Acknowledgement: MR - MANIMARAN, Mfg. Manager Process Shop Engine Division, HAL Whose Kind Co
Acknowledgement: MR - MANIMARAN, Mfg. Manager Process Shop Engine Division, HAL Whose Kind Co
Acknowledgement
We have taken efforts in this internship. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of many individuals and organizations. We would like to
extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
We are highly indebted to Mr. M PURUSHOTHAM REDDY test house
department, engine division, HAL for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for
providing necessary information regarding the In plant training & also for their support in
completing the Internship.
We consider it privilege to express our heartfelt gratitude and respect to
Mr.MANIMARAN, mfg. manager process shop engine division, HAL whose kind co-
operation and encouragement which help us in completion of this Internship.
We would like to show our gratitude to MS.RAMYA P, Assissent professor, EEE,
SVCE, Bangalore for his constant support and encouragement.
We would like to express our gratitude towards Mr.L RAMESH KUMAR, machine
shop HAL, our parents & members of HAL Engine Division for their kind co-operation and
encouragement which help me in completion of this Internship.
We would like to express our special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for
giving us such attention and time.
1.HISTORY OF HAL
Hindustan aeronautics limited (HAL) came into existence on 1st October 1964. The
company was found by merger of Hindustan aircraft limited and aircraft manufacturing
depot, Kanpur.
The company traces its roots to the pioneering efforts of an industrialist with
extraordinary vision, the late SETH WALCHAND HIRACHAND who set up Hindustan
aircraft limited at Bangalore in association with the erstwhile princely state of Mysore in
December 1940. The government of India became a shareholder in March, 1941 and took
over management in 1942.
Today, HAL has 16 production units and 9 research design centers in location in
India. The company has an impressive product track record-12 types of manufactured with in
– house R&D &14 types of produced under license. HAL has manufactured 3350 aircraft,
3600 engines & overhauled over 8150 aircraft & 27300 engines.
HAL has been successful in numerous R&D programs developed for both defense &
civil aviation sectors. HAL has made substantial progress in its current projects.
Dhruv, which is advanced light helicopter
Tejas – light combat aircraft
Intermediate jet trainee
Various military & civil aviation
Dhruv was delivered to the Indian army, navy, air force and the coast guards in March
2002, in the first year & its production, a unique achievement.
HAL has played a significant role for India’s space programs by participating in the
manufacture of structure for satellite launch vehicle like
PSLV (polar satellite launch vehicle)
GSLV (Geo stationary launch vehicle)
IRS (Indian remote satellite)
INSAT (Indian national satellite)
3 joint venture companies with HAL `
BACHAL software limited
Indo-Russian Aviation limited
Snecma HAL Aerospace private limited
Apart from these three, other major diversification projects are industrial marine gas
turbine and airport services. Several co-production and joint ventures with international
participation is under consideration.
HAL’s supplies / services are mainly to Indian defense services coast guards and boarder
security forces.
Transport aircraft and helicopter have also been supplied to airlines as well as state
government of India. The company has also achieved a foothold in export in more than 30
countries having demonstrated its quality and price competitiveness.
HAL has won several international and national awards for achievements in R&D
technology, management performance, exports energy conservation, quality and fulfillment
of social responsibilities.
HAL has awarded the “international gold medal award” for corporate achievement in
quality and efficiency at the international summit (global rating leaders, 2003) ,London, UK
by m/s global rating and UK in conjunction with international information and marketing
center(IIMC).
HAL was awarded international “ARCH OF EUROPE” awarded in global category in
recognition for its commitment to quality, leadership, technology and innovation.
At the national level HAL won the “GOLD TROPY” for the excellence in public sector
management, instituted by standing conference by public enterprises (SCOPE).
also set up shops for special coating processes to combat temperature and atmospheric
conditions, protection corrosion conditions, protection against surface erosions, such as
plasma spray, aluminium silicon diffusion coating, sermetal coating.
Aero engine research and design center which is part of the engine test bed. The
AERDC is equipped with necessary modern infrastructure. The R&D center has developed a
gas turbine for pilotless target aircraft and jet fuel starter for starting the engine of light
combat aircraft. The R&D center has also designed and installed engine test bed.
2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 GAS TURBINES:
A more technical name for a jet engine is a gas turbine, and although it's not
immediately obvious what that means, it's actually a much better description of how an
engine like this really works. A jet engine works by burning fuel in air to release hot exhaust
gas. But where a car engine uses the explosions of exhaust to push its pistons, a jet engine
forces the gas past the blades of a windmill-like spinning wheel (a turbine), making it rotate.
