To further complicate things, North American standards (usually derived from US standards
bodies) are different from the International CCITT (now ITU-T) recommendations.

Plesiochronous Hierarchies

In a Plesiochronous hierarchy, the higher level multiplex functions include "bit stuffing"
techniques. This allows the input bit streams from input/output channels to use "free-running"
clocks. As such, the user's clock rate is propagated (plus a little "Jitter") through the higher level
multiplexer. Slip rates requirements between End-User multiplex equipment must still be met,
for adequate performance of voice and (particularly) data.

North American Digital hierarchy

The North American Digital hierarchy starts off with a basic Digital Signal level of 64 KBPS (DS0).
Thereafter, all facility types are usually referred to as "T x", where "x" is the Digital Signal level
within the hierarchy (e.g. T1 refers to the DS1 rate of 1.544 MBPS). Up to the DS3 rate, these
signals are usually delivered from the provider on Twisted-Pair or Coaxial cables.
North American T1 service providers often refer to the signal interface between the User and the
Network as "DS-1" signals. In the case of User to User interfaces, the term "DSX-1" is used to
describe those DS1 signals at the "cross-connect" point.
Name Rate
---- -----------
DS0 64 KBPS
DS1 1.544 MBPS
DS1C 3.152 MBPS
DS2 6.312 MBPS
DS3 44.736 MBPS
DS4 274.176 MBPS

International (CCITT) Digital hierarchy

The CCITT Digital hierarchy's basic level is the DS0 rate of 64 KBPS. These signals are usually
delivered from the provider on Twisted-Pair or Coaxial cables.

Name Rate

E0 64 KBPS
E1 2.048 MBPS
E2 8.448 MBPS
E3 34.368 MBPS
E4 139.264 MBPS

Synchronous Hierarchies

In the later 1980s, synchronous network hierarchies were defined. In Synchronous networks, all
multiplex functions operate using clocks derived from a common source.
North American SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork)
This system is based upon multiples of a fundamental rate of 51.840 MBPS, called STS-1
(Synchronous Transport Signal, Level 1). The facility designators are similar, but indicate the
facility type, which is usually Fiber Optic Cable (e.g. OC-3 is an Optical Carrier supporting a STS-3
signal; while OC-12 supports a STS-12 signal, etc). Some typical rates are listed below:
Name Rate
------ ---------------

STS-1 51.840 MBPS

STS-3 155.520 MBPS
STS-9 466.560 MBPS
STS-12 622.080 MBPS
STS-48 2488.320 MBPS
STS-192 9953.280 MBPS
STS-768 39813.120 MBPS

International SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)

This system is based upon a fundamental rate of 155.520 MBPS, three times that of the SONET
system. This fundamental signal is called STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module, Level 1). The
typical transmission media is defined to be fiber, but the Broadband ISDN specification does
define a User-Network Interface (UNI) STM-1 (155.520 MBPS) operating over coaxial cables.
Some typical rates within this hierarchy:
Name Rate
------ ---------------

STM-1 155.520 MBPS

STM-4 622.080 MBPS
STM-16 2488.320 MBPS
STM-64 9953.280 MBPS
STM-256 39813.120 MBPS

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used in telecommunications
networks to transport large quantities of data over digital transport equipment such as fibre
optic and microwave radio systems. The term plesiochronous is derived from Greek plēsios,
meaning near, and chronos, time, and refers to the fact that PDH networks run in a state where
different parts of the network are nearly, but not quite perfectly, synchronised.
PDH is typically being replaced by Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) or Synchronous optical
networking (SONET) equipment in most telecommunications networks.
PDH allows transmission of data streams that are nominally running at the same rate, but
allowing some variation on the speed around a nominal rate. By analogy, any two watches are
nominally running at the same rate, clocking up 60 seconds every minute. However, there is no
link between watches to guarantee they run at exactly the same rate, and it is highly likely that
one is running slightly faster than the other.

Implementation
The basic data transfer rate is a data stream of 2048 kbit/s. For speech transmission, this is
broken down into thirty 64 kbit/s channels plus two 64 kbit/s channels used for signalling and
synchronisation. Alternatively, the entire bandwidth may be used for non-speech purposes, for
example, data transmission.
The data rate is controlled by a clock in the equipment generating the data. The rate is allowed
to vary by ±50 ppm of 2.048 Mbit/s. This means that different data streams can be (probably are)
running at slightly different rates to one another.
In order to move multiple data streams from one place to another, they are multiplexed in
groups of four. This is done by taking 1 bit from stream #1, followed by 1 bit from stream #2,
then #3, then #4. The transmitting multiplexer also adds additional bits in order to allow the far
end receiving multiplexer to decode which bits belong to which data stream, and so correctly
reconstitute the original data streams. These additional bits are called "justification" or "stuffing"
bits.
Because each of the four data streams is not necessarily running at the same rate, some
compensation has to be introduced. The transmitting multiplexer combines the four data
streams assuming that they are running at their maximum allowed rate. This means that
occasionally, (unless the 2 Mbit/s really is running at the maximum rate) the multiplexer will look
for the next bit but it will not have arrived. In this case, the multiplexer signals to the receiving
multiplexer that a bit is "missing". This allows the receiving multiplexer to correctly reconstruct
the original data for each of the four 2 Mbit/s data streams, and at the correct, different,
plesiochronous rates.
The resulting data stream from the above process runs at 8,448 kbit/s (about 8 Mbit/s). Similar
techniques are used to combine four × 8 Mbit/s together, plus bit stuffing, giving 34 Mbit/s. Four
× 34 Mbit/s, gives 140. Four × 140 gives 565.
565 Mbit/s is the rate typically used to transmit data over a fibre optic system for long distance
transport. Recently, telecommunications companies have been replacing their PDH equipment
with SDH equipment capable of much higher transmission rates. 2.048 Mbit/s 8.448 Mbit/s
34.368 Mbit/s 139.264 Mbit/s Multiplex levels: Uses Positive justification to adapt frequency
differences.

