Aircraft Engines 2018-19

Acknowledgement
We have taken efforts in this internship. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of many individuals and organizations. We would like to
extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
We are highly indebted to Mr. M PURUSHOTHAM REDDY test house
department, engine division, HAL for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for
providing necessary information regarding the In plant training & also for their support in
completing the Internship.
We consider it privilege to express our heartfelt gratitude and respect to
Mr.MANIMARAN, mfg. manager process shop engine division, HAL whose kind co-
operation and encouragement which help us in completion of this Internship.
We would like to show our gratitude to MS.RAMYA P, Assissent professor, EEE,
SVCE, Bangalore for his constant support and encouragement.
We would like to express our gratitude towards Mr.L RAMESH KUMAR, machine
shop HAL, our parents & members of HAL Engine Division for their kind co-operation and
encouragement which help me in completion of this Internship.
We would like to express our special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for
giving us such attention and time.

1.HISTORY OF HAL

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Hindustan aeronautics limited (HAL) came into existence on 1st October 1964. The
company was found by merger of Hindustan aircraft limited and aircraft manufacturing
depot, Kanpur.
The company traces its roots to the pioneering efforts of an industrialist with
extraordinary vision, the late SETH WALCHAND HIRACHAND who set up Hindustan
aircraft limited at Bangalore in association with the erstwhile princely state of Mysore in
December 1940. The government of India became a shareholder in March, 1941 and took
over management in 1942.
Today, HAL has 16 production units and 9 research design centers in location in
India. The company has an impressive product track record-12 types of manufactured with in
– house R&D &14 types of produced under license. HAL has manufactured 3350 aircraft,
3600 engines & overhauled over 8150 aircraft & 27300 engines.
HAL has been successful in numerous R&D programs developed for both defense &
civil aviation sectors. HAL has made substantial progress in its current projects.
 Dhruv, which is advanced light helicopter
 Tejas – light combat aircraft
 Intermediate jet trainee
 Various military & civil aviation
Dhruv was delivered to the Indian army, navy, air force and the coast guards in March
2002, in the first year & its production, a unique achievement.
HAL has played a significant role for India’s space programs by participating in the
manufacture of structure for satellite launch vehicle like
 PSLV (polar satellite launch vehicle)
 GSLV (Geo stationary launch vehicle)
 IRS (Indian remote satellite)
 INSAT (Indian national satellite)
3 joint venture companies with HAL `
 BACHAL software limited
 Indo-Russian Aviation limited
 Snecma HAL Aerospace private limited
Apart from these three, other major diversification projects are industrial marine gas
turbine and airport services. Several co-production and joint ventures with international
participation is under consideration.

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HAL’s supplies / services are mainly to Indian defense services coast guards and boarder
security forces.
Transport aircraft and helicopter have also been supplied to airlines as well as state
government of India. The company has also achieved a foothold in export in more than 30
countries having demonstrated its quality and price competitiveness.
HAL has won several international and national awards for achievements in R&D
technology, management performance, exports energy conservation, quality and fulfillment
of social responsibilities.
HAL has awarded the “international gold medal award” for corporate achievement in
quality and efficiency at the international summit (global rating leaders, 2003) ,London, UK
by m/s global rating and UK in conjunction with international information and marketing
center(IIMC).
HAL was awarded international “ARCH OF EUROPE” awarded in global category in
recognition for its commitment to quality, leadership, technology and innovation.
At the national level HAL won the “GOLD TROPY” for the excellence in public sector
management, instituted by standing conference by public enterprises (SCOPE).

1.1 ENGINE DIVISON BANGALORE:

The engine division which is ISO-9002 certified was set up in 1957 to manufacture
Orpheus turbo jet engines under license from ROLLS ROYCE. In 1959 another license
agreement was signed with Rolls Royce to manufacture DART engines to power HS-748
passenger aircraft and overhaul AVON engines fitted on Canberra and hunter aircraft. Since
then the division has grown from strength to strength. It is now engaged in the manufacture
of ARTOUSTE engines for CHETAK/CHEETA helicopter, ADOUR engines for JAGUAR
aircraft and GARRET engines for DORNIER aircraft. Engine division also undertakes repair
and overhaul of various aero engines operated by Indian air force, Indian navy, Indian army,
coast guard, boarder security force, corporate sector, state government and other civil
customers. The engine has manufactured more than 2100 aero engines and overhauled 11000
engines.
The engine division during four decades of its existence has acquired state of art
technologies for manufacture, repair and overhaul of engines. It has a well equipped CNC
shop comprising over 25 machine tools. Facilities also include electron beam welding,
vacuum brazing, electric discharge/chemical forming machines and others. The division has

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also set up shops for special coating processes to combat temperature and atmospheric
conditions, protection corrosion conditions, protection against surface erosions, such as
plasma spray, aluminium silicon diffusion coating, sermetal coating.
Aero engine research and design center which is part of the engine test bed. The
AERDC is equipped with necessary modern infrastructure. The R&D center has developed a
gas turbine for pilotless target aircraft and jet fuel starter for starting the engine of light
combat aircraft. The R&D center has also designed and installed engine test bed.

2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 GAS TURBINES:

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A more technical name for a jet engine is a gas turbine, and although it's not
immediately obvious what that means, it's actually a much better description of how an
engine like this really works. A jet engine works by burning fuel in air to release hot exhaust
gas. But where a car engine uses the explosions of exhaust to push its pistons, a jet engine
forces the gas past the blades of a windmill-like spinning wheel (a turbine), making it rotate.
So, in a jet engine, exhaust gas powers a turbine—hence the name gas turbine.

2.2 ACTION AND REACTION:

When we talk about jet engines, we to tend think of rocket-like tubes that fire exhaust
gas backward. Another basic bit of physics, Newton's third law of motion, tells us that as a jet
engine's exhaust gas shoots back, the plane itself must move forward. It's exactly like a
skateboarder kicking back on the pavement to go forward; in a jet engine, it's the exhaust gas
that provides the "Thrust". In everyday words, the action (the force of the exhaust gas
shooting backward) is equal and opposite to the reaction (the force of the plane moving
forward); the action moves the exhaust gas, while the reaction moves the plane.

2.3 BRAYTON CYCLE:

Gas turbines are also Brayton engines. This also has three components: a gas
compressor, a burner (or combustion chamber), and an expansion turbine.
Ideal Brayton cycle:
1. Isentropic process – ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is pressurized.
2. isobaric process – the compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where
fuel is burned, heating that air—a constant-pressure process, since the chamber is
open to flow in and out.
3. Isentropic process – the heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy, expanding
through a turbine (or series of turbines). Some of the work extracted by the turbine is
used to drive the compressor.
4. Isobaric process – heat rejection (in the atmosphere).

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Fig 2.1: Block, P v and T S diagram of Brayton cycle.

2.4. JET ENGINE:

A jet engine is a type of reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that
generates thrust by jet propulsion.
2.41. HOW JET ENGINE WORKS:
1. For a jet going slower than the speed of sound, the engine is moving through the air at about
1000 km/h (600 mph). We can think of the engine as being stationary and the cold air moving
toward it at this speed.
2. A fan at the front sucks the cold air into the engine and forces it through the inlet. This slows
the air down by about 60 percent and its speed is now about 400 km/h (240 mph).

Fig 2.2: Parts of a Jet engine.

3. A second fan called a compressor squeezes the air (increases its pressure) by about eight
times, and this dramatically increases its temperature.
4. Kerosene (liquid fuel) is squirted into the engine from a fuel tank in the plane's wing.

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5. In the combustion chamber, just behind the compressor, the kerosene mixes with the
compressed air and burns fiercely, giving off hot exhaust gases and producing a huge
increase in temperature. The burning mixture reaches a temperature of around 900°C
(1650°F).
6. The exhaust gases rush past a set of turbine blades, spinning them like a windmill. Since the
turbine gains energy, the gases must lose the same amount of energy—and they do so by
cooling down slightly and losing pressure.
7. The turbine blades are connected to a long axle (represented by the middle gray line) that
runs the length of the engine. The compressor and the fan are also connected to this axle. So,
as the turbine blades spin, they also turn the compressor and the fan.
8. The hot exhaust gases exit the engine through a tapering exhaust nozzle. Just as water
squeezed through a narrow pipe accelerates dramatically into a fast jet (think of what happens
in a water pistol), the tapering design of the exhaust nozzle helps to accelerate the gases to a
speed of over 2100 km/h (1300 mph). So the hot air leaving the engine at the back is
traveling over twice the speed of the cold air entering it at the front—and that's what powers
the plane. Military jets often have an after burner that squirts fuel into the exhaust jet to
produce extra thrust. The backward-moving exhaust gases power the jet forward. Because the
plane is much bigger and heavier than the exhaust gases it produces, the exhaust gases have
to zoom backward much faster than the plane's own speed.