So, in a jet engine, exhaust gas powers a turbine—hence the name gas turbine.
5. In the combustion chamber, just behind the compressor, the kerosene mixes with the
compressed air and burns fiercely, giving off hot exhaust gases and producing a huge
increase in temperature. The burning mixture reaches a temperature of around 900°C
(1650°F).
6. The exhaust gases rush past a set of turbine blades, spinning them like a windmill. Since the
turbine gains energy, the gases must lose the same amount of energy—and they do so by
cooling down slightly and losing pressure.
7. The turbine blades are connected to a long axle (represented by the middle gray line) that
runs the length of the engine. The compressor and the fan are also connected to this axle. So,
as the turbine blades spin, they also turn the compressor and the fan.
8. The hot exhaust gases exit the engine through a tapering exhaust nozzle. Just as water
squeezed through a narrow pipe accelerates dramatically into a fast jet (think of what happens
in a water pistol), the tapering design of the exhaust nozzle helps to accelerate the gases to a
speed of over 2100 km/h (1300 mph). So the hot air leaving the engine at the back is
traveling over twice the speed of the cold air entering it at the front—and that's what powers
the plane. Military jets often have an after burner that squirts fuel into the exhaust jet to
produce extra thrust. The backward-moving exhaust gases power the jet forward. Because the
plane is much bigger and heavier than the exhaust gases it produces, the exhaust gases have
to zoom backward much faster than the plane's own speed.
mixture to about 1,100 F to 1,300 F. The resulting hot air is passed through a turbine, which
drives the compressor.
If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the turbine discharge will
be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure, and this excess pressure is sent to the nozzle to
produce a high-velocity stream of gas which produces a thrust. Substantial increases in thrust
can be obtained by employing an afterburner. It is a second combustion chamber positioned
after the turbine and before the nozzle. The afterburner increases the temperature of the gas
ahead of the nozzle. The result of this increase in temperature is an increase of about 40
percent in thrust at takeoff and a much larger percentage at high speeds once the plane is in
the air.
The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding gasses push
hard against the front of the engine. The turbojet sucks in air and compresses or squeezes it.
The gasses flow through the turbine and make it spin. These gasses bounce back and shoot
out of the rear of the exhaust, pushing the plane forward.
.
Fig 2.4: Turboprop
Like the turbojet, the turboprop engine consists of a compressor, combustion
chamber, and turbine, the air and gas pressure is used to run the turbine, which then creates
power to drive the compressor. Compared with a turbojet engine, the turboprop has better
propulsion efficiency at flight speeds below about 500 miles per hour. Modern turboprop
engines are equipped with propellers that have a smaller diameter but a larger number of
blades for efficient operation at much higher flight speeds. To accommodate the higher flight
speeds, the blades are scimitar-shaped with swept-back leading edges at the blade tips.
Engines featuring such propellers are called propfans.
Hungarian, Gyorgy Jendrassik who worked for the Ganz wagon works in Budapest
designed the very first working turboprop engine in 1938. Called the Cs-1, Jendrassik’s
engine was first tested in August of 1940; the Cs-1 was abandoned in 1941 without going into
production due to the War. Max Mueller designed the first turboprop engine that went into
production in 1942.
5) RAMJETS:
Module 1. LP COMPRESSOR STAGES - The fluid first enters the fan and then the low-
pressure (LP) compressor, which is usually on the same shaft as the fan. The Low Pressure
compressor consists of one stage titanium rotor blades(27 blades) then one stage aluminium
stator blades then one stage aluminium rotor blades(32 blades). LP compressor is driven by
LP turbine through curvic coupling.
Module 2. LP STATIC COMPRESSOR- This Module only has stator blades which are made
of Aluminium. The stator has a very aggressive blade design that almost completely reverses
the direction of the fluid. Because of this arrangement, the stator cannot spin with the fluid it
can spin only in the opposite direction, forcing the fluid to change direction as it hits the
stator blades.
Module 5. HP NOZZZLE GUIDE VANES - Nozzle Guide Vanes are placed just after the
Combustion Chamber. It is made of Steel to withstand high temperatures. They are the stator
blades of turbine. They are convex and shaped like airfoils. They direct the airflow onto the
turbine blades while at the same time converting pressure energy into kinetic energy. Gases
coming from the combustion chamber pass through the nozzle guide vanes. where because of
their convergent shape they accelerate. On passing through the NVGs, gases are given a
"spin" or a "swirl" in the direction of the rotation of the turbine rotor blades. The latter absorb
this energy, causing the turbine to rotate at a high speed
Module 6. HP TURBINE- It consists only of one stage. It has 78 Nimonic rotor blades. The
turbine blades are keyed to the disc by “ Fir tree” roots and retained in the position.