Overheads: CRC.
Defects: LOS, LOF, AIS

Disadvantages of PDH:
 • Non compatibility between different vendors.
• No worldwide standard optical interface specification.

• Restricted to point-to-point transmission.

• No NM facility available

• Fault location in a n/w is almost impossible for a degraded lower order signal
received.

• N/W clocking is single source at the basic rate level (E1 or T1) & N/W
Synchronization is not possible at higher level. Can’t sustain high bit rate
multiplexing (Above 140Mb/s)

• Impossible to extract base-band signal in between without complete De-

multiplexing the aggregate.

Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)

These are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams
over optical fiber using lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Lower data rates can also
be transferred via an electrical interface. The method was developed to replace the
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting larger amounts of
telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber without synchronization problems.
SDH, which are essentially the same, were originally designed to transport circuit mode
communications (e.g., DS1, DS3) from a variety of different sources, but they were
primarily designed to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded
in PCM format. The primary difficulty in doing this prior to SONET(Synchronous Optical
Networking)/SDH was that the synchronization sources of these various circuits were
different. This meant that each circuit was actually operating at a slightly different rate
and with different phase. SONET/SDH allowed for the simultaneous transport of many
different circuits of differing origin within a single framing protocol. SONET/SDH is not
itself a communications protocol per se, but a transport protocol.
Due to SONET/SDH's essential protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features,
SONET/SDH was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
frames. It quickly evolved mapping structures and concatenated payload containers to
transport ATM connections. In other words, for ATM (and eventually other protocols
such as Ethernet), the internal complex structure previously used to transport circuit-
oriented connections was removed and replaced with a large and concatenated frame
(such as OC-3c) into which ATM cells, IP packets, or Ethernet frames are placed.
Both SDH and SONET are widely used today: SONET in the United States and Canada,
and SDH in the rest of the world. Although the SONET standards were developed before
SDH, it is considered a variation of SDH because of SDH's greater worldwide market
penetration.
The SDH standard was originally defined by the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI), and is formalized as International Telecommunications Union
(ITU) standards G.707, G.783, G.784, and G.803. The SONET standard was defined by
Telcordia and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard T1.105.

Difference from PDH

Synchronous networking differs from Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) in that the exact
rates that are used to transport the data on SONET/SDH are tightly synchronized across the
entire network, using atomic clocks. This synchronization system allows entire inter-country
networks to operate synchronously, greatly reducing the amount of buffering required between
elements in the network.
Both SONET and SDH can be used to encapsulate earlier digital transmission standards, such as
the PDH standard, or they can be used to directly support either Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) or so-called packet over SONET/SDH (POS) networking. As such, it is inaccurate to think of
SDH or SONET as communications protocols in and of themselves; they are generic, all-purpose
transport containers for moving both voice and data. The basic format of a SONET/SDH signal
allows it to carry many different services in its virtual container (VC), because it is bandwidth-
flexible.

Protocol overview
SONET and SDH often use different terms to describe identical features or functions. This can
cause confusion and exaggerate their differences. With a few exceptions, SDH can be thought of
as a superset of SONET.
The protocol is an extremely heavily-multiplexed structure, with the header interleaved between
the data in a complex way. This permits the encapsulated data to have its own frame rate and be
able to "float around" relative to the SDH/SONET frame structure and rate. This interleaving
permits a very low latency for the encapsulated data. Data passing through equipment can be
delayed by at most 32 microseconds (µs), compared to a frame rate of 125 µs; many competing
protocols buffer the data during such transits for at least one frame or packet before sending it
on. Extra padding is allowed for the multiplexed data to move within the overall framing, as the
data is clocked at a different rate than the frame rate. The protocol is made more complex by the
decision to permit this padding at most levels of the multiplexing structure, but it improves all-
around performance.

