TOPIC 6

TENSILE TEST

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Identify the principles of tensile testing machine. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
2. Observe the stress-strain relationship for several standard materials.
(LO3,LO4,LO5)
3. Determine the modulus of elasticity, yield strength, tensile strength from
stress-stain curve. (LO3,LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The tensile experiment is the most common mechanical test that reveals
several important mechanical properties, such as: modulus of elasticity, yield
strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, and toughness. The material to be
tested is formed into a shape suitable for gripping in the testing machine, and
then pulled at constant rate until it fractures. The tensile instrument elongates
the specimen at a constant rate and has devices to continuously measure and
record the applied load and elongation of the specimen. During the stretching
of the specimen, changes occur in its physical dimensions and its mechanical
properties. The ability to predict the loads that will cause a part to fail depends
upon both material properties and the part geometry. This experiment involves
testing to determine the relative properties.

6.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

A tensile test, also known as tension test, is probably the most fundamental
type of mechanical test that can be performed on material. Tensile tests are
simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized. By pulling on something,
you will very quickly determine how the material will react to forces being

1
applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its strength
along with how much it will elongate.

You can learn a lot about a material from tensile testing. As you continue to
pull on the material until it breaks, a good, complete tensile profile will be
obtained (see Figure 6.1). A curve showing how it reacted to the forces being
applied is produced. The point of failure is typically called its "Ultimate
Strength" or UTS on the chart.

Figure 6.1 Profile tensile testing

For most tensile testing of materials, you will notice that in the initial portion of
the test, the relationship between the applied force, and load, and the
elongation the specimen exhibits is linear. In this linear region as shown in
Figure 6.2, the line obeys the relationship defined as "Hooke's Law" where the
ratio of stress to strain is a constant, or E = δ/ε. E is the slope of the line in this
region where stress (σ) is proportional to strain (ε) and is called the "Modulus
of Elasticity" or "Young's Modulus".

2
 Figure 6.2 Hooke's Law for stress and strain

6.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

(b)

(c)
(a)

(d)

Figure 6.3 (a) Universal Testing Machine GT-7001-LS10, (b) Tensile

Specimen, and (c) Vernier Caliper, (d) Specimen geometry

3
6.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

In order to obtain uniform and accurate results, it is important that all tests have
to be conducted under standard conditions. The American Standard for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) has set up standards, which should be followed.
The standard method of mechanical testing is specified by ASTM E-8M for
metals. Identify the material of each specimen used.

1. Record and measure the specimen parameter such as: diameter; and
the gauge length using Vernier (Figure 6.3c). Fill up Table 6.1 as d1 and
l1 (refer Figure 6.3d).
2. Mount the specimen in the testing machine (shown in Figure 6.3a) and
test the specimen (Figure 6.3b) to fracture.
3. Test data will be saved in readable file format and given to your
instructor. Arrange with your instructor to get these test data files.
4. When the specimen is removed from the instrument determine all
parameters that you have measured earlier and fill up Table 6.2 as d2
and l2.
5. Once you have completed the test on all specimens, calculate the
percentage of elongation and area of reduction
6. Draw the stress versus strain curve for each specimen and determine
the ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and the Young’s Modulus for
each specimen.

In all cases, be sure to write your observations for each test. You need to
include these observations in your report. The general stress strain curve for
a typical metal is shown in Figure 6.4 with all the important properties that can
be directly measured.

4
 Figure 6.4 A schematic stress strain curve for a metallic alloy

6.5 ACTIVITIES

6.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

6.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Measure and fill up Table 6.1 and Table 6.2.

Table 6.1 Parameter of specimen before testing

Gauge length, l1
Diameter, d1 (mm)
(mm)
Shaft Average Average
1 2 3 1 2 3

Aluminium

Mild Steel

5
 Table 6.2 Parameter of specimen after testing
Gauge length, l1
Diameter, d1 (mm)
(mm)
Shaft Average Average
1 2 3 1 2 3

Aluminium

Mild Steel

6.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted.