Module 8. LP TURBINE ROTOR DISC AND SHAFT- It also has only one stage. It consists
of 94 rotor blades. Here again, since the flow has been converted into low pressure by NGV,
so that LP turbine is used.
Module 9. EXHAUST MIXER AND CONE- Exhaust Cone are present after the Turbine
Stage to guide the air from the nozzle and accelerate it to gain high Thrust. The exhaust cone
acts as aerodynamic cover for the turbine hub/shaft and is part of the convergent duct
geometry at the very aft of the exhaust that converts the high pressure gas coming off the last
turbine stage into high velocity gas as it exits the engine (creating more thrust).
Module 10. HS GEARBOX- It consists of gear box and many small accessories like LP
pump. HP pump, AC generator, air starter etc. The accessory drive is usually arranged as a
curved casing, so that the various accessories are mounted close to the engine. The casing is a
pair of light alloy castings. The drive within the casing is provided by a train of spur gears.
Accessories are arranged on both sides of the driveshaft entry, in reducing order of their
speed.
Module 11. FUEL TANK AND FILLET- It consists of oil tank, fuel control unit, re-heat fuel
control unit. Oil control unit has 3 filters oil filter, LP fuel filter, RH fuel filter. Oil System
basically has three functions- a) Reduce Vibration b) Cooling of the Engine Parts c)
Lubrication of the parts such as bearings.
Module 12. AFTERBURNER VAPOUR GUTTER AND MANIFOLD- This module has
catalytic igniters made of platinum and rhodium which are fitted to the afterburner. The
afterburner system has a separate combustion System which is done by ignitors fitted in it.
The Thrust which we obtain after activating the afterburner is called Wet Thrust.
2. Temperature:
Air Intake Temperature
L.P Compressor Delivery Temperature
H.P Compressor Delivery Temperature
Turbine Gas Temperature
Engine Oil Temperature and Fuel Temperature
3. 4 critical parameters measured are,
HP Shaft Speed(NH)- 100%(15512rpm)
Observed value- 103.9%
LP Shaft Speed (NL)– 100%(13600rpm)
Observed value- 100%
Thrust- 19 KN without afterburner and 28 KN with afterburner.
Turbine gas temperature : 7760 C
The Thrust is measured using Strain Gauge. Two load cells are connected to the engine
and there s little movement of the engine due to Newton's Third Law (due to exhaust
Velocity) This deflection corresponds to the Thrust produced.
The Tests Conducted to the Engine during this period were:
L.P Compressor Working Line Setting
Performance Rating R/H unit
L.P Compressor Working Line to R/H lit.
Part Throttle Reheat (PTR) Rating
Boost Ratio Setting and R/H Performance
Ballast Resistor Check
4. ADORE 871
Adour Mk871 engine is one of the most outstanding derivatives of Adour turbofan engine
family. It powers single-engine Hawk 100/200 aircraft. Originally, it was rated at 5,845
pounds of thrust but the latest 871 engines deliver up to 6,000-lb. Adour Mk871 engines are
not provided with afterburner.
Basic Data
Length: 12.43 m Area (Gross): 16.70 m2 Maximum Takeoff: Internal : 360 Imp Galls Rolls Royce Adour MK 871 Turbofan
9100 kg
Wing Span: Sweep (at quarter chord): Basic Mass (Empty): Ext. Drop Tanks: 2 x Static Thrust at sea level: 1 x 25.5 kN
9.940 m 21º 31’ 55” 4,440 Kg 130 Imp Galls (5730 lbf) at sea level ISA
Height: 3.98 m
Flying Characteristics
The aircraft has excellent flying characteristics with good stability and response to
controls about all three axes
The aircraft is cleared for a wide range of aerobatic maneuvers and exhibits very good
resistance to departure even outside the normal flight envelope
At incidences up to the stall, the aircraft is stable about all axes for all flap
configurations
Recovery from any stall is immediate on moving the control column forward
The Hawk Mk.132 wing has a moderate amount of fixed droop to the leading edge to
aid sustained turn performance in the speed range 0.4 to 0.7 M
The aircraft is spin-resistant, but is cleared for deliberate upright spinning in the basic
aircraft configuration with or without the gunpod
The aircraft is currently cleared for take-off and landing with a crosswind component
of 30 knots (55 km/hr)
For solo flying the front cockpit is used
The aircraft has an inverted flight (negative g) capability of 30 secs
The aircraft may be flown at night, either dual or solo, without any additional flight
limitations
The Hawk is a tandem-seat Aircraft for ground attack, flying training and weapon training. It
has a low wing and an all-metal structure and is powered by an Adour Mk 871 turbofan
engine. The Aircraft has an integrated navigation /attack system and radio and inertial
navigation systems. The Aircraft is cleared for instrument (IFR) flying and for Solo
Instrument flying from the front cockpit only.