The basic unit of transmission

The basic unit of framing in SDH is a STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module, level 1), which
operates at 155.52 megabits per second (Mbit/s). SONET refers to this basic unit as an STS-3c
(Synchronous Transport Signal 3, concatenated) or OC-3c, depending on whether the signal is
carried electrically (STS) or optically (OC), but its high-level functionality, frame size, and bit-rate
are the same as STM-1.
SONET offers an additional basic unit of transmission, the STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal 1)
or OC-1, operating at 51.84 Mbit/s—exactly one third of an STM-1/STS-3c/OC-3c carrier. This
speed is dictated by the bandwidth requirements for PCM-encoded telephonic voice signals: at
this rate, an STS-1/OC-1 circuit can carry the bandwidth equivalent of a standard DS-3 channel,
which can carry 672 64-Kbit/s voice channels. [3] In SONET, the STS-3c/OC-3c signal is composed
of three multiplexed STS-1 signals; the STS-3C/OC-3c may be carried on an OC-3 signal. Some
manufacturers also support the SDH equivalent of the STS-1/OC-1, known as STM-0.

STM-1 bit rate:

The frame having a duration of 125 microseconds corresponds to a matrix of 9 Rows by 270 x N
columns whose elements are bytes.
Data are sent line after line, from left to right and top to bottom.To support 8 KHz sampled voice
applications. Bytes are organized into rows and columns. Administrative channels are rate
decoupled for easier processing.
Regenerator Section Overhead ( 3 rows x 9 columns )

 Multiplexing Section Overhead ( 5 rows x 9 columns)

 Space allocated for Pointers ( 1 row x 9 columns)
STM-1 frame is organized into 270 (3 x 90) columns by 9 rows. Frame size is 2430 bytes.
STM-1 BIT RATE = 9 x 270 bytes/frame x 8 bits/byte x
8000 frame /s = 155.52 M Bit /s

SONET/SDH and relationship to 10 Gigabit Ethernet

Another type of high-speed data networking circuit is 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE). The Gigabit
Ethernet Alliance created two 10 Gigabit Ethernet variants: a local area variant (LAN PHY) with a
line rate of 10.3125 Gbit/s, and a wide area variant (WAN PHY) with the same line rate as OC-
192/STM-64 (9,953,280 Kbit/s). The WAN PHY variant encapsulates Ethernet data using a
lightweight SDH/SONET frame, so as to be compatible at a low level with equipment designed to
carry SDH/SONET signals, whereas the LAN PHY variant encapsulates Ethernet data using
64B/66B line coding.
However, 10 Gigabit Ethernet does not explicitly provide any interoperability at the bitstream
level with other SDH/SONET systems. This differs from WDM system transponders, including
both coarse and dense wavelength-division multiplexing systems (CWDM and DWDM) that
currently support OC-192 SONET signals, which can normally support thin-SONET–framed 10
Gigabit Ethernet.

SONET/SDH data rates

SONET/SDH Designations and bandwidths
SONET
SONET SDH level Payload
Optical Line Rate
Frame and Frame bandwidth(Kbit/s
Carrier (Kbit/s)
Format Format )
Level
OC-1 STS-1 STM-0 50,112 51,840
OC-3 STS-3 STM-1 150,336 155,520
OC-12 STS-12 STM-4 601,344 622,080
OC-24 STS-24 – 1,202,688 1,244,160
OC-48 STS-48 STM-16 2,405,376 2,488,320
OC-192 STS-192 STM-64 9,621,504 9,953,280
OC-768 STS-768 STM-256 38,486,016 39,813,120
User throughput must also deduct path overhead from the payload bandwidth, but path-
overhead bandwidth is variable based on the types of cross-connects built across the optical
system.
Note that the data-rate progression starts at 155 Mbit/s and increases by multiples of four. The
only exception is OC-24, which is standardized in ANSI T1.105, but not a SDH standard rate in
ITU-T G.707Other rates, such as OC-9, OC-18, OC-36, OC-96, and OC-1536, are defined but not
commonly deployed; most are considered orphaned rates.
The next logical rate of 160 Gbit/s OC-3072/STM-1024 has not yet been standardized, due to the
cost of high-rate transceivers and the ability to more cheaply multiplex wavelengths at 10 and 40
Gbit/s.

Equipments
With advances in SONET and SDH chipsets, the traditional categories of network elements are no
longer distinct. Nevertheless, as network architectures have remained relatively constant, even
newer equipment (including multi-service provisioning platforms) can be examined in light of the
architectures they will support. Thus, there is value in viewing new, as well as traditional,
equipment in terms of the older categories.

Regenerator:
Traditional regenerators terminate the section overhead, but not the line or path. Regenerators
extend long-haul routes in a way similar to most regenerators, by converting an optical signal
that has already traveled a long distance into electrical format and then retransmitting a
regenerated high-power signal.
Since the late 1990s, regenerators have been largely replaced by optical amplifiers. Also, some of
the functionality of regenerators has been absorbed by the transponders of wavelength-division
multiplexing systems.

Add-drop multiplexer:
Add-drop multiplexers (ADMs) are the most common type of network elements. Traditional
ADMs were designed to support one of the network architectures, though new generation
systems can often support several architectures, sometimes simultaneously. ADMs traditionally
have a high-speed side (where the full line rate signal is supported), and a low-speed side, which
can consist of electrical as well as optical interfaces. The low-speed side takes in low-speed
signals, which are multiplexed by the network element and sent out from the high-speed side, or
vice-versa.