6.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Calculate Young’s modulus, percentage reduction of area (RA) and
elongation (EL).

6.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (25%)

a. Explain the advantages of mild steel in comparison with aluminum in
terms of Young’s modulus, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength?
b. List of all possible source of errors include errors in load cell, cross-
sectional dimensions and gauge measurements. How does this error
affect the obtained results?

6.5.6 CONCLUSION (15%)

a. Write your observations and comments whenever possible in your
discussion in term of achievement, problems facing throughout the
experiment and recommendation for improvement.

6.5.7 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard.

6
6.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES
1. Gere, J.M. and Goodno, B.J., 2009. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7th
Edition, Cengage Learning.
2. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E. R. and Deworlf, J.T., 2009. “Mechanics of
Materials”, 5th Edition, Mc Graw Hill.
3. Hibbeler, R.C., 2008. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7th Edition, Pearson
Prentice Hall.
4. Ugural, A.C., 2008. “Mechanics of Materials”, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
5. Riley, W.F., Sturges, L.D., and Morris, D.H., 2007. “Mechanics of
Materials”, 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc.

7
 TOPIC 7
TORSION TEST

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Determine the elastic and yield behavior of material when subjected by
torque load. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
2. Plot the graph of twisting angle versus load torque. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
3. Compare the value of modulus of rigidity form experiment with the
theory. (LO3,LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Torsion tests allow direct measurement of the shear modulus (G) of a material.
This ability makes torsion testing, although not as common, a useful partner
for tensile testing in determining the mechanical properties of a material.

There are two kinds of torsion experiments: torque control and angular speed
control. Torque control experiments apply a uniformly increasing torque to the
specimen and the amount of strain is measured as an angle through which the
specimen has turned. Angular speed control turns the specimen at a specific
angular speed while the torque is measured.

Angular speed control is the type of experiment we will be doing, thus the
directly measured quantity in this experiment will be torque.

Young's modulus (E) is related to the shear modulus and finding E with the
experimentally obtained G reinforces this relationship; they are dependent
upon one another according to the equation:

8
 E
G
21   
Where, v is Poisson's ratio.

7.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

When a circular shaft is twisted at either end, with no other forces acting upon
it, the bar is said to be in pure torsion. If we let the left-hand end of the shaft
remain fixed, then the right-hand end the bar will rotate through an angle ( )
with respect to the left end .See Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 Torsion of circular bar

Simultaneously, a longitudinal line on the surface of the bar, such as line nn,
will rotate through a small angle with respect to the position nn'. Because of
this rotation, a rectangular element on the surface of the bar, such as the
element shown in the figure between two cross sections distance dx apart, is
distorted. This element is shown again in Figure 7.2, isolated from the
remainder of the bar.

During torsion, the right-hand cross section of the original configuration of the
element (abdc) rotates with respect to the opposite face and points b and d
move to b' and d', respectively. The lengths of the sides of the element do not
change during this rotation, but the angles at the corners are no longer 90°.
Thus, the element is undergoing pure shear and the magnitude of the shear
strain is equal to the decrease in the angle bac.

9
 Figure 7.2 Element abcd of torsional bar

bb'
This angle is tan  
ab

Note: tan is approximately equal to because under pure torsion the angle (
 ) is small.
The distance bb' is the length of a small arc of radius r subtended by the angle
 , which is the angle of rotation of one cross section with respect to the other.
Thus, bb' = r  . Also, the distance ab is equal to the length of the element, x
. Substituting these expressions into the preceding equation, we have
r

x

Under pure torsion, the rate of change  x of the angle of twist are constant
along the length of the bar. This constant is equal to the angle of twist per unit

length. Thus,    , where L is the length of the shaft. Then, we have

L
r
  r 
L

Now, observe that for linear elastic material, the magnitude of the shear stress,
 (shown in Figure 7.1) is.