2.42 TYPES OF JET ENGINES

1) TURBOJET ENGINE:

Fig 2.3: Turbojet

The basic idea of the turbojet engine is simple. Air taken in from an opening in the
front of the engine is compressed to 3 to 12 times its original pressure in the compressor. Fuel
is added to the air and burned in a combustion chamber to raise the temperature of the fluid

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mixture to about 1,100 F to 1,300 F. The resulting hot air is passed through a turbine, which
drives the compressor.
If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the turbine discharge will
be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure, and this excess pressure is sent to the nozzle to
produce a high-velocity stream of gas which produces a thrust. Substantial increases in thrust
can be obtained by employing an afterburner. It is a second combustion chamber positioned
after the turbine and before the nozzle. The afterburner increases the temperature of the gas
ahead of the nozzle. The result of this increase in temperature is an increase of about 40
percent in thrust at takeoff and a much larger percentage at high speeds once the plane is in
the air.
The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding gasses push
hard against the front of the engine. The turbojet sucks in air and compresses or squeezes it.
The gasses flow through the turbine and make it spin. These gasses bounce back and shoot
out of the rear of the exhaust, pushing the plane forward.

2) TURBOPROP JET ENGINE:

A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The turbine at the back is turned by
the hot gasses, and this turns a shaft that drives the propeller. Some small airliners and
transport aircraft are powered by turboprops.

.
Fig 2.4: Turboprop
Like the turbojet, the turboprop engine consists of a compressor, combustion
chamber, and turbine, the air and gas pressure is used to run the turbine, which then creates
power to drive the compressor. Compared with a turbojet engine, the turboprop has better
propulsion efficiency at flight speeds below about 500 miles per hour. Modern turboprop
engines are equipped with propellers that have a smaller diameter but a larger number of
blades for efficient operation at much higher flight speeds. To accommodate the higher flight

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speeds, the blades are scimitar-shaped with swept-back leading edges at the blade tips.
Engines featuring such propellers are called propfans.
Hungarian, Gyorgy Jendrassik who worked for the Ganz wagon works in Budapest
designed the very first working turboprop engine in 1938. Called the Cs-1, Jendrassik’s
engine was first tested in August of 1940; the Cs-1 was abandoned in 1941 without going into
production due to the War. Max Mueller designed the first turboprop engine that went into
production in 1942.

3) TURBOFAN JET ENGINE:

Fig 2.5 Turbofan

A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air. Most of the air flows
around the outside of the engine, making it quieter and giving more thrust at low speeds.
Most of today's airliners are powered by turbofans. In a turbojet, all the air entering the intake
passes through the gas generator, which is composed of the compressor, combustion
chamber, and turbine. In a turbofan engine, only a portion of the incoming air goes into the
combustion chamber.
The remainder passes through a fan, or low-pressure compressor, and is ejected
directly as a "cold" jet or mixed with the gas-generator exhaust to produce a "hot" jet. The
objective of this sort of bypass system is to increase thrust without increasing fuel
consumption. It achieves this by increasing the total air-mass flow and reducing the velocity
within the same total energy supply.

4) TURBOSHAFT ENGINES: This is another form of gas-turbine engine that operates

much like a turboprop system. It does not drive a propeller. Instead, it provides power for a
helicopter rotor.

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Fig 2.6: Turboprop

The turboshaft engine is designed so that the speed of the helicopter rotor is
independent of the rotating speed of the gas generator. This permits the rotor speed to be kept
constant even when the speed of the generator is varied to modulate the amount of power
produced.

5) RAMJETS:

Fig 2.7: Ramjet

Ramjet Engine is the simplest jet engine has no moving parts. The speed of the jet
"rams" or forces air into the engine. It is essentially a turbojet in which rotating machinery
has been omitted. Its application is restricted by the fact that its compression ratio depends
wholly on forward speed. The ramjet develops no static thrust and very little thrust in general
below the speed of sound. As a consequence, a ramjet vehicle requires some form of assisted
takeoff, such as another aircraft. It has been used primarily in guided-missile systems. Space
vehicles use this type of jet.

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3.1 ADOUR ENGINE:

The Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour is a two-shaft low bypass turbofan aircraft engine
developed by Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Limited, a joint venture between Rolls-Royce (UK)
and Turbomeca (France). The engine is named after the Adour, a river in south western
France.
Adour Engine is a bypass Jet Engine of modular construction. The Adour has two-stage low
pressure and five-stage high pressure axial flow Compressors which are driven by separate
single stage high pressure and low pressure Turbines connected through co-axial shafts, with
low pressure shaft passing through high pressure shaft.

Fig 3.1: Adour MK 811

Main Characteristics:
 Intake mass flow rate- 42 m/s
 Length - 290 m
 Weight -800 kg
 Thrust-25 KN
 Wet Thrust- 37.6 KN (including the afterburner System)
 SFC -0.8 lb/hr/lb
 By pass Ratio-0.75
 HP speed-104% (100% = 15512 rpm)
 LP speed - 104 % ( 100% = 13600 rpm)
 TET- 1485K
 Compression ratio : 11:1
 Fuel used : Aviation turbine fuel( ATF).

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3.2 MODULAR COMPONENTS OF ADOUR ENGINE :

Module 1. LP COMPRESSOR STAGES - The fluid first enters the fan and then the low-
pressure (LP) compressor, which is usually on the same shaft as the fan. The Low Pressure
compressor consists of one stage titanium rotor blades(27 blades) then one stage aluminium
stator blades then one stage aluminium rotor blades(32 blades). LP compressor is driven by
LP turbine through curvic coupling.

Module 2. LP STATIC COMPRESSOR- This Module only has stator blades which are made
of Aluminium. The stator has a very aggressive blade design that almost completely reverses
the direction of the fluid. Because of this arrangement, the stator cannot spin with the fluid it
can spin only in the opposite direction, forcing the fluid to change direction as it hits the
stator blades.

Module 3. INTERMEDIATE CASING AND INTERNAL GEAR BOX-. Module 3 is where

bypass of air starts and the twin spool concept also starts here It is a low bypass type of
engine.

Module 4. HP COMPRESSOR ASSEMBLY - The High pressure compressor has 5 stage

rotor and 4 stage stator. The rotor blades are titanium while the stator blades are made up of
aluminium. The no. of blades in the Rotors are
1t stage- 41 blades
2nd stage -45 blades
3nd stage 49 blades

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4th stage 47 blades

5th stages -49 blades

Module 5. HP NOZZZLE GUIDE VANES - Nozzle Guide Vanes are placed just after the
Combustion Chamber. It is made of Steel to withstand high temperatures. They are the stator
blades of turbine. They are convex and shaped like airfoils. They direct the airflow onto the
turbine blades while at the same time converting pressure energy into kinetic energy. Gases
coming from the combustion chamber pass through the nozzle guide vanes. where because of
their convergent shape they accelerate. On passing through the NVGs, gases are given a
"spin" or a "swirl" in the direction of the rotation of the turbine rotor blades. The latter absorb
this energy, causing the turbine to rotate at a high speed

Module 6. HP TURBINE- It consists only of one stage. It has 78 Nimonic rotor blades. The
turbine blades are keyed to the disc by “ Fir tree” roots and retained in the position.

Module 7. LP NOZZLE GUIDE VANES CASING, BEARING AND SUPPORT - After

passing through the turbine, the pressure energy has already been converted into Kinetic
Energy. So Low Pressure NGV's are used to guide and accelerate the remaining amount of
flow. LP NGV has 24 blades.

Module 8. LP TURBINE ROTOR DISC AND SHAFT- It also has only one stage. It consists
of 94 rotor blades. Here again, since the flow has been converted into low pressure by NGV,
so that LP turbine is used.