Digital cross connect system:

Recent digital cross connect systems (DCSs or DXCs) support numerous high-speed signals, and
allow for cross-connection of DS1s, DS3s and even STS-3s/12c and so on, from any input to any
output. Advanced DCSs can support numerous subtending rings simultaneously.

Synchronization
Clock sources used for synchronization in telecommunications networks are rated by quality,
commonly called a stratum. Typically, a network element uses the highest quality stratum
available to it, which can be determined by monitoring the synchronization status messages
(SSM) of selected clock sources.
Synchronization sources available to a network element are:
Local external timing: This is generated by an atomic Caesium clock or a satellite-derived
clock by a device in the same central office as the network element. The interface is
often a DS1, with sync-status messages supplied by the clock and placed into the DS1
overhead.
Line-derived timing: A network element can choose (or be configured) to derive its
timing from the line-level, by monitoring the S1 sync-status bytes to ensure quality.
Holdover: As a last resort, in the absence of higher quality timing, a network element
can go into a holdover mode until higher-quality external timing becomes available
again. In this mode, the network element uses its own timing circuits as a reference.
Timing loops
A timing loop occurs when network elements in a network are each deriving their timing from
other network elements, without any of them being a "master" timing source. This network loop
will eventually see its own timing "float away" from any external networks, causing mysterious
bit errors—and ultimately, in the worst cases, massive loss of traffic. The source of these kinds of
errors can be hard to diagnose. In general, a network that has been properly configured should
never find itself in a timing loop, but some classes of silent failures could nevertheless cause this
issue.

SDH Error Performance Monitoring

Error performance monitoring in the SDH is based on Bit-Interleaved- Parity (BIP) checks
calculated on a frame-by-frame basis. These BIP checks are inserted in the Regenerator Section
Overhead, Multiplex Section Overhead, and Path Overheads.
In addition, Higher-Order Path Terminating Equipment (HO PTE) and Lower-Order Path
Terminating
Equipment (LO PTE) produce Remote Error Indications (REI) based on errors detected in the HO
Path and LO Path BIP respectively. The REI signals are sent back to the equipment at the
originating
end of a path. All defects listed in Figure 8 are described in Table 8.
Table 8. Anomalies, Defects, Failures, Alarms

Abbreviation Description Criteria

LOS Loss of Signal LOS is raised when the synchronous signal (STM-N)
level drops below the threshold at which a BER of 1 in
103 is
predicted. It could be due to a cut cable, excessive
attenuation of the signal, or equipment fault. The LOS
state will clear when two consecutive framing patterns
are received and no new LOS condition is detected.

OOF Out of Frame OOF state occurs when several consecutive SDH frames
Alignment are received with invalid (errored) framing patterns (A1
 and A2 bytes). The maximum time to detect OOF is 625
microseconds. OOF state clears within 250
microseconds when two consecutive SDH frames are
received with valid framing patterns.

LOF Loss of Frame LOF state occurs when the OOF state exists for a
specified time in microseconds. The LOF state clears
when Alignment an in-frame condition exists
continuously for a specified time in microseconds. The
time for detection and clearance is normally 3
milliseconds.

LOP Loss of LOP state occurs when N consecutive invalid pointers

Pointer are received or N consecutive New Data Flags (NDF)
are received (other than in a concatenation indicator),
where N = 8, 9, or 10. LOP state is cleared when three
equal valid pointers or three consecutive AIS indications
are received.
LOP can be identified as:
• AU-LOP (Administrative Unit Loss of Pointer)
• TU-LOP (Tributary Unit Loss of Pointer)

AIS Alarm AIS is an all-ONES characteristic or adapted

Indication information signal. It’s generated to replace the normal
traffic signal when it Signal contains a defect condition
in order to prevent consequential downstream failures
being declared or alarms being raised.
AIS can be identified as:
• MS-AIS (Multiplex Section Alarm Indication Signal)
• AU-AIS (Administrative Unit Alarm Indication Signal)
• TU-AIS (Tributary Unit Alarm Indication Signal)

REI Remote Error An indication returned to a transmitting node (source)

that an errored block has been detected at the receiving
node (sink). Indication This indication was previously
known as FEBE (Far End Block Error). REI can be
identified as:
• MS-REI (Multiplex Section Remote Error Indication)
• HP-REI (Higher-order Path Remote Error Indication)
• LP-REI (Lower-order Path Remote Error Indication)

RDI Remote Defect A signal returned to the transmitting Terminating

Equipment upon detecting a Loss of Signal, Loss of
Frame, or AIS defect. Indication RDI was previously
known as FERF (Far End Receiver Failure).
RDI can be identified as:
 • MS-RDI (Multiplex Section Remote Defect
Indication)
• HP-RDI (Higher-order Path Remote Defect Indication)
• LP-RDI (Lower-order Path Remote Defect Indication)

