TOOL LIFE & TOOL MATERIALS

By
M.Satyadev,
Assistant Professor,
Mechanical Engineering Department, RGUKT
Why to Study this Module:
1. How cutting tools will fail? What are the modes of failure?

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2. What are the mechanism involve in tool wear?

3. How to define tool life?

Tool Life & Tool Materials

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4. What is Taylor’s Equation?

5. How to improve the tool life?

6. What are the essential properties required for Tool materials?

7. What are different types of Tool materials?

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Major Causes and Modes of Failure of cutting Tools:
Three modes of failure
1. Mechanical breakage
2. Rapid dulling

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3. Gradual Wear

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First two modes of failure were reduced through proper selection of machining parameters,
cutting tool geometry and its material but third mode of failure cannot be avoided but the rate of 3
gradual wear can be decreased to increase the tool life.
How to identify the tool was failed in Machining shops:
1. Current or power drawn becomes high

2. Excessive vibration

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3. Tool tip undergoes breakage or severe plastic deformation

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4. Dimensional inaccuracy of machined surface

5. Surface finish was bad

6. Form of the chip was abnormal

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Mechanisms of Cutting tool wear:
• Mechanical wear:
• Thermally insensitive type like abrasion, micro fracturing, chipping

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• Thermally sensitive type like adhesion, thermal fracturing.

• Thermo-Chemical wear:

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• Macro diffusion by mass dissolution
• Micro diffusion by atom migration

• Chemical wear

• Galvanic wear: based on electro chemical dissolution

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General Pattern and index of tool wear:

1. Crater wear at rake surface

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2. Principal flank wear
3. Auxiliary flank wear

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Tool Life:
It is generally defined by the span of actual uninterrupted machining time through which the
tool or tool-tip renders desired service and satisfactory performance and after which that tool
needs replacement or regrinding.

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Three stages of wear
1. Rapid break-in wear
2. Longer span of slowly
and uniform wear
3. Rapid accelerated wear

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If VB reached 0.30mm, the tool tip is considered to be failed. This value is globally standardized.
Assessment of Tool Life:
Tool life is assessed by
1. Number of pieces of jobs machined

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2. Volume of material removed.

3. Total length of cut

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Taylor’s Tool Life Equation:
It is found from the research community of metal cutting, that cutting velocity plays an important
role in flank wear compared to the feed and depth of cut

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 VT  C
n

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Where Vc is the cutting velocity in m/min
T is the tool life in min
n & C are Taylor’s exponent and constant

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Taylor’s exponent & constant depends upon
Work material & tool material
Maximum permissible value of VB
Type and method of cutting fluid application
Level of feed and depth of cut to some extent

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Taylor’s Exponents can be experimentally determined by
1. Approximately but economically by
a) Facing tests

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b) Taper turning tests
2. Economically and reasonably accurately by variable speed machining

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Modified Taylor’s Tool life equation:

TL  C v

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x y z
V S t
c o

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x,y, z are constants usually x>y>z
These values are available in Machining Data Hand books

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Role of Different Machining parameters on Tool Life:
GATE Questions
1. For turning NiCr alloy steel at cutting speeds of 64m/min and 100m/min the respective tool
lives are 15min and 12min. The tool life for a cutting speed of 144m/min is
2. A Batch of 10 cutting tools could produce 500 components while working at 50rpm with a

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tool feed of 0.25mm/rev and depth of cut of 1mm. A similar batch of 10 tools of the same
specification could produce 122 components while working at 80 rpm with a feed of

