3.

6
Divergence Theorem of Gauss
The Green’s theorem already derived and it can be written
in a vector form 𝑽 = 𝑔𝒊 − 𝑓𝒋 . Let 𝐶 be a curve in two
dimensions which is written in the parametric form 𝒓 =
𝒓(𝑠). Then, the unit tangent and unit normal vectors to 𝐶
be given by
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑻= 𝒊+ 𝒋, 𝒏 = 𝒊− 𝒋.
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

Then,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑓 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 +𝑔 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑔 𝒊 − 𝑓 𝒋 . 𝒊− 𝒋 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
= 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝑠
Also
𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕
− = 𝑖 +𝑗 . 𝑔 𝒊 − 𝑓 𝒋 = ∇. 𝑽
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Hence, Green’s theorem can be written in a vector form as

 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝑠 = 
C R
∇. 𝑽 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

This result is a particular case of the Gauss’s divergence

theorem. Extension of the Green’s theorem to three
dimensions can be done under the following
generalizations.

i. A region 𝑅 in the plane → a three dimensional solid 𝐷.

ii. The closed curve 𝐶 enclosing 𝑅 in the plane → the
closed surface 𝑆 enclosing the solid 𝐷.
iii. The unit outer normal 𝒏 to 𝐶 → the unit outer normal
𝒏 to 𝑆.
iv. A vector field 𝑽 in the plane → a vector field 𝑽 in the
three dimensional space.
v. The line integral  𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝑠 → a surface integral
C

 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴.
S

vi. The double integral  ∇. 𝑽 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 → a triple (volume)

R

integral  ∇. 𝑽 𝑑𝑉.

D

The above generalizations give the following divergence

theorem.

Theorem: (Divergence theorem of Gauss) Let 𝐷 be a closed

and bounded region in the three dimensional space whose
boundary is a piecewise smooth surface 𝑆 that is oriented
outward. Let 𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑣1 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝒊 + 𝑣2 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝒋 + 𝑣3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝒌
be a vector field for which 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 and 𝑣3 are continuous and
have continuous first order partial derivatives in some
domain containing 𝐷.

Then,  𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  ∇. 𝑽 𝑑𝑉 =  𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑽 𝑑𝑉

S D D

Where 𝒏 is the outer unit normal vector to 𝑆.

Proof: In terms of the components of 𝑉, the left and right

hand sides, cab be written as

 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  𝑣1 𝒊. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 +  𝑣2 𝒋. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 +  𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴
S S S S
 𝜕 𝑣1 𝜕 𝑣2 𝜕 𝑣3
 ∇. 𝑽 𝑑𝑉 =  dV +  dV +  dV
D D
𝜕𝑥 D
𝜕𝑦 D
𝜕𝑧

Where 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧. To prove the divergence theorem it

is sufficient to show that
𝜕 𝑣1
 𝑣1 𝒊. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 
S D
𝜕𝑥
dV,……………(1)

𝜕 𝑣2
 𝑣2 𝒋. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 
S D
𝜕𝑦
dV, ……………(2) and

𝜕 𝑣3
 𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 
S D
𝜕𝑧
dV ……………..(3)

We shall prove Eq. (3). The other results are proved in a

similar manner.

We shall prove the theorem for the special case of the

region 𝐷 whose bounding surface can be written as
follows
 Top surface 𝑆1 : 𝑧 = 𝑕 𝑥, 𝑦 , (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝑅
Bottom surface 𝑆2 : 𝑧 = 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 , (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝑅

Side (vertical) surface 𝑆3 : 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑕 𝑥, 𝑦 , (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝑅

Where 𝑅 is the orthogonal projection of 𝑆 in the 𝑥𝑦 plane.

𝜕 𝑣3 𝑕 (𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕 𝑣3
Now,  𝑑𝑉 =  𝑔(𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
D
𝜕𝑥 R

  𝑣3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑕 𝑥, 𝑦 ) − 𝑣3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
R

………..…(4)

We write

 𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 +  𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 +  𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴.
S S1 S2 S3

We evaluate the surface integrals on the right hand side

separately.

On 𝑆1 : The outward normal points upward. We write the

equation of the surface as 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑕 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0.
Then
𝜕𝑕 𝜕𝑕
− 𝒊− 𝒋+𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝒏=
2 2
𝜕𝑕 𝜕𝑕
1+ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑕 2 𝜕𝑕 2
So that 𝒌. 𝒏 = 1 1+ + . Hence,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 𝑑𝐴
 𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  𝑣3
S1 S1 𝜕𝑕 2 𝜕𝑕 2
1+ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦

=  𝑣3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑕 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦…………………(5)
R

where 𝑅 is the orthogonal projection of 𝑆1 on the 𝑋𝑌 −

plane.

On 𝑆2 : The outward normal points download. We write the

equation of the surface as 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0.
Then

𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔 2 𝜕𝑔 2
𝒏= 𝒊+ 𝒋−𝒌 1+ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑔 2 𝜕𝑔 2
So that 𝒌. 𝒏 = − 1 1+ + . Hence,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑑𝐴
 𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  −𝑣3 𝜕𝑔 2 𝜕𝑔 2
S2 S2 1+ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦

= −  𝑣3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦…………….(6)
R

where, again, 𝑅 is the orthogonal projection of 𝑆2 on the

𝑋𝑌 − plane.

On 𝑆3 : Since the surface is vertical, the outward normal 𝒏

is perpendicular to 𝒌, that is, 𝒌. 𝒏 = 0.
Therefore,  𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 0 …………………(7)
S3
Adding equations (5) to (7), we obtain

 𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  𝑣3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑕 𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑣3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦
S R
dx dy.

