M.

Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress and Strain

The learning objectives in this chapter are:

• Understanding the concept of stress and the use of double subscripts in

determining the direction of stress components on a surface.

• Understanding the concept of strain and the use of small strain and finite
difference approximation.

• Understanding the stress and strain transformation in three dimension.

1-1
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Internally Distributed Force System

• The intensity of internal distributed forces on an imaginary cut surface of a

body is called the stress on a surface.
• The intensity of internal distributed force that is normal to the surface of an
imaginary cut is called the normal stress on a surface.
• The intensity of internal distributed force that is parallel to the surface of an
imaginary cut surface is called the shear stress on the surface.
• Relating stresses to external forces and moments is a two step process.

Static Equivalency Internal Forces Equilibrium External Forces

Stresses
and Moments and Moments

Static equivalency
Normal stress Uniform
Normal stress x linear in z x shear stress
Uniform Shear linear in y in tangential
Uniform Normal Stress τavg direction.
Stress σavg y y

z z

x x T
N = σ A V = τ A
avg avg My
y y

z z

Mz

Axial Bending Bending Torsion

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress at a Point
Outward normal i Internal Force
⎛ ΔF j⎞
ΔAi σ ij = lim ⎜ ---------⎟
ΔA i → 0⎝ ΔA i⎠

ΔFj
direction of direction of the
outward normal to the internal force component.
imaginary cut surface.

• ΔAi will be considered positive if the outward normal to the surface is in

the positive i direction.

• A stress component is positive if numerator and denominator have the

same sign. Thus σij is positive if: (1) ΔFj and ΔAi are both positive. (2) ΔFj
and ΔAi are both negative.

σ xx τ xy τ xz
• Stress Matrix in 3-D: τ yx σ yy τ yz
τ zx τ zy σ zz

Table 1.1. Comparison of number of components

Quantity 1-D 2-D 3-D

Scaler 1=10 1=20 1=30
Vector 1=11 2=21 3=31
Stress 1=12 4=22 9=32

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress Element
• Stress element is an imaginary object that helps us visualize stress at a
point by constructing surfaces that have outward normal in the coordinate
directions.
Stress cube showing all positive stress components

σ xx τ xy τ xz
τ yx σ yy τ yz
τ zx τ zy σ zz

Plane Stress: All stress components on a plane are zero.

σ xx τ xy 0
τ yx σ yy 0
0 0 0

Symmetric Shear Stresses: τ xy = τ yx τ yz = τ zy τ zx = τ xz

• A pair of symmetric shear stress points towards the corner or away from
the corner.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.3 Show the non-zero stress components on the A,B, and C faces
of the cube shown in Figure P1.3 and Figure P1.4.
σ xx = 0 τ xy = – 15 ksi τ xz = 0
τ yx = – 15 ksi σ yy = 10ksi ( C ) τ yz = 25ksi
τ zx = 0 τ zy = 25ksi σ zz = 20ksi ( T )

Fig. P1.3
1.4

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress transformation in two dimension

(a) (c)
y Outward normal

Vertical Plane
t to the inclined plane.
n y
In

θ t
cli

n
ne
dP
lan

x
e

Horizontal Plane

θ λ x
z

2 2
σ nn = σ xx cos θ + σ yy sin θ + 2τ xy sin θ cos θ

τ nt = – σ xx cos θ sin θ + σ yy sin θ cos θ + τ xy ⎛ cos 2θ – sin θ⎞

2
⎝ ⎠
2 2
σ tt = σ xx sin θ + σ yy cos θ – 2τ xy cos θ sin θ

Matrix Notation
n x = cos θ n y = sin θ t x = cos λ t y = sin λ
True only in 2D: λ = 90 + θ t x = – n y ty = nx

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ nx ⎪ ⎪ tx ⎪ σ xx τ xy
{n} = ⎨ ⎬ {t} = ⎨ ⎬ [σ] =
⎪ ny ⎪ ⎪ ty ⎪ τ yx σ yy
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
T
The symmetry of shear stresses [σ] = [σ]
T
σ nn = { n } [ σ ] { n }
T
τ nt = { t } [ σ ] { n }
T
σ tt = { t } [ σ ] { t }

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Traction or Stress vector

Mathematically the stress vector {S} is defined as:
{S} = [σ ]{n}
S x = σ xx n x + τ xy n y
S y = τ yx n x + σ yy n y
• pressure is a scaler quantity.
• traction is a vector quantity.,
• stress is a second order tensor.

Statically equivalent force wedge.

τnt (dA) Sy (dA)
σnn(dA)
σxx ( nx dA) σxx( nx dA) Sx (dA)

τxy (nx dA)

τxy (nx dA)
τyx (ny dA) τyx (n dA)
y
σyy (ny dA) σyy (n dA)
y

{ S } = σ nn { n } + τ nt { t }

Stress vector in different coordinate systems.

y
τnt{t}
Sy
{S}
σnn{n}
Sx
x

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Principal Stresses and Directions

{ S } = [ σ ]{ p } = σp { p }
OR

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
σ xx τ xy ⎪ p x ⎪ σp 0 ⎪ px ⎪
{S} = ⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬
τ yx σ yy ⎪ p y ⎪ 0 σp ⎪ py ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
OR

⎧ ⎫
( σ xx – σ p ) τ xy ⎪ px ⎪
⎨ ⎬ = 0
τ yx ( σ yy – σ p ) ⎪ p y ⎪
⎩ ⎭

Characteristic equation
2 2
σ p – σ p ( σ xx + σ yy ) + ( σ xx σ yy – τ xy ) = 0

2 2
Roots: σ 1, 2 = ( σ xx + σ yy ) ± ( σ xx + σ yy ) – 4 ( σ xx σ yy – τ xy ) ⁄ 2
OR

σ xx + σ yy σ xx – σ yy 2
σ 1, 2 = ------------------------ ± -----------------------⎞ + τ xy
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
• The eigenvalues of the stress matrix are the principal stresses.

• The eigenvectors of the stress matrix are the principal directions.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress Transformation in 3-D

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ nx ⎪ ⎪ x ⎪
S σ xx τ xy τ xz
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
{ n } = ⎨ ny ⎬ { S } = ⎨ Sy ⎬ [σ] = τ yx σ yy τ yz
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ nz ⎪ ⎪ Sz ⎪ τ zx τ zy σ zz
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
T
σ nn = { n } [ σ ] { n }
T
τ nt = { t } [ σ ] { n }
T
σ tt = { t } [ σ ] { t }
{S} = [σ ]{n}
Equilibrium condition: { S } = σ nn { n } + τ nt { t E }

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Principal Stresses and Directions

{ S } = [ σ ]{ p } = σp { p }
OR

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎪ p x ⎪ σp 0 0 ⎪ px ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
τ yx σ yy τ yz ⎨ p y ⎬ = 0 σ p 0 ⎨ p y ⎬
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
τ zx τ zy σ zz ⎪ p z ⎪ 0 0 σp ⎪ pz ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
OR

⎧ ⎫
( σ xx – σ p ) τ xy τ xz ⎪ px ⎪
⎪ ⎪
τ yx ( σ yy – σ p ) τ yz ⎨ py ⎬ = 0
⎪ ⎪
τ zx τ zy ( σ zz – σ p ) ⎪ p z ⎪
⎩ ⎭
• The eigenvalues of the stress matrix are the principal stresses.

• The eigenvectors of the stress matrix are the principal directions.

2 2 2
px + py + pz = 1

Principal stress convention

Ordered principal stresses in 3-D: σ1 > σ2 > σ3
Ordered principal stresses in 2-D: σ1 > σ2
o o
Principal Angles 0 ≤ θ x, θ y, θ z ≤ 180

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Characteristic equation
σ p3 – I 1 σ p2 + I 2 σ p – I 3 = 0

Stress Invariants
I 1 = σ xx + σ yy + σ zz

σ xx τ xy σ yy τ yz σ xx τ xz
I2 = + +
τ yx σ yy τ zy σ zz τ zx σ zz

σ xx τ xy τ xz
I3 = τ yx σ yy τ yz
τ zx τ zy σ zz
3 2
x –I1 x + I2 x – I3 = 0
o
x 1 = 2A cos α + I 1 ⁄ 3 x 2, 3 = – 2 A cos ( α ± 60 ) + I 1 ⁄ 3
Roots:
2
A = ( I1 ⁄ 3 ) – I2 ⁄ 3
3 3
cos 3α = [ 2 ( I 1 ⁄ 3 ) – ( I 1 ⁄ 3 )I 2 + I 3 ] ⁄ ( 2A )

σ1
Principal Stress Matrix [σ] = σ2
σ3

I1 = σ1 + σ2 + σ3
I2 = σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1
I3 = σ1 σ2 σ3

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Maximum Shear Stress

σ1 – σ2 σ2 – σ3 σ3 – σ1
τ max = max ------------------, ------------------, ------------------⎞
⎛
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Octahedral stresses
• A plane that makes equal angles with the principal planes is called an octa-
hedral plane.

σ nn = σ 1 n 12 + σ 2 n 22 + σ 3 n 32

2
τ nt = ( σ 12 n 12 + σ 22 n 22 + σ 32 n 32 ) – σ nn

n1 = n2 = n3 = 1 ⁄ 3
σ oct = ( σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 ) ⁄ 3

1 2 2 2
τ oct = --- ( σ 1 – σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 – σ 3 ) + ( σ 3 – σ 1 )
3

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.35 The stress at a point is given by the stress matrix shown.

Determine: (a) the normal and shear stress on a plane that has an outward
normal at 37o, 120o, and 70.43o, to x, y, and z direction respectively. (b)
the principal stresses (c) the second principal direction and (d) the magni-
tude of the octahedral shear stress. (e) maximum shear stress
18 12 9
12 12 – 6 ksi
9 –6 6

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain
• The total movement of a point with respect to a fixed reference coordinates
is called displacement.

• The relative movement of a point with respect to another point on the body
is called deformation.

• Lagrangian strain is computed from deformation by using the original

undeformed geometry as the reference geometry.

• Eulerian strain is computed from deformation by using the final deformed

geometry as the reference geometry.

• Relating strains to displacements is a problem in geometry.

Kinematics
Displacements Strains

Average normal strain

Lf – Lo δ
ε av = ----------------- = ------
Lo Lo

• Elongations (Lf > Lo) result in positive normal strains. Contractions (Lf
< Lo) result in negative normal strains.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Average shear strain

Undeformed grid Deformed grid

Wooden Bar with Masking Tape

A Wooden Bar with Masking Tape
A A1
γ

B π/2 C B α C
Wooden Bar with Masking Tape Wooden Bar with Masking Tape

π
γ av = --- – α
2
• Decreases in the angle (α < π / 2) result in positive shear strain.
Increase in the angle (α > π / 2) result in negative shear strain

Units of average strain

• To differentiate average strain from strain at a point.

• in/in, or cm/cm, or m/m (for normal strains)

• rads (for shear strains)

• percentage. 0.5% is equal to a strain of 0.005

• prefix: μ = 10-6. 1000 μ in / in is equal to a strain 0.001 in /

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Small Strain Approximation

• Small-strain approximation may be used for strains less than 0.01

• Small normal strains are calculated by using the deformation component in

the original direction of the line element regardless of the orientation of the
deformed line element.
• In small shear strain (γ) calculations the following approximation may be
used for the trigonometric functions: tan γ ≈ γ sin γ ≈ γ cos γ ≈ 1
• Small-strain calculations result in linear deformation analysis.
• Drawing approximate deformed shape is very important in analysis of
small strains.
1.41 Determine the deformation in bars AP and BP in Fig. P1.41
using small strain approximation.