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0.25mm/rev and 1 mm depth of cut. How many components can be produced with one
cutting tool at 60 rpm?
3. In machining operation, doubling the cutting speed reduces the tool life to 1/8th of the
original value. The exponent n in Taylor’s tool life equation is
4. In machining experiment, tool life was found to vary with the cutting speed in the following
manner, cutting speed is 60, 90 m/min then corresponding tool life is 81,36 min
respectively. Then calculate the exponent and constant in Taylor’s tool life equation, what is
the percentage increase in tool life when the cutting speed is halved.
5. A low carbon steel bar of 147mm diameter with length of 630mm is being turned with
uncoated carbide insert. The observed tool lives are 24 and 12 for cutting velocities of
90m/min and 120m/min respectively. The feed and depth of cut are 0.2mm/rev and 2mm
respectively. Use un-machined diameter to calculate the cutting velocity. Then what is the 14
cutting velocity if tool life is 20min?
1. In a cutting test with 0.3mm flank wear as tool failure criterion, a tool life of 10min was
obtained at a cutting velocity of 20m/min. Taking tool life exponent as 0.25, tool life in minutes
at 40m/min of cutting velocity will be

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2. Tool life equations for two tools under considerations are as follows HSS: VT0.2=150; Carbide:
VT0.3=250, where V is the cutting velocity in m/min, and T tool life in min. the break even
cutting speed above which the carbide tool will be beneficial is

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3. A cylinder of 25mm diameter and 100mm length is turned with a tool, for which the relation
VT0.25=55 is applicable. The cutting velocity is 22m/min. For a tool feed is 0.046mm/rev, the
number of tool regrinds required to produce 425 cylinders is
4. A batch of 500jobs of diameter 50mm and length 100mm is to be turned at 200rev/min and
feed of 0.2 mm/rev, then applying Taylor’s equation VT0.25=160, tool life in minutes is, the
number of components per tool life.
5. During machining, the wear land (h) has been plotted against machining time (T) as given in
the following figure. For critical wear land of 1.8mm, the cutting tool life is

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1. In an orthogonal machining, the tool life obtained is 10min at a cutting speed of 100m/min,
while at 75m/min cutting speed, the tool life is 30min. The value of index in Taylor’s tool life
equation is
2. Two cutting tools are being compared for a machining operation. The tool life equations are

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Carbide tool: VT1.6=3000; HSS tool: VT0.6=200, where V is the cutting speed in m/min, and T
is the tool life in min. The carbide tool will provide higher tool life if the cutting speed in
m/min exceeds

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3. In a turning operation the tool life of the carbide tool was found to be 20min and 100min, at
cutting speed of 120m/min and 80m/min respectively. What will be the tool life of the tool
under the same condition but at a cutting speed of 100m/min.
4. Find the percentage change in cutting speed required to give a 50% reduction in tool life when
the tool life exponent is 0.25.
5. If under a condition of plain turning the life of the cutting tool decreases by 50% due to
increase in the cutting velocity by 20%, then what is the % increase in tool life due to reduction
on the cutting velocity by 20% from its original value?
6. A throw way carbide insert was used to machine a steel work pieces with a cutting speed of
60m/min, tool life of 40minutes was observed, when the cutting speed was increased to
100m/min, the tool life decreased to 10minutes,. The cutting speed for maximum productivity,
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if tool changes time is 2 minutes is
1. The results of machining steel with 2 grades of tool material are given below. For a 180 min.
Tool life which of the tool is recommended: Tool A has n=0.2, C=100, Tool B has n=0.25
C=120. if the tool regrinding and changing time is 15min, the cutting speed for tool A to be

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chosen 40m/min or 50m/min.
2. A generalize tool life equation for the carbide tool for machining steel is VT0.3F0.3D0.15=K
where V is the cutting velocity in m/min, T is tool life in min, F is feed in mm/rev, D is the

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depth of cut in mm. If the feed is halved and depth of cut is doubled for the identical tool life of
60min, then percentage change is speed is,

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Why we need different Cutting Tool Materials:
1. To meet the growing demands for enhanced productivity, high quality and overall economy
2. To machine difficult to cut materials
3. For micro-machining

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4. To get precision and ultra-precision machining

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The service life and overall performance of cutting tools, for a given job is
governed by:
• Material of cutting tool
• Geometry of cutting tool
• Proper selection and use of the cutting tools
• The condition of machining and cutting fluid application