Module 9. EXHAUST MIXER AND CONE- Exhaust Cone are present after the Turbine
Stage to guide the air from the nozzle and accelerate it to gain high Thrust. The exhaust cone
acts as aerodynamic cover for the turbine hub/shaft and is part of the convergent duct
geometry at the very aft of the exhaust that converts the high pressure gas coming off the last
turbine stage into high velocity gas as it exits the engine (creating more thrust).

Module 10. HS GEARBOX- It consists of gear box and many small accessories like LP
pump. HP pump, AC generator, air starter etc. The accessory drive is usually arranged as a
curved casing, so that the various accessories are mounted close to the engine. The casing is a

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pair of light alloy castings. The drive within the casing is provided by a train of spur gears.
Accessories are arranged on both sides of the driveshaft entry, in reducing order of their
speed.

Module 11. FUEL TANK AND FILLET- It consists of oil tank, fuel control unit, re-heat fuel
control unit. Oil control unit has 3 filters oil filter, LP fuel filter, RH fuel filter. Oil System
basically has three functions- a) Reduce Vibration b) Cooling of the Engine Parts c)
Lubrication of the parts such as bearings.

Module 12. AFTERBURNER VAPOUR GUTTER AND MANIFOLD- This module has
catalytic igniters made of platinum and rhodium which are fitted to the afterburner. The
afterburner system has a separate combustion System which is done by ignitors fitted in it.
The Thrust which we obtain after activating the afterburner is called Wet Thrust.

NON MODULAR PARTS OF ADOUR ENGINE.

1. Air intake fairing.
2. Combustion chamber outlet casing.
3. Combustion section.
4. Bypass ducts (front and rear).
5. Exhaust collector/ Jet pipe assembly.

3.3 TESTING OF ADOUR MK. 811 ENGINE:

Engine Parameters measured:
 Base Engine Weight: 794 kg.
 Base Engine Length: 2.90 m.
 Base Engine Diameter: 22.2 inches.
 Thrust(dry): 25 KN .
 Thrust(wet): 37.5 KN.
 Average duration of test- 6:30 hrs.
 Average fuel used- 2000 gallons.

The Parameters recorded during the test were:

1. Pressure:

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 Air meter Static and Total Pressure

 L.P Compressor Delivery Pressure
 H.P Compressor Delivery Pressure
 Jet Pipe Static Pressure
 Fuel Inlet Pressure
 Fuel Burner Pressure
 Fuel Vapour Gutter Pressure
 Main Oil Pressure

2. Temperature:
 Air Intake Temperature
 L.P Compressor Delivery Temperature
 H.P Compressor Delivery Temperature
 Turbine Gas Temperature
 Engine Oil Temperature and Fuel Temperature
3. 4 critical parameters measured are,
 HP Shaft Speed(NH)- 100%(15512rpm)
Observed value- 103.9%
 LP Shaft Speed (NL)– 100%(13600rpm)
Observed value- 100%
 Thrust- 19 KN without afterburner and 28 KN with afterburner.
 Turbine gas temperature : 7760 C
The Thrust is measured using Strain Gauge. Two load cells are connected to the engine
and there s little movement of the engine due to Newton's Third Law (due to exhaust
Velocity) This deflection corresponds to the Thrust produced.
The Tests Conducted to the Engine during this period were:
 L.P Compressor Working Line Setting
 Performance Rating R/H unit
 L.P Compressor Working Line to R/H lit.
 Part Throttle Reheat (PTR) Rating
 Boost Ratio Setting and R/H Performance
 Ballast Resistor Check

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 Handling Check and Pass off Setting

4. ADORE 871

Fig : 4.1 – Adour mk 871

The Adour is a family of turbofan engines developed in conjunction between Rolls-Royce

and Turbomeca. These engines are available with or without afterburner. They were selected
to power Jaguar, Hawk, T-45 Goshawk, Mitsubishi F-1 and T-2 aircraft.

Adour Mk871 engine is one of the most outstanding derivatives of Adour turbofan engine
family. It powers single-engine Hawk 100/200 aircraft. Originally, it was rated at 5,845
pounds of thrust but the latest 871 engines deliver up to 6,000-lb. Adour Mk871 engines are
not provided with afterburner.
Basic Data

Dimensions Wing Data Weight Fuel Capacity Power Plant

Length: 12.43 m Area (Gross): 16.70 m2 Maximum Takeoff: Internal : 360 Imp Galls Rolls Royce Adour MK 871 Turbofan
9100 kg

Wing Span: Sweep (at quarter chord): Basic Mass (Empty): Ext. Drop Tanks: 2 x Static Thrust at sea level: 1 x 25.5 kN
9.940 m 21º 31’ 55” 4,440 Kg 130 Imp Galls (5730 lbf) at sea level ISA
Height: 3.98 m

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Flying Characteristics

 The aircraft has excellent flying characteristics with good stability and response to
controls about all three axes
 The aircraft is cleared for a wide range of aerobatic maneuvers and exhibits very good
resistance to departure even outside the normal flight envelope
 At incidences up to the stall, the aircraft is stable about all axes for all flap
configurations
 Recovery from any stall is immediate on moving the control column forward
 The Hawk Mk.132 wing has a moderate amount of fixed droop to the leading edge to
aid sustained turn performance in the speed range 0.4 to 0.7 M
 The aircraft is spin-resistant, but is cleared for deliberate upright spinning in the basic
aircraft configuration with or without the gunpod
 The aircraft is currently cleared for take-off and landing with a crosswind component
of 30 knots (55 km/hr)
 For solo flying the front cockpit is used
 The aircraft has an inverted flight (negative g) capability of 30 secs
 The aircraft may be flown at night, either dual or solo, without any additional flight
limitations

The Hawk is a tandem-seat Aircraft for ground attack, flying training and weapon training. It
has a low wing and an all-metal structure and is powered by an Adour Mk 871 turbofan
engine. The Aircraft has an integrated navigation /attack system and radio and inertial
navigation systems. The Aircraft is cleared for instrument (IFR) flying and for Solo
Instrument flying from the front cockpit only.

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Fig : 4.2 Hawk

5. DART Mk. 533-2 ENGINE

The Dart series of Engines were manufactured since 1966 under licence from Rolls
Royce, UK At present, these Engines are being repaired and overhauled. Two Dart Engines
power HS-748 aircraft This engine has two-stage Centrifugal Compressors, three- stage
Turbine and utilizes water methanol injection to increase the shaft Horse Power

Fig 5.1: Dart engine.

Its Main Characteristics are
 RPM 15000
 TGT - 750-800°C
 SFC- 0.348 kg/shp-hr
 Weight 628.6 Kg
 Length 2.498 m
 Maximum Diameter 0.967 m
 Power- 533 SHP
Unlike The Adour Engines, Dart Engines are Turboprop Engines and they do not have a
bypass. These Engines are not divided into Modules. These have a Propeller, 2 stage
Compressor, 3 stage Axial Turbine. Again, It has a Centrifugal type of Compressor unlike
Adour which has an Axial Compressor.

1) Propeller- The Propeller used here is of 4 blades of variable pitch A Variable pitch
propeller is a type of propeller with blades that can be rotated around their long axis to
change their pitch If the pitch can be set to negative values, the reversible propeller can also
create reverse thrust for braking or pointing backwards without the need of changing the
direction of shaft revolutions.

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2. Compressor- The Compressor used here is of Centrifugal Type. The idealized compressive
dynamic turbo-machine achieves a pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity to a
continuous flow of fhuid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted
to an increase in potential energy/static pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser. The
pressure rise in impeller is in most cases aljnost equal to the rise in the diffuser section This
engine has a 2 stage compressor system

3) Combustor- In this type of Engine, Can type of Combustion Chamber is used. This has 7
cans where 3 and 7 Can have ignitors while all cans have burners. The numbering is done
anticlock wise from top. Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers
Each "can" has its own fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing The primary air from the
compressor is guided into each individual can, where it is decelerated, mixed with fuel, and
ignited. The secondary air also comes from the compressor, where it is fed outside of the liner
of which is where the combustion is taking place. The secondary air is then fed through slits
in the liner, into the combustion zone to cool the liner via thin film and two spark igniters
lights the fuel air mixture.