1) Propeller- The Propeller used here is of 4 blades of variable pitch A Variable pitch
propeller is a type of propeller with blades that can be rotated around their long axis to
change their pitch If the pitch can be set to negative values, the reversible propeller can also
create reverse thrust for braking or pointing backwards without the need of changing the
direction of shaft revolutions.
2. Compressor- The Compressor used here is of Centrifugal Type. The idealized compressive
dynamic turbo-machine achieves a pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity to a
continuous flow of fhuid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted
to an increase in potential energy/static pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser. The
pressure rise in impeller is in most cases aljnost equal to the rise in the diffuser section This
engine has a 2 stage compressor system
3) Combustor- In this type of Engine, Can type of Combustion Chamber is used. This has 7
cans where 3 and 7 Can have ignitors while all cans have burners. The numbering is done
anticlock wise from top. Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers
Each "can" has its own fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing The primary air from the
compressor is guided into each individual can, where it is decelerated, mixed with fuel, and
ignited. The secondary air also comes from the compressor, where it is fed outside of the liner
of which is where the combustion is taking place. The secondary air is then fed through slits
in the liner, into the combustion zone to cool the liner via thin film and two spark igniters
lights the fuel air mixture.
4) Turbine- This engine has a 3-stage axial Turbine System. The first is High Pressure (HP)
Turbine followed by Intermediate Pressure (IP) and Low Pressure (LP). A turbine is a rotary
mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. A
turbine is a turbo machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a
shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and
impart rotational energy to the rotor.
These turbine assembly includes six major items.
1) Turbine inlet casing
2. Turbine rear bearing support
3. Turbine rotor
4. Rear turbine scavenge oil pump
5. Turbine vane casing
6. Turbine vane assemblies
5) Accessory drive housing- The accessory drive housing assembly is mounted on the bottom
of the compressor air inlet housing. It includes the necessary gear trains for driving all power
section driven accessories at their proper RPM in relation to engine RPM. Power for driving
the gear trains is taken from the compressor extension shaft by a vertical shaft gear. The
following are typical accessories.
1. Speed-sensitive control
2. Speed-sensitive valve
3. Oil pump
4. Fuel control
5. Fuel pump
6. External scavenge oil pump
A number of non-driven accessories and components are typically furnished with the
engine these may be broadly classified into fuel, air bleed. ignition, oil, and torque meter s
Fuel System
6. SHAKTI ENGINE :
The Shakti Engine is a free turbine Turbo shaft engine and have is radial air intake and a two-
stage centrifugal compressor driven by a single stage axial gas generator turbine. These
engines are used in Dhruv. Helicopter.
The Shakti Engine is divided into Modular Concept like Adour. It has three modules:
1. Reduction Gear Box- It consists of Reduction Gear Box with helical gear, accessory device
and output shaft. It features a dual channel FADEC. It stands for Full Authority Digital
Engine Control. FADEC is a system consisting of digital computer, called an electronic
engine controller (EEC) or engine control unit (ECU), and its related accessories that control
all aspects of aircraft engine performance. It reduces the Complexity of the piping system and
reduces the weight considerably. It has control system software which matches its single
engine application on the helicopter. It also comes along with an additional back up channel
to provide extra safety margin for single engine operation
2. Gas Generator- This module consists of two stage Centrifugal Compressor, annular
reverse flow combustion Chamber and a single stage axial turbine. A reverse flow
combustion chamber includes an annular chamber enclosed between flame tube wall sections
to which cooling air is so supplied from an outer annular channel acted upon with secondary
air opposite the main flow direction in the flame tube in such a manner that the cooling air
that it is blown out in the opposite flow direction film-like against an adjoining flame tube
wall. So this helps in decreasing the length of the engine.
3. Power Turbine- The module 3 consists of two stage axial turbine. A set of static guide
vanes or nozzle vanes accelerates and adds swirl to the fluid and directs it to the next row of
turbine blades mounted on a turbine rotor.