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Essential properties of cutting tool material:
1. High Mechanical strength
2. High hardness
3. High hot strength

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4. Adequate fracture toughness
5. Enough dynamic strength
6. High chemical stability

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7. High thermal conductivity
8. Resistance to adhesion and diffusion
9. High stiffness
10. self-lubricity
11. Formability, availability and inexpensiveness

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High Speed Steel (HSS):
The basic composition of HSS is
18%W, 4%Cr, 1%V, 0.7%C, the rest is Fe

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HSS tool under dry machining of mild steel jobs up to 20-30m/min

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Under wet machining is up to 45m/min.

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W and M is added to provide hardness and wear resistant to the steel.
Co and V are added to increase the hot strength and wear resistance at elevated temperatures.

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Tool Life & Tool Materials
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• This is commonly used in manufacture of twist drills, reamers, gear cutters, hobs, form tools

• This is used for intermittent cutting compared to carbide tools

• Tool can be re-sharpened number of times

• This is used in small scale industries and low power machine tools because of cost effectiveness

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Stellite:
This is a cast alloy having composition
40-50%Co, 27-32% Cr, 14-19% W and 2% C

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They are quite tough and more heat resistant compared with basis HSS tool

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They became obsolete because of poor grindability.

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Sintered Tungsten Carbides:
1. Straight or Single Carbide:
• Powder metallurgical process

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• It contains 90-95% WC and cobalt
• It can attain three times higher cutting velocities compared to HSS tools.
• This can be used to machine cast iron, brass , bronze which can produce short

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discontinuous chips.
• This cannot be used for machining of steels because of diffusion wear.

2. Composite Carbides:
• For machining ductile materials a gamma phase which is a mixture of TiC, TiN, TaC are
added to WC and Co mixture. This improves the diffusion resistance in the tool material.

3. Mixed Carbide
• TiC is added more in quantity to WC and Co mixture.
• Increase in TiC reduces the toughness

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Plain Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2O3) and Silicon Nitride (Si3N4 ) are the basic two ceramics suitable for cutting tools

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Plain Alumina with traces of Additives:
These are usually cold pressed and used for machining Cast Iron and similar materials at speed
of 200-250m/s

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Alumina with or without Additives:

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These are usually hot pressed and used for machining steels and cast iron at speed of 150-
250m/min

Carbide Ceramics (Al2O3 + 20% to 30% TiC):

These are usually hot pressed, black in color, used for machining hard cast iron and alloy
steels at 150-200m/min

These are typically used for un interrupted cutting, and machine tool should be rigid
enough, Cutting velocity range is narrow.
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Coated Carbides:
Effects of Suitable coatings on cutting tool include:

 Reduction in cutting forces and power consumption by 20-50%

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 Increase in tool life for the same cutting velocity or increase the cutting velocity for the
same tool life.

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 Improvement in product quality

 Effective and efficient machining of wide range of work materials

 Reduced pollution

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Coronite:

These usually prepared with the combination of HSS and WC+Co

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1. A Solid core of HSS or spring steel is prepared as central part
2. A layer of coronite of thickness 15-20% of the frill diameter is provided around the
core by Hot extrusion.

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3. A fine layer of TiCN or TiN is PVD coated on the extruded rod.

This material is typically used in manufacturing twist drills and milling cutters

It will provide longer tool life, lesser cutting forces and high accuracy and surface finish
compared to HSS tools.

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Cermets:
It is a combination of Ceramics and metals. Ceramics typically TiC, TiN, TiCN and favorable
metals like Ni, Co, Ni-Co, etc.,

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This is manufactured by Powder Metallurgy route.

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The Unique characteristics of Cermets are

1. Harder, more chemically stable and wear resistance compared to sintered carbides of both
coated and uncoated types.
2. Less tough, thermally conductive and shock resistance compared to carbides.
3. Cutting edge sharpness is retained longer than the coated carbide tools.