4) Turbine- This engine has a 3-stage axial Turbine System. The first is High Pressure (HP)
Turbine followed by Intermediate Pressure (IP) and Low Pressure (LP). A turbine is a rotary
mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. A
turbine is a turbo machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a
shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and
impart rotational energy to the rotor.
These turbine assembly includes six major items.
1) Turbine inlet casing
2. Turbine rear bearing support
3. Turbine rotor
4. Rear turbine scavenge oil pump
5. Turbine vane casing
6. Turbine vane assemblies

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5) Accessory drive housing- The accessory drive housing assembly is mounted on the bottom
of the compressor air inlet housing. It includes the necessary gear trains for driving all power
section driven accessories at their proper RPM in relation to engine RPM. Power for driving
the gear trains is taken from the compressor extension shaft by a vertical shaft gear. The
following are typical accessories.
1. Speed-sensitive control
2. Speed-sensitive valve
3. Oil pump
4. Fuel control
5. Fuel pump
6. External scavenge oil pump
A number of non-driven accessories and components are typically furnished with the
engine these may be broadly classified into fuel, air bleed. ignition, oil, and torque meter s
Fuel System

6. SHAKTI ENGINE :
The Shakti Engine is a free turbine Turbo shaft engine and have is radial air intake and a two-
stage centrifugal compressor driven by a single stage axial gas generator turbine. These
engines are used in Dhruv. Helicopter.

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Fig 6.1 Shakti engine

Its Main Characteristics are :
 Mass: 250 Kg
 Length: 1279 mm
 Breadth: 571 mm
 Height: 707 mm
 SFC: 0.323 Kg/KWh
 Air mass flow: 3.75 kg/sec
 Compression ratio: 12.7:1
 Concept: Modular
 Oil Consumption: 0.2 litres/hr
 Max. Take off Thrust: 1032 Kw (1383 SHP)
 Gas Generator Speed (100 % ) : 39958 rpm
 Power Turbine Speed (100 % ) : 20889 rpm

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The Shakti Engine is divided into Modular Concept like Adour. It has three modules:
1. Reduction Gear Box- It consists of Reduction Gear Box with helical gear, accessory device
and output shaft. It features a dual channel FADEC. It stands for Full Authority Digital
Engine Control. FADEC is a system consisting of digital computer, called an electronic
engine controller (EEC) or engine control unit (ECU), and its related accessories that control
all aspects of aircraft engine performance. It reduces the Complexity of the piping system and
reduces the weight considerably. It has control system software which matches its single
engine application on the helicopter. It also comes along with an additional back up channel
to provide extra safety margin for single engine operation

2. Gas Generator- This module consists of two stage Centrifugal Compressor, annular
reverse flow combustion Chamber and a single stage axial turbine. A reverse flow
combustion chamber includes an annular chamber enclosed between flame tube wall sections
to which cooling air is so supplied from an outer annular channel acted upon with secondary
air opposite the main flow direction in the flame tube in such a manner that the cooling air
that it is blown out in the opposite flow direction film-like against an adjoining flame tube
wall. So this helps in decreasing the length of the engine.

3. Power Turbine- The module 3 consists of two stage axial turbine. A set of static guide
vanes or nozzle vanes accelerates and adds swirl to the fluid and directs it to the next row of
turbine blades mounted on a turbine rotor.

Fig 5.1: Shakthi engine.

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The air enters the engine through the inlet which is covered with grids to avoid FOD. After
that, the air enters Module 2, compression and combustion takes place and then finally it
moves to Module 3 through which it leaves as an exhaust. The exhaust accounts for pretty
low thrust, since most of it is used to drive the shaft through Module 1. It does not contain
any cambox. The FCU is the brain of the Engine and FP is the heart of the engine. The
Compressor Shaft and Turbine shaft rotates in the opposite directions to avoid vibration in the
Engine. The use of FADEC reduces the complexity and the weight of the engine thus making
it advanced .

7. ARTOUSTE III B

Fig 7.1: Artouste III B engine.

Artouste III B Engine powers both Cheetah and Chetak Helicopters. Manufacture of
the Engine commenced in 1962 under licence from Turbomeca, France.
The Engine has side air intake, one axial and one centrifugal compressor connected to
a three-stage Turbine with annular combustion chamber. The power output is 550 SHP at
33500 RPM. The reduction Gearbox in the front transfers the power to Helicopter.
Main Characteristics
 Power on shaft – 405KW (550SHP)
 Residual thrust - 0.558 KN
 SFC - 0.469kg/kw/hr
 Compressor mass flow – 4.5Kg/s
 Pressure ratio – 5.2:1
 Compressor efficiency- 0.759
 Air fuel ratio 45:1
 TET- 7000 C
 Turbine efficiency- 0.862

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 Exhaust gas velocity -95.2m/s

 Nominal speed -33500rpm
 Output shaft speed -5773rpm
 Weight -177kg
 Maximum diameter(m) -0.5
 Length (m) -1.815

8. GARRETT TPE 331-5:

.
Fig 8.1: Garrett engine.
The Garrett TPE 331-5 Turbo prop Engine is being manufactured, overhauled and repaired
for various Customers under license from Garrett Engine Division of Honey Well Company
and belongs to one of the most popular series of small Turbo prop Engines powering a large
number of Commuter and Corporate Aircraft such as Dornier DO-228.

Being a reverse flow Gas Turbine with a small frontal area, it has better dry specifics
and easier airframe integration. Apart from its simplicity of design and superior performance,
the engine features a propeller control system, anti-icing and foreign object damage
resistance, reverse thrust and negative torque sensing facilities.
Main Characteristic
 2 stage centrifugal compressor
 3 stage turbine
 Compressor ratio 10:1
 Main shaft speed – 41730rpm
 Output shaft speed – 1591rpm

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 Primary manifold – 5 fuel spray nozzles

 Secondary manifold -10 fuel spray nozzles
 Maximum Diameter: 0.7m
 Length: 1.11m
 Weight: 164kg
 Shaft horse Power: 840
 Specific Fuel Consumption(kg / shp-hr): 0.268

9.PLASMA SPRAY

Thermal spraying techniques are coating processes in which melted (or heated) materials are
sprayed onto a surface. The "feedstock" (coating precursor) is heated by electrical (plasma or
arc) or chemical means (combustion flame).
Thermal spraying can provide thick coatings (approx. thickness range is 20 microns to
several mm, depending on the process and feedstock), over a large area at high deposition
rate as compared to other coating processes such as electroplating, physical and chemical
vapor deposition. Coating materials available for thermal spraying include metals, alloys,
ceramics, plastics and composites. They are fed in powder or wire form, heated to a molten or
semi molten state and accelerated towards substrates in the form of micrometer-size particles.
Combustion or electrical arc discharge is usually used as the source of energy for thermal
spraying. Resulting coatings are made by the accumulation of numerous sprayed particles.
The surface may not heat up significantly, allowing the coating of flammable substances.
Coating quality is usually assessed by measuring its porosity, oxide content, macro and
micro-hardness, bond strength and surface roughness. Generally, the coating quality increases
with increasing particle velocities.

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Fig : 9.1 manual plasma spray

 A typical thermal spray system consists of the following:

 Spray torch (or spray gun) – the core device performing the melting and acceleration
of the particles to be deposited
 Feeder – for supplying the powder, wire or liquid to the torch through tubes.
 Media supply – gases or liquids for the generation of the flame or plasma jet, gases
for carrying the powder, etc.
 Robot – for manipulating the torch or the substrates to be coated
 Power supply – often standalone for the torch
 Control console

THERMAL SPRAYING PROCESS

The detonation gun consists of a long water-cooled barrel with inlet valves for gases and
powder. Oxygen and fuel (acetylene most common) are fed into the barrel along with a
charge of powder. A spark is used to ignite the gas mixture, and the resulting detonation heats
and accelerates the powder to supersonic velocity through the barrel. A pulse of nitrogen is
used to purge the barrel after each detonation. This process is repeated many times a second.
The high kinetic energy of the hot powder particles on impact with the substrate results in a
buildup of a very dense and strong coating.