RFI Remote A failure is a defect that persists beyond the maximum

Failure time allocated to the transmission system protection
mechanisms. Indication When this situation occurs, an
RFI is sent to the far end and will initiate a path
protection switch if this function has been provisioned.
RFI can be identified as:
• LP-RFI (Lower-order Path Remote Failure Indication)

LSS Loss of Out-of-service bit error measurements using pseudo-

Sequence random sequences can only be performed if the
reference sequence Synchronisation produced on the
receiving side of the test set-up is correctly synchronised
to the sequence coming from the object under test. In
order to achieve compatible measurement results, it’s
necessary that the sequence synchronisation
characteristics are specified. The following requirement
is applicable to all ITU-T O.150 Recommendations
dealing with error performance measurements using
pseudo-random sequences.
Sequence synchronisation shall be considered to be lost
and re-synchronisation shall be started if:
• The bit error ratio is ≥ 0.20 during an integration
interval of 1 second; or
• It can be unambiguously identified that the test
sequence and the reference sequence are out of phase.

SDH Network Configurations

Point-to-Point: The simplest network configuration involves two terminal multiplexers linked by
fibre with or without a regenerator in the link (see Figure 25). In this configuration, the SDH path
and the Service path (for example, E1 or E3 links end-to-end) are identical and this synchronous
island can exist within an asynchronous network world. In the future, point-to-point service path
connections will span across the whole network and will always originate and terminate in a
multiplexer.

Point-to-Multipoint: A point-to-multipoint (linear add/drop) architecture includes adding and

dropping circuits along the way (see Figure 26). The SDH ADM (add/drop multiplexer) is a unique
network element specifically designed for this task. It avoids the current cumbersome network
architecture of demultiplexing, cross-connecting, adding and dropping channels, and then re-
multiplexing. The ADM typically is placed in an SDH link to facilitate adding and dropping
tributary channels at intermediate points in the network.

Mesh Architecture: The meshed network architecture accommodates unexpected growth and
change more easily than simple point-to-point networks. A crossconnect function concentrates
traffic at a central site and allows easy re-provisioning of the circuits (see Figure 27). There are
two possible implementations of this type of network function:
1. Cross-connection at higher-order path levels, for example, using AU-4 granularity in
the switching matrix.
2. Cross-connection at lower-order path levels, for example, using TU-12 granlarity in the
switching matrix.
Ring Architecture: The SDH building block for a ring architecture is the ADM (see Figure 28).
Multiple ADMs can be put into a ring configuration for either Bi-directional or Uni-directional
traffic. The main advantage of the ring topology is its survivability; if a fibre cable is cut, for
example, the multiplexers have the local intelligence to send the services affected via an
alternate path through the ring without a lengthy interruption. The demand for survivable
services, diverse routing of fibre facilities, flexibility to rearrange services to alternate serving
nodes, as well as automatic restoration within seconds, have made rings a popular SDH topology.
Multiplexing structure of SDH:
 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
• CONTAINERS (C-n): The containers into which the input signals are placed.
For given containers, rules are defined for the adaptation (mapping) of the input
data rates into the SDH structure. The digit-n defines the level of Container &
refers to the level of the PDH rate that fits into the container (eg.C-11,C-12,C-3 &
C-4 etc) .
• VIRTUAL CONTAINERS (VC-n): The virtual container adds facilities for
supervision and maintenance (overhead) of the end-to-end paths to a Container
carry information into end-to-end between two Path Access Points through the
SDH system. The tributary Units add pointers to the Virtual Containers. A pointer
permits the SDH system to compensate for phase difference within the SDH
network.
• Virtual Concatenation: Virtual concatenation(VCAT) is an inverse multiplexing
technique used to split SDH/SONET bandwidth into logical groups, which may
be transported or routed independently.
 • BITS (Building Integrated Timing Supply): BITS is a method for distributing a
precision clock among telecommunications equipment. The physical medium is a
T1/E1(DS1) line.
• DDF (Digital Distribution Frame): is a passive device which terminates cables,
allowing arbitrary interconnections to be made. This terminates the cables leading
to subscribers on the one hand, and cables leading to active equipment the other.
Service is provided to a subscriber by manually wiring a twisted pair (called a
jumper wire) between the telephone line and the relevant DSL POTS line circuit.
• BNC Connector: The BNC (Bayonet Neil-Concelman) connector is a type of RF
connector used for terminating coaxial cables.
• NMS (Network Management System): Network Management System provides
an integrated management of N/T elements across an intelligent optical network.
The NMS collects and represents data from geographically dispersed network
elements on to a console in a centralized Network Operation Center (NOC).
• SFP (Small Form-factor Pluggable): The small form-factor pluggable (SFP) is a
compact optical transceiver used in optical communications for both
telecommunication data communications applications. It interfaces a network
device mother board to a fiber optic or unshielded twisted pair networking cable.
• TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP (TUG-n): A Tributary Unit Group defines a group
of Tributary Units that are multiplexed together.
• ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT (AU-n): A Administrative Unit adds pointers to the
Virtual Containers(similar to the tus).
• ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP(AUG): The AUG defines a group of
Administrative Units that are multiplexed together to form a first order SDH
system.
• SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT MODULE (STM-n): The STM module adds
facilities for supervision and maintenance (Section Overhead-SOH) of the
multiplexer and regenerator section to a number of AUGs.The STM is the signal
that is transmitted on the SDH line.
• Transport overhead: The transport overhead is used for signaling and measuring
transmission error rates, and is composed as follows:
Section overhead
Called RSOH (regenerator section overhead) in SDH terminology: 27 octets containing
information about the frame structure required by the terminal equipment.
Line overhead
Called MSOH (multiplex section overhead) in SDH: 45 octets containing information about error
correction and Automatic Protection Switching messages (e.g., alarms and maintenance
messages) as may be required within the network.