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High Performance Ceramics:
• These material have good wear resistance, chemical stability, hot hardness, compressive
strength

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• These materials are weak in tension, impact, dynamic loading and thermal shock
• So these are utilized for uninterrupted machining of soft materials at moderate speeds.

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Types of High performance Ceramic Tools:
SIALON:
• It is a mixture of Alumina (Al2O3) and Silicon Nitride (Si3N4 ) powders.
• This has good wear resistant, tough, very hot hard
• These tools can machine steel and cast iron at high speed 250-300m/s

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• Machining of steels at very high speed causes diffusion wear.
• Isostatic pressing is used to manufacture this tool.

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Nitride ceramic Reinforced by SiC Whisker:
• The rod like SiC whiskers having the dimension 6 μm long, 1 μm diameter are randomly
dispersed in ceramic insert.

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• The fiber will have the volume percentage of around 5-25%
• These SiC whiskers will increase the fracture toughness
• Crack Bridging

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• Crack deflection
• Fiber pull out

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Zirconia toughened Alumina ceramics:
• Fine powder of partially stabilized Zirconia is mixed in proportion of 10-20% with pure
alumina and then it is cold pressed and sintered at 1600-1700 degree centigrade

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• The phase transformation of meta stable tetragonal zirconia to monoclinic will cause volume
expansion and shear strain
• This will cause compressive stress to be developed around the crack which prevent the crack

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propagation.

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Alumina Ceramic Reinforced by SiC Whiskers:
• SiC Whisker are randomly distributed in the alumina ceramics
•Drastic increase in fracture toughness value, bulk thermal conductivity, good wear resistance

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and hardness
• The mechanism involved in improving the fracture toughness are
• Crack bridging
• crack deflection

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Metal Toughened Ceramics:
• Alumina metal composites is prepared by metal powders like Al, Ni, Mo, Fe
• Metal has more toughness compared to other materials

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• Mechanics of improved fracture toughness

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Cubic Boron Nitride:
• Extreme hardness next to diamond
• Poly crystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) is manufactured by consolidation of fine cBN

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particles under high pressure and temperature in the presence of Ni, Fe or Co as catalyst.
• Thin layer of small cBN grains are firmly compacted on WC substrate

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Unique properties of cBN are
• Extreme hardness
• High fracture toughness
• Retention of sharpness, toughness, hardness at elevated temperatures
• High thermal conductivity and low coefficient of expansion at elevated temperature
• High chemical stability
• High Wear resistance

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Diamond:
Diamond has extreme hardness and other properties like hot hardness, high fracture toughness,
high wear resistance, retention of sharpness at elevated temperatures.

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Available in different forms
• Single crystal

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• Polycrystalline diamond
• Diamond coated carbide tools

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Single Crystal Diamond:
• Usually have high hardness
• Retaining the sharp edges at high temperatures

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• Can be used for machine difficult to machine materials
• Drill bits for mining and oil exploration
• Tools for cutting, drilling in glass, stones, ceramics

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• Finish machining of wire drawing and extrusion dies
• Super-abrasive wheel for grinding

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Polycrystalline Diamond:
• Tool consist of a layer of randomly oriented fine grain polycrystalline diamond particles
sintered with suitable binder and then metallurgically bonded to suitable substrate.
• It shows excellent wear resistance, sharp cutting edge, provides high fracture toughness,

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good thermal conductivity
• PCD is not recommended for ferrous materials because of graphitization of diamond

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Limitations:
• High tool cost
• Presence of binder like cobalt reduces the wear resistance
• Complex tool shapes cannot be made

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Diamond-Coated Carbide Tools:
• CVD technique is used to deposit thin layer of diamond on the substrate material
• It is free from binder so it will provide high hardness, resistance to wear
• It is highly pure, dense free from single crystal cleavage

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• Relatively expensive

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It need the following
• Good bonding of diamond layer with the substrate.
• Adequate properties of the film

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