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PLASMA SPRAYING

In plasma spraying process, the material to be deposited (feedstock) — typically as a powder,

sometimes as a liquid, suspension or wire — is introduced into the plasma jet, emanating
from a plasma torch. In the jet, where the temperature is on the order of 10,000 K, the
material is melted and propelled towards a substrate. There, the molten droplets flatten,
rapidly solidify and form a deposit. Commonly, the deposits remain adherent to the substrate
as coatings; free-standing parts can also be produced by removing the substrate. There are a
large number of technological parameters that influence the interaction of the particles with
the plasma jet and the substrate and therefore the deposit properties. These parameters
include feedstock type, plasma gas composition and flow rate, energy input, torch offset
distance, substrate cooling, etc.

Fig : 9.2 plasma gun

Deposit properties
The deposits consist of a multitude of pancake-like 'splats' called lamellae, formed by
flattening of the liquid droplets. As the feedstock powders typically have sizes from
micrometers to above 100 micrometers, the lamellae have thickness in the micrometer range
and lateral dimension from several to hundreds of micrometers. Between these lamellae, there
are small voids, such as pores, cracks and regions of incomplete bonding. As a result of this
unique structure, the deposits can have properties significantly different from bulk materials.
These are generally mechanical properties, such as lower strength and modulus,
higher strain tolerance, and lower thermal and electrical conductivity. Also, due to the rapid
solidification, metastable phases can be present in the deposits.

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Applications

This technique is mostly used to produce coatings on structural materials. Such coatings
provide protection against high temperatures (for example thermal barrier
coatings for exhaust heat management), corrosion, erosion, wear; they can also change the
appearance, electrical or tribological properties of the surface, replace worn material, etc.
When sprayed on substrates of various shapes and removed, free-standing parts in the form of
plates, tubes, shells, etc. can be produced. It can also be used for powder processing
(spheroidization, homogenization, modification of chemistry, etc.). In this case, the substrate
for deposition is absent and the particles solidify during flight or in a controlled environment
(e.g., water). This technique with variation may also be used to create porous structures,
suitable for bone ingrowth, as a coating for medical implants. A polymer dispersion aerosol
can be injected into the plasma discharge in order to create a grafting of this polymer on to a
substrate surface. This application is mainly used to modify the surface chemistry of
polymers.

SPRAYING ENVIRONMENT
 atmospheric plasma spraying (APS), performed in ambient air
 controlled atmosphere plasma spraying (CAPS), usually performed in a closed
chamber, either filled with inert gas or evacuated
 variations of CAPS: high-pressure plasma spraying (HPPS), low-pressure plasma
spraying (LPPS), the extreme case of which is vacuum plasma spraying (VPS, see
below)
 underwater plasma spraying

 Another variation consists of having a liquid feedstock instead of a solid powder for
melting, this technique is known as Solution precursor plasma spray.

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Vacuum plasma spraying

Fig :9.3Vacuum plasma spraying

Vacuum plasma spraying (VPS) is a technology for etching and surface modification to
create porous layers with high reproducibility and for cleaning and surface engineering of
plastics, rubbers and natural fibers as well as for replacing CFCs for cleaning metal
components. This surface engineering can improve properties such as frictional
behavior, heat resistance, surface electrical conductivity, lubricity, cohesive strength of films,
or dielectric constant, or it can make materials hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
The process typically operates at 39–120 °C to avoid thermal damage. It can induce non-
thermally activated surface reactions, causing surface changes which cannot occur with
molecular chemistries at atmospheric pressure. Plasma processing is done in a controlled
environment inside a sealed chamber at a medium vacuum, around 13–65 Pa. The gas or
mixture of gases is energized by an electrical field from DC to microwave frequencies,
typically 1–500 W at 50 V. The treated components are usually electrically isolated. The
volatile plasma by-products are evacuated from the chamber by the vacuum pump, and if
necessary can be neutralized in an exhaust scrubber.

WIRE ARC SPRAY

Wire arc spray is a form of thermal spraying where two consumable metal wires are fed
independently into the spray gun. These wires are then charged and an arc is generated
between them. The heat from this arc melts the incoming wire, which is then entrained in an
air jet from the gun. This entrained molten feedstock is then deposited onto a substrate with
the help of compressed air. This process is commonly used for metallic, heavy coatings.

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Fig :9.4 wire plasma spray

PLASMA TRANSFER WIRE ARC

Plasma transferred wire arc (PTWA) is another form of wire arc spray which deposits a
coating on the internal surface of a cylinder, or on the external surface of a part of any
geometry. It is predominantly known for its use in coating the cylinder bores of an engine,
enabling the use of Aluminum engine blocks without the need for heavy cast iron sleeves. A
single conductive wire is used as "feedstock" for the system. A supersonic plasma jet melts
the wire, atomizes it and propels it onto the substrate. The plasma jet is formed by a
transferred arc between a non-consumable cathode and the type of a wire. After atomization,
forced air transports the stream of molten droplets onto the bore wall. The particles flatten
when they impinge on the surface of the substrate, due to the high kinetic energy. The
particles rapidly solidify upon contact. The stacked particles make up a high wear resistant
coating. The PTWA thermal spray process utilizes a single wire as the feedstock material. All
conductive wires up to and including 0.0625" (1.6mm) can be used as feedstock material,
including "cored" wires. PTWA can be used to apply a coating to the wear surface of engine
or transmission components to replace a bushing or bearing. For example, using PTWA to
coat the bearing surface of a connecting rod offers a number of benefits including reductions
in weight, cost, friction potential, and stress in the connecting rod.

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10. HEAT TREATMENT :

Heat treatment is the systematic process of heating or cooling a part to the desired time and
temperature either to achieve or to some properties into the material.
Various types of heat treatment processes are:
1) General heat treatment processes
(a) Preheat (7230c transformation temp)
(b) Normalizing
(c) Hardening
(d) Tempering
(e) Stress relieving
f) Annealing (above 10000c for 5 to 10 min)
2) Surface heat treatment
(a) Carburizing
(b) Nitriding

8.1 GENERAL HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES

1.PREHEAT
Preheat involves heating the base metal below the transformation temperature (critical
temperature). Preheating aids in obtaining uniform temperature throughout the part being
heated. In this way it reduces distortion and cracking. Normally transformation temperature
for steel is 7230C.
2. HARDENING
Heating may be carried out in a furnace, fired by oil, gas or coal, in which the job is in direct
contact with the flame. It can be heated in a muffle furnace where the job is held in a
compartment and is not in direct contact with the flame or electric current. Also, it can be
heated in a bath type furnace where it is immersed in a molten salt or lead bat
The job should be heated gradually and uniformly. Sudden or uneven heating causes internal
stresses, while a slow rate of heating causes grain growth.
3.NORMALIZING
The process consists of heating of steel to a point 40 to 50°C above its upper critical
temperature. Hold at that temperature for a short duration and subsequently cooling in still air
at room temperature. This is also known as air quenching. It produces microstructures

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consisting of ferrite and pearlite for hypo -eutectoid steels and pearlite and cementite for
hypereutectoid steels.
Purpose – Normalizing is done for the following purposes:
(a) To eliminate coarse grain structure which is produced during forging, rolling, etc.
(b) To improve machinability.
(c) To reduce internal stresses.
(d) To improve certain mechanical properties.
Effects Of Normalizing
(a) Normalizing raises the yield point, ultimate tensile strength and impact strength of steel.
(b) Normalized steels are harder and stronger but less ductile than annealed steels with the
same composition.
(c) Reduces the grain size caused by over heating or by slow cooling.
(d) Produces uniform granular structure.
(e) Improves the machineability of the steel.
(f) It prevents the cracking of High Carbon Steel, High Speed Steel and High Tensile Steel,
when these steels are hardened.

4.TEMPERING
Martensite is stable only up to 200ºC. If a piece of steel, which has been hardened, is
subsequently heated to a temperature above 200ºC, the decomposition of martensite will start
taking place. This decomposition is in the order of troostite first and then sorbite.
Martensite decomposes into troostite, which is a finely dispersed mixture of cementite and
ferrite, in the temperature ranges of 200-300ºC. Tempering at temperature between 500-
600ºC will lead to the formation of the globular structure of sorbite.
The object of tempering is to remove excessive brittleness and induce toughness.

5. ANNEALING
Annealing is one of the most important heat treatment operation applied to steel. It is the
process of heating the material in a furnace to a point not exceeding 50° above its upper
critical point and maintaining the material at that temperature for a considerable time (5-20
minutes). The rate of cooling is to be maintained at 150-200ºC per hour.