The air enters the engine through the inlet which is covered with grids to avoid FOD. After
that, the air enters Module 2, compression and combustion takes place and then finally it
moves to Module 3 through which it leaves as an exhaust. The exhaust accounts for pretty
low thrust, since most of it is used to drive the shaft through Module 1. It does not contain
any cambox. The FCU is the brain of the Engine and FP is the heart of the engine. The
Compressor Shaft and Turbine shaft rotates in the opposite directions to avoid vibration in the
Engine. The use of FADEC reduces the complexity and the weight of the engine thus making
it advanced .
7. ARTOUSTE III B
.
Fig 8.1: Garrett engine.
The Garrett TPE 331-5 Turbo prop Engine is being manufactured, overhauled and repaired
for various Customers under license from Garrett Engine Division of Honey Well Company
and belongs to one of the most popular series of small Turbo prop Engines powering a large
number of Commuter and Corporate Aircraft such as Dornier DO-228.
Being a reverse flow Gas Turbine with a small frontal area, it has better dry specifics
and easier airframe integration. Apart from its simplicity of design and superior performance,
the engine features a propeller control system, anti-icing and foreign object damage
resistance, reverse thrust and negative torque sensing facilities.
Main Characteristic
2 stage centrifugal compressor
3 stage turbine
Compressor ratio 10:1
Main shaft speed – 41730rpm
Output shaft speed – 1591rpm
9.PLASMA SPRAY
Thermal spraying techniques are coating processes in which melted (or heated) materials are
sprayed onto a surface. The "feedstock" (coating precursor) is heated by electrical (plasma or
arc) or chemical means (combustion flame).
Thermal spraying can provide thick coatings (approx. thickness range is 20 microns to
several mm, depending on the process and feedstock), over a large area at high deposition
rate as compared to other coating processes such as electroplating, physical and chemical
vapor deposition. Coating materials available for thermal spraying include metals, alloys,
ceramics, plastics and composites. They are fed in powder or wire form, heated to a molten or
semi molten state and accelerated towards substrates in the form of micrometer-size particles.
Combustion or electrical arc discharge is usually used as the source of energy for thermal
spraying. Resulting coatings are made by the accumulation of numerous sprayed particles.
The surface may not heat up significantly, allowing the coating of flammable substances.
Coating quality is usually assessed by measuring its porosity, oxide content, macro and
micro-hardness, bond strength and surface roughness. Generally, the coating quality increases
with increasing particle velocities.
The detonation gun consists of a long water-cooled barrel with inlet valves for gases and
powder. Oxygen and fuel (acetylene most common) are fed into the barrel along with a
charge of powder. A spark is used to ignite the gas mixture, and the resulting detonation heats
and accelerates the powder to supersonic velocity through the barrel. A pulse of nitrogen is
used to purge the barrel after each detonation. This process is repeated many times a second.
The high kinetic energy of the hot powder particles on impact with the substrate results in a
buildup of a very dense and strong coating.
PLASMA SPRAYING
Deposit properties
The deposits consist of a multitude of pancake-like 'splats' called lamellae, formed by
flattening of the liquid droplets. As the feedstock powders typically have sizes from
micrometers to above 100 micrometers, the lamellae have thickness in the micrometer range
and lateral dimension from several to hundreds of micrometers. Between these lamellae, there
are small voids, such as pores, cracks and regions of incomplete bonding. As a result of this
unique structure, the deposits can have properties significantly different from bulk materials.
These are generally mechanical properties, such as lower strength and modulus,
higher strain tolerance, and lower thermal and electrical conductivity. Also, due to the rapid
solidification, metastable phases can be present in the deposits.
Applications
This technique is mostly used to produce coatings on structural materials. Such coatings
provide protection against high temperatures (for example thermal barrier
coatings for exhaust heat management), corrosion, erosion, wear; they can also change the
appearance, electrical or tribological properties of the surface, replace worn material, etc.
When sprayed on substrates of various shapes and removed, free-standing parts in the form of
plates, tubes, shells, etc. can be produced. It can also be used for powder processing
(spheroidization, homogenization, modification of chemistry, etc.). In this case, the substrate
for deposition is absent and the particles solidify during flight or in a controlled environment
(e.g., water). This technique with variation may also be used to create porous structures,
suitable for bone ingrowth, as a coating for medical implants. A polymer dispersion aerosol
can be injected into the plasma discharge in order to create a grafting of this polymer on to a
substrate surface. This application is mainly used to modify the surface chemistry of
polymers.