  G  Gr

10
From here we can establish the relationship between the applied torque T and
the angle of twist which it produces. The resultant of the shear stresses shown
in Figure 7.3, below, must be statically equivalent to the total torque T.

Figure 7.3 Shear stress in torsional bar

The shear force acting on an element of area dA (shown shaded in the figure)
is dA, and the moment of this force is also equal to G 2 dA . The total torque
T is the summation over the entire cross-sectional area of these elemental
moments;

where J is equal to the polar moment of inertia of the circular cross section

Thus, we have

(Note that GJ is called the torsional rigidity of the shaft.) Finally, since the total
angle of twist is equal to L, we have that

This is the result we want. The experiment you are about to perform will yield
data on the torque T and the angle from which we can calculate G, the shear

11
modulus, given the dimensions of the shaft. Important to note that for a solid
circular shaft of uniform radius:

7.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

(b)

(c)
(a)
Figure 7.4 (a)Torsion Testing Machine, (b) Vernier Caliper and (c)
Torsion Specimen

7.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

1. Record and measure the Specimen length and diameter at three
different locations and calculate the average length and diameter. Also
measure pulley length. Fill up Table 7.1.
2. Mount the Specimen in the testing machine and test the Specimen (the
lab technician and/or your lab instructor will help with the right
procedure).Make sure pulley is in Horizontal position.
3. Attach the angle indicator and zero the readings.
4. Measure the angle of twist when load (W) is added from 0 to 200N and
when load is removed from 200N to 0N for both specimens. Fill up Table
7.2 and Table 7.3.

12
7.5 ACTIVITIES

7.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORIES (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

7.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Measure and fill up Tables 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3.

Table 7.1 Diameter of specimen

Diameter, D (mm) Length, (mm)

Shaft Average Average
1 2 3 1 2 3

Brass

Mild Steel

Pulley Length

Table 7.2 Torsion test result for Brass Shaft

Load, W
0 50 100 150 200
(N)

Angle of
twist during
additional
of load

Angle of
twist during
removal of
load

13
 Table 7.3 Torsion test result for Mild Steel Shaft
Load, W
0 50 100 150 200
(N)

Angle of
twist during
additional
of load

Angle of
twist during
removal of
load

7.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted.

7.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Calculate torsion constant and shear modulus for the brass and mild
steel specimens. Determine the shear stress and strain for both
specimens.

7.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (25%)

a. If the cross section of shaft is not cylinder, explain how to perform the
torsion analysis.
b. Briefly explain some of the important factors in designing a high-quality
shaft.

7.5.6 CONCLUSION (15%)

a. Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout
the experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements

14
7.5.7 REFERENCES (5%)
a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard

7.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Gere, J.M. and Goodno, B.J., 2009. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7 th
Edition, Cengage Learning.
2. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E. R. and Deworlf, J.T., 2009. “Mechanics of
Materials”, 5th Edition, Mc Graw Hill.
3. Hibbeler, R.C., 2008. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7th Edition, Pearson
Prentice Hall.

15
 TOPIC 8
SHEAR FORCE OF A BEAM

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Comprehend the action of shear in a beam. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
2. Measure the shearing force at a normal section of a loaded beam and
to check its agreement with theory. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
3. Understand and draw shear diagram. (LO3,LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

This guide describes how to set up and perform Shear Force in a Beam
experiments. It clearly demonstrates the principles involved and gives practical
support to your studies.

Figure 8.1 shows the Shear Force in a Beam experiment. It consists of a beam
which is ‘cut’. To stop the beam collapsing a mechanism, (which allows
movement in the shear direction only) bridges the cut on to a load cell thus
reacting (and measuring) the shear force. A digital display shows the force
from the load cell.

A diagram on the left-hand support of the beam shows the beam geometry and
hanger positions. Hanger supports are 20mm apart, and have a central groove
which positions the hangers.