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Purpose – The various purposes of annealing are:

(a) To soften the metal. i.e. While working on metals in cold condition, it becomes hard. For
further work on the metal without any cracks, it should be soften by annealing process.
(b) To improve machinability.
(c) To refine grain size, structure and to improve mechanical properties.
(d) To relieve internal stresses which were developed during working over the metal.

6. SALT BATH METHOD

It is generally recognised that, the satisfactory method of obtaining uniform high temperature
throughout the considerable volume of metals is by immersing in a bath of liquids. The liquid
employed would naturally depend largely upon the temperature that has to be obtained and
also upon the nature of metal to be heat treated. For light alloys, the most convenient medium
is a mixture of salt, prepared by mixing in equal proportion of Sodium Nitrate and Potassium
Nitrate.
Size of Baths – The size of the bath varies according to the size of job on which heat
treatment is to be carried out. Thus larger baths are capable of taking big sheets and smaller
baths are used for comparatively smaller components, such as rivets, nuts and bolts, etc.

8.2 SURFACE HEAT TREATMENT

1. Nitriding
Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a metal to
create a case-hardened surface, usually at a temperature between 4900C to 5800C. These
processes are most commonly used on low-carbon, low-alloy steels. They are also used on
medium and high-carbon steels, titanium, aluminium and molybdenum. Prior to nitriding
hardening and tempering has to be carried out.
Types of Nitriding process:
 Liquid nitriding
 Gas nitriding- Media used for the process is ammonia at atmospheric pressure.
 Plasma nitriding- glow discharge technology, introduces nascent nitrogen.
2. Carburizing
It is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs carbon while the metal is
heated in the presence of a carbon-bearing material, such as charcoal or carbon monoxide.
The intent is to make the metal harder. Depending on the amount of time and temperature, the

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affected area can vary in carbon content. Longer carburizing times and higher temperatures
typically increase the depth of carbon diffusion. When the iron or steel is cooled rapidly
by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard due to the
transformation from austenite to martensite, while the core remains soft and tough as
a ferritic and/or pearlite microstructure.
Addition of carbon to low carbon steels is done at a temperature between 8500 C to
9500 C and then followed by hardening to increase the wear and fatigue resistance.

Critical parameters of carburizing process:

 Temperature
 Time
 Carbon potential
 Case depth
 Case hardness and core hardness.
The formula used to calculate case depth is given by,
Cd=KT^(1/2).
Where K= furnace constant and T= soaking time.

9.WELDING:
Welding is a material joining process performed by application of heat with or
without pressure and addition of filler material. Construction of large ships, bridges, huge
buildings, railways, roadways, automotive and aircraft construction, pipe lines, tanks and
vessels, machinery parts depend a lot on welding technology.
9.1 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS welding (TIG)
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc welding
process in which arc is generated between non consumable tungsten electrode and work
piece. The tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded by an inert gas normally argon
and helium.
The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of critical
components which require controlled heat input. The small intense heat source provided by
the tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting of the material. Since the electrode
is not consumed during the process, as with the MIG or MMA welding processes, welding

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without filler material can be done without the need for continual compromise between the
heat input from the arc and the melting of the filler metal. As the filler metal, when required,
can be added directly to the weld pool from a separate wire feed system or manually, all
aspects of the process can be precisely and independently controlled i.e. the degree of melting
of the parent metal is determined by the welding current with respect to the welding speed,
whilst the degree of weld bead reinforcement is determined by the rate at which the filler wire
is added to the weld pool.

Fig 9.1: TIG welding.

In TIG torch the electrode is extended beyond the shielding gas nozzle. The arc is ignited by
high voltage, high frequency (HF) pulses, or by touching the electrode to the workpiece and
withdrawing to initiate the arc at a preset level of current.
Pure argon can be used for welding of structural steels, low alloyed steels, stainless
steels, aluminum, copper, titanium and magnesium. Argon hydrogen mixture is used for
welding of some grades of stainless steels and nickel alloys. Pure helium may be used for
aluminum and copper. Helium argon mixtures may be used for low alloy steels, aluminum
and copper.
Types of welding done in the shop,
 Longitudinal welding- Welding done in straight lines. E.g. Done for combustion
casing, case assembly etc
 Circumferential welding- Welding done along the circumference. E.g. Diffuser,
compressor drum,combustion casing etc
 Orbital welding- Welding done along the circumference of small pipes. E.g. fuel and
oil pipes.

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9.2 RESISTANCE WELDING

a) Spot welding
Spot welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal sheets by directly applying
opposing forces with electrodes with pointed tips. The current and the heat generation are
localized by the form of the electrodes. The weld nugget size is usually defined by the
electrode tip contact area.
Spot welding is the predominant joining process in automotive industry for assembling the
automobile bodies and large components. It is also widely used for manufacturing of stator
assembly, compressor casings etc

b) Seam welding
Seam welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal sheets in continuous, often
leak tight, seam joints by directly applying opposing forces with electrodes consisting of
rotary wheels. The current and the heat generation are localized by the peripheral shapes of
the electrode wheels.
Seam welding is mostly applied in manufacturing of casing of compressors and turbine etc.

9.3 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING:

This process uses kinetic energy of electrons to produce heat. This heat is further used
to weld two welding plates. When a high jet of electrons strike at welding plates, its kinetic
energy converts into heat energy. This heat energy is sufficient to fuse two metal plates
together to form a weld joint.

Fig 9.2: Electron beam welding

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Working
Its working can be summarized as follow.
 First the electron gun, which is a cathode, produces electrons. These electrons move towards
anode which is positive charged and placed right after electron gun.
 The anode accelerates the electrons and form a electron jet which is further move towards
magnetic lenses.
 The magnetic lenses are a series of lenses which are used to absorb low energy electrons and
does not allow to divergent electron to passes through it. It provides a high intense electron
jet.
 Now this electron beam passes through electromagnetic lens and defecting coil which are
used to focus and deflect the electron beam at the required spot. This unit direct high velocity
electron beam to the weld cavity where its kinetic energy converts into heat energy due to
collision. This heat energy is used to create weld by fusion. This whole welding process
carried out in a vacuum chamber otherwise the electrons collides with air particle in the way
and loses its energy.

Observation:
1. SCIAKY:
 Type : low voltage EBW.
 Voltage required : 60KV
 Bean current : 500 mA
 Chamber size : 9.8 m3
 Components welded : stages of compressors
 Vaccum level : 5*10^-4 m-bar
 Stroke length : X=+/- 530 mm, Y=+/-225 mm
 Accuracy : 25 microns
 Rotary axis : 5 rpm
2. STEIGERWALD
 Type : High voltage EBW
 Bean current : 100 mA
 Voltage required : 150KV
 Components welded : NGV

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 Stroke length : X = +/- 350 mm, Y= +/- 150 mm

 Accuracy : +/- 25 microns
 Rotary axis : 25 rpm.

10. 3D PRINTING
EOS M 400:
The EOS M 400 is a giant metal printer made for the production of large metal parts.
The EOS M 400 prints with metal powders using a 1 kW laser. While not stated specifically
in the promotional materials, the printer most likely uses DMLS technology (a staple of EOS’
systems).
The EOS M 400 is a great machine for a number of reasons. The 1 kW laser is incredibly
powerful and it’s coating system recoats from both sides reducing print time significantly.
The printer itself has a print area of 400 x 400 x 400 mm. While the EOS M 400 has a single
laser, it’s sister the M 400-4 has 4 400 watt fiber lasers.
The metal printer consists of a bunch of modules with unique purposes. This approach allows
users to easily move the print over from module to module as the necessary stage of
production evolves. It also has an automated filter system that keeps it clean and tidy.
Another interesting feature of this machine is that it can print directly from CAD software
without the need of any additional tools. Aside from STL files it also has converters for any
standard format data. The EOS M 400 can process light metals to stainless and tool steels to
superalloys.
Specs:

Fig 10.1: EOS M 400

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Specs Description

Technology Metal Laser Sintering

15.8 x 15.8 x 15.8 in

Build Size
(400 x 400 x 400 mm)