SPRAYING ENVIRONMENT
atmospheric plasma spraying (APS), performed in ambient air
controlled atmosphere plasma spraying (CAPS), usually performed in a closed
chamber, either filled with inert gas or evacuated
variations of CAPS: high-pressure plasma spraying (HPPS), low-pressure plasma
spraying (LPPS), the extreme case of which is vacuum plasma spraying (VPS, see
below)
underwater plasma spraying
Another variation consists of having a liquid feedstock instead of a solid powder for
melting, this technique is known as Solution precursor plasma spray.
Vacuum plasma spraying (VPS) is a technology for etching and surface modification to
create porous layers with high reproducibility and for cleaning and surface engineering of
plastics, rubbers and natural fibers as well as for replacing CFCs for cleaning metal
components. This surface engineering can improve properties such as frictional
behavior, heat resistance, surface electrical conductivity, lubricity, cohesive strength of films,
or dielectric constant, or it can make materials hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
The process typically operates at 39–120 °C to avoid thermal damage. It can induce non-
thermally activated surface reactions, causing surface changes which cannot occur with
molecular chemistries at atmospheric pressure. Plasma processing is done in a controlled
environment inside a sealed chamber at a medium vacuum, around 13–65 Pa. The gas or
mixture of gases is energized by an electrical field from DC to microwave frequencies,
typically 1–500 W at 50 V. The treated components are usually electrically isolated. The
volatile plasma by-products are evacuated from the chamber by the vacuum pump, and if
necessary can be neutralized in an exhaust scrubber.
Wire arc spray is a form of thermal spraying where two consumable metal wires are fed
independently into the spray gun. These wires are then charged and an arc is generated
between them. The heat from this arc melts the incoming wire, which is then entrained in an
air jet from the gun. This entrained molten feedstock is then deposited onto a substrate with
the help of compressed air. This process is commonly used for metallic, heavy coatings.
consisting of ferrite and pearlite for hypo -eutectoid steels and pearlite and cementite for
hypereutectoid steels.
Purpose – Normalizing is done for the following purposes:
(a) To eliminate coarse grain structure which is produced during forging, rolling, etc.
(b) To improve machinability.
(c) To reduce internal stresses.
(d) To improve certain mechanical properties.
Effects Of Normalizing
(a) Normalizing raises the yield point, ultimate tensile strength and impact strength of steel.
(b) Normalized steels are harder and stronger but less ductile than annealed steels with the
same composition.
(c) Reduces the grain size caused by over heating or by slow cooling.
(d) Produces uniform granular structure.
(e) Improves the machineability of the steel.
(f) It prevents the cracking of High Carbon Steel, High Speed Steel and High Tensile Steel,
when these steels are hardened.
4.TEMPERING
Martensite is stable only up to 200ºC. If a piece of steel, which has been hardened, is
subsequently heated to a temperature above 200ºC, the decomposition of martensite will start
taking place. This decomposition is in the order of troostite first and then sorbite.
Martensite decomposes into troostite, which is a finely dispersed mixture of cementite and
ferrite, in the temperature ranges of 200-300ºC. Tempering at temperature between 500-
600ºC will lead to the formation of the globular structure of sorbite.
The object of tempering is to remove excessive brittleness and induce toughness.
5. ANNEALING
Annealing is one of the most important heat treatment operation applied to steel. It is the
process of heating the material in a furnace to a point not exceeding 50° above its upper
critical point and maintaining the material at that temperature for a considerable time (5-20
minutes). The rate of cooling is to be maintained at 150-200ºC per hour.
affected area can vary in carbon content. Longer carburizing times and higher temperatures
typically increase the depth of carbon diffusion. When the iron or steel is cooled rapidly
by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard due to the
transformation from austenite to martensite, while the core remains soft and tough as
a ferritic and/or pearlite microstructure.
Addition of carbon to low carbon steels is done at a temperature between 8500 C to
9500 C and then followed by hardening to increase the wear and fatigue resistance.
9.WELDING:
Welding is a material joining process performed by application of heat with or
without pressure and addition of filler material. Construction of large ships, bridges, huge
buildings, railways, roadways, automotive and aircraft construction, pipe lines, tanks and
vessels, machinery parts depend a lot on welding technology.
9.1 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS welding (TIG)
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc welding
process in which arc is generated between non consumable tungsten electrode and work
piece. The tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded by an inert gas normally argon
and helium.