16
 Figure 8.1 Shear Force In A Beam Experiments

8.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Beams are defined as structural members supporting loads at various points

along the member. Transverse loadings of beams are classified as
concentrated loads or distributed loads. One of the main concerns that should
be put into consideration when designing beams for strength is how the
material and the cross section of a beam of a given selected span should be
selected if the beam is not to fail under a given loading.

Applied loads result in internal forces consisting of a shear force (from the
shear stress distribution) and a bending moment (from the normal stress
distribution). For prismatic beam, that is straight beam with a uniform cross
section; their design depends primarily upon the determination of the largest
value of the bending moment and shear force created in the beam by a given
loading. The determination of these values and of the critical sections of the
beam in which they occur is greatly facilitated by drawing a shear force
diagram and bending moment diagram. The variation of the shear force V (N)
and the bending moment M (Nm) along the beam may be investigated from
these diagrams. The values of V and M at various points may be obtained

17
either by drawing free body diagram of successive portions of the beam or
from relationship that involves the applied load, shear force and bending
moment.

Determination of the maximum normal stress (σmax) and maximum shearing

stress (τ max) requires identification of maximum internal shear force and
bending moment. Shear force and bending moment at a point are determined
by passing a section through the beam and applying an equilibrium analysis
on the beam portions on either side of the section as shown in Figures 8.2 and
3. Sign conventions for shear forces V and V’ and bending couples M and M’.

Figure 8.2 Beam section at point C (at distance x from left end A)

Figure 8.3 Internal forces (positive shear and positive bending moment)

18
8.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Before setting up and using the equipments, always:

1. Visually inspect all parts, including electrical leads, for damage or wear.
2. Check electrical connections are correct and secure.
3. Check all components are secured correctly and fastenings are
sufficiently tight.
4. Position the Test Frame safely. Make sure it is mounted on a solid, level
surface, is steady, and easily accessible.

Note: Never apply excessive loads to any part of the equipments. If the meter
is only  0.1 N, lightly tap the frame (there may be a little ‘stiction’ and this
should overcome it).

Figure 8.4 Shearing force of a beam experiment in the structures frame

19
8.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Test A: Shear Force Variation with Increasing Point Load

Figure 8.5 Force Diagram

The equation we will use in this experiment is:

𝑾.𝒂
Shear force at cut, 𝑺𝑪 = 𝒍

Where a is the distance to the load (not the cut) and distance a = 260mm.

You may find the following table useful in converting the masses used in
the experiment to loads.

Table 8.1 Grams to Newton’s Conversion Table

Mass (Grams) Load (Newton)
100 0.98
200 1.96
300 2.94
400 3.92
500 4.90

Step 1 to 4 of the following instructions may already have been completed for
you.

1. Place an assembled Test Frame (refer to the separate instructions

supplied with the Test Frame if necessary) on a workbench. Make sure
the ‘window’ of the Test Frame is easily accessible.
2. There are four securing nuts in the top member of the frame. Slide them
to approximately the positions shown in Figure 8.5.

20
3. With the right-hand end of the experiment resting on the bottom member
of the Test Frame, fit the left- hand support to the top member of the
frame. Push the support on to the frame to ensure that the internal bars
are sitting on the frame squarely. Tighten the support in position by
screwing two of the thumbscrews provided into the securing nuts (on
the front of the support only).
4. Lift the right-hand support into a position and locate the two remaining
thumbscrews into the securing nuts. Push the support on to the frame
to ensure the internal bars are sitting on the frame squarely. Position
the support horizontally so the rolling pivot is in the middle of its travel.
Tighten the thumbscrews.
5. Make sure the Digital Force Display is ‘on’. Connect the mini DIN lead
from ‘Force Input 1’ on the Digital Force display to the socket marked
‘Force Output’ on the left- hand support of the experiment. Ensure the
lead does not touch the beam.
6. Carefully zero the force meter using the dial on the left-hand beam of
the experiments. Gently apply a small load with a finger to the centre of
the beam and release. Zero the meter again if necessary. Repeat to
ensure the meter returns to zero.
7. This experiment examines how shear force varies with an increasing
point load. Figure 8.5 shows the force diagram for the beam.
8. Check the Digital Force Display meter reads zero with no load. Place a
hanger with a 100 g mass to the left of the ‘cut’(40mm away).Record
the Digital Force Display reading in table as in Table 8.2. Repeat using
masses of 200g, 300g and 500g. Convert the mass into a load (in N).
9. Remember, Shear force at the cut = Displayed force.
10. Calculate the theoretical shear force at the cut and complete the Table
8.2.