Laser Type Yb-fibre laser; 1 kW

Scan Speed up to 7.0 m/s (23 ft/s)

approx. 90 μm (0.0035
Focus diameter
in)

max. 20.2 kW / typical

Power consumption
16.2 kW

Nitrogen Generator Integrated

7,000 hPa; 20 m3/h

Compressed air supply
(102 psi; 706 ft3/h)

Approx. 4,635 kg
Weight
(10,218 lb)

EOSPRINT, EOS RP
Tools; EOSTATE;
Software Materialise Magics RP
with SG+ and further
modules

STL, optional:
CAD Interface converter for all
standard formats

Network Ethernet

min. 6.5 m x 6 m x 3.3

Recommended Space Requirement m (256 x 236 x 130
in)

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11. NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

'NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) is the most economical way of discovering
defects in parts. In simple we can say, NDT can detect cracks or any other irregularities in the
engine components which are obviously not visible to the naked eye.
The Engine Parts are made of Aluminium Alloy, Titanium, Magnesium, and Steel. So
these parts are checked using various NDT methods
At HAL Engine Division, the methods of NDT used are
11.1 Liquid-Penetrant Test
Liquid penetrant testing can be defined as a physical & chemical nondestructive
procedure designed to detect & expose surface connected discontinuities in 'nonporous'
engineering materials. The fundamental purpose of penetrant testing is to increase the visible
contrast between a discontinuity & its background. This is achieved by treating the area with
Trichlornethylene, and then encouraging the liquid to emerge from the developer, to reveal
the flaw pattern under ultraviolet light. The process involved during this process is
1. Pre Cleaning: parts to be inspected are immersed in vapour degreasing tank which contains
Trichlornethylene for 15 minutes.
2. Penetrant Application: parts are then immersed in Zyglo penetrant
3. Removal of Excess Penetrant (Air and Water Pressure 25 psi)
4. Drying: hot air is made to circulate on the part to attain the temperature of 70 0 c about 10
minutes
5. Dust storm chamber: it brings the penetrant to the surface where the crack is formed which
can be inspected under UV light
6. Inspection : Dye- Penetrant Test is generally used in parts such as NGV, shaft bearings,
Turbine blades The Test object is viewed under UV light. Through a process of fluorescence,
we can see the greenish yellow marks on cracks

11.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection:

Magnetic particle testing is a sensitive method of nondestructive testing for surface breaking
and some sub-surface discontinuation in ferro- magnetic materials. The testing method is
based on the principle that magnetic flux in a magnetised object is locally distorted by the
presence of discontinuity. This distortion causes some of the magnetic field to exit & re-enter
the test object at the discontinuity. This phenomenon is called magnetic flux leakage. Flux

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leakage is capable of attracting finely divided particles of magnetic materials that in turn form
an indication of the discontinuity.
The processes involved are:
1. Pre- Cleaning
2. Demagnetize
3. Cellular Magnetization (Simultaneously applying Magnetic Ink)
4. Inspect
5. Demagnetize
Magnetic particle testing is used on weld elements, forged parts castings, turbine blades
aircraft engine. In the process of magnetizing the material, liquid of iron oxide is poured
continuously on it to act as a penetrant. The current is then set, after that iron powder is
spilled on the magnetized material and it is viewed under UV light to see any discontinuity in
magnetic flux.

11.3 Radiography test

Radiographic Examination involves using radioactive isotopes (gamma rays) or X-
rays on materials to peer qualitatively for indications the same way a doctor looks for
fractures or other conditions within the body. Radiation is directed through a part and
projected onto film or a digital detection device leaving an image which can be examined by
the qualified Radiographer.
Examples: welding parts, drop tank etc.
HAL has two main radiography projections which are listed below,
1) Panaromic – circular type of parts (eg, welding between two stages of turbine) can be
inspected
2) Directional – x ray travels in straight line, hence it is limited to straight welds etc.
Densitometer is used to know the density of the film based on thickness of the
material.
Illuminator is a device used to verify the internal defects of part which are captured
in film which is wrapped over the part. Then film is held in front of illuminator that shows
clear images of defects incorporated within the part.

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13. PROCESS SHOP

Electroplating
It is the process of plating one metal onto another by hydrolysis, most commonly used to
prevent corrosion of a metal. There are also specific types of electroplating such as cadmium
plating, silver plating, and chromium plating.

Anodizing
It is an electrochemical process that converts the metal surface into a decorative, durable,
corrosion-resistant, anodic oxide finish. Aluminium is ideally suited to anodizing, although
other non-ferrous metals, such as magnesium and titanium, also can be anodized.

Hard Chrome Plating:

It is an electrolytic process using chromic acid-based electrolyte. The part is being the
cathode and with the passage of a DC current through lead anodes, chromium metal deposits
on the component surface.
Example: propeller hub, gears

Cadmium plating:
Cadmium is a soft white metal that, when plated onto steel, cast iron, malleable iron, copper,
and powdered metal, functions as a "sacrificial coating," corroding before the substrate
material to enhance the corrosion protection of cadmium plating, chromate conversion
coatings can be applied over the plated metal.

Silver plating is a corrosion resistant coating that can be plated on steel, aluminium, copper,
bronze and stainless-steel alloys. Because of silver's conductivity and excellent solderability,
it is often plated onto electrical components.
It is widely used in the aerospace industry on engine turbine components for its outstanding
lubricity, even at high temperatures. For the same reason, it is sometimes used as a break-in
coating on gears.
Example: turbine fasteners & components, bearing surfaces, rotorcraft gears and others.

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14. CNC SHOP

1) KEHREN Curvic Grinding Machine.
 Name of the Machine : Curvic grinding machine
 Supplier : M/S KEHREN, Germany
 Model : RI 8-1
 Max speed: 4000rpm
 Feed: 0.01-3 mm/min
 Parts machined: impellers of shakti engine
 Max diameter : 1000 mm
 Min outer diameter of curvic : 50 mm
 Max full depth of curvic teeth : 9.5 mm
 CNC Control : SIEMENS 840 D SL
2) HARDINGE QUEST TURN-MILL CENTRE
 Accuracy: 10 microns
 3 axis machine
 Operations: turning and milling
 Application: Gas Turbine Starter Unit (GTSU) for GE engine, liners (shakti engine),
bearing housing (GTSU), hub (micro turbo project)
3) BERTHIEZ 2 AXIS GRINDING MACHINE
 Accuracy: 20 microns
 Axis: X- 1300mm
Z-800mm
 Max size of work: Diameter-1000, Height- 600mm
 Max weight of work: 2000 kg
 RHS grinder: outer diameter and facing
 LHS grinder: inner diameter and facing
 Parts can be grinded: casing of compressor assembly(shakti engine), submarine
engine parts
Grinding wheel specifications
Example: 24 60 K J VT3 Wheel
Where, 24 – Grain Type, 60- Grit Size, K- Grade, J- Structure, VT3- Bond

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4) DMU 60 MONOBLOCK:
 5 axes impeller machine.
 Stroke length: X= 730 mm, Y=560 mm, B=-1200/300, Z=560 mm, C= 3600
 Except turning all operations can be carried out.
 Parts machined: impeller and other complex parts
 Integrated motor spindle speed: 18000 rpm
 Positional accuracy for liner axes: 0.007mm
 CAM software: openmind hypermill
5) BRIDGEPORT FGC 2:
 Name: Wiper grinding cell.
 Type: 5 axes grinding machine.
 Parts machined: NGV’S of ADOUR engine
 Loading system: Robotic loading system.
 Grinding wheel material: aluminum Oxide
 Includes Integrated CMM
 Stroke length: X= 800 mm, Y=600 mm, Z= 510 mm, A= 3600, B= +/- 900
 Feed rate: 32000 mm/min
 Table dimension: 1400*650 mm
 Spindle speed : 8000 rpm

6) MILLTURN TECHNOLOGIES
 M/C: 9- axis
 ATC consists of 100 tools
 Parts machined: Pre turbine shaft (shakti engine)
 Operations: threading, turning, slotting, drilling
 Specialty: complete machining without manual intervention whether turning, drilling,
drilling deep, outer and inner toothed and automatic verification of the part
maintaining minimum tolerances.