The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of critical
components which require controlled heat input. The small intense heat source provided by
the tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting of the material. Since the electrode
is not consumed during the process, as with the MIG or MMA welding processes, welding
without filler material can be done without the need for continual compromise between the
heat input from the arc and the melting of the filler metal. As the filler metal, when required,
can be added directly to the weld pool from a separate wire feed system or manually, all
aspects of the process can be precisely and independently controlled i.e. the degree of melting
of the parent metal is determined by the welding current with respect to the welding speed,
whilst the degree of weld bead reinforcement is determined by the rate at which the filler wire
is added to the weld pool.
b) Seam welding
Seam welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal sheets in continuous, often
leak tight, seam joints by directly applying opposing forces with electrodes consisting of
rotary wheels. The current and the heat generation are localized by the peripheral shapes of
the electrode wheels.
Seam welding is mostly applied in manufacturing of casing of compressors and turbine etc.
Working
Its working can be summarized as follow.
First the electron gun, which is a cathode, produces electrons. These electrons move towards
anode which is positive charged and placed right after electron gun.
The anode accelerates the electrons and form a electron jet which is further move towards
magnetic lenses.
The magnetic lenses are a series of lenses which are used to absorb low energy electrons and
does not allow to divergent electron to passes through it. It provides a high intense electron
jet.
Now this electron beam passes through electromagnetic lens and defecting coil which are
used to focus and deflect the electron beam at the required spot. This unit direct high velocity
electron beam to the weld cavity where its kinetic energy converts into heat energy due to
collision. This heat energy is used to create weld by fusion. This whole welding process
carried out in a vacuum chamber otherwise the electrons collides with air particle in the way
and loses its energy.
Observation:
1. SCIAKY:
Type : low voltage EBW.
Voltage required : 60KV
Bean current : 500 mA
Chamber size : 9.8 m3
Components welded : stages of compressors
Vaccum level : 5*10^-4 m-bar
Stroke length : X=+/- 530 mm, Y=+/-225 mm
Accuracy : 25 microns
Rotary axis : 5 rpm
2. STEIGERWALD
Type : High voltage EBW
Bean current : 100 mA
Voltage required : 150KV
Components welded : NGV
10. 3D PRINTING
EOS M 400:
The EOS M 400 is a giant metal printer made for the production of large metal parts.
The EOS M 400 prints with metal powders using a 1 kW laser. While not stated specifically
in the promotional materials, the printer most likely uses DMLS technology (a staple of EOS’
systems).
The EOS M 400 is a great machine for a number of reasons. The 1 kW laser is incredibly
powerful and it’s coating system recoats from both sides reducing print time significantly.
The printer itself has a print area of 400 x 400 x 400 mm. While the EOS M 400 has a single
laser, it’s sister the M 400-4 has 4 400 watt fiber lasers.
The metal printer consists of a bunch of modules with unique purposes. This approach allows
users to easily move the print over from module to module as the necessary stage of
production evolves. It also has an automated filter system that keeps it clean and tidy.
Another interesting feature of this machine is that it can print directly from CAD software
without the need of any additional tools. Aside from STL files it also has converters for any
standard format data. The EOS M 400 can process light metals to stainless and tool steels to
superalloys.
Specs:
Specs Description
approx. 90 μm (0.0035
Focus diameter
in)
Approx. 4,635 kg
Weight
(10,218 lb)
EOSPRINT, EOS RP
Tools; EOSTATE;
Software Materialise Magics RP
with SG+ and further
modules
STL, optional:
CAD Interface converter for all
standard formats
Network Ethernet
leakage is capable of attracting finely divided particles of magnetic materials that in turn form
an indication of the discontinuity.
The processes involved are:
1. Pre- Cleaning
2. Demagnetize
3. Cellular Magnetization (Simultaneously applying Magnetic Ink)
4. Inspect
5. Demagnetize
Magnetic particle testing is used on weld elements, forged parts castings, turbine blades
aircraft engine. In the process of magnetizing the material, liquid of iron oxide is poured
continuously on it to act as a penetrant. The current is then set, after that iron powder is
spilled on the magnetized material and it is viewed under UV light to see any discontinuity in
magnetic flux.
Anodizing
It is an electrochemical process that converts the metal surface into a decorative, durable,
corrosion-resistant, anodic oxide finish. Aluminium is ideally suited to anodizing, although
other non-ferrous metals, such as magnesium and titanium, also can be anodized.