21
Test B: Shear Force Variation for Various Loading Conditions

This experiment examines how shear forces varies at the cut position of the
beam for various loading conditions. Figures 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8 show the force
diagrams.

Figure 8.6 Force Diagram

Figure 8.7 Force Diagram

22
 Figure 8.8 Force Diagram

We will use the statement: “The Shear Force at the ‘cut’ is equal to the
algebraic sum of the forces acting to the left or right of the cut”

1. Check the Digital Force Display meter reads zero with no load.
2. Carefully load the beam with the hangers in the positions shown in
Figure 8.6, using the loads indicated in Table 8.1.
3. Record the Digital Force Display reading as in Table 8.3. Remember,
Shear force at the cut (N) = Displayed Force.
4. Calculate the support reactions (RA and RB) and calculate the
theoretical shear force at the cut.
5. Repeat the procedure with the beam loaded as in Figures 8.7 and 8.8.

8.5 ACTIVITIES

8.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

8.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Measure and fill up Tables 8.2 and 8.3.

23
 Table 8.2 Results for experiment 1
Experimental Shear Theoretical Shear
Mass (g) Load (N)
Force (N) Force (N)
0
100
200
300
400
500

Table 8.3 Results for Experiment 2

Experimental
W1 W2 Force RA RB Theoretical
Figure Shear Force
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N) Shear Force (N)
(N)
8.6 3.92 0
8.7 1.96 3.92
8.8 4.91 3.92

8.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted.

8.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Plot a graph for shear force vs. load for both experimental and
theoretical results in experiment 1.
b. Calculate support reactions (RA and RB) and theoretical shear force at
the cut.

8.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (25%)

a. Comment on the shape of the graph. What does it tell us about how
shear force varies due to an increased load? Does the equation we used
accurately predict the behavior of the beam?

24
b. Comment on how the results of the results of the experiments compare
with those calculated using the theoretical.

8.5.6 CONCLUSION (15%)

a. Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout
the experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements.

8.5.7 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard.

8.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Gere, J.M. and Goodno, B.J., 2009. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7 th
Edition, Cengage Learning.
2. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E. R. and Deworlf, J.T., 2009. “Mechanics of
Materials”, 5th Edition, Mc Graw Hill.
3. Hibbeler, R.C., 2008. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7th Edition, Pearson
Prentice Hall.

25
 TOPIC 9
BENDING STRESS IN A BEAM

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Measure the stress distribution (bending force and strains) across the
section of a beam. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
2. Understand the relationship between stresses and strains within a structure
in relation to bending loads. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
3. Understand the relationship between bending moment and the strain at the
various positions. (LO3,LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

The Bending Stress in a Beam experiment introduces students to stress and

strain, bending moment, section properties and the bending equation. It allows
students to investigate the stresses and strains within a structure in relation to
bending loads. The experiments are quick, clear, and accurate and clearly
demonstrate the principles involved and gives practical support to subject
studied.