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14.1 VACUUM BRAZING

Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point
than the adjoining metal.
Brazing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting the work pieces and
from soldering in using higher temperatures for a similar process, while also requiring much
more closely fitted parts than when soldering. The filler metal flows into the gap between
close-fitting parts by capillary action. The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting
(liquidus) temperature while protected by a suitable atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows
over the base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled to join the work pieces together. A
major advantage of brazing is the ability to join the same or different metals with
considerable strength
Vacuum brazing is a material joining technique that offers significant advantages: extremely
clean, superior, flux-free braze joints of high integrity and strength. The process can be
expensive because it must be performed inside a vacuum chamber vessel. Temperature
uniformity is maintained on the work piece when heating in a vacuum, greatly reducing
residual stresses due to slow heating and cooling cycles. This, in turn, can significantly
improve the thermal and mechanical properties of the material, thus providing unique heat
treatment capabilities. One such capability is heat-treating or age-hardening the workpiece
while performing a metal-joining process, all in a single furnace thermal cycle.
Products that are most commonly vacuum-brazed include aluminum cold plates, plate-fin
heat exchangers, and flat tube heat exchangers.
Vacuum brazing is often conducted in a furnace; this means that several joints can be made at
once because the whole workpiece reaches the brazing temperature. The heat is transferred
using radiation, as many other methods cannot be used in a vacuum.

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15.MACHINE SHOP CONVENTIONAL MACHINES:

15.1 LATHE MACHINES
1. MK-7B Turret Lathe :
It is a great machine for quick operations. It has various types of tool posts mounted
on a single structure. As a number of tools are set up on machine, the job can be completed
very quickly with the help of a single setup. A capstan wheel is used to position the next tool.
A sequential machining process can be done by using the turret lathe without moving the
workpiece. It eliminates the error that occurs due to misalignment.

Observation:

 Manufacturing company : KIRLOSKAR

 Fixed bed.
 Turret can store 6 tools like End mill, Drill bit etc
 Components machined: Arm fuel feed, feed arm fuel nozzle etc.
 Accuracy : +0.05 mm
 Maximum speed : 1200 rpm
 Feed rate : 0.1-0.5 mm/rev
 Turning, facing, taper turning can be done.
 Thread cutting cannot be done
 There are 3 modes of speed can be seen
o Coarse- where speed of operation is fast.
o Medium- where speed of operation is medium.
o Fine- where speed of operation is slow.

2. Capstan Lathe:

 It has Auxiliary bed.

 Manufacturing company : HERBERT
 Max speed : 1500 rpm
 Turret head consists of 6 tools which are used to do drilling, tapping, reaming and
drill chuck.
 Components machined : Gear shaft assembly, Alternators, Adaptor assembly etc

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 All Turning operations can be done but thread cutting cannot be done.
 Accuracy : +0.05 mm.
 Feed rate : 0.1-0.5 mm/rev.

Fig 15.1 Capstan lathe

3. HMT Center Lathe:

 Maximum diameter of the chuck/ Swing over bed : 220 mm
 Diameter accuracy : 0.1 mm
 Length accuracy : 0.05 mm
 Maximum speed: 2400 rpm
 Operations : Turning, facing, thread cutting, groove, and chamfer etc.
 Component machined : Stator assembly turbine 2nd stage of Garret engine.
 Tolerance : +0.005
 Coolant : Soluble oil with a ratio of oil to water is 1:20.
15.2 GRINDING MACHINE:
To grind means to abrade, to wear away by friction, or to sharpen. In manufacturing it refers
to the removal of metal by a rotating abrasive wheel. Wheel action is similar to a milling

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cutter. The cutting wheel is composed of many small grains bonded togethe, each one acting
as a miniature cutting poin
Types of grinders
 Cylindrical grinders
 Centerless grinders
 Internal grinders
 Surface grinding
 OD grinding
 ID grinding

Observation :
1. Internal diameter(ID) grinding machine:
 Manufacturing Company: WOTAN, Germany.
 Operations carried : OD grinding to some extent, ID grinding, Face grinding.
 Grinding wheels : Aluminium oxide for hard materials and Silicon carbide wheel for
soft materials.
 Maximum speed : 25000 rpm
 Work head Maximum speed : 500 rpm
 Components machined : Axial compressor casing, Centrifugal compressor casing,
NGV (3 stages).
 Feed rate : 1 division 2 microns.
 Accuracy: Less than 10 microns.
 Coolant : Blazer cut or Soluble oil.

2. Special purpose grinding machine:

 Company : GLEASON, USA.
 Component machined : Curvic coupling ( coupling used to connect 2 shafts co-
axially ).
 Major advantage: No backlash errors, self alignment.
 Teeth are cut on the face and not on the circumference.
 2 types of grinding wheels are used i) Concave profile and ii) convex profile.
 Material of the grinding wheel : Aluminium oxide.

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 Component : Artouste Turbine shaft.

 Maximum speed : 3200 rpm
 Accuracy: Less than 10 microns.

15.3 MILLING MACHINE

Milling is a process performed with a machine in which the cutters rotate to remove
the material from the work piece present in the direction of the angle with the tool axis. The
milling machines are also known as the multi-tasking machines (MTMs) which are multi-
purpose machines capable of milling and turning the materials as well. The milling machine
has got the cutter installed up on it which helps in removing the material from the surface of
the work piece. When the material gets cooled down then it is removed from the milling
machine.

Types of milling machine:

 Horizontal milling machine.
 Vertical milling machine.
 Chirrango milling machine (turbine).

Observation:
1. Chirrango Milling machine.
 Company : Turbomeca
 No. of tools : 16
 All the tools run at time and in circular manner.
 It is a special purpose machine.
 Component manufactured: Turbine assembly of Artouste.
 Accuracy : +0.05 mm
 Maximum speed : 1000 rpm

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15.4 DRILLING MACHINES:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The
bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands
of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work-piece, cutting
off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

Observation :
 Name : Radial drilling machine.
 Company : HMT Ltd.
 Motions are motor controlled.
 Operations carried : Drilling, reaming and tapping.
 Jigs are used.
 Maximum speed : 1700 rpm
 Minimum speed : 40 rpm
 Auto feed featured.
 Components machined: Gear box of Garret engine, HPT drum and LPT shaft.
 Accuracy : 0.05 mm

15.5 SHEET METAL

Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. Sheet metal is one
of the fundamental forms used in metal working and it can be cut and bent into a variety of
shapes. Countless everyday objects are fabricated from sheet metal. Thicknesses can vary
significantly; extremely thin sheets are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm
(0.25 in) are considered plate. There are many different metals that can be made into sheet
metal, such as aluminium, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. Sheet metal is used in
automobile and truck (lorry) bodies, airplane fuselages and wings, medical tables, roofs for
buildings (architecture) and many other applications. Sheet metal of iron and other materials
with high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications
in transformers and electric machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was
in plate armor worn by cavalry, and sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses,
including in horse tack. Sheet metal workers are also known as "tin bashers" (or "tin

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knockers"), a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs.

15.6 TYPES OF SHEET METAL FORMING PROCESS

 Bending
 Curling
 DE cambering
 Deep drawing
 Expanding
 Hemming and seaming
 Hydroforming
 Incremental sheet forming
 Ironing
 Laser cutting
 Photochemical machining
 Perforating
 Press brake forming
 Punching
 Roll forming
 Rolling
 Spinning
 Stamping
 Water jet cutting
 Wheeling

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16. CONCLUSION
The course of internship had been beneficial. It has helped a lot in gaining technical
part of our curriculum and boosting confidence of our academics. Being a part of HAL as an
intern had been unique experience. Here in HAL we had been through various steps included
in types of engines, working, assembly, engine testing, machine shop, inspection shop,
process shop, CNC shop, cellular shop etc.
It was an amazing experience of learning and understanding about the types of engine
and steps involved in designing engines. We are really very thankful to all the operators, staff
and in charge of all the divisions for their valuable time and being patience with us. We also
thank all the staffs of HAL, Bangalore for their support and guidance to accomplish this
internship successfully.

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17. REFERENCES:
1. www.hal.india.com
2. www.aeroengines.com
3. Rolls Royce Hand book of Aircraft.
4. C W Smith’s “AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE”.
5. Sorenson’s “GAS TURBINES”.
6. Sarvan’s Muttus “GAS TURBINE THEORY”.

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