Fig. P1.41

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain at a point

Engineering Strain
Δu ∂u Δv ∂v Δw ∂w
ε xx = lim ⎛⎝ -------⎞⎠ = ε yy = lim ⎛⎝ ------⎞⎠ = ε zz = lim ⎛⎝ --------⎞⎠ =
Δx → 0 Δx ∂x Δy → 0 Δy ∂y Δz → 0 Δz ∂z
Δu Δv ∂u ∂v Δv Δw ∂v ∂w
γ xy = γ yx = lim ⎛ ------- + ------⎞ = + γ yz = γ zy = lim ⎛ ------ + --------⎞ = +
Δx → 0⎝ Δy Δx ⎠ ∂y ∂x Δy → 0 ⎝ Δz Δy ⎠ ∂z ∂y
Δy → 0 Δz → 0

Δw Δu ∂w ∂u
γ zx = γ xz = lim ⎛ -------- + -------⎞ = +
Δx → 0⎝ Δx Δz ⎠ ∂x ∂z
Δz → 0

• The partial derivative with respect to a coordinate implies that during the
process of differentiation the other coordinates are held constant.
• If a displacement is only a function of one coordinate, then the partial
derivative with respect to that coordinate will be same as ordinary deriva-
tive.

du
ε xx = (x)
dx

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Finite Difference Approximation

• Forward difference approximates the slope of the tangent using the point
ahead of point i as:
ui + 1 – ui
( ε xx ) = -----------------------
i xi + 1 – xi
• Backward difference approximates the slope of the tangent using the point
behind i as:
ui – ui – 1
( ε xx ) = -----------------------
i xi – xi – 1
• Central difference takes the average value using the point ahead and behind
as:

1 ui + 1 – ui ui – ui – 1
( ε xx ) = --- ----------------------- + -----------------------
i 2 xi + 1 – xi xi – xi – 1

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.58 The displacements u and v in the x and y directions respec-

tively were measured by Moire' interferometry. Displacements of 16
points on the body and are as given below.

u v u v
Point Point
(μmm) (μmm) (μmm) (μmm)
1 0.000 0.000 9 0.128 0.384
2 -0.112 0.144 10 -0.048 0.336
3 -0.128 0.256 11 -0.128 0.256
4 -0.048 0.336 12 -0.112 0.144
5 0.112 0.176 13 0.048 0.624
6 -0.032 0.224 14 -0.160 0.480
7 -0.080 0.240 15 -0.272 0.304
8 -0.032 0.224 16 -0.288 0.096

Determine the strains ε xx , ε yy , and γ xy at points 1 and 4 shown in Fig-

ure P1.58.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain Transformation
Strain transformation equations in 2-D
2 2
ε nn = ε xx cos θ + ε yy sin θ + γ xy sin θ cos θ
2 2
ε tt = ε xx sin θ + ε yy cos θ – γ xy sin θ cos θ
2 2
γ nt = – 2ε xx sin θ cos θ + 2ε yy sin θ cos θ + γ xy ( cos θ – sin θ )

Stress transformation equations in 2-D

2 2
σ nn = σ xx cos θ + σ yy sin θ + 2τ xy sin θ cos θ
2 2
σ tt = σ xx sin θ + σ yy cos θ – 2τ xy cos θ sin θ

τ nt = – σ xx cos θ sin θ + σ yy sin θ cos θ + τ xy ⎛ cos 2θ – sin θ⎞

2
⎝ ⎠
• tensor normal strains = engineering normal strains
• tensor shear strains = (engineering shear strains)/ 2

Tensor strain matrix from engineering strains

ε xx ε xy = γ xy ⁄ 2 ε xz = γ xz ⁄ 2
[ ε ] = ε yx = γ yx ⁄ 2 ε yy ε yz = γ yz ⁄ 2
ε zx = γ zx ⁄ 2 ε zy = γ zy ⁄ 2 ε zz
T
ε nn = { n } [ ε ] { n }
T
ε nt = { t } [ ε ] { n } γ nt = 2ε nt
T
ε tt = { t } [ ε ] { t }

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Characteristic equation
ε p3 – I 1 ε p2 + I 2 ε p – I 3 = 0

Strain invariants
I 1 = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz = ε 1 + ε 2 + ε 3

ε xx ε xy ε ε ε ε xz
I2 = + yy yz + xx = ε1 ε2 + ε2 ε3 + ε3 ε1
ε yx ε yy ε zy ε zz ε zx ε zz

ε xx ε xy ε xz
I3 = ε yx ε yy ε yz = ε1 ε2 ε3
ε zx ε zy ε zz

Maximum shear strain

γ max ε1 – ε2 ε2 – ε3 ε3 – ε1
------------ = max ----------------, ----------------, ----------------⎞
⎛
2 ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

Material Description
The learning objectives in this chapter are:

• Understand the definition and differences of linear material models.

• Understand the statements and the applications of failure theories.

• Understand the concepts and applications of stress concentration fac-

tor and stress intensity factor in analysis and design.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

Linear Material Models

⎧ ⎫
⎧ ε xx ⎫ ⎪ σ xx ⎪
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε yy ⎪ C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ⎪ σ yy ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε zz ⎪ = C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ⎪ σ zz ⎪
⎨ ⎬ ⎨ ⎬
⎪ γ yz ⎪ C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 C 45 C 46 ⎪ τ yz ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ γ zx ⎪ C 51 C 52 C 53 C 54 C 55 C 56 ⎪ τ zx ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ γ xy ⎭ C 61 C 62 C 63 C 64 C 65 C 66 ⎪ τ xy ⎪
⎩ ⎭
C ij = C ji
• The most general linear anisotropic material requires 21 independent
constants.

Monoclinic material
• Monoclinic material requires 13 independent material constants.
• The z-plane is the plane of symmetry.
⎧ ⎫
⎧ ε xx ⎫ ⎪ σ xx ⎪
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 C 16
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε yy ⎪ C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 C 26 ⎪ σ yy ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε zz ⎪ = C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 C 36 ⎪ σ zz ⎪
⎨ ⎬ ⎨ ⎬
⎪ γ yz ⎪ 0 0 0 C 44 C 45 0 ⎪ τ yz ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ γ zx ⎪ 0 0 0 C 45 C 55 ⎪ τ zx ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ γ xy ⎭ C 16 C 26 C 36 0 0 C 66 ⎪ τ xy ⎪
⎩ ⎭

Orthotropic material
• Orthotropic material requires 9 independent constants.
• Orthotropic materials have two orthogonal planes of symmetry.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

⎧ ⎫
⎧ ε xx ⎫ ⎪ σ xx ⎪
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε yy ⎪ C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ⎪ σ yy ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε zz ⎪ = C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 0 ⎪ σ zz ⎪
⎨ ⎬ ⎨ ⎬
⎪ γ yz ⎪ 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 ⎪ τ yz ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ γ zx ⎪ 0 0 0 0 C 55 ⎪ τ zx ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ γ xy ⎭ 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 ⎪ τ xy ⎪
⎩ ⎭
For plane stress problems
σ xx ν yx σ yy ν xy τ xy ν yx ν xy
ε xx = -------- – -------σ yy ε yy = -------- – -------σ xx γ xy = -------- -------- = --------
Ex Ey Ey Ex G xy Ey Ex
• The form of equations relating stresses and strain is valid for a specific
coordinate system which is called the material coordinate system.

Long Fiber Composite

Transversely isotropic material

• Transversely isotropic material requires 5 independent material con-
stants.
• Transversely isotropic material are isotropic in a plane.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

⎧ ⎫
⎧ ε xx ⎫ ⎪ σ xx ⎪
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε yy ⎪ C 12 C 11 C 13 0 0 0 ⎪ σ yy ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε zz ⎪ = C 13 C 13 C 33 0 0 0 ⎪ σ zz ⎪
⎨ ⎬ ⎨ ⎬
⎪ γ yz ⎪ 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 ⎪ τ yz ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ γ zx ⎪ 0 0 0 0 C 44 ⎪ τ zx ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ γ xy ⎭ 0 0 0 0 0 2 ( C 11 – C 12 ) ⎪ τ xy ⎪
⎩ ⎭

Isotropic Material
• An isotropic material has a stress-strain relationships that are indepen-
dent of the orientation of the coordinate system at a point.
• An isotropic body requires only two independent material constants
⎧ ⎫
⎧ ε xx ⎫ ⎪ σ xx ⎪
C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε yy ⎪ C 12 C 11 C 12 0 0 0 ⎪ σ yy ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε zz ⎪ = C 12 C 12 C 11 0 0 0 ⎪ σ zz ⎪
⎨ ⎬ ⎨ ⎬
⎪ γ yz ⎪ 0 0 0 2 ( C 11 – C 12 ) 0 0 ⎪ τ yz ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ γ zx ⎪ 0 0 0 0 2 ( C 11 – C 12 ) ⎪ τ zx ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ γ xy ⎭ 0 0 0 0 0 2 ( C 11 – C 12 ) ⎪ τ xy ⎪
⎩ ⎭
ε xx = [ σ xx – ν ( σ yy + σ zz ) ] ⁄ E
ε yy = [ σ yy – ν ( σ zz + σ xx ) ] ⁄ E
ε zz = [ σ zz – ν ( σ xx + σ yy ) ] ⁄ E
γ xy = τ xy ⁄ G γ yz = τ yz ⁄ G γ zx = τ zx ⁄ G
Comparing C 11 = 1 ⁄ E , C 12 = – ν ⁄ E , and 2 ( C 11 – C 12 ) = 1 ⁄ G
E
G = --------------------
2(1 + ν)

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ ε xx ⎪ 1 –ν –ν ⎪ ⎪ σ xx ⎪
⎪ ⎪ 1 ⎪
ε
⎨ yy ⎬ σ
E – ν 1 – ν ⎨⎪ yy ⎬⎪
= --
-
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε zz ⎪ –ν –ν 1 ⎪ σ ⎪
zz
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
• A material is said to be homogenous if the material properties are the
same at all points on the body. Alternatively, if the material constants
Cij are functions of the coordinates x, y, or z, then the material is called
non-homogenous.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

Plane Stress and Plane Strain

.

σ xx τ xy 0 Generalized ε xx γ xy 0
Plane Stress Hooke’s Law γ yx ε yy
τ yx σ yy 0 0
0 0 0 ν
0 0 ε zz = – --- ( σ xx + σ yy )
E

Generalized σ xx τ xy 0
ε xx γ xy 0 Hooke’s Law τ yx σ yy 0
γ yx ε yy 0
Plane Strain 0 0 σ zz = ν ( σ xx + σ yy )
0 0 0

Plane Stress Plane Strain

Rigid Surface ( ε zz = 0 ) Reaction Force ( σ zz ≠ 0 )
Free surface ( σ zz = 0 ) ε zz ≠ 0

σxx σxx
σyy σyy

Free surface ( σ zz = 0) Rigid Surface ( ε zz = 0)

Reaction Force ( σ zz ≠ 0 )

2.15 An orthotropic material has the following properties

Ex=7,500ksi, Ey= 2,500 ksi, Gxy = 1,250 ksi and νxy= 0.25. Determine
the principal direction 1 for stresses and strains at a point on a free sur-
face where the following strains were measured
ε xx = – 400 μ ε yy = 600 μ γ xy = – 500 μ

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

Failure Theories
• A failure theory is a statement on relationship of the stress components
to material failure characteristics values.

Ductile Material Brittle Material

Characteristic fail- Yield stress Ultimate stress
ure stress
Theories 1. Maximum shear stress 1. Maximum normal
2. Maximum octahedral shear stress
stress 2. Modified Mohr

Maximum shear stress theory

For ductile materials the theory predicts
A material will fail when the maximum shear stress exceeds the shear
stress at yield that is obtained from uni-axial tensile test.

The failure criterion is

τ max ≤ τ yield
max ( σ 1 – σ 2, σ 2 – σ 3, σ 3 – σ 1 ) ≤ σ yield

Maximum octahedral shear stress theory (Maximum distortion

strain energy)
For ductile materials the theory predicts
A material will fail when the maximum octahedral shear stress
exceeds the octahedral shear stress at yield that is obtained from uni-
axial tensile test.

The failure criterion is

τ oct ≤ τ yield

1-7
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

1 2 2 2
------- ( σ 1 – σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 – σ 3 ) + ( σ 3 – σ 1 ) ≤ σ yield
2
Equivalent von-Mises Stress
1 2 2 2
σ von = ------- ( σ 1 – σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 – σ 3 ) + ( σ 3 – σ 1 )
2
σ von ≤ σyield

Failure Envelopes for ductile materials in plane stress

σ2
Maximum octahedral shear stress
σyield

Maximum Shear Stress

−σyield
σyield σ1

−σyield

Maximum normal stress theory

For brittle materials the theory predicts
A material will fail when the maximum normal stress at a point exceed
the ultimate normal stress (σult) obtained from uni-axial tension test.

max ( σ 1, σ 2, σ 3 ) ≤ σ ult
• can be used if principal stress one is tensile and the dominant princi-
pal stress.

Mohr’s theory
For brittle materials the theory predicts
A material will fail if a stress state is on the envelope that is tangent to
the three Mohr’s circles corresponding to: uni-axial ultimate stress in
tension, to uni-axial ultimate stress in compression, and to pure shear.