26
9.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

1/2W 1/2W

350 mm 350 mm

835 mm

Figure 9.1 Beam set-up and schematic

As well as the information given on the unit shown in Figure 9.1, you will need
the following formulae (the bending equation):

E

Where,
 = Stress (Nm-2)
 = Strain
E = Young's modulus for the beam material (Nm-2).
(Typically 69 Nm-2 or 69 GPa)

And
M 

I y

Where,
M = Bending moment (Nm)
I = Second moment of area of the section (m4)
y = Distance from the neutral axis (m)

27
9.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Figure 9.2 shows the Bending Stress in a Beam experiment, while Figure 9.3
shows the Bending Stress in a Beam experiment in the structures frame. It
consists of an inverted Aluminum T-beam, with strain gauges fixed on the
section. The panel assembly and Load Cell apply load to the top of the beam
at two positions each side of the strain gauges. Strain gauges are sensors that
experience a change in electrical resistance when stretched or compressed.
T-beam has strain gauges bonded to it. These stretch and compress the same
amount as the beam, thus it measure strain in the beam. The Digital Strain
Display converts the change in electrical resistance of the strain gauges to
show it as displacement (strain). It shows all the strains sensed by the strain
gauges, reading in micro strain (με).

Figure 9.2 Bending stress in a beam experiment

28
Figure 9.3 Bending stress in a beam experiment in the structures frame

Record data table

Zero strain gauge

Load reading
Strain gauges
values

Bending moment

Figure 9.4 Bending stress in a beam experiment from the structure

software

29
9.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

1. Ensure the beam and load cell is properly aligned. (Request instructor to
align.)
2. Turn the `Thumbwheel’ (refer to Figure 3) in the structures frame on the
Load Cell to apply a positive (downward) preload to the beam for 100 ± 5N.

3. After preload, turn `set zero control’ knob back to zero load reading.

4. Click `Zero Strain Gauges’ to zero strain signals on the software.

5. Take the readings and fill up Table 9.1 with force values.

6. Increase the load to 100 N and by clicks the `record data table’ button
and fill up Table 9.1 with all the strain value. Repeat the procedure 6 in
100N increments up to 500 N. (DO NOT EXCEED LOAD LIMIT)
7. Finally, gradually release the load and preload.
8. Correct the strain reading values by eliminating zero error (be careful with
your signs!) and convert the load to a bending moment then fill up Table
9.2.
9. From your results, plot a graph of strain against bending moment for all
nine gauges (on the same graph).
10. Calculate the average strains from the pairs of gauges and enter your
results in Table 9.3 (disregard the zero values). Carefully measure the
actual strain gauge positions and enter the values into Table 3. Plot the
strain against the relative vertical position of the strain gauge pairs on the
same graph for each value of bending moment. Take the top of the beam
as the datum.
11. Calculate the second moment of area and position of the neutral axis for
the section (use a Vernier to measure the exact size of the section) and
add the position of the neutral axis to the plot.

**Never apply excessive loads to any part of the equipment.

30
9.5 ACTIVITIES

9.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

9.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Measure and fill up Tables 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3.

Table 9.1 Results for Experiment 1 (uncorrected)

Gauge Load (N)
Number 0 100 200 300 400 500
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Table 9.2 Results for Experiment 1 (corrected)

Gauge Bending Moment (Nm)
Number 0 17.5 35 52.5 70 87.5
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0

31
 Table 9.3 Averaged strain readings for Experiment 1
Vertical Bending Moment (Nm)
Gauge
Position
Number 0 17.5 35 52.5 70 87.5
(mm)
1 0
2,3 6.4
4,5 23
6,7 31.7
8,9 38.1

9.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted.

9.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Plot a graph for strain vs. bending moment and strain vs. position.
Calculate bending moment.
b. Calculate experimental and theoretical maximum stress.

9.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (25%)

a. What is the relationship between the bending moment and the strain at
the various positions?
b. What do you notice about the strain gauge readings on opposite sides
of the section? Should they be identical? If the readings are not
identical, give two reasons why.

9.5.6 CONCLUSION (15%)

a. Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout
the experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements.

9.5.7 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard.