AU Pointer
Points to the location of the J1 byte in the payload (the first byte in the virtual container).

Path virtual envelope

Data transmitted from end to end is referred to as path data. It is composed of two components:

Payload overhead (POH)

Nine octets used for end-to-end signalling and error measurement.
Payload
User data (774 bytes for STM-0/STS-1, or 2,340 octets for STM-1/STS-3c)

SDH FRAME

An STM-1 frame: The first nine columns contain the overhead and the pointers. For the sake of
simplicity, the frame is shown as a rectangular structure of 270 columns and nine rows but the
protocol does not transmit the bytes in this order.
The STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module, level 1) frame is the basic transmission format for
SDH—the first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy. The STM-1 frame is transmitted in
exactly 125 µs, therefore, there are 8,000 frames per second on a 155.52 Mbit/s OC-3 fibrotic
circuit. The STM-1 frame consists of overhead and pointers plus information payload. The first
nine columns of each frame make up the Section Overhead and Administrative Unit Pointers,
and the last 261 columns make up the Information Payload. The pointers (H1, H2, H3 bytes)
identify administrative units (AU) within the information payload. Thus, an OC-3 circuit can carry
150.336 Mbit/s of payload, after accounting for the overhead.
Carried within the information payload, which has its own frame structure of nine rows and 261
columns, are administrative units identified by pointers. Also within the administrative unit are
one or more virtual containers (VCs). VCs contain path overhead and VC payload. The first
column is for path overhead; it is followed by the payload container, which can itself carry other
containers. Administrative units can have any phase alignment within the STM frame, and this
alignment is indicated by the pointer in row four.
The section overhead (SOH) of a STM-1 signal is divided into two parts: the regenerator section
overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex section overhead (MSOH). The overheads contain
information from the transmission system itself, which is used for a wide range of management
functions, such as monitoring transmission quality, detecting failures, managing alarms, data
communication channels, service channels, etc.
The STM frame is continuous and is transmitted in a serial fashion: byte-by-byte, row-by-row.
Regenerator Section Overhead: The Regenerator Section Overhead contains only the
information required for the elements located at both ends of a section. This might be two
regenerators, a piece of line terminating equipment and a regenerator, or two pieces of line
terminating equipment. The Regenerator Section Overhead is found in the first three rows of
Columns 1 through 9 of the STM-1 frame (see Figure). Byte by byte, the Regenerator Section
Overhead is shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Regenerator Section Overhead

A1 and A2 Framing bytes These two bytes indicate the beginning of

the STM-N frame. The A1, A2 bytes are
unscrambled. A1 has the binary value
11110110, and A2 has the binary value
00101000. The frame alignment word of an
STM-N frame is composed of (3 x N) A1
bytes followed by (3 x N) A2 bytes.

J0 Regenerator Section (RS) Trace It’s used to transmit a Section Access Point
message Identifier so that a section receiver can
verify its continued connection to the
intended transmitter. The coding of the J0
byte is the same as for J1 and J2 bytes. This
byte is defined only for STM-1 number 1
of an STM-N signal.
Z0 These bytes, which are located at positions
S[1,6N+2] to S[1,7N] of an STM-N signal
(N > 1), are reserved for future
international standardisation.

B1 RS bit interleaved parity code (BIP- This is a parity code (even parity), used to
8) byte check for transmission errors over a
regenerator section. Its value is calculated
over all bits of the previous STM-N frame
after scrambling, and then placed in the B1
byte of STM-1 before scrambling.
Therefore, this byte is defined only for
STM-1 number 1 of an STM-N signal.
E1 RS orderwire byte This byte is allocated to be used as a local
orderwire channel for voice communication
between regenerators.

F1 RS user channel byte This byte is set aside for the user’s
purposes; it can be read and/or written to at
each section terminating equipment in that
line.

D1, D2, D3 RS Data Communications These three bytes form a 192 kbit/s
Channel (DCC) bytes message channel providing a message-
based channel for Operations,
Administration and Maintenance (OAM)
between pieces of section terminating
equipment. The channel can be used from a
central location for control, monitoring,
 administration, and other communication
needs.

Multiplex Section Overhead: The Multiplex Section Overhead contains the information required
between the multiplex section termination equipment at each end of the Multiplex section (that
is, between consecutive network elements excluding the regenerators).