1-8
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

σT τ
Failure Envelope (CW) Tangent points

τS
σC σC σT σ
(C) (T)

τS Tangent points

(CCW)

Modified Mohr’s Theory

σ2
Mohr’s Theory
d Mohr’s Theory (-τS,τS) σT

σ2 σ1
------ – ------ = 1
σC σT σ1
σC σT
(τS,-τS)

σ1 σ2
------ – ------ = 1
σT σC
σC

• If both principal stresses are tensile than the maximum normal stress
has to be less than the ultimate tensile strength.
• If both principal stresses are negative than the maximum normal stress
must be less than the ultimate compressive strength.
• If the principal stresses are of different signs then for the Modified
Mohr’s Theory the failure is governed by
σ2 σ1
------ – ------ ≤ 1
σC σT

1-9
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

2.23 The strains shown by the strain gages were recorded on a free
surface of aluminum (E=10,000 ksi, ν = 0.35, σyield = 24 ksi). By how
much can the loads be scaled without exceeding the yield stress of alumi-
num at the point. Use maximum octahedral shear stress theory.

y
ε a = – 600 μ in § in
c b
ε b = 500 μ in § in
0
45 600 a
ε c = 400 μ in § in
x

Figure P2.23

Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Two statically equivalent loads systems produce nearly the same stress
in regions at a distance that is at least equal to the largest dimension in
the loaded region.

t t
P
A

W P
W A

x x

P
σ ≈ ------- at x>W
Wt

1-10
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

Stress Concentration
• Large stress gradients in a small region is called stress concentration.
• The stress predicted by theoretical models away from the regions of
stress concentration is called the Nominal Stress.

σnom σnom

σnom σnom

Maximum Stress
K conc = ---------------------------------------------
Nominal Stress
2.28 The stress concentration factor for a flat tension bar with U-
shaped notches shown in Figure P2.28 was determined as:
4r 2 4r 3
K conc = 3.857 – 5.066 ⎛⎝ -----⎞⎠ + 2.469 ⎛⎝ -----⎞⎠ – 0.258 ⎛⎝ -----⎞⎠
4r
H H H

The nominal stress is P/(Ht). Make a chart for the stress concentration
factor vs. (r/d) for the following values of (H/d): 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2.0.
Use of spread sheet is recommended.
t

2r
H d P
P
2r

2r

Figure P2.28
2.30 A steel tension bar with U-shaped notches of the type shown
in Figure P2.28, is to carry a load P = 12 kips. The yield stress of steel is
30 ksi. The bar has H = 9 in, d = 6 in, t =0.25 in. For a factor of safety of
1.4, determine the value of r if yielding is to be avoided.

1-11
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

Stress Intensity Factor

An elliptical hole in an infinite plate.

σ σ

σ A σ
2a
K conc = ( 1 + 2a ⁄ b )
A
σ σ
2b
σ σ

σ ij = K inten f ij

Modulus of Toughness.
σ
(a) Modulus of (b)
Toughness σ Stronger Material
Ultimate Tougher material
Stress

ε ε

• Stress intensity factor depends upon the stress level and the length of
the crack.
• Critical stress intensity factor is a material property that is independent
of the stress level or crack length.
• A crack becomes unstable (material breaks) when stress intensity fac-
tor exceeds the critical stress intensity factor.

1-12
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 2

Three modes of relative crack surface movement

Crack tip
Crack tip
Crack tip
Mode 3
Mode 1 Mode 2

σnom
K I = σ nom πa
σnom
2a

τnom
2a τnom K II = τ nom πa

2 2
K equiv =
K I + K II
• Microcracks will be assumed to grow in Mode I due to principal stress
one if it is in tension.

2.32 The stresses at a point in plane stress were found to be:

σ xx = 27 ksi ( T ) σ yy = 10 ksi ( C ) τ xy = 15 ksi

The critical stress intensity factor of the material is 20 ksi in . Determine

the critical crack length (a) asuming a small crack exist on a plane -25o
from the x-axis. (b) there is no pre-existing crack.

1-13
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Basic Structural Analysis

The learning objectives in this chapter are:

• Understand the limitations of basic theory and how complexities may

be added to the basic theories of axial members, torsion of circular
shafts, and symmetric bending of beams.

• Understand the concept and use of discontinuity functions in analysis

of structural members subjected to discontinuous loads.

Logic in structural analysis

Displacements

Ki 1
ne
m ati
cs
External Forces Strains
and
Moments
els
E qui

M od
libri

4
erial

2
um

Mat

Static Equivalency
Internal Forces Stresses
and
Moments 3

3-1
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Preliminaries
Limitations
• The length of the member is significantly greater (approximately 10
times) then the greatest dimension in the cross-section. Approximation
across the cross-section are now possible as the region of approxima-
tion is small.
• We are away from regions of stress concentration, where displace-
ments and stresses can be three-dimensional.
• The variation of external loads or changes in the cross-sectional area is
gradual except in regions of stress concentration.
• The external loads are such that the axial, torsion and bending prob-
lems can be studied individually.

Convention
y (v)
ρ θ (φ)

z (w) x (u)

• The displacements u, v, and w will be considered positive in the posi-

tive x, y, and z -direction, respectively.
• The rotation φ of the cross-section will be considered positive counter-
clockwise with respect to the x-axis.
• The external distributed torque per unit length t(x) is positive counter-
clockwise with respect to the x-axis.
• The external distributed force per unit length px(x) and py(x) are con-
sidered positive in the positive x and y direction, respectively.

3-2
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Deformations
(a) Axial (b) Bending
Original Grid
Original Grid
Original
y Grid
x
z
Deformed Grid
Deformed Grid

(c) Torsion

Original Grid

Deformed Grid

Axial Bending Torsion

Assumption 1 Deformations are not function of time.
2-A: Plane sections remain 2a-B: Squashing deformation 2a-T: Plane sections perpen-
plane and parallel. is significantly smaller dicular to the axis
than deformation due to remain plane during
bending. deformation.
2b-B: Plane sections before 2b-T: All radials lines rotate
Assumptions deformation remain by equal angle during
plane after deformation. deformation on a cross-
section.
2c-B: Plane perpendicular to
2c-T: Radials lines remain
the beam axis remain
straight during deforma-
nearly perpendicular
tion.
after deformation
u = uo ( x ) (3.1-A) v = v( x) (3.1a-B) φ = φ(x) (3.1-T)
dv
u = –y (3.1b-B)
dx

3-3
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Strains
Axial Bending Torsion
Assumption 3 The strains are small.
2
du o dφ
ε xx = (x) (3.2-A) ε xx = – y
dv
(x) (3.2-B) γ xθ = ρ (x) (3.2-T)
dx 2 dx
dx

Stresses
Axial Bending Torsion
Assumption 4 Material is isotropic.
Assumption 5 There are no inelastic strains.
Assumption 6 Material is elastic.
Assumption 7 Stress and strains are linearly related.
2
Using Hooke’s du o dv τ xθ = Gρ
dφ
(x) (3.3-T)
σ xx = E (x) (3.3-A) σ xx = – Ey (x) (3.3-B) dx
law dx 2
dx

Internal Forces and Moments

Axial Bending Torsion

N = ∫ σxx dA (3.4a-A) N = ∫ σxx dA = 0 (3.4a-B) T = ∫ ρτxθ dA (3.4-T)

A A
A
Static M z = – ∫ yσ xx dA = 0 (3.4b-A) M z = – ∫ yσ xx dA (3.4b-B)
equivalency A
A
M y = – ∫ zσ xx dA = 0 (3.4c-A)
A
Vy = ∫ τxy dA (3.4c-B)
A

+σxx +τxy
+τxθ
+Vy

Sign σxx
+N
convention Distribution
Compressive +T
positive y face

Outward normal
+Mz

3-4
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Formulas
Substituting stresses into equations of internal forces and moments and
2
du o d v dφ
Noting ,
d x d x2
, and dx
are functions of x only while the integration is with
respect to y and z.
Axial Bending Torsion

Origin Location ∫ yE dA = 0 (3.5-A)

∫ yE dA = 0 (3.5-B)
A A
2
du o dφ
dx ∫
2
dx ∫
dv (3.6-T)
2∫
2 T = Gρ dA
N = E dA (3.6-A) Mz = Ey dA (3.6-B)
A dx A
A

Assumption 8 Material is homogenous across the cross-section.

Origin is at the cen-
troid of the cross- ∫ y dA = 0 (3.7-A)
∫ y dA = 0 (3.7-B)
A A
section
2
du o N dv Mz dφ T
= ------- (3.8-A) = ---------- (3.8-B) = ------- (3.8-T)
dx EA 2 EI zz dx GJ
dx
A = Area of cross-section Izz = Second area moment of J= Polar moment of the area.
EA = Axial Rigidity inertia GJ = Torsional rigidity
EIzz = Bending rigidity

Stress formulas
Substituting Equations (3.8-A), (3.8-B), and (3.8-T) into Equations (3.3-
A), (3.3-B), and (3.3-T)
Axial Bending Torsion
N Mz y Tρ
σ xx = ----
A
(3.9-A) σ xx = – ⎛⎝ ----------⎞⎠ (3.9-B) τ xθ = ------
J
(3.9-T)
I zz
See section... for shear
stresses in bending.
Deformation formulas
Axial Bending Torsion
Assumption 9 Material is homogenous between x1 and x2.
Assumption 10 The structural member is not tapered between x1 and x2.
Assumption 11 The external loads do not change with x between x1 and x2.
Integrating Equations (3.8-A) and (3.8-T)
N ( x2 – x1 ) See Section 3.2.4 for beam T ( x2 – x1 )
u 2 – u 1 = -------------------------- (3.10-A) deflection. φ 2 – φ 1 = ------------------------- (3.10-T)
EA GJ

3-5
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Equilibrium Equations
Axial Bending Torsion
N px(x) dx N+dN py(x)dx t(x) dx
T

Mz Mz + dMz

dx
Vy dx Vy +dVy dx

dN dV y dT
= –px ( x ) (3.11-A) = –py ( x ) (3.11a-B) = –t ( x ) (3.11-T)
dx dx dx

dM z
= –Vy (3.11b-B)
dx

Differential Equations
Substituting Equations (3.8-A), (3.8-B), and (3.8-T) into Equations (3.11-
A), (3.11a-B), (3.11b-B), and (3.11-T)
.
2
d ⎛ du o⎞ d ⎛ d v⎞ d ⎛ dφ⎞
2
= – p x ( x ) (3.12-A) GJ = – t ( x ) (3.12-T)
EA
dx⎝ d x ⎠ ⎜ EI zz 2 ⎟ = p y ( x )(3.12-B) d x ⎝ d x⎠
dx
2
⎝ dx ⎠

3-6
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.1 Draw the shear stress due to torsion on the stress cubes at
points A and B shown . Is the shear stress positive or negative τxy?

y B
x
T
A B
x

3-7
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.7 Determine the contraction of a column shown in Figure P3.7

due to its own weight. The specific weight is γ = 0.28 lb ⁄ in3 , the modulus
of elasticity is E = 3, 600 ksi , the length is L = 120 in , and the radius varies
as R = 240 – x , where, R and x are in inches.

L
x R(x)

Figure P3.7

3-8
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.10 A thin cylindrical tube with an outer diameter of 5 inches is

fabricated by butt-welding 1/16 inch thick plate along a spiral seam as
shown. A through crack of 0.07 inch was observed in the seam. If the
critical stress intensity factor for the material is 22 ksi in , determine the
maximum torque T that the tube can transmit.

P =4 kips T

T
35o
E
P =4 kips

Figure P3.10

3-9
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Shear Stress in Thin Symmetric Beams

Separate Beams Glued Beams

No Relative
Relative Sliding Sliding

• Assumption of plane section perpendicular to the axis remain perpen-

dicular during bending requires the following limitation.
Maximum bending shear stress must be an order of magnitude
less than maximum bending normal stress.

Shear stress direction

3
2
y 1
D 4
C B H3
A 2
1G
4 I
x 5
E 5
F
z
P Normal stress distribution
(a) (b)

␴xx ␴xx  d␴xx ␴xx ␶yx ␴xx  d␴xx

3 5

␶zx
(c) (d)

x V5  ␶yx(tz ) x

ty
N3 3 N3  dN3 N5 5 N5  dN5

tz
V3  ␶zx(ty) x x

(e) (f)

3-10
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Free surface
Free surface y
x Free surface
z 9 1
8 P 2
7 3 s x
1
6 5 4 N  dN
2
3
N

t V  ␶xs(t) x
(a) (b)

Shear Flow: q = τ xs t
• The units of shear flow ‘q’ are force per unit length.

The shear flow along the center-line of the cross-section is drawn in such
a direction as to satisfy the following rules:

• the resultant force in the y-direction is in the same direction as Vy.

• the resultant force in the z-direction is zero.
• it is symmetric about the y-axis. This requires shear flow will change
direction as one crosses the y-axis on the center-line.

3.15 Assuming a positive shear force Vy, (a) sketch the direction of
the shear flow along the center-line on the thin cross-sections shown. (b)
At points A, B, C, and D, determine if the stress component is τxy or τxz
and if it is positive or negative.
y

B D

z
C

3-11
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Bending Shear Stress Formula

Free surface
Free surface y
x
s*
9 z 1
8 2
s
7 3
6 5 4

As* dx As

(a)

Free surface
Free surface
dx 9
Ns*  dNs* dx
8 s* s 1
Ns  dNs
7
6 5 4 2
Ns*   ␴xx dA 3
As*
Ns   ␴xx dA t
As
V*  ␶s*x t dx
(b) V  ␶sx t dx
(c)

dNs
( Ns + d Ns ) – Ns + τ sx t dx = 0 τ sx t = –
dx
d d ⎛ M z y⎞ d Mz
d x ∫ xx d x ∫ ⎝ I zz ⎠ d x I zz ∫
τ sx t = – σ d A = – – --------
- d A = ----- y dA
As As As
• As is the area between the free surface and the point where shear stress
is being evaluated.
d Mz Qz
Define: Q z = ∫ y dA τ sx t = -----------
d x I zz
As
Assumption 1 The beam is not tapered.