32
9.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES
1. Gere, J.M. and Goodno, B.J., 2009. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7 th
Edition, Cengage Learning.
2. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E. R. and Deworlf, J.T., 2009. “Mechanics of
Materials”, 5th Edition, Mc Graw Hill.
3. Hibbeler, R.C., 2008. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7th Edition, Pearson
Prentice Hall.

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 TOPIC 10
THIN CYLINDER

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Enable comprehensive analysis of stresses and strains in a thin cylinder
under internal pressure. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
2. Allow investigations with the cylinder in both open-ends and closed-
ends conditions. (LO3,LO4,LO5)
3. Apprehend the concept of a biaxial stress system, Young’s modulus,
Poisson’s ratio and the use of strain gauges. (LO3,LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

The analysis of the stress distribution in a thin walled cylinder is of considerable

importance in pressure vessels and gun barrels. Strain gauges mounted on
various radius and at different alignments throughout the cylinder wall provide
the measurement of the strains. Thus stress distribution throughout the wall of
a cylinder subjected to an internal pressure could be analyzed.

10.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Consider a thin cylinder of plate thickness t, mean diameter d and length l,

subjected to internal pressure p. Now consider that the cylinder is sectioned
by the x-plane of symmetry and by the two z-planes (of distance z apart) as
shown in Figure 10.1.

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 Figure 10.1 Cross section thin cylinder

Consider the equilibrium of forces in the x-direction acting on the sectioned

cylinder shown in Figure 10.2. It is assumed that the circumferential stress 
is constant through the thickness of the cylinder.

Figure 10.2 Equilibrium forces on sectioning cylinder

Force due to internal pressure p acting on area dz = pdz

Force due to circumferential/Hoop stress ( H ) acting on area 2tz = H. 2tz

pd pr
Equating:  H 2tz  pdz ,Therefore:- H  or H 
2t t

Now consider the equilibrium of forces in the z-direction acting on the part
cylinder shown in Figure 10.3.

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 Figure 10.3 Force in z-direction imposed on thin cylinder

Force due to internal pressure p acting on area d2/4 = p. d2/4

Force due to longitudinal stress ( L ) acting on area dt =L. dt

d 2 pd pr
Equating:  Ldt  p , Therefore:-  L  or  L 
4 4t 2t

In the “open” ends condition, there is no obstruction to the end of cylinder.

Therefore, L  0
pr
But  H  . Therefore:-
t H 
1
 H 
Hoop Strain, E
 L    H 
1
Longitudinal Strain,
E

While, in the “closed” ends condition, the force applied onto element are due
to  L and  H .

Therefore:-
H 
1
 H   L 
Hoop Strain, E
Longitudinal Strain,
1

 L   L H
E


36
10.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Figure 10.4 SM1007 Thin Cylinder apparatus

In the “open” ends condition the hand wheel is fully screwed in. This pushes
the two pistons away from the cylinder end caps so that there is no contact
between them. Therefore, the axial force is transmitted from the pressurized
oil into the frame rather than the cylinder (refer Figure 10.5).

Figure 10.5 Open Ends Condition

In the “closed” ends condition the hand wheel is wound out. This allows the
pistons to move outward against the cylinder end caps so that there is no
contact with the frame. Therefore the axial force is transmitted from the
pressurized oil into the cylinder itself (refer Figure 10.6)

37
 Figure 10.6 Closed Ends Condition

Figure 10.7 Orientation of strain gauges

Table 10.1 Technical Information

Length 358.8 mm
Wall Thickness 3 mm
Inner diameter, D1 80 mm
Gauge factors 2.105
Cylinder material Aluminium alloy 6063
Young’s Modulus 69 GN/m2
Poisson’s ratio 0.33
Maximum allowable test pressure 3.5 MN/m2
Strain gauges Electrical Resistance Type

38
10.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Test A: Thin Cylinder with Open Ends