Cadmium plating:
Cadmium is a soft white metal that, when plated onto steel, cast iron, malleable iron, copper,
and powdered metal, functions as a "sacrificial coating," corroding before the substrate
material to enhance the corrosion protection of cadmium plating, chromate conversion
coatings can be applied over the plated metal.
Silver plating is a corrosion resistant coating that can be plated on steel, aluminium, copper,
bronze and stainless-steel alloys. Because of silver's conductivity and excellent solderability,
it is often plated onto electrical components.
It is widely used in the aerospace industry on engine turbine components for its outstanding
lubricity, even at high temperatures. For the same reason, it is sometimes used as a break-in
coating on gears.
Example: turbine fasteners & components, bearing surfaces, rotorcraft gears and others.
4) DMU 60 MONOBLOCK:
5 axes impeller machine.
Stroke length: X= 730 mm, Y=560 mm, B=-1200/300, Z=560 mm, C= 3600
Except turning all operations can be carried out.
Parts machined: impeller and other complex parts
Integrated motor spindle speed: 18000 rpm
Positional accuracy for liner axes: 0.007mm
CAM software: openmind hypermill
5) BRIDGEPORT FGC 2:
Name: Wiper grinding cell.
Type: 5 axes grinding machine.
Parts machined: NGV’S of ADOUR engine
Loading system: Robotic loading system.
Grinding wheel material: aluminum Oxide
Includes Integrated CMM
Stroke length: X= 800 mm, Y=600 mm, Z= 510 mm, A= 3600, B= +/- 900
Feed rate: 32000 mm/min
Table dimension: 1400*650 mm
Spindle speed : 8000 rpm
6) MILLTURN TECHNOLOGIES
M/C: 9- axis
ATC consists of 100 tools
Parts machined: Pre turbine shaft (shakti engine)
Operations: threading, turning, slotting, drilling
Specialty: complete machining without manual intervention whether turning, drilling,
drilling deep, outer and inner toothed and automatic verification of the part
maintaining minimum tolerances.
Observation:
2. Capstan Lathe:
All Turning operations can be done but thread cutting cannot be done.
Accuracy : +0.05 mm.
Feed rate : 0.1-0.5 mm/rev.
cutter. The cutting wheel is composed of many small grains bonded togethe, each one acting
as a miniature cutting poin
Types of grinders
Cylindrical grinders
Centerless grinders
Internal grinders
Surface grinding
OD grinding
ID grinding
Observation :
1. Internal diameter(ID) grinding machine:
Manufacturing Company: WOTAN, Germany.
Operations carried : OD grinding to some extent, ID grinding, Face grinding.
Grinding wheels : Aluminium oxide for hard materials and Silicon carbide wheel for
soft materials.
Maximum speed : 25000 rpm
Work head Maximum speed : 500 rpm
Components machined : Axial compressor casing, Centrifugal compressor casing,
NGV (3 stages).
Feed rate : 1 division 2 microns.
Accuracy: Less than 10 microns.
Coolant : Blazer cut or Soluble oil.
Observation:
1. Chirrango Milling machine.
Company : Turbomeca
No. of tools : 16
All the tools run at time and in circular manner.
It is a special purpose machine.
Component manufactured: Turbine assembly of Artouste.
Accuracy : +0.05 mm
Maximum speed : 1000 rpm
Observation :
Name : Radial drilling machine.
Company : HMT Ltd.
Motions are motor controlled.
Operations carried : Drilling, reaming and tapping.
Jigs are used.
Maximum speed : 1700 rpm
Minimum speed : 40 rpm
Auto feed featured.
Components machined: Gear box of Garret engine, HPT drum and LPT shaft.
Accuracy : 0.05 mm
knockers"), a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs.
16. CONCLUSION
The course of internship had been beneficial. It has helped a lot in gaining technical
part of our curriculum and boosting confidence of our academics. Being a part of HAL as an
intern had been unique experience. Here in HAL we had been through various steps included
in types of engines, working, assembly, engine testing, machine shop, inspection shop,
process shop, CNC shop, cellular shop etc.
It was an amazing experience of learning and understanding about the types of engine
and steps involved in designing engines. We are really very thankful to all the operators, staff
and in charge of all the divisions for their valuable time and being patience with us. We also
thank all the staffs of HAL, Bangalore for their support and guidance to accomplish this
internship successfully.
17. REFERENCES:
1. www.hal.india.com
2. www.aeroengines.com
3. Rolls Royce Hand book of Aircraft.
4. C W Smith’s “AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE”.
5. Sorenson’s “GAS TURBINES”.
6. Sarvan’s Muttus “GAS TURBINE THEORY”.