⎛ Q z⎞ dM z ⎛ Q z V y⎞ ⎛ V y Q z⎞
q = tτ
sx
= ⎜ ------⎟ = – ⎜ -----------⎟ τ sx = τ xs = – ⎜ -----------⎟
⎝ zz⎠
I d x ⎝ I zz ⎠ ⎝ I zz t ⎠

3-12
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Calculation of Q z = ∫ y dA
As
• As is the area between the free surface and the point where shear stress
is being evaluated.
• Qz is zero at the top surface as the enclosed area As is zero.
• Qz is zero at the bottom surface (As=A) by definition of centroid.
y Centroid of As
As
Qz = As ys
Line along which
Shear stress is ys
being found.
Neutral Axis
z y2
Centroid of A2 Qz = A2 y2
A2

• Qz is maximum at the neutral axis.

Bending shear stress at a section is maximum at the neutral axis.
.

Table 3.2. Stresses and Strains

Symmetric Bending
Axial Torsion
About z-axis About y-axis
Strains
Stresses Strains Stresses Stresses Stresses Strains
N σ xx Mz y My z σ xx
σ xx = ---- ε xx = -------- σ xx = – ⎛ ----------⎞ σ xx = – ⎛ ----------⎞ ε xx = -------- σ xx = 0 ε xx = 0
A E ⎝ I zz ⎠ ⎝ I yy ⎠ E

νσ xx νσ xx
σ yy = 0 ε yy = – ⎛ -----------⎞ σ yy = 0 σ yy = 0 ε yy = – ⎛ -----------⎞ σ yy = 0 ε yy = 0
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠

νσ xx νσ xx
σ zz = 0 ε zz = – ⎛ -----------⎞ σ zz = 0 σ zz = 0 ε zz = – ⎛ -----------⎞ σ zz = 0 ε zz =
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠

τ xy = 0 γ xy = 0 Vy Qz Vz Qy τ xs Tρ τ xθ
τ xs = – ⎛ -------------⎞ τ xs = – ⎛ -------------⎞ γ xs = ------- τ xθ = ------- γ xθ = -------
τ xz = 0 γ xz = 0 ⎝ I zz t ⎠ ⎝ I yy t ⎠ G J G
γ yz = 0 τ yz = 0 γ yz = 0
τ yz = 0 γ yz = 0 τ yz = 0 τ yz = 0

3-13
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.18 A positive shear force Vy= 10 kN acts on the thin cross-sec-

tion shown in Figure P3.18 (not drawn to scale). The cross-section has a
uniform thickness of 10 mm. Determine the equation of shear flow along
the center lines and sketch it.
25 mm 25 mm
y

z 100 mm

100 mm
Figure P3.18

3-14
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.21 A highway sign uses a 16 inch hollow pipe as a vertical post

and 12 inch hollow pipe for horizontal arms. The pipes are one inch
thick. Assume a uniform wind pressure of p acts on the sign boards and
the pipes. Note the pressure on the pipes acts on the projected area of Ld,
where L is the length of pipe and d is the diameter of the pipe. The yield
stress pipes is 40 ksi. For a factor of safety of 2 determine the maximum
wind pressure. Use maximum octahedral shear stress theory.
1 ft 6 ft 8 ft
6 ft

3 ft
5ft

17 ft

A
B

3-15
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.23 A beam resting on an elastic foundation has a distributed

spring force that depends upon the deflections a point acting as shown in
Figure P3.23. Show the differential equation governing the deflection of
the beam is as given below:
p

Mz Mz + ΔMz

2
d ⎛ d v⎞ Vy +ΔVy
2 Vy
⎜ EI zz ⎟ + kv = p (kdx)v
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
2 2 dx

Figure P3.23

3-16
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Discontinuity Functions
–1

∞
ε
---
ε
--- 〈 x – a〉
2 2
x
a
p

a
a x

P=pε ε ε
--- ---
2 2

(a + ε)
x≠a ⎫
= ⎧⎨
–1 0
〈 x – a〉
∫
–1
P = lim lim ( pε ) or ⎬ 〈 x – a〉 dx = 1
p→∞ ε→0 ⎩∞ x→a ⎭
(a – ε)
–1
Delta Function: 〈 x – a〉
x (a – ε) (a + ε) x

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
–1 –1 –1 –1
〈 x – a〉 dx = 〈 x – a〉 dx + 〈 x – a〉 dx + 〈 x – a〉 dx = 1
–∞ –∞ (a – ε) (a + ε)

x
⎧0 x<a ⎫
∫
0 –1
〈 x – a〉 = 〈 x – a〉 dx = ⎨ ⎬
⎩1 x>a ⎭
–∞
0 1 2
〈 x – a〉 〈 x – a〉 〈 x – a〉

x x x
a a a

n ⎧0 x≤a ⎫
〈 x – a〉 = ⎨ n ⎬
⎩(x – a) x>a ⎭
x
n+1
〈 x – a〉
∫
n
〈 x – a〉 dx = -------------------------- n≥0
(n + 1)
–∞

3-17
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

x
x≠a ⎫
= ⎧⎨
–2 0
〈 x – a〉
Doublet Function: ∫
–2 –1
⎬ 〈 x – a〉 dx = 〈 x – a〉
⎩∞ x→a ⎭
–∞
–1 0
d 〈 x – a〉 –2 d 〈 x – a〉 –1
= 〈 x – a〉 = 〈 x – a〉
dx dx
n
d 〈 x – a〉 n–1
= n 〈 x – a〉 n≥1
dx
• The function delta function 〈 x – a〉 –1 and the doublet function 〈 x – a〉 –2
become infinite at x = a. Alternatively stated these functions are singu-
lar at x = a. and are referred to as singularity functions.
• The entire class of functions 〈 x – a〉 n for positive and negative ‘n’ are
called the discontinuity functions.

3-18
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Axial Displacement
du N dN
= ------- = –px ( x )
dx EA dx
d ⎛ du⎞
Differential Equation: EA = –px ( x )
d x ⎝ d x⎠
Boundary Conditions u or N

N Template equations
F
0
N = – F 〈 x – a〉
a
–1
x p x = F 〈 x – a〉
Example 3.7
A
2 kips 2 kips
25 in x

60 in 4 kips
4 kips

C
20 in

–1 –1
p x = ( 10 + 4000 〈 x – 25〉 + 8000 〈 x – 85〉 ) lb ⁄ in (E1)

• Differential equation
d ⎛ du⎞ –1 –1
EA = – [ 10 + 4000 〈 x – 25〉 + 8000 〈 x – 85〉 ] (E2)
dx ⎝ dx⎠
• Boundary Conditions
u( 0) = 0 (E3)
u ( 105 ) = 0 (E4)

3-19
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Torsional Rotation
dφ T dT
= ------- = –t ( x )
dx GJ dx
d ⎛ dφ⎞
Differential Equation: GJ = –t ( x )
d x ⎝ d x⎠
Boundary Conditions φ or T

T T Template equations

0
T = – T 〈 x – a〉
a –1
x t = T 〈 x – a〉

3-20
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.36 The external torque on a drill bit varies as a quadratic function

to a maximum intensity of q in-lb/in as shown Figure P3.36. If the
drill bit diameter is d, its length L, and modulus of rigidity G, determine
(a) the maximum shear stress on the drill bit. (b) the relative rotation of
the end of the drill bit with respect to the chuck. L
x

⎛ x2 ⎞
q ⎜ ------⎟ in – lb ⁄ in
⎝ L 2⎠

Figure P3.36

3-21
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.38 An aluminum alloy (G = 28 GPa) hollow shaft has a critical

stress intensity factor of 22 ksi in . The shaft has a thickness of 1/4 in and
an outer diameter of 2 in and is loaded as shown in Figure P3.38. What is
the critical crack length at which the shaft be taken out of service?
T = 165 in-kips

A B C
2 ft. 3.5 ft.

Figure P3.38

3-22
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

Beam Deflection
2
dv Mz
2nd order differential equation: 2
= ----------
EI zz
dx
dV y
= –py ( x )
dx
dM z
= –Vy
dx
2
d ⎛ d v⎞
2
4th order differential Equation: ⎜ EI zz ⎟ = py ( x )
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
2 2

Boundary Conditions
• Group 1 v or Vy
and
dv
• Group 2 dx
or Mz
y Mz y P Mz y w
M Mz
x x x

a Vy a Vy a Vy
x x x

⎧0 ⎫
⎧0 x<a ⎫ ⎧0 x<a ⎫ ⎪ x<a ⎪
Mz = ⎨ ⎬ Mz = ⎨ ⎬ Mz = ⎨ w ( x – a )2 ⎬
⎩ –M x>a ⎭ ⎩ –P ( x – a ) x>a ⎭ ⎪ – ----------------------- x>a ⎪
⎩ 2 ⎭
Template equations Template equations Template equations
2
M z = – M 〈 x – a〉
0
M z = – P 〈 x – a〉
1 〈 x – a〉
M z = – w -------------------
2
–2
p y = – M 〈 x – a〉 p y = – P 〈 x – a〉
–1
p y = – w 〈 x – a〉
0

3-23
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.43 The displacement of the beam in the y-direction, in section

AB of the beam shown in Figure P3.43 is given by
3 2 –6
v 1 = 5 ( x – 20x ) ( 10 ) in and in section BC is given
3 –6
v 2 = 5 ( x – 800x + 8000 ) ( 10 ) in . If the bending rigidity (EI) is
135 (106) lbs-in2, determine the moment MB and the reaction force at B.
y Some complex Loading
MB

A x B C D

20 in 20 in 40in
Figure P3.43

3-24
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.44 In terms of w, L, E, and I, determine the deflection and slope

at x = L of the beam shown in Figure P3.44.

⎛ x2 ⎞
w ⎜ ------⎟
y ⎝ 2⎠
L
wL2
x B
A

L wL
Figure P3.44

3-25
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 3

3.53 Determine the deflection of the beam at point C in terms of E,

I, w, and L for the beam shown in Figure P3.53.

Figure P3.53

3-26
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

Composite Structural Members

• Assumption 8 on material homogenity across the cross-section is not
valid.

The learning objective of this chapter is:

Understand the incorporation and implications of material in-homoge-
neity across the cross-section in the theories for axial members, circu-
lar shafts in torsion, and symmetric bending of beams.

Composite Axial Members

y
y

x
z x
z

du
σ xx = E (x)
dx

Internal Forces and Moments

N = ∫ σxx dA M z = – ∫ yσ xx dA = 0 or
A A
du
dx ∫
N = ( x ) E dA
A

Location of origin: ∫ yE dA = 0
A

4-1
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

Formulas for composite axial rods

du du
N =
dx ∫ E dA =
dx ∫ E1 dA + ∫ E2 dA + ⋅ + ⋅ + ∫ En dA
A A1 A2 An

n
du
N =
dx ∑ Ej Aj
j=1

NE i N ( x2 – x1 )
( σ xx ) i = -------------------- u 2 – u 1 = -------------------------
n n

∑ Ej Aj ∑ Ej Aj
j=1 j=1

Location of axial force application (origin)

n

∑ ηi Ei Ai
η c = ------------------------
i=1
-
n

∑ Ei Ai
i=1
4.3 A wooden rod (EW = 2000 ksi) and steel strip
(Es = 30,000 ksi) are fastened securely to each other and to the rigid
plates as shown in Figure P4.3. Determine (a) the location h of the line
along which the external forces must act to produce no bending. (b) the
maximum axial stress in steel and wood.
20
kips

30 in 60 in 30 in

0.2

Figure P4.3

4-2
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

4.8 A for use in a building is modeled as shown in Figure P4.8.

The column is constructed by reinforcing concrete with nine steel circu-
lar bars of diameter 1 inch. The modulus of elasticity for concrete and
iron are Ec= 4,500 ksi and Ei = 25,000 ksi. Determine the maximum
axial stress in concrete and steel.