In this experiment we will pressurize the cylinder in the open ends condition
and readings from all six strain gauges are taken, we will then analyze the
results in various ways to establish some important relationships. Examine the
cylinder and the diagram on the front panel to understand the notation and
placement of the strain gauges in relation to the axis of the cylinder. The
experimental method utilizes the SM1007 software to display and take
readings

1. CONNECT TO SM1007 from the same menu. The virtual meters

on the screen should now display values of pressure and strain. (If it’s
already running, leave it as it is).
2. Close the pump release valve and zero the readings by selecting ZERO

ALL GAUGES from the EXPERIMENTS menu option. All the virtual
strain meters should now read 0±0.3με, and the pressure meter should
read 0±0.01MPa.
3. Take the first set of readings (at zero) into the data table by selecting

RECORD GAUGE READINGS from the EXPERIMENTS menu

option. Display the data table by selecting DATA TABLE in the

RESULTS menu.
4. Pump the handle slowly until a pressure of around 0.5 MPa and record
the readings into the data table again by selecting RECORD GAUGE

READINGS from the EXPERIMENT menu option. Wait a few

seconds between pumps for the gauges to stabilize.
5. Carefully increase the pressure in 0.5 MPa increment, record the
readings into the data table until you have reached a value of 3 MPa
(Do not exceed a maximum cylinder pressure of 3.5 MPa). Record all
data in Table 10.2.

39
Test B: Thin Cylinder with Closed Ends

We will now test the cylinder by taking the same readings as in experiment 1
but with the cylinder in the closed ends condition to show the effect of the
biaxial stress system.

1. Open the pump release valve and carefully unscrew the hand wheel
enough to set up the closed ends condition. To check that the frame is
not transmitting any load, close the pump release valve and pump the
handle and observe the pressure gauge, you may need to pump a
number of times as the oil pushes the pistons outward.
2. Once a pressure of around 3MPa has been achieved, gently push and
pull the cylinder along its axis, the cylinder should move in the frame
indicating that the frame is not transmitting any load. If it doesn’t move,
wind the hand wheel out some and try again.
3. Release the pressure from cylinder by opening the pump release valve.
4. In the SM1007 software choose CLOSED ENDS CONDITION from the
EXPERIMENTS menu option. Then connect the SM1007 unit by
selecting CONNECT TO SM1007 from the same menu. The virtual
meters on the screen should now display values of pressure and strain.
5. Repeat steps 3 to 5 in Experiment 1.

10.5 ACTIVITIES

10.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

10.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Measure and fill up Tables 10.2 and 10.3.

40
 Table 10.2: Thin Cylinder with Open Ends Experiment 1
Gauge
Pressure
1 2 3 4 5 6
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0

Table 10.3: Thin Cylinder with Closed Ends Experiment 2

Gauge
Pressure
1 2 3 4 5 6
3.0

10.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted.

10.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Calculate hoop strain and longitudinal strain for open ends and closed
ends conditions.

10.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (25%)

a. Explain the difference between the “Open End” and “Closed End”
conditions?
b. Which case experiences “uniaxial state of stress” and which case
experiences “biaxial state of stress”?

10.5.6 CONCLUSION (15%)

a. Please comment on your experimental work in terms of achievement,
problems faced throughout the experiment and suggest
recommendation.

41
10.5.7 REFERENCES (5%)
a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard.

10.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Gere, J.M. and Goodno, B.J., 2009. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7 th
Edition, Cengage Learning.
2. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E. R. and Deworlf, J.T., 2009. “Mechanics of
Materials”, 5th Edition, Mc Graw Hill.
3. Hibbeler, R.C., 2008. “Mechanics of Materials”, 7th Edition, Pearson
Prentice Hall.
4. Ugural, A.C., 2008. “Mechanics of Materials”, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
5. Riley, W.F., Sturges, L.D., and Morris, D.H., 2007. “Mechanics of
Materials”, 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc.

42