Table 5. Multiplex Section Overhead

B2 Multiplex Section (MS) bit This bit interleaved parity N x 24 code is

interleaved parity code (MS BIP-24) used to determine if a transmission error
byte has occurred over a multiplex section. It’s
even parity, and is calculated overall bits of
the MS Overhead and the STM-N frame of
the previous STM-N frame before
scrambling. The value is placed in the three
B2 bytes of the MS Overhead before
scrambling. These bytes are provided for
all STM-1 signals in an STM-N signal.
K1 and K2 Automatic Protection These two bytes are used for MSP
Switching (APS channel) bytes (Multiplex Section Protection) signalling
between multiplex level entities for bi-
directional automatic protection switching
and for communicating Alarm Indication
Signal (AIS) and Remote Defect Indication
(RDI) conditions. The Multiplex Section
Remote Defect Indication (MS-RDI) is
used to return an indication to the transmit
end that the received end has detected an
incoming section defect or is receiving MS-
AIS. MS-RDI is generated by inserting a
“110” code in positions 6, 7, and 8 of the
K2 byte before scrambling.
D4 to D12 MS Data Communications These nine bytes form a 576 kbit/s message
Channel (DCC) bytes channel from a central location for OAM
information (control, maintenance, remote
provisioning, monitoring, administration
and other communication needs).
S1 Synchronisation status message byte Bits 5 to 8 of this S1 byte are used to carry
(SSMB) the synchronisation messages. Following is
the assignment of bit patterns to the four
synchronisation levels agreed to within
ITU-T (other values are reserved):
Bits 5-8
0000 Quality unknown (existing sync.
network)
0010 G.811 PRC
0100 SSU-A (G.812 transit)
1000 SSU-B (G.812 local)
1011 G.813 Option 1 Synchronous
Equipment Timing Clock (SEC)
1111 Do not use for synchronisation. This
message may be emulated by equipment
failures and will be emulated by a
Multiplex Section AIS signal.
M1 MS remote error indication The M1 byte of an STM-1 or the first
STM-1 of an STM-N is used for a MS
layer remote error indication (MS-REI).
Bits 2 to 8 of the M1 byte are used to carry
the error count of the interleaved bit blocks
that the MS BIP-24xN has detected to be in
error at the far end of the section. This
value is truncated at 255 for STM-N >4.
E2 MS orderwire byte This orderwire byte provides a 64 kbit/s
channel between multiplex entities for an
express orderwire. It’s a voice channel for
use by craftspersons and can be accessed at
multiplex section terminations.

Lower-Order Path Overhead (VC-2/VC-1): The bytes V5, J2, N2, and K4 are allocated to the VC-
2/VC-1 POH. The V5 byte is the first byte of the multiframe and its position is indicated by the
TU-2/TU-1 pointer. The V5 byte provides the functions of error checking, signal label, and path
status of the VC-2/VC-1 paths.

Higher-Order Path Overhead (VC-4/VC-3): The Path Overhead is assigned to, and transported
with the Virtual Container from the time it’s created by path terminating equipment until the
payload is demultiplexed at the termination point in a piece of path terminating equipment. The
Path Overhead is found in Rows 1 to 9 of the first column of the VC-4 or VC-3. Byte by byte, the
Higher Order Path Overhead is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Higher-Order Path Overhead

J1 Higher-Order VC-N path trace byte This user-programmable byte repetitively

transmits a 15-byte, E.64 format string plus
1-byte CRC-7. A 64-byte free-format string
is also permitted for this Access Point
Identifier. This allows the receiving
terminal in a path to verify its continued
connection to the intended transmitting
terminal.
B3 Path bit interleaved parity code (Path This is a parity code (even), used to
BIP-8) byte determine if a transmission error has
occurred over a path. Its value is calculated
over all the bits of the previous virtual
container before scrambling and placed in
the B3 byte of the current frame.
C2 Path signal label byte This byte specifies the mapping type in the
VC-N. Standard binary values for C2 are:
G1 Path status byte – This byte is used to
convey the path terminating status and
performance back to the originating path
terminating equipment. Therefore the bi-
directional path in its entirety can be
monitored, from either end of the path. F2
Path user channel byte – This byte is used
 for user communication between path
elements.
H4 Position and Sequence Indicator byte This byte provides a multi frame and
sequence indicator for virtual VC-3/4
concatenation and a generalized position
indicator for payloads. In the latter case, the
content is payload specific (e.g., H4 can be
used as a multiframe indicator for VC-2/1
payload). For mapping of DQDB in VC-4,
the H4 byte carries the slot boundary
information and the Link Status Signal
(LSS). Bits 1-2 are used for the LSS code
as described in IEEE Standard 802.6. Bits
3-8 form the slot offset indicator. The slot
offset indicator contains a binary number
indicating the offset in octets between the
H4 octet and the first slot boundary
following the H4 octet. The valid range of
the slot offset indicator value is 0 to 52. A
received value of 53 to 63 corresponds to
an error condition.
F3 Path user channel byte This byte is allocated for communication
purposes between path elements and is
payload dependent. K3 APS signalling is
provided in K3 bits 1-4, allocated for
protection at the VC-4/3 path levels. K3
bits 5-8 are allocated for future use. These
bits have no defined value.
N1 Network operator byte This byte is allocated to provide a Higher-
Order Tandem Connection Monitoring
(HO-TCM) function. N1 is allocated for
Tandem Connection Monitoring for
contiguous concatenated VC-4, the VC-4
and VC-3 levels.