150 k 150 kips 9 ft

200 k 200 kips 9 ft

9 ft

12 in

Figure P4.8

4-3
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

Composite Shafts

dφ
τ xθ = Gρ (x)
dx

Internal Forces and Moments

dφ
∫ ρτxθ dA or dx ∫
2
T = T = Gρ dA
A A

+τxθ +T

Outward normal

Formulas for composite shafts

dφ 2 2 2
T =
dx ∫ G1 ρ dA + ∫ G2 ρ dA + ⋅ + ⋅ + ∫ Gn ρ dA
A1 A2 An
n
dφ
T =
dx ∑ Gj Jj
j=1

G i ρT T ( x2 – x1 )
( τ xθ ) i = ------------------------- φ 2 – φ 1 = -------------------------
n n

∑ Gj Jj ∑ Gj Jj
j=1 j=1

4-4
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

4.12 A solid steel (G = 80 GPa) shaft 3 m long is securely fastened

to a hollow bronze (G = 40 GPa) shaft that is 2 m long as shown Figure
P4.12. Determine (a) the magnitude of maximum shear stress in the shaft.
(b) the rotation of section at 1 m from the left wall.
Text =10kN-m

2m
1m

Figure P4.12

4-5
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

Composite Beams
y
En

Ei

E2 ␩c
E1

2
dv
σ xx = – Ey 2
(x)
dx

Internal Forces and Moments

N = ∫ σxx dA = 0 M z = – ∫ yσ xx dA or
A A
2
dv
∫ Ey
2
Mz = 2
dA
dx A

Location of origin: ∫ yE dA = 0
A

Formulas for composite beams

2
dv
∫ E1 y ∫ E2 y ∫ En y
2 2 2
Mz = 2
dA + dA + ⋅ + ⋅ + dA
dx A1 A2 An

2 n
dv E i yM z
Mz =
dx
2 ∑ Ej ( Izz )j ( σ xx ) = – ---------------------------
i n

∑ Ej ( Izz )j
j=1

jn= 1

∑ ηi Ei Ai
Location of neutral axis (origin) : η c = ------------------------
i=1
-
n

∑ Ei Ai
i=1

Bending shear stress in composite beams

Equilibrium equation

4-6
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

dN s d
d x ∫ xx
τ sx t = – = – σ dA
dx
As

d – E yM z d Mz d M z Q comp
dx ∫ n ∫
τ sx t = – --------------------------
- d A = --------------------------
- Ey dA = ---------------------------
dx n dx n
∑ Ej ( Izz )j ∑ Ej ( Izz )j ∑ Ej ( Izz )j
As As

j=1 j=1 j=1

Q comp = ∫ Ey dA
As

Q comp V y
τ sx = τ xs = – ----------------------------------
n

∑ Ej ( Izz )j t
j=1

ns
Q comp = ∑ Ej ( Qz )j
j=1

4-7
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

4.16 The cross-section of a composite beam with a coordinate sys-

tem that has an origin at C is shown . The normal strain at point A due to
bending about the z-axis is εxx = – 200 μ , and the modulus of elasticity of
the materials are E1 = 8000 ksi and E2 = 2000 ksi (a) Plot the stress distri-
bution across the cross-section. (b) Determine the maximum bending
normal stress in each material. (c) Determine the equivalent internal
bending moment Mz.
4 in
y
1 in
z

4 in

1 in

4-8
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 4

4.20 A wooden rod (EW = 2000 ksi) and steel strip

(Es = 30,000 ksi) are fastened securely to rigid plates as shown. Deter-
mine (a) the maximum intensity of the load w, if the allowable bending
normal stresses in steel and wood are 20 ksi, and 4 ksi.respectively. (b)
the magnitude of the maximum shear stress in the beam corresponding to
the load in part (a).
y w

6 ft 6 ft

n Steel
2i

0.25 in

Wood
4 in

4-9
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Inelastic Structural Behavior

The following assumptions will be dropped.

Assumption 5: There are no inelastic strains.

Assumption 6: Material is elastic.
Assumption 7: Stress and strains are linearly related.

The learning objectives of this chapter are:

• Understand the incorporation of thermal and initial strains in the theory and
analysis of axial members.
• Understand the analysis techniques for incorporating elastic-perfectly plas-
tic material behavior in axial members, circular shafts, and symmetric
beams.
• Understand the incorporation of non-linear material models into the basic
simplified theories on structural members.

5-1
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Effects of Temperature

Test performed at T0

Normal stress 
Test performed at T0  T

O O1
 Normal strain 
E
 T

σ
ε = --- + α ΔT
E
ε xx = [ σ xx – ν ( σ yy + σ zz ) ] ⁄ E + α ΔT
ε yy = [ σ yy – ν ( σ zz + σ xx ) ] ⁄ E + α ΔT
ε zz = [ σ zz – ν ( σ xx + σ yy ) ] ⁄ E + α ΔT
γ xy = τ xy ⁄ G
γ yz = τ yz ⁄ G
γ zx = τ zx ⁄ G
Mechanical Strain Thermal Strain

5-2
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Temperature effects in axial members

du
Kinematics: ε xx = (x)
dx
Assume an initial strain of εo
σ xx
or σ xx = E ⎛ – ε o⎞
du du
Stresses: ε xx = -------- + ε o =
E dx ⎝dx ⎠

Internal Axial Force: N = ∫ σxx dA

A
Assume material homogenity across the cross-section and εo is uniform.

⎛ E du – Eε ⎞ dA = du E dA – Eε dA = du EA – EAε
N = ∫ ⎝ d x o⎠ dx ∫ ∫ o dx o
A A A
du N
= ------- + ε o
dx EA
N
σ xx = ----
A
Assumptions 9 through 11 are assumed valid. N, E and A are constant
between x1 and x2
Assume εo also does not change with x
N ( x2 – x1 ) NL
u 2 – u 1 = -------------------------- + ε o ( x 2 – x 1 ) or δ = -------- + ε o L
EA EA
• δ is the deformation of the bar in the undeformed direction.
• If N is a tensile force then δ is elongation.
• If N is a compressive force then δ is contraction.
• Deformation of a member shown in the drawing of approximate deformed
geometry must be consistent with the internal force in the member that is
shown on the free body diagram.
• The sign of εoL due to temperature changes must be consistent with the
force N shown on the free body diagram.

5-3
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

• Pre-strains (stresses) can be analyzed by using εo as negative to the actual

initial strain.

5-4
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.5 The stress at a point, material properties, and change in tem-

perature are as given below. Calculate εxx, εyy, γxy, εzz, and σzz (a) assum-
ing plane stress, and (b) assuming plane strain.
σ xx = 300 MPa ( C ) σ yy = 300 MPa ( T ) τ xy = 150 MPa
o o
G = 15 GPa ν = 0.2 α = 26.0μ ⁄ C ΔT = 75 C

5-5
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.16 The rigid bar in Figure P5.16 is horizontal when the unit is put
together by finger-tightening the nut. The pitch of the threads is
0.125 inch. Develop a table in steps of quarter turn of the nut that can be
used for prescribing the pre-tension in bar B. Maximum number of quar-
ter turns is limited by the yield stress.

Bar A Bar B

Modulus of Elasticity 10,000 ksi 30,000 ksi

Yield Stress 24 ksi 30 ksi
Area of cross-section 0.5 in2 0.75 in2

5 in 15 in

Rigid

A B
50 in

Figure P5.16

5-6
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.22 Determine the axial stress in bar A of problem 5.16 assuming

that the nut is turned 1 full turn and the temperature of bar A is decreased
by 50oF. The coefficients of thermal expansion for bar A is αst = 22.5 μ /
o
F.

5-7
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Non-linear material models

• Elastic-perfectly plastic in which the non-linearity is approximated by a
constant.
• Linear strain hardening model in which the non-linearity is approximated
by a linear function.
• Power law model in which the non-linearity is approximated by one term
non-linear function.

Elastic-perfectly plastic
 
  yield   yield
yield yield

G
E



yield yield
 
yield yield

  yield   yield
yield yield

⎧ σ yield ε ≥ ε yield ⎧ τ yield γ ≥ γ yield

⎪ ⎪
σ = ⎨ Eε – ε yield ≤ ε ≤ ε yield τ = ⎨ Gγ – γ yield ≤ γ ≤ γ yield
⎪ ⎪
⎩ – σ yield ε ≤ – ε yield ⎩ – τ yield γ ≤ – γ yield
• The set of points forming the boundary between the elastic and plastic
region on a body, is called the elastic-plastic boundary.
1. On the elastic-plastic boundary the strain must be equal to the yield strain, and stress equal to
yield stress.
2. Deformations and strains are continuous at all points including points at the elastic plastic
boundary.

5-8
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Linear strain hardening material model

  yield  E2(  yield)   yield  G2(  yield)
 

yield yield

E

1
1

G



yield yield
 
yield yield

yield yield

  yield  E2(  yield)   yield  G2(  yield)

ε ≥ ε yield
⎧ σ yield + E 2 ( ε – ε yield )
⎪ – ε yield ≤ ε ≤ ε yield
σ = ⎨ E1 ε
⎪ ε ≥ ε yield
⎩ – σ yield + E 2 ( ε + ε yield )

Power Law
 
Strain hardening Strain hardening
0n1 0n1

  E n   G n
Strain softening Strain softening
n1 n1
 
n1 n1

  E()n   G()n

0n1 0n1

n
⎧ Eε ε≥0
σ = ⎨
⎩ –E ( –ε )n ε < 0

5-9
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Elastic-perfectly plastic axial members

• The plot of the applied force vs. the deflection at that point in the direction
of the applied force is called the load deflection curve.
• The load at which the structure exhibits unbounded deformation is called
the collapse load.
 
  yield   yield
yield yield

G
E



yield yield
 
yield yield

  yield   yield
yield yield

NL
Elastic: δ = --------
EA

5-10
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.25 A force F is applied to the roller that slides inside a slot as

shown in Figure P5.25. Both bars have an area of cross-section of
A = 100 mm2, modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa, and a yield stress of
250 MPa. Bar AP and BP have lengths of LAP= 200 mm and LBP=
250 mm respectively. Draw the load deflection curve and determine the
collapse load.
B

110°
A
F
P

Figure P5.25

5-11
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.29 Three steel (E = 200 GPa, σyield = 200 MPa) bars shown in
Figure P5.29 have lengths of LA=4 m, LB=3 m and LC= 2 m respectively.
All bars have the same cross-sectional area of 500 mm 2. Draw the load
deflection curve for the structure and determine the collapse load.

A B
550 4m 3m
O
Rigid D 0.0009 m E
5m F
C

Figure P5.29

5-12
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Elastic-perfectly plastic circular shafts



A   yield B
yield

g
G

din


loa
Un
yield O
yield C 

  yield
yield

• Before yield stress the material stress-strain relationship is represented by

Hooke’s Law and after yield stress the stress is assumed to be constant.
• To determine the strain (deformation) in the horizontal portion AB of the
curve we have to use the requirement that deformation must be continuous.
• Unloading (elastic recovery) from a point in the plastic region is along line
BC which is parallel to the linear portion of the stress strain curve OA.
dφ
Kinematic: γ xθ = ρ (x)
dx
Tρ T ( x2 – x1 )
Elastic: τ xθ = ------ φ 2 – φ 1 = -------------------------
J GJ
dφ
At the elastic-plastic boundary: γ yield = ρ y
dx
γ yield
If ρy is not a function of x: φ 2 – φ 1 = ------------ ( x 2 – x 1 )
ρy
⎧ τ yield ρ
⎪ ---------------- ρ ≤ ρy
Stress distribution: τ = ⎨ ρy
⎪τ ρ ≥ ρy
⎩ yield

Internal equivalent torque: T = ∫ ρτxθ dA

A

5-13
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.43 The shaft shown in Figure P5.43 made from elastic - perfectly
plastic material has a shear yield stress of 200 MPa and a shear modulus
of G = 80 GPa. The plastic zone in section AB is 25 mm deep. Deter-
mine: (a) the torque Text (b) the rotation of section at B. (c) the residual
stress in AB when the external torque Text is removed.

100 mm
Figure P5.43

5-14
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Elastic-perfectly plastic beams


yield A   yield B

g
in
E

ad
lo


Un

yield C
O yield 

  yield
yield

• Before yield stress, the material stress-strain relationship is represented by

Hooke’s Law and after yield stress, the stress is assumed to be constant.
• To determine the strain (deformation) in the horizontal portion AB of the
curve we have to use the requirement that deformation must be continuous.
• Unloading (elastic recovery) from a point in the plastic region is along line
BC which is parallel to the linear portion of the stress-strain curve OA.

Stress distribution and changes in neutral axis location

Symmetric Stress Distribution Asymmetric Stress Distribution
y yield y
y A y
A
A
a
a 

z a z C
a

B
yield B
yield
(a) (b)

M z = – ∫ yσ xx dA
A

5-15
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

• The moment at which the maximum bending normal stress just reaches the
yield stress is called the elastic moment and will be designated by Me.
• The internal moment for which the entire cross-section becomes fully plas-
tic is called the plastic moment and will be designated by Mp
• The ratio of the plastic moment to the elastic moment is called the shape
factor for the cross-section and will be designated by f.
M
p
f = -----
M
-
e

5-16
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.55 An elastic - perfectly plastic material has a yield stress of

σyield = 40 ksi. Point A in Figure P5.56 is at yield stress due to bending of
the beam. (a) Determine the location of the neutral axis assuming it is in
the web.(b) The applied moment that produced the state of stress.