……………………(8)
From equations (4) and (8), we obtain
𝜕𝑣3
 𝑣3 𝒌. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 
S D
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑉.

Expressing the bounding surface of the region 𝐷 in a

suitable manner, similar to the particular case given in
figure, equations (1) and (2) can be proved.

Remarks:

1. The given domain 𝐷 can be subdivided into finitely many

special regions such that each such region can be
described in the required manner. In the proof of the
divergence theorem, the special region 𝐷 has a vertical
surface. This type of region is not required in the proof. The
region may have a vertical surface on a part of the region,
the other part may be simply a curve. Also, the region may
not have any vertical surface. For example, the region
bounded by a sphere or an ellipsoid has no vertical surface.
The divergence theorem holds in all these cases. The
divergence theorem also holds for the region 𝐷 bounded by
two closed surfaces.

2. In terms of the components of 𝑽, divergence theorem can

be written as

 𝑣1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣2 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
S
 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3
=  + + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
D 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
or  𝑣1 cos 𝛼 + 𝑣2 cos 𝛽 + 𝑣3 cos 𝛾 𝑑𝐴
S

𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3

=  + + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧.
D 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Example: Use the divergence theorem to evaluate

 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 , where 𝑽 = 𝑥 2 𝑧 𝒊 + 𝑦 𝒋 − 𝑥𝑧 2 𝒌 and 𝑆 is the

S

boundary of the region bounded by the parabolic 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 +

𝑦 2 and the plane 𝑧 = 4𝑦.

Solution: We have

 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  ∇. 𝑽 𝑑𝑉 =  2𝑥𝑧 + 1 − 2𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝑉 =  𝑑𝑉

S D D D

4 4𝑦−𝑦 2 4𝑦
= 𝑦=0 𝑥=− 4𝑦−𝑦 𝑧=𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
2 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

Since the projection of 𝑆 on the 𝑥𝑦 plane is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑦.

Therefore,
4 4𝑦−𝑦 2
 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =
S
𝑦=0 𝑥=− 4𝑦−𝑦 2
(4𝑦 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

4 2
= 𝑦=0
2 4𝑦 − 𝑦 2 (4𝑦 − 𝑦 2 )1 2 − 4𝑦 − 𝑦 2 3 2 𝑑𝑦
3

4 4 4 4
= 𝑦=0 3
4𝑦 − 𝑦 2 3 2 𝑑𝑦 = 4− 𝑦−2 2 3/2 𝑑𝑦
3 𝑦=0

Set 𝑦 − 2 = 2 sin 𝑡. We obtain

 4 𝜋 2 4 3 1 𝜋
 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 3
S
−𝜋 2
16 cos4 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
3
32 . .
4 2 2
= 8𝜋.

Green’s Identities (formulas)

Divergence theorem can be used to prove some important
identities, called Green’s identities which are of use in
solving partial differential equations. Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be scalar
function which are continuous and have continuous first
and second order partial derivatives in some region of the
three dimensional space. Let 𝑆 be a piecewise smooth
surface bounding a domain 𝐷 in this region. Let the
functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 be such that 𝑽 = 𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑔. Then, we have

∇. 𝑓∇𝑔 = 𝑓∇2 𝑔 + ∇𝑓. ∇𝑔

By divergence theorem, we obtain

 𝑽. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  𝑓 ∇𝑔. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  ∇. 𝑓. ∇𝑔 𝑑𝑉
S S D

=  𝑓∇2 𝑔 + ∇𝑓. ∇𝑔 𝑑𝑉.

D

Now, ∇𝑔. 𝒏 is the directional derivative of 𝑔 in the direction

of the unit normal vector 𝒏. Therefore, it can be denoted by
𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑛 . We have the Green’s first identity as
𝜕𝑔
 𝑓 ∇𝑔. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  f dA =  𝑓∇2 𝑔 + ∇𝑓. ∇𝑔 𝑑𝑉…….(1)
S S
𝜕𝑛 D

Interchanging 𝑓 and 𝑔, we obtain

𝜕𝑓
 𝑓 ∇𝑓. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  f dA =  𝑔∇2 𝑓 + ∇𝑔. ∇𝑓 𝑑𝑉.
S S
𝜕𝑛 D
Subtracting the two results, we obtain the Green’s second
identity as
𝜕𝑔 ∂f

S
𝑓∇𝑔 − 𝑔∇𝑓 . 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 
S
f
𝜕𝑛
−g
∂n
dA

=  𝑓∇2 𝑔 − 𝑔∇2 𝑓 𝑑𝑉.

D

Let 𝑓 = 1 in equation (1) then, we obtain

𝜕𝑔
 ∇𝑔. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 =  dA =  ∇2 𝑔 𝑑𝑉.
S S
𝜕𝑛 D

If 𝑔 is a harmonic function, then ∇2 𝑔 = 0

Therefore,
𝜕𝑔
 ∇𝑔. 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 
S S
𝜕𝑛
dA = 0.

This equation gives a very important property of the

solutions of Laplace equation, that is of harmonic
functions. It states that if 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a harmonic function,
that is, it is a solution of the equation
𝜕2𝑔 𝜕2𝑔 𝜕 2𝑔
2
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦2 𝜕𝑧2

Then, the integral of the normal derivative of 𝑔 over any

piecewise smooth closed orientable surface is zero.