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Chapter 5

Fundamentals of Frequency Modulation

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

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Topics Covered in Chapter 5

 5-1: Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation
 5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
 5-3: Modulation Index and Sidebands
 5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
 5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude
Modulation
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
 A sine wave carrier can be modified for the purpose of
transmitting information from one place to another by
varying its frequency. This is known as frequency
modulation (FM).
 In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the
carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
 As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the
carrier frequency shifts proportionately.
 As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the
carrier frequency increases.
 With no modulation the carrier is at its normal center
or resting frequency.
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
 Frequency deviation (fd) is the amount of change in
carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal.
 The frequency deviation rate is how many times per
second the carrier frequency deviates above or below
its center frequency.
 The frequency of the modulating signal determines the
frequency deviation rate.
 A type of modulation called frequency-shift keying
(FSK) is used in transmission of binary data in digital
cell phones and low-speed computer modems.
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
Figure 5-1: FM and PM
signals. The carrier is drawn
as a triangular wave for
simplicity, but in practice it is
a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b)
Modulating signal. (c) FM
signal. (d) PM signal.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

 When the amount of phase shift of a constant-

frequency carrier is varied in accordance with a
modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase-
modulation (PM) signal.
 Phase modulators produce a phase shift which is a
time separation between two sine waves of the same
frequency.
 The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal,
the greater the phase shift.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

 The maximum frequency deviation produced by a

phase modulator occurs during the time that the
modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Figure 5-3: A frequency shift

occurs in PM only when the
modulating signal amplitude
varies. (a) Modulating signal.
(b) FM signal. (c) PM signal.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Relationship between the Modulating Signal and Carrier

Deviation
 In FM and in PM, the frequency deviation is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 In PM, the maximum amount of leading or lagging
phase shift occurs at the peak amplitudes of the
modulating signal.
 In PM the carrier deviation is proportional to both the
modulating frequency and the amplitude.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Figure 5-4: Frequency deviation as a function of (a) modulating signal amplitude and
(b) modulating signal frequency.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Converting PM into FM
 In order to make PM compatible with FM, the deviation
produced by frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for.
 This compensation can be accomplished by passing the
intelligence signal through a low-pass RC network.
 This RC low-pass filter is called a frequency-
correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter and
causes the higher modulating frequencies to be
attenuated.
 The FM produced by a phase modulator is called
indirect FM.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Phase-Shift Keying
 The process of phase modulating a carrier with binary
data is called phase-shift keying (PSK) or binary
phase-shift keying (BPSK).

 The PSK signal has a constant frequency, but the

phase of the signal from some reference changes as
the binary modulating signal occurs.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Figure 5-6: Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK.

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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
 Any modulation process produces sidebands.
 When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a
carrier, two side frequencies are produced.
 Side frequencies are the sum and difference of the
carrier and modulating frequency.
 The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually much wider
than that of an AM signal with the same modulating
signal.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Modulation Index
 The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency is known as the modulation index (mf).
 In most communication systems using FM, maximum
limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.
 In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted
frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum
permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
 The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is
therefore 5.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
 The equation that expresses the phase angle in terms
of the sine wave modulating signal is solved with a
complex mathematical process known as Bessel
functions.

 Bessel coefficients are widely available and it is not

necessary to memorize or calculate them.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands

Figure 5-8: Carrier and sideband amplitudes for different modulation indexes of FM
signals based on the Bessel functions.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands

Figure 5-9: Plot of the Bessel function data from Fig. 5-8.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
 The symbol ! means factorial. This tells you to multiply
all integers from 1 through the number to which the
symbol is attached. (e.g. 5! Means 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 =
120)
 Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in which
the modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57, or
mf < π /2.
 NBFM is widely used in communication. It conserves
spectrum space at the expense of the signal-to-noise
ratio.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
 The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the
number of significant sidebands and the wider the
bandwidth of the signal.

 When spectrum conservation is necessary, the

bandwidth of an FM signal can be restricted by putting
an upper limit on the modulation index.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
 Example:
If the highest modulating frequency is 3 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 6 kHz, what is the modulation
index?
mf = 6 kHz/3 kHz = 2
What is the bandwidth?
BW = 2fmN
Where N is the number of significant* sidebands
BW = 2(3 kHz)(4) = 24 kHz
*Significant
sidebands are those that have an amplitude of greater than 1% (.01)
in the Bessel table.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

 Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors,

automotive ignition systems, and power line switching
that produces transient signals.
 Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high
frequencies.
 Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere
with it.
 Some noise completely obliterates signal information.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

 FM signals have a constant modulated carrier

amplitude.
 FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately
restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
 Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal
are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
 This amplitude clipping does not affect the information
content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely
within the frequency variations of the carrier.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Figure 5-11: An FM signal with noise.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Preemphasis
 Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly
with the high-frequency components of the modulating
signal.
 Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a
lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.
 To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known
as preemphasis is used.
 A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s
pre-emphasis circuit.
 Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high-
frequency components.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (a) Preemphasis circuit.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Preemphasis
 A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis
circuit in a receiver.
 A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to
its normal flat level.
 The combined effect of preemphasis and deemphasis is
to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-
frequency components during transmission so that they
will be stronger and not masked by noise.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (c) Deemphasis circuit.

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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Advantages of FM
 FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.
 FM has superior immunity to noise, made possible by
clipper limiter circuits in the receiver.
 In FM, interfering signals on the same frequency are
rejected. This is known as the capture effect.
 FM signals have a constant amplitude and there is
no need to use linear amplifiers to increase power
levels. This increases transmitter efficiency.
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Disadvantages of FM
 FM uses considerably more frequency spectrum space.
 FM has used more complex circuitry for modulation and
demodulation.
 In the past, the circuits used for frequency modulation
and demodulation involved were complex. With the
proliferation of ICs, complex circuitry used in FM has all
but disappeared. ICs are inexpensive and easy to use.
FM and PM have become the most widely used
modulation method in electronic communication today.
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation

Major applications of AM and FM