5.56 For the cross-section shown in Figure P5.56 determine the

shape factor
4 in
0.5 in

0.5 in
7 in

0.5 in A
8 in
Figure P5.56

5-17
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

Non-linear models in structural members

Kinematics
Axial Bending Torsion
2
du dφ
ε xx = (x) ε xx = – y
dv
(x) γ xθ = ρ (x)
dx 2 dx
dx
n n
⎧ Eε ε≥0 ⎧ Gγ γ≥0
σ = ⎨ τ = ⎨
⎩ –E ( –ε )n ε < 0 ⎩ –G ( –γ )n γ < 0
Static equivalency (Internal Forces and Moments)

Axial Bending Torsion

N = ∫ σxx dA N = ∫ σxx dA = 0 T = ∫ ρτxθ dA
A A A

M z = – ∫ yσ xx dA
A

Vy = ∫ τxy dA
A

5-18
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.59 A circular solid shaft of radius R is made from a non-linear

material that has a shear stress-shear strain relationship given by τ = Κ
γ0.4. Show
φ 2 – φ 1 = 0.2154 ( x 2 – x 1 ) ⎛⎝ -------------
T T ⎞ 2.5
τ max = 0.5411 -----3- 3.4⎠
R KR
where τmax is the maximum shear stress at a section, T is the internal
torque at the section, φ2 , and φ1 are the rotation of section at x1 and x2.

5-19
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 5

5.62 The stress-strain curve in tension, for a material is given by

0.5
σ = Kε . For a rectangular cross-section show that the bending normal
stress is given by:
⎧ – 5 2 ⎛ y⎞ 0.5 y
⎪ ------------
- ---
2 ⎝ ⎠
Mz y>0
⎪ bh h
σ xx = ⎨ z
h
⎪ 5 2 ⎛ y⎞ 0.5
⎪ ---------2- ⎝ --h-⎠ M z y<0
⎩ bh
b

5-20
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Unsymmetric Bending of Beams

• Drop the limitation that the beam has a plane of symmetry and the
loading is in the plane of symmetry.
• Assume loading is such that there is no twisting of the cross-section.
The learning objectives of this chapter are:

• Understand the theory, its limitations, and its application in design and
analysis of unsymmetric bending of beam.
• Understand the concept of shear center and how to determine its loca-
tion.

1-1
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Theory

pz(x)
Pz
y
C
D
B (Mz)ext
x
A
z

(My)ext
py(x)
Py

Theory objective is:

• Relate the internal shear forces Vy, Vz and internal moment My, Mz to
displacements v and w and obtain the stresses in unsymmetric bend-
ing.

Deformation Behavior
Assumption 1 The loads are such that there is no axial or torsional defor-
mation.
C C1
χ
D D1
O uo
O1
B B1 ψ
A A1
No twist implies: γ yz = ∂v + ∂w = 0
∂z ∂y
v ( x, y, z ) = v ( x, y ) w ( x , y , z ) = w ( x, z )
Assumption 2 Squashing action is significantly smaller then bending
action.
∂v ∂w
ε yy = ≈0 ε zz = ≈0
∂y ∂z
v = v(x) w = w(x)

1-2
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Assumption 3 Plane sections before deformation remain plane after

deformation.
u = uo –ψ y –χ z

ψ χ
– y sin ψ ≈ –yψ – z sin χ ≈ –zχ
ψ ≈ tan ψ = dv χ ≈ tan χ = dw
dx dx
y z

y z
v(x) w(x)

x y x z

Assumption 4 Plane perpendicular to the axis remain nearly perpendicu-

lar after deformation.
dv dw
u = –y –z
dx dx

Strain Distribution
Assumption 5 Strains are small.
2 2
du dv dw
ε xx = = –y 2 –z 2
dx dx dx

Material Model
Assumption 6 Material is isotropic
Assumption 7 Material is elastic.
Assumption 8 Stress and strains are linearly related
Assumption 9 There are no inelastic strain.
Hooke’s Law: σ xx = Eε xx
2 2
dv dw
σ xx = – Ey 2
– Ez 2
dx dx

1-3
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Internal forces and moments

(a) dVy = τxy dA y (b) Vy y

Shear center
My
dVz = τxz dA
z
Vz ez
dN = σxx dA
y Mz ey
z O x z O x

N = ∫ σxx dA = 0
A

M z = – ∫ yσ xx dA M y = – ∫ zσ xx dA
A A

Vy = ∫ τxy dA Vz = ∫ τxz dA
A A

T = ∫ [ ( y – ey )τxz – ( z – ez )τxy ] dA = 0
A
• The maximum normal stress σxx in the beam should be nearly an order
of magnitude (factor of 10) greater than the maximum shear stress τxy
and τxz.
Sign Convention
y
x

σxx +Mz +τxy +Vy

z
x

σxx +My +τxz +Vz

1-4
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Bending Formulas
2 2
dv dw
Substituting σ xx = – Ey 2
– Ez 2
into internal moment expression.
dx dx
2 2 2 2
dv dw dv dw
∫ Ey ∫ Eyz dA ∫ Eyz dA + d x2 ∫ Ez
2 2
Mz = 2
dA + 2
My = 2
dA
dx A dx A dx A A

Assumption 10 Material is homogenous across the cross-section.

2 2 2 2
dv dw dv dw
M z = EI zz 2
+ EI yz 2
M y = EI yz 2
+ EI yy 2
dx dx dx dx
Area moment of inertia

∫y ∫y ∫ yz dA
2 2
I zz = dA I zz = dA I yz =
A A A
Moment Curvature Relationship
2 2
dv 1 ⎛ I yy M z – I yz M y⎞ dw 1 ⎛ I zz M y – I yz M z⎞
= --- ⎜ ----------------------------------⎟ = --- ⎜ ---------------------------------
-⎟
dx
2 E ⎝ I I – I2 ⎠ dx
2 E ⎝ I I – I2 ⎠
yy zz yz yy zz yz
Stress Formula
⎛ I yy M z – I yz M y⎞ ⎛ I zz M y – I yz M z⎞
σ xx = – ⎜ ----------------------------------⎟ y – ⎜ ---------------------------------
-⎟ z
⎝ I yy I zz – I 2yz ⎠ ⎝ I yy I zz – I 2yz ⎠

Location of origin

Centroid: ∫ y dA = 0 ∫ z dA = 0
A A
• The origin of the coordinate system must be the centroid of a homoge-
nous cross-section
• Normal stress σxx in bending varies linearly with y and z on a homog-
enous cross-section.

1-5
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Neutral Axis (σxx = 0)

I zz – I yz ( M z ⁄ M y )
N.A. equation: y = ( tan β )z tan β = -------------------------------------------
I yz – I yy ( M z ⁄ M y )

• The orientation of the neutral axis depends upon the shape of cross-
section as well as the external loading.
• Bending normal stress σxx is maximum at the point which is the far-
thest from the neutral axis.
• The displacement of the beam is always perpendicular to the neutral
axis.

Equilibrium equations.
py dx pz dx

Mz o Mz + dMz My o My + d
Vy
Vz
dx Vy +dVy
dx Vz+dVz

dV y dV z
= –py = –pz
dx dx
dM z dM y
= –Vy = –Vy
dx dx

1-6
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Area Moment of Inertias

Parallel axis theorem
z
2
I yy = I yc yc + Ad z
zc
y I zz = I zc zc + Ad y
2
dy
dz
d
yc
c
I yz = I yc zc + Ad y d z

• Iyy and Izz are always positive and minimum about the axis passing
through the centroid of the body.
• Iyz can be positive or negative.
• If either y or z axis is an axis of symmetry then Iyz will be zero.
Coordinate Transformation
Definition 1 The coordinate system in which the cross moment of iner-
tia is zero is called the principal coordinate system.
Definition 2 The moment of inertias in the principal coordinate system
are called principal moment of inertias.
y sinθ
n n = y cos θ + z sin θ
y
t = – y sin θ + z cos θ
P y cosθ
(y, z)
∫t
2 2 2
(n, t) I nn = dA = I yy cos θ + I zz sin θ – 2I yz cos θ sin θ
y A

∫n
2 2 2
θ I tt = dA = I yy sin θ + I zz cos θ + 2I yz cos θ sin θ
z z A
θ
∫ nt dA
2 2
I nt = = ( I yy – I zz ) cos θ sin θ + I yz ( cos θ – sin θ )
z sinθ
z cosθ A
t
– 2I yz ( I yy + I zz ) I yy – I zz 2
tan 2θ p = -------------------- I 1, 2 = ----------------------- ± ⎛ ------------------⎞ + I yz
2
( I yy – I zz ) 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

• Area moment of intertias are second order tensors.

1-7
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.5 The internal bending moments on the cross-section shown in

Figure P6.5 were determined to be My = – 10 in – kips and
M z = – 12 in – kips . Determine (a) the orientation of the neutral axis. (b) the
maximum bending normal stress.
1 in 3 in

1 in
y

z 0.25 in
6 in
C
1.72 in

1 in

1.5 in
Figure P6.5

1-8
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.12 A cantilever beam is loaded such that there is no twist. The

distributed load acts in the y-z plane at an angle of 240 from the x-y plane
as shown in Figure P6.12. On a section at x = 60 in, determine: (a) the
orientation of the neutral axis. (b) the bending normal stress at points A
and B.
1 in 3 in
A
1 in
y p = 50 lb/in
y
24o
0.25 in
z 6 in
x
1.72 in
z 96 in B
24 in 1 in

1.5 in
Figure P6.12

6.13 The modulus of elasticity for the beam in problem 6.12 is

E = 30,000ksi. Determine the deflection of the beam at x = 60 inch and
show that it is perpendicular to the neutral axis.

1-9
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Shear stress in thin open sections

A differential element of a thin open section.

dx D Free Surface
Free Edge
A
s C
B
n
Free Surface y
z
t
x

Free Edge
dx D
NS
A t C
NS+dNS B
τsx t dx

( N S + dN S ) – N S + τ sx t dx = 0 or
dN s
Equilbrium Equations: τ sx t = –
dx
Axial Force: Ns = ∫ σxx dA
As
d
d x ∫ xx
τ sx t = – σ dA
As
Definition 3 The direction of the s-coordinate is from the free surface
towards the point where shear stress is being calculated.
Definition 4 The area As is the area between free edge and the point at
which the shear stress is being evaluated.
d ⎛ I yy M z – I yz M y⎞ ⎛ I zz M y – I yz M z⎞
d x ∫ ⎝ I I – I2 ⎠
τ sx t = – – ⎜ ----------------------------------⎟ y – ⎜ ---------------------------------
-⎟ z dA
A yy zz yz
⎝ I yy zzI – I
2
yz
⎠
s

d ⎛ I yy M z – I yz M y⎞ ⎛ I zz M y – I yz M z⎞
τ sx t =
dx
⎜ ----------------------------------
⎝ I yy I zz – I 2yz ⎠ A
⎟ ∫ y d A +
⎝ I yy I zz – I 2yz ⎠ A
-⎟ ∫ z dA
⎜ ---------------------------------
s s

We define the first moment of the area As as:

1-10
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Qz = ∫ y dA Qy = ∫ z dA
As As

Assumption 11 The beam is not tapered.

⎛ dM z dM y⎞ ⎛ dM y dM z⎞
⎜ yy
I – I yz ⎟ ⎜ zz
I – I yz ⎟
dx dx ⎟ dx dx ⎟
τ sx t = ⎜ ---------------------------------------- Q + ⎜ ---------------------------------------
- Q
⎜ 2 ⎟ z ⎜ 2 ⎟ y
⎜ I yy zzI – I yz ⎟ ⎜ I yy zzI – I yz ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ I yy Q z – I yz Q y⎞ ⎛ I zz Q y – I yz Q z⎞
q = τ sx t = – ⎜ ---------------------------------
- ⎟ V – ⎜ ----------------------------------⎟ V
⎝ I yy I zz – I 2yz ⎠ y ⎝ I yy I zz – I 2yz ⎠ z

Shear center
From statics we know that any distributed force can be replaced by a force and a
moment at any point, or, by a single force (and no moment) at a specific point. The
specific point at which the shear stress (shear flow) can be represented by just shear
forces Vy and Vz (components of a single force) and no internal torque is called the
shear center. .
y y τxs
Vy
Vz Shear Center Shear Center

z ey z
C C
O O
ez

Definition 5 Shear center is a point in space at which the shear stress

due to bending can be replaced by statically equivalent
internal shear forces and no internal torque.
or
Shear center is a point in space such that if the line of
action of external forces pass through the point then the
cross-section will not twist.