ITI-TJ100CP
Features

 Architecture
 Line Diagram
 Features
 Interface cards
Application

Architecture: Node View –ITI-TJ100CP

Architecture: Line Diagram

Generic Tributary Card
8XE1DS1
Inter
Lite Trib. Card -faces
OAM

ITI-TJ100CP provides miniature size architecture.

 ITI-TJ100CP provides the following card slots-
 Power Supply Unit (PSU)
 Lite Tributary Card (LTC)
 Generic Tributary Card (Slot 3)
 E1 Tributary Card (for 8E1s only)

Features
ITI-TJ100 family provides the unique advantage of carrying both E1/DS1,
E3/DS3 and Ethernet over SDH.
  The upgradeability feature allows the customer to evolve in “build-as-
you-grow”
concept.
 ITI-TJ100CP allows for easy network manageability.
 ITI-TJ100CP can be configured in various topologies such as linear, ring
or mesh.

Interface Card
Power supply unit - PSU

Power Supply Unit input - 48Vdc.

 Option available for DC or AC power supply.
 Power Supply Status Indicator ( RED / GREEN ) on Lite Tributary Card.

Interface Card
Lite Tributary Card ( LTC )

Heart of ITI-TJ100CP:
Card Plugged at Slot 3.
 Provision for aggregate interfaces,clocks, processing and monitoring
capability to the System.
 Visual indicators in LTC - an LED each for Tx & Rx interface, Alarms &
Power.
 Separate Indicators for each Port status.
 Tx Ports status ( RED / GREEN ).
 Rx Ports status ( RED / GREEN ).
 Craft / F1, Alarm Display, BITS Clock, NMS interface available on LTC
front panel.

Interface Card
;Tributary Card E1- TET16/TET21/TET28

TET 21 Card can Add & Drop 21 E1/DS1’s channels via 2, 62-pin
connectors.
 Active & Status Indicator on TETs.

Interface Card
Tributary Card E3/DS3 - TE31

2 BNC Connectors for Tx / Rx ( 75 Ohm interface applicable).

 Software Configurable.
 Active & Status Indicator for health of Card.

Interface Card ;
Ethernet Tributary Card – ETC ( TP01 / TP01FT )
Provision for Eight 10/100-Base T Ethernet ports

OR

Four 10/100-Base T + Four 100 FX Optical Ethernet ports.

 LED Indicators ( GREEN / AMBER) on each port for active status of
Ethernet ports.
 Active & Status Indicator for health of Card.

Interface Card:
TP01

Eight 10/100 Base T Ethernet Ports.


 Standard RJ-45 connectors.

 Active & Status Indicator for health of Card.

 LED Indicators ( GREEN / AMBER ) on each port for status of Ports.
 E
1
s

Interface Card
TP01 FT

Four 10/100-Base T + Four 100-FX Optical Ethernet ports.


 LC-PC connectors for interface ( Four Optical Ports).
 Standard RJ-45 connectors ( Four Electrical Ethernet Ports).

 Tx & Rx status indicators for optical ports.
 Active & Status LED Indicator for health of Card.

 LED Indicators ( GREEN / AMBER ) on each port for status of Ports.

Application
The ITI-TJ100CP can be configured to operate as:
• Terminal Multiplexer
• Add Drop Multiplexer

Terminal Multiplexer
In a terminal multiplexer configuration, only one
STM-1 optical interface is used in an unprotected set up.
STM-1

unprotected

If 1+1 MSP is also provisioned,

an additional STM-1optical
interface is required.

STM-1
With 1+1 MSP

STM-1 STM-1
ITI-TJ100
CP

E1s
 Application

Add Drop Multiplexer

EquipmentsThis
Required For Testing:-
configuration is used whenever ITI-TJ100CP is part of
a ring or a linear chain.
• Rack 
• Sub-rack ITI-TJ100CP will be configured with two STM-1 optical
interfaces with E1 drop interfaces.
• Power Supply (DC- 48 V & AC-230 V)
• DDF with wired cable
• Computer set
• Optical Attenuator (variable & fixed)
• Advanced Network Tester
• Optical cables
• Oscilloscope (Pulse Mask Analyzer)
• Digital Communication Analyzer (Eye Shape Analyzer)
• Network Analyzer (Return Loss Meter)
• Optical Spectrum Analyzer (Wave Length Meter)
• Optical Power Meter
• Ethernet Generator
• Media Converter
• Cross-connect Cable
• Straight Cable
• Diagnostics Cable
• Balanced Cable (120 Ohms)
• Unbalanced Cable (75 Ohms BNC to BNC)
• Printer
• Optical resolution meter(Optical counter)