1-11
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.24 A thin cross-section of uniform thickness t is shown in Figure

P6.24. If shear stresses were to be found at points A and B what values of
Qy and Qz are needed for the calculation. Assume t « a and gap at D is of
negligible thickness. Report the values of Qy and Qz in terms of t and a.
y
A

z 45o
B
D
C 45o

Figure P6.24

1-12
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.25 Shear forces on the cross-section shown in Figure P6.25 were

calculated as Vy = 10 kips and Vz = –5 kips . The cross section has a uniform
thickness of 1/8 in. Determine the bending shear stresses at points A and
B and report your answers as τxy and τxz.
y
2 / 7 in
2 in 2 in

1 in A
1 in
B
1 in 1 in
z
C
1 in
1 / 8 in

1 in

Figure P6.25

1-13
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.27 A cantilever beam is loaded such that there is no twist. The

cross-section has a uniform thickness of 0.5 inch. Calculations show that
4 4
I yy = 80.25 in and I zz = 166.00 in . Determine the bending normal stress
and bending shear stress at point A.

2.75 in y
y

2.5 in
A
x A z
c 8 in
8 kips.
z
5 ft. 2 ft.
2 kips 8 in
Figure P6.27

1-14
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.33 The cross-sections shown in Figure P6.33 has a uniform

thickness t. Assuming t « a determine the location of shear center with
respect to point A

Figure P6.33

1-15
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.36 The cross-section shown in Figure P6.36 has a uniform thick-

ness t. Assuming t « a determine the location of shear centers with respect
to point A.

1.5 a

a A

Figure P6.36 1.5 a

1-16
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.38 The cross-section shown in Figure P6.38 has a uniform thick-

ness t and boundaries made from circular arcs. Assuming t « a determine
the location of shear centers with respect to point A in terms of radius a
and angle α.

Figure P6.38 α α

1-17
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

Shear stresses in thin closed sections

(a) Thin closed section. (b) An imaginary cut in closed section.
y y

s s
z A z A
C B C qo
B

qc = qo + q
qc is the shear flow in the closed section at any point,
q is the shear flow of the open section, and
qo is the unknown shear flow at the starting point that has to be determined.
Shear strain can be written as:

∂u ∂v s τ xs
γ xs = + = -------
∂s ∂x G
u and vs are displacement in the x and s direction, respectively, and
G is the shear modulus of elasticity.
sB
∂u τ xs ∂v s τ xs ∂v s
∫
∂s
ds = ------- –
°∫
G ∂x
ds or u ( s B ) – u ( s A ) = ------- –
G ∂x
ds
°∫
sA
Assumption 1 through Assumption 3 implies: Cross-section shape and dimen-
sion undergoes negligible change. This implies that no point on the cross-section
moves relative to the other in the s-direction i.e., vs = 0 in pure bending.
Noting that u ( s B ) = u ( s A ) we obtain:
q qo + q
⎛ ----c-⎞ ds =
°∫ ⎝ t ⎠ ∫°⎝ t -⎞⎠ ds = 0
⎛ --------------

If the thickness is uniform across the cross-section.

1
q o = – --- ∫ q ds
S°
where, S is the total path length of the perimeter of the cross-section.

1-18
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.47 The thin cross-section shown in Figure P6.47 is subjected to a

shear force Vy = V acting through the shear center. Determine the shear
stress at points A and B in terms of V, a, and t.
y

a/2
A
z
C
a

a
Figure P6.47

6.48 The thin cross-section shown is subjected to a shear force

V z = V acting through the shear center. Starting with point A determine
the shear stress at points A and B in terms of V, a, and t.

6.49 Determine the shear center of the cross-section shown in Fig-

ure P6.47.

1-19
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 6

6.67 A cantilever beam is loaded as shown in Figure P6.67. The

cross-section has a uniform thickness of t = 1/4 in. Determine the normal
and shear stress at points A and B in cartesian coordinates on a section
next to the wall.

y
1 kips/ft
y
5 in
A
z
C
C a = 10
10 ft z 6.72 in
10 kips B

a = 10 in

Figure P6.67

1-20
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Energy Methods
• Minimum-energy principles are an alternative to statement of equilib-
rium equations.

Displacements

Ki 1
ne
m ati
cs
External
Forces Strains
and
Moments

els
E qu

Mod
En e
rgy

ilibr

l
2

eria
4
M et

ium

Mat
hod
s

Internal Static Equivalency

Forces Stresses
and
Moments 3

The learning objectives in this chapter are:

• Understand the perspective and concepts in energy methods.

• Learn the use of dummy unit load method and Castigliano’s theorem
for calculating displacements in statically determinate and indetermi-
nate structures.

7-1
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Strain Energy
• The energy stored in a body due to deformation is called the strain
energy.
• The strain energy per unit volume is called the strain energy density
and is the area underneath the stress-strain curve up to the point of
deformation.
σ Uo = Complimentary strain energy den

dUo = ε dσ A

dσ

Uo = Strain energy density

O ε
dUo = σ dε
dε
Strain Energy: U = ∫ Uo dV [
V
ε
Strain Energy Density: Uo = ∫ σ dε
0
Units: N-m / m3, Joules / m3, in-lbs / in3, or ft-lb/ft.3
σ
Complimentary Strain Energy Density: U o = ∫ ε dσ
0
• The strain energy density at the yield point is called Modulus of Resil-
ience.

7-2
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

• The strain energy density at rupture is called Modulus of Toughness.

Yield
Point
Modulus of
Resilience

σ Modulus of
Toughness
σ Stronger Material
Rupture
Stress Tougher material

ε
ε

7-3
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Linear Strain Energy Density

ε ε 2
Eε 1
Uniaxial tension test: U o = ∫ σ dε = ∫ ( Eε ) dε = --------- = --- σε
2 2
0 0
1
U o = --- τγ
2
• Strain energy and strain energy density is a scaler quantity.
1
U o = --- [ σ xx ε xx + σ yy ε yy + σ zz ε zz + τ xy γ xy + τ yz γ yz + τ zx γ zx ]
2

1-D Structural Elements

A
y

x
z
dV=Adx
dx

Axial strain energy

• All stress components except σxx are zero.
du
σ xx = Eε xx ε xx = (x)
dx

1 2 1 ⎛ du⎞ 2 1 ⎛ du⎞ 2
UA = ∫ --2- Eεxx dV = ∫ ∫ --2- E ⎝ d x⎠ dA dx = ∫ 2 ⎝ d x⎠ ∫
--- E dA dx
V L A L A

du 2
U a = --- EA ⎛ ⎞
1
UA = ∫ Ua dx 2 ⎝ d x⎠
L
• Ua is the strain energy per unit length.
2
1N
UA = ∫ Ua dx U a = --- -------
2 EA
L

7-4
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Torsional strain energy

• All stress components except τxθ in polar coordinate are zero
dφ
τ xθ = Gγ xθ γ xθ = ρ (x)
dx

1 2 1 ⎛ dφ⎞ 2 1 ⎛ dφ⎞ 2
∫ --2- Gγxθ dV = ∫ ∫ --2- G ⎝ ρ d x⎠ dA dx = ∫ 2 ⎝ d x⎠ ∫
2
UT = --- Gρ dA dx
V L A L A

1 ⎛ dφ⎞ 2
UT = ∫ Ut dx U t = --- GJ
2 ⎝ d x⎠
L
• Ut is the strain energy per unit length.
2
1T
UT = ∫ Ut dx U t = --- -------
2 GJ
L

Strain energy in symmetric bending about z-axis

There are two non-zero stress components, σxx and τxy.
2
dv
σ xx = Eε xx ε xx = – y 2
dx
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 ⎛ d v⎞ 1⎛d v ⎞
U B = ∫ --- Eε xx dV = ∫ ∫ --2- E ⎜⎝ y d x2 ⎟⎠ dA dx = ∫ ∫ Ey
2
--- ⎜ 2 ⎟ dA dx
2 2⎝dx ⎠
V L A L A
2 2
1 ⎛d v ⎞
UB = ∫ Ub dx U b = --- EI zz ⎜ 2 ⎟
2 ⎝dx ⎠
L
• where Ub is the bending strain energy per unit length.
2
1 Mz
UB = ∫ Ub dx U b = --- ----------
2 EI zz
L
2
1 1 τ xy
The strain energy due to shear in bending is: US = ∫ --2- τxy γxy dV = ∫ --2- ------
E
- dV
V V

As τ max « σ max Us « UB

7-5
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Work
• If a force moves through a distance, then work has been done by the
force.
dW = Fdu
• Work done by a force is conservative if it is path independent.
• Non-linear systems and non-conservative systems are two indepen-
dent description of a system.
Loading Mode Work
P
δW = Pδu L

uL
p(x) L

δW = ∫ p ( x )δu ( x ) dx
0
u(x)

T
δW = Tδφ L
φL
t (x)
L

δW = ∫ t ( x )δφ ( x ) dx
0
φ(x)

vL δW = Pδv L

θ = dv δW = Mδθ L
M dx

v(x)
δW = ∫ p ( x )δv ( x ) dx
0

p(x)

• Any variable that can be used for describing deformation is called the
generalized displacement.
• Any variable that can be used for describing the cause that produces
deformation is called the generalized force.

7-6
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Virtual Work
• Virtual work methods are applicable to linear and non-linear systems,
to conservative as well as non-conservative systems.
The principle of virtual work:
The total virtual work done on a body at equilibrium is zero.
δW = 0
• Symbol δ will be used to designate a virtual quantity
δW ext = δW int

Types of boundary conditions

Internal forces and moment specified
y Displacement and rotation specified at this end to meet equilibrium
at this end
T Vy
T T
x N
Px Px
Mz
z
ε ε
M Py M Py
Kinematic variable Statical variable
(Primary variable) (Secondary variable)
or
u N
or
φ T
v or
Vy
dv or
θ = Mz
dx

Geometric boundary conditions (Kinematic boundary conditions)

(Essential boundary conditions):
Condition specified on kinematic (primary) variable at the boundary.

Statical boundary conditions

(Natural boundary conditions)
Condition specified on statical (secondary)variable at the boundary.

7-7
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Kinematically admissible functions

• Functions that are continuous and satisfies all the kinematic boundary
conditions are called kinematically admissible functions.
• actual displacement solution is always a kinematically admissible
function
• Kinematically admissible functions are not required to correspond to
solutions that satisfy equilibrium equations.

Statically admissible functions

• Functions that satisfy satisfies all the static boundary conditions, sat-
isfy equilibrium equations at all points, and are continuous at all points
except where a concentrated force or moment is applied are called
statically admissible functions.
• Actual internal forces and moments are always statically admissible.
• Statically admissible functions are not required to correspond to solu-
tions that satisfy compatibility equations.

7-8
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

7.3 Determine a class of kinematically admissible displacement

functions for the beam shown in Figure P7.3.

A x B wL2 C
L L
Figure P7.3

7.4 For the beam and loading shown in Figure P7.3 determine a
statically admissible bending moment.

7-9
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Virtual displacement method

• The virtual displacement is an infinitesimal imaginary kinematically
admissible displacement field imposed on a body.
actual displacement

kinematically admissible displacement

δv = virtual displacement

• Of all the virtual displacements the one that satisfies the virtual work
principle is the actual displacement field.

Virtual Force Method

• The virtual force is an infinitesimal imaginary statically admissible
force field imposed on a body.
• Of all the virtual force fields the one that satisfies the virtual work
principle is the actual force field.

7-10
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

7.7 The roller at P shown in Figure P7.7 slides in the slot due to
the force F = 20kN. Both bars have a cross-sectional area of
A = 100 mm2 and a modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa. Bar AP and BP
have lengths of LAP= 200 mm and LBP= 250 mm respectively. Deter-
mine the axial stress in the member AP by virtual displacement method.
B

110o
A F
P
Figure P7.7

7-11
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

7.8 A force F = 20kN is appled to pin shown in Figure P7.8.

Both bars have a cross-sectional area of A = 100 mm2 and a modulus of
elasticity E = 200 GPa. Bar AP and BP have lengths of LAP= 200 mm
and LBP= 250 mm respectively. Using virtual force method determine the
movement of pin in the direction of force F.
B

110o
A
P 40o
F
Figure P7.8

7-12
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Dummy unit load method

• This is a virtual force method that is formalized.
• Can be used for axial, torsion or bending problems.

Application to beam bending

Displacement Calculations
Consider two beams.
BEAM 1: Actual beam with actual internal moment M1(x) and actual dis-
placement v1(x).
BEAM 2: A beam with same supports as beam 1 with a unit force placed
at point xp at which we want to calculate the displacement. M2(x) be the
statically admissible bending moment and v2(x) be the kinematically
admissible displacement for beam 2.
Note: No relationship between M2 and v2
The internal and external virtual work for beam 2:
L L L L 2
dθ 2 d ⎛ dv 2⎞ d v2
δW int = ∫ M 2 ( x ) dθ 2 = ∫ M 2 ( x ) dx = ∫ 2 d x ⎝ d x ⎠ dx =
M ( x ) ∫ M2 ( x ) d x2 dx
dx
0 0 0 0
δW ext = ( 1 )v 2 ( x P )
L 2
d v2
By theorem of virtual work: v2 ( xP ) = ∫ M2 ( x ) d x2 dx
0
v1(x) is a kinematically admissible displacement field, hence can be used
for v2(x).
L 2 L
d v1 M 2 ( x )M 1 ( x )
v1 ( xP ) = ∫ M2 ( x )
dx
2
dx = ∫ ------------------------------
EI
- dx
0 0

7-13
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Slope Calculations
BEAM 1: Actual beam with actual internal moment M1(x) and actual dis-
placement v1(x).
BEAM 2: A beam with same supports as beam 1 with a unit moment
placed at point xp at which we want to calculate the slope. M2(x) be the
statically admissible bending moment and v2(x) be the kinematically
admissible displacement for beam 2.
Note: No relationship between M2 and v2
The internal and external virtual work for beam 2:
L L L L 2
dθ 2 d dv 2 d v2
δW int = ∫ M 2 ( x ) dθ 2 = ∫ M 2 ( x )
dx
dx = ∫ M2 ( x ) d x ⎛⎝ d x ⎞⎠ dx = ∫ M2 ( x ) d x2 dx
0 0 0 0
dv 2
δW ext = ( 1 ) (x )
dx P
L 2
dv 2 d v2
By theorem of virtual work: dx P
(x ) = ∫ M2 ( x ) d x2 dx
0
v1(x) is a kinematically admissible displacement field, hence can be used
for v2(x).
L 2 L
dv 1 d v1 M 2 ( x )M 1 ( x )
dx P
(x ) = ∫ M2 ( x )
dx
2
dx = ∫ ------------------------------
EI
- dx
0 0

7-14
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

7.21 Using dummy unit load method, find the reaction force at A
and deflection at B in terms of P, E,I, and L for the beam shown in Figure
P7.21.
P

A x B

L 2L
Figure P7.21

7-15
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

Castigliano’s theorem
• Simple and more elegant way of finding reaction forces and/or
moments for statically indeterminate structures.
Instead of a unit force we consider a force F applied at xp in the dummy
unit load method. For linear systems the corresponding statically admis-
sible moment (M̃ 2 ) would be F multiplied by M2.
L L
∂M̃ 2 M 2 ( x )M 1 ( x ) 1 ∂M̃ 2
M̃ 2 = FM 2 or M2 = v 1 ( x P ) = ∫ ------------------------------- dx = -⎛
∫ ----- M 1 ( x )⎞ dx
∂F EI EI ⎝ ∂ F ⎠
0 0
The actual moment is a statically admissible moment, and hence we can
substitute M̃2 = M1 we obtain the following:
L L 2 L 2
1 ∂M 1 1 ⎛ ∂M 1⎞ ∂ M1 ∂U B
v 1 ( x P ) = ∫ ------ ⎛⎝ M 1 ( x )⎞⎠ dx = ∫ 2EI- ⎜⎝ ∂ F ⎟⎠ dx = ∂ F
-------- ∫ 2EI- dx = ∂ F
--------
EI ∂ F
0 0 0
• The derivative of the complimentary strain energy with respect to a
force at xp gives the deflection in the direction of the force at xp.
dv 1 ∂U B
( xP ) =
dx ∂M
• The derivative of the complimentary strain energy with respect to a
moment at xp gives the slope in the direction of the moment at xp.
• Performing the derivative with respect to force and moment before
performing integration will generally result in less algebra.
• The integrals obtained after taking the derivative with respect to force
and moment result in integrals that are identical to the dummy unit
load method for finding reactions.

7-16
M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 7

7.27 Using Castigliano’s theorem, find the reaction force at A and

deflection at B in terms of P, E,I, and L for the beam shown in Figure
P7.21.
P

A x B

L 2L

7-17
 FORMULA SHEET
∆F j 2τ xy
lim  ---------- σ nn = σ xx cos θ + σ yy sin θ + 2τ xy sin θ cos θ
2 2 2 2
σ ij = τ nt = – σ xx cos θ sin θ + σ yy sin θ cos θ + τ xy ( cos θ – sin θ ) tan 2θ p = ---------------------------
-
∆ A i → 0 ∆ A i  ( σ xx – σ yy )

( σ xx + σ yy ) σ xx – σ yy 2
- ±  ----------------------- + τ xy
2 2 2 2 2
σ 1, 2 = --------------------------- ε nn = ε xx cos θ + ε yy sin θ + γ xy sin θ cos θ γ nt = – 2ε xx sin θ cos θ + 2ε yy sin θ cos θ + γ xy ( cos θ – sin θ )
2 2
T T T
σ nn = { n } [ σ ] { n } τ nt = { t } [ σ ] { n } σ tt = { t } [ σ ] { t } {S } = [σ]{n}

σ xx τ xy τ xz
σ xx τ xy σ yy τ yz σ xx τ xz
σ 3p – I 1 σ 2p + I 2σ p–I 3 = 0 I 1 = σ xx + σ yy + σ zz I2 = + + I3 = τ yx σ yy τ yz
τ yx σ yy τ zy σ zz τ zx σ zz
τ zx τ zy σ zz

3 2 o 2 3 3
x –I 1 x + I 2 x – I 3 = 0 x 1 = 2 A cos α + I 1 ⁄ 3 x 2, 3 = – 2 A cos ( α ± 60 ) + I 1 ⁄ 3 A = ( I 1 ⁄ 3) – I 2 ⁄ 3 cos 3α = [ 2 ( I 1 ⁄ 3 ) – ( I 1 ⁄ 3 )I 2 + I 3 ] ⁄ ( 2 A )

1 2 2 2 ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u
σ oct = ( σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 ) ⁄ 3 τ oct = --- ( σ 1 – σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 – σ 3 ) + ( σ 3 – σ 1 ) ε xx = ε yy = ε zz = γ xy = + γ yz = + γ zx = +
3 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂ y ∂x ∂z ∂ y ∂x ∂z
ν E [ ( 1 – ν )ε xx + νε yy ]
ε zz = –  ------------ ( ε xx + ε yy )
E
ε xx = [ σ xx – ν ( σ yy + σ zz ) ] ⁄ E + α∆T γ xy = τ xy ⁄ G G = E ⁄ [2(1 + ν)] σ xx = [ ε xx + νε yy ] ------------------
- σ xx = --------------------------------------------------
-
2  1 – ν ( 1 – 2ν ) ( 1 + ν )
(1 – ν )
σ xx ν yx τ xy ν yx ν xy σ2 σ1
ε xx = -------
- – -------- σ γ xy = --------
- -------- = -------- 1 2 2 2 σ1 – σ2 σ2 – σ3 σ3 – σ1
E x E y yy σ von = ------- ( σ 1 – σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 – σ 3 ) + ( σ 3 – σ 1 ) ------- – ------ ≤ 1 τ max = max  ------------------, ------------------, ------------------
G xy Ey Ex 2 σC σT  2 2 2 
2 2
K I = σ nom πa K II = τ nom πa K equiv = K I + K II

 σ yield ε ≥ ε yield  σ yield + E 2 ( ε – ε yield ) ε ≥ ε yield

n
   Eε ε≥0
σ =  Eε – ε yield ≤ ε ≤ ε yield σ =  E1ε – ε yield ≤ ε ≤ ε yield σ = 
   – E ( –ε )n ε<0
 – σ yield ε ≤ – ε yield  – σ yield + E 2 ( ε + ε yield ) ε ≥ ε yield
Axial (Rods) Torsion (Shafts) Bending (Beams)
N T T y Mz P Mz
F M y y w
M
a x
x x
x a
x a Vy a Vy a Vy
x x x

0 –1 0 –1 0 2
N = – F 〈 x – a〉 p x = F 〈 x – a〉 T = – T 〈 x – a〉 t = T 〈 x – a〉 M z = – M 〈 x – a〉 1 〈 x – a〉
M z = – P 〈 x – a〉 M z = – w --------------------
–2
2
p y = – M 〈 x – a〉 –1 0
p y = – P 〈 x – a〉 p y = – w 〈 x – a〉
1 1
U o = --- σε U o = --- [ σ xx ε xx + σ yy ε yy + σ zz ε zz + τ xy γ xy + τ yz γ yz + τ zx γ zx ]
2 2
L L
M 2 ( x )M 1 ( x ) dv 1 M 2 ( x )M 1 ( x ) ∂U B dv 1 ∂U B
( F = 1 )v 1 ( x P ) = ∫ --------------------------------
EI
- dx ( M = 1)
dx P
(x ) = ∫ --------------------------------
EI
- dx v1 ( x P ) =
∂F dx P
(x ) =
∂M
0 0
 Axial (Rods) Torsion (Shafts) Symmetric Bending (Beams) Unsymmetric Bending
Displace- u ( x, y, z ) = u ( x ) φ ( x, y, z ) = φ ( x ) dv dv dw
ments u ( x, y, z ) = – y v = v( x) w = 0 u ( x, y, z ) = – y –z v = v( x) w = w( x)
dx dx dx
Strains du dφ 2 2 2
ε xx = γ xθ = ρ dv dv dw
dx dx ε xx = – y ε xx = – y 2
–z 2
2
dx dx dx
Stresses du 2 2 2
σ xx = Eε xx = E dφ
dx τ xθ = Gγ xθ = Gρ σ xx = Eε xx = – Ey
dv
τ xy ≠ 0 « σ xx σ xx = – Ey
dv
– Ez
dw
τ xy ≠ 0 « σ xx τ xz ≠ 0 « σ xx
dx 2 2 2
dx dx dx
Internal
Forces &
Moments
N = ∫ σ xx d A T = ∫ ρτ xθ d A N = ∫ σ xx d A = 0 N = ∫ σ xx d A = 0 M z = – ∫ yσ xx d A M y = – ∫ zσ xx d A
A A A A A A

M z = – ∫ yσ xx d A ∫ τ xy d A
A
Vy =
A
Vy = ∫ τ xy d A Vz = ∫ τ xz d A
A A
Tρ Mzy  I yy M z – I yz M y  I zz M y – I yz M z
N
τ xθ = ------- σ xx = –  ----------- σ xx = –  ------------------------------------
- y –  ------------------------------------z
σ xx
J  I zz  2
= -----
A  I yy I zz – I yz   I yy I zz – I 2yz 
V yQz
q = τ xs t = –  -------------- I
yy Q z – I yz Q y
 I
zz Q y – I yz Q z

 I zz  q = τ xs t = –  --------------------------------------- V y –  -------------------------------------- V z
2 2
 I yy I zz – I yz   I yy I zz – I yz 

du N N ( x2 – x1 ) dφ T T ( x2 – x1 ) 2 2 2
= ------- u 2 – u 1 = --------------------------- = ------- φ 2 – φ 1 = -------------------------- Mz Mz    
dv 1 I yy M z – I yz M y 1 I zz M y – I yz M z
dx EA EA dx GJ GJ
dx
2
= ----------- v =
E I zz ∫ ∫ -------
EI
- d x dx + C 1 x + C 2 d v
2
= ---  ------------------------------------------
E 2 
d w
2
= ---  -----------------------------------------
E 2 
dx  I yy I zz – I yz  dx  I yy I zz – I yz 
N Ei G i ρT  
( σ xx ) i = ----------------------
- ( τ xθ ) i = ----------------------------
-  
n n E i yM z  Q comp V y 
∑ E jA j ∑ G jJ j ( σ xx ) i = – -------------------------------
n
q = τ xs t = –  ------------------------------------
 n
- 

j=1 j=1
∑ E j ( I zz ) j  ∑ E j ( I zz ) j 
 j=1 
j=1

N ( x2 – x1 ) T ( x2 – x1 ) Mz
u 2 – u 1 = --------------------------
- φ 2 – φ 1 = -------------------------
-
∑E jA j [∑ G j J j]
v = ∫ ∫ ---------------------------
∑ E j ( I zz ) j
- dx dx + C 1 x + C 2

dN dT dV y dM z dV y dM z dV z dM y
= – px( x) = –t ( x ) = – p y( x) = –V y = – p y( x) = –V y = – pz( x) = –V z
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx

d  dφ 2
d  du o = –t ( x )
2
d  d v
EA = – px( x) GJ
d x  d x  E I zz 2  = p y ( x )
d x d x  2
dx  dx 
du 2 dφ 2 2
Strain 2
Energy U a = EA   ⁄ 2 U t = GJ   ⁄ 2 d v 
 d x  d x Ub = E I zz  2  ⁄ 2
d x 
C. Strain 2 2 2
Energy U a = N ⁄ ( 2EA ) U t = T ⁄ ( 2GJ ) U b = M z ⁄ ( 